Life-cycle assessment 1

Life-cycle assessment"Cradle-to-cradle" redirects here. For other uses, see Cradle to the cradle (disambiguation).This article is about the environment impacts of products. For the ultimate cost of business decisions, see Life-cyclecost analysis.Life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-cradle analysis)[1] is atechnique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from-cradle-to-cradle(i.e.,from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance,and disposal or recycling). LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by:•• Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases;•• Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;• Interpreting the results to help make a more informed decision.[2]

Life Cycle AssessmentOverview

Goals and purpose

The goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects assignable toproducts and services in order to improve processes, support policy and provide a soundbasis for informed decisions.[3]

The term life cycle refers to the notion that a fair, holistic assessment requires theassessment of raw-material production, manufacture, distribution, use and disposalincluding all intervening transportation steps necessary or caused by the product'sexistence.

There are two main types of LCA. Attributional LCAs seek to establish the burdensassociated with the production and use of a product, or with a specific service or process,at a point in time (typically the recent past). Consequential LCAs seek to identify theenvironmental consequences of a decision or a proposed change in a system under study(oriented to the future), which means that market and economic implications of a decisionmay have to be taken into account. Social LCA is under development[4] as a differentapproach to life cycle thinking intended to assess social implications or potential impacts.Social LCA should be considered as an approach that is complementary to environmentalLCA.

The procedures of life cycle assessment (LCA) are part of the ISO 14000 environmentalmanagement standards: in ISO 14040:2006 and 14044:2006. (ISO 14044 replaced earlierversions of ISO 14041 to ISO 14043.) GHG product life cycle assessments can alsocomply with standards such as PAS 2050 and the GHG Protocol Life Cycle Accountingand Reporting Standard.[5][6]

Life-cycle assessment 2

Four main phases

Illustration of LCA phases.

According to the ISO 14040[7] and 14044[8] standards,a Life Cycle Assessment is carried out in four distinctphases as illustrated in the figure shown to the right.The phases are often interdependent in that the resultsof one phase will inform how other phases arecompleted.

Goal and scope

An LCA starts with an explicit statement of the goaland scope of the study, which sets out the context of thestudy and explains how and to whom the results are tobe communicated. This is a key step and the ISOstandards require that the goal and scope of an LCA beclearly defined and consistent with the intendedapplication. The goal and scope document thereforeincludes technical details that guide subsequent work:• the functional unit, which defines what precisely is

being studied and quantifies the service delivered bythe product system, providing a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be related. Further, the functionalunit is an important basis that enables alternative goods, or services, to be compared and analyzed.[9]

•• the system boundaries;•• any assumptions and limitations;•• the allocation methods used to partition the environmental load of a process when several products or functions

share the same process; and•• the impact categories chosen.

Life cycle inventoryLife Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature for a product system.Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and releases to air, land, and water. To developthe inventory, a flow model of the technical system is constructed using data on inputs and outputs. The flow modelis typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the activities that are going to be assessed in the relevant supplychain and gives a clear picture of the technical system boundaries. The input and output data needed for theconstruction of the model are collected for all activities within the system boundary, including from the supply chain(referred to as inputs from the techno-sphere).The data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and scope definition. Data can be presented intables and some interpretations can be made already at this stage. The results of the inventory is an LCI whichprovides information about all inputs and outputs in the form of elementary flow to and from the environment fromall the unit processes involved in the study.Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system boundary. For product LCAs at either thegeneric (i.e., representative industry averages) or brand-specific level, that data is typically collected through surveyquestionnaires. At an industry level, care has to be taken to ensure that questionnaires are completed by arepresentative sample of producers, leaning toward neither the best nor the worst, and fully representing any regionaldifferences due to energy use, material sourcing or other factors. The questionnaires cover the full range of inputsand outputs, typically aiming to account for 99% of the mass of a product, 99% of the energy used in its production

Life-cycle assessment 3

and any environmentally sensitive flows, even if they fall within the 1% level of inputs.One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the techno-sphere. The technosphere is more simplydefined as the man-made world. Considered by geologists as secondary resources, these resources are in theory100% recyclable; however, in a practical sense the primary goal is salvage.[10] For an LCI, these technosphereproducts (supply chain products) are those that have been produced by man and unfortunately those completing aquestionnaire about a process which uses man-made product as a means to an end will be unable to specify howmuch of a given input they use. Typically, they will not have access to data concerning inputs and outputs forprevious production processes of the product. The entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to secondary sources ifit does not already have that data from its own previous studies. National databases or data sets that come withLCA-practitioner tools, or that can be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information. Care must then betaken to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects regional or national conditions.

Life cycle impact assessmentInventory analysis is followed by impact assessment. This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the significance ofpotential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow results. Classical life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)consists of the following mandatory elements:•• selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;•• the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific impact categories; and•• impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of many possible LCIA

methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then summed to provide an overall impact category total.In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last compulsory stage according to ISO14044:2006. However, in addition to the above mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements –normalization, grouping, and weighting – may be conducted depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study. Innormalization, the results of the impact categories from the study are usually compared with the total impacts in theregion of interest, the U.S. for example. Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories.During weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each other so that they can then besummed to get a single number for the total environmental impact. ISO 14044:2006 generally advises againstweighting, stating that “weighting, shall not be used in LCA studies intended to be used in comparative assertionsintended to be disclosed to the public”. This advice is often ignored, resulting in comparisons that can reflect a highdegree of subjectivity as a result of weighting.Wikipedia:Citation needed

InterpretationLife Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from theresults of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the inventory analysis andimpact assessment are summarized during the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a setof conclusions and recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14040:2006, the interpretation should include:•• identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an LCA;•• evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; and•• conclusions, limitations and recommendations.A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the final results andcommunicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an LCA is not as simple as "3is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice"! Interpreting the results of an LCA starts withunderstanding the accuracy of the results, and ensuring they meet the goal of the study. This is accomplished byidentifying the data elements that contribute significantly to each impact category, evaluating the sensitivity of thesesignificant data elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the study, and drawing conclusions andrecommendations based on a clear understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the results were developed.

Life-cycle assessment 4

Reference test

More specifically, the best alternative is the one that the LCA shows to have the least cradle-to-grave environmentalnegative impact on land, sea, and air resources.

LCA usesBased on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006 LCA is mostly used to support business strategy (18%)and R&D (18%), as input to product or process design (15%), in education (13%) and for labeling or productdeclarations (11%). LCA will be continuously integrated into the built environment as tools such as the EuropeanENSLIC Building project guidelines for buildings or developed and implemented, which provide practitionersguidance on methods to implement LCI data into the planning and design process.Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house or commissioning studies, whilegovernments support the development of national databases to support LCA. Of particular note is the growing use ofLCA for ISO Type III labels called Environmental Product Declarations, defined as "quantified environmental datafor a product with pre-set categories of parameters based on the ISO 14040 series of standards, but not excludingadditional environmental information".[11] These third-party certified LCA-based labels provide an increasinglyimportant basis for assessing the relative environmental merits of competing products. Third-party certification playsa major role in today's industry. Independent certification can show a company's dedication to safer andenvironmental friendlier products to customers and NGOs.[12]

LCA also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated waste management and pollution studies.

Data analysisA life cycle analysis is only as valid as its data; therefore, it is crucial that data used for the completion of a life cycleanalysis are accurate and current. When comparing different life cycle analyses with one another, it is crucial thatequivalent data are available for both products or processes in question. If one product has a much higher availabilityof data, it cannot be justly compared to another product which has less detailed data.There are two basic types of LCA data – unit process data and environmental input-output data (EIO), where thelatter is based on national economic input-output data. Unit process data are derived from direct surveys ofcompanies or plants producing the product of interest, carried out at a unit process level defined by the systemboundaries for the study.Data validity is an ongoing concern for life cycle analyses. Due to globalization and the rapid pace of research anddevelopment, new materials and manufacturing methods are continually being introduced to the market. This makesit both very important and very difficult to use up-to-date information when performing an LCA. If an LCA’sconclusions are to be valid, the data must be recent; however, the data-gathering process takes time. If a product andits related processes have not undergone significant revisions since the last LCA data was collected, data validity isnot a problem. However, consumer electronics such as cell phones can be redesigned as often as every 9 to 12months, creating a need for ongoing data collection.The life cycle considered usually consists of a number of stages including: materials extraction, processing andmanufacturing, product use, and product disposal. If the most environmentally harmful of these stages can bedetermined, then impact on the environment can be efficiently reduced by focusing on making changes for thatparticular phase. For example, the most energy-intensive life phase of an airplane or car is during use due to fuelconsumption. One of the most effective ways to increase fuel efficiency is to decrease vehicle weight, and thus, carand airplane manufacturers can decrease environmental impact in a significant way by replacing aluminum withlighter materials such as carbon fiber reinforced fibers. The reduction during the use phase should be more thanenough to balance additional raw material or manufacturing cost.

Life-cycle assessment 5

Variants

Cradle-to-graveCradle-to-grave is the full Life Cycle Assessment from resource extraction ('cradle') to use phase and disposal phase('grave'). For example, trees produce paper, which can be recycled into low-energy production cellulose (fiberisedpaper) insulation, then used as an energy-saving device in the ceiling of a home for 40 years, saving 2,000 times thefossil-fuel energy used in its production. After 40 years the cellulose fibers are replaced and the old fibers aredisposed of, possibly incinerated. All inputs and outputs are considered for all the phases of the life cycle.

Cradle-to-gateCradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from resource extraction (cradle) to the factory gate(i.e., before it is transported to the consumer). The use phase and disposal phase of the product are omitted in thiscase. Cradle-to-gate assessments are sometimes the basis for environmental product declarations (EPD) termedbusiness-to-business EDPs.[13] One of the significant uses of the cradle-to-gate approach compiles the life cycleinventory (LCI) using cradle-to-gate. This allows the LCA to collect all of the impacts leading up to resources beingpurchased by the facility. They can then add the steps involved in their transport to plant and manufacture process tomore easily produce their own cradle-to-gate values for their products.

Cradle-to-cradle or closed loop productionSee also: Cradle to Cradle DesignCradle-to-cradle is a specific kind of cradle-to-grave assessment, where the end-of-life disposal step for the productis a recycling process. It is a method used to minimize the environmental impact of products by employingsustainable production, operation, and disposal practices and aims to incorporate social responsibility into productdevelopment.[14] From the recycling process originate new, identical products (e.g., asphalt pavement fromdiscarded asphalt pavement, glass bottles from collected glass bottles), or different products (e.g., glass woolinsulation from collected glass bottles).Allocation of burden for products in open loop production systems presents considerable challenges for LCA.Various methods, such as the avoided burden approach have been proposed to deal with the issues involved.

Gate-to-gateGate-to-gate is a partial LCA looking at only one value-added process in the entire production chain. Gate-to-gatemodules may also later be linked in their appropriate production chain to form a complete cradle-to-gateevaluation.[15]

Well-to-wheelWell-to-wheel is the specific LCA used for transport fuels and vehicles. The analysis is often broken down intostages entitled "well-to-station", or "well-to-tank", and "station-to-wheel" or "tank-to-wheel", or "plug-to-wheel".The first stage, which incorporates the feedstock or fuel production and processing and fuel delivery or energytransmission, and is called the "upstream" stage, while the stage that deals with vehicle operation itself is sometimescalled the "downstream" stage. The well-to-wheel analysis is commonly used to assess total energy consumption, orthe energy conversion efficiency and emissions impact of marine vessels, aircraft and motor vehicles, including theircarbon footprint, and the fuels used in each of these transport modes.[16]

The well-to-wheel variant has a significant input on a model developed by the Argonne National Laboratory. The Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model was developed to evaluate the impacts of new fuels and vehicle technologies. The model evaluates the impacts of fuel use using a

Life-cycle assessment 6

well-to-wheel evaluation while a traditional cradle-to-grave approach is used to determine the impacts from thevehicle itself. The model reports energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and six additional pollutants: volatile organiccompounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx), particulate matter with size smaller than 10micrometre (PM10), particulate matter with size smaller than 2.5 micrometre (PM2.5), and sulfur oxides (SOx).

Economic input–output life cycle assessmentEconomic input–output LCA (EIOLCA) involves use of aggregate sector-level data on how much environmentalimpact can be attributed to each sector of the economy and how much each sector purchases from other sectors.[17]

Such analysis can account for long chains (for example, building an automobile requires energy, but producingenergy requires vehicles, and building those vehicles requires energy, etc.), which somewhat alleviates the scopingproblem of process LCA; however, EIOLCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may not be representative ofthe specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product and therefore is not suitable for evaluating theenvironmental impacts of products. Additionally the translation of economic quantities into environmental impacts isnot validated.[18]

Ecologically based LCAWhile a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and strategies as an Eco-LCA, the latter considers amuch broader range of ecological impacts. It was designed to provide a guide to wise management of humanactivities by understanding the direct and indirect impacts on ecological resources and surrounding ecosystems.Developed by Ohio State University Center for resilience, Eco-LCA is a methodology that quantitatively takes intoaccount regulating and supporting services during the life cycle of economic goods and products. In this approachservices are categorized in four main groups: supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural services.

Life cycle energy analysisLife cycle energy analysis (LCEA) is an approach in which all energy inputs to a product are accounted for, not onlydirect energy inputs during manufacture, but also all energy inputs needed to produce components, materials andservices needed for the manufacturing process. An earlier term for the approach was energy analysis.With LCEA, the total life cycle energy input is established.

Energy productionIt is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy commodities themselves, such as nuclearenergy, photovoltaic electricity or high-quality petroleum products. Net energy content is the energy content of theproduct minus energy input used during extraction and conversion, directly or indirectly. A controversial early resultof LCEA claimed that manufacturing solar cells requires more energy than can be recovered in using the solar cellWikipedia:Citation needed. The result was refuted.[19] Another new concept that flows from life cycle assessments isEnergy Cannibalism. Energy Cannibalism refers to an effect where rapid growth of an entire energy-intensiveindustry creates a need for energy that uses (or cannibalizes) the energy of existing power plants. Thus during rapidgrowth the industry as a whole produces no energy because new energy is used to fuel the embodied energy of futurepower plants. Work has been undertaken in the UK to determine the life cycle energy (alongside full LCA) impactsof a number of renewable technologies.

Life-cycle assessment 7

Energy recoveryIf materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy released during burning can be harnessed andused for electricity production. This provides a low-impact energy source, especially when compared with coal andnatural gas[20] While incineration produces more greenhouse gas emissions than landfilling, the waste plants arewell-fitted with filters to minimize this negative impact. A recent study comparing energy consumption andgreenhouse gas emissions from landfilling (without energy recovery) against incineration (with energy recovery)found incineration to be superior in all cases except for when landfill gas is recovered for electricity production.[21]

CriticismA criticism of LCEA is that it attempts to eliminate monetary cost analysis, that is replace the currency by whicheconomic decisions are made with an energy currency.Wikipedia:Citation needed It has also been argued that energyefficiency is only one consideration in deciding which alternative process to employ, and that it should not beelevated to the only criterion for determining environmental acceptability; for example, simple energy analysis doesnot take into account the renewability of energy flows or the toxicity of waste products; however the life cycleassessment does help companies become more familiar with environmental properties and improve theirenvironmental system. Incorporating Dynamic LCAs of renewable energy technologies (using sensitivity analysesto project future improvements in renewable systems and their share of the power grid) may help mitigate thiscriticism.In recent years, the literature on life cycle assessment of energy technology has begun to reflect the interactionsbetween the current electrical grid and future energy technology. Some papers have focused on energy life cycle,[22]

while others have focused on carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The essential critique given by thesesources is that when considering energy technology, the growing nature of the power grid must be taken intoconsideration. If this is not done, a given class of energy technology may emit more carbon dioxide over its lifetimethan it mitigates.A problem the energy analysis method cannot resolve is that different energy forms (heat, electricity, chemicalenergy etc.) have different quality and value even in natural sciences, as a consequence of the two main laws ofthermodynamics. A thermodynamic measure of the quality of energy is exergy. According to the first law ofthermodynamics, all energy inputs should be accounted with equal weight, whereas by the second law diverseenergy forms should be accounted by different values.The conflict is resolved in one of these ways:•• value difference between energy inputs is ignored,• a value ratio is arbitrarily assigned (e.g., a joule of electricity is 2.6 times more valuable than a joule of heat or

fuel input),•• the analysis is supplemented by economic (monetary) cost analysis,• exergy instead of energy can be the metric used for the life cycle analysis.

CritiquesLife cycle assessment is a powerful tool for analyzing commensurable aspects of quantifiable systems. Not every factor, however, can be reduced to a number and inserted into a model. Rigid system boundaries make accounting for changes in the system difficult. This is sometimes referred to as the boundary critique to systems thinking. The accuracy and availability of data can also contribute to inaccuracy. For instance, data from generic processes may be based on averages, unrepresentative sampling, or outdated results.[23] Additionally, social implications of products are generally lacking in LCAs. Comparative life-cycle analysis is often used to determine a better process or product to use. However, because of aspects like differing system boundaries, different statistical information, different product uses, etc., these studies can easily be swayed in favor of one product or process over another in one study

Life-cycle assessment 8

and the opposite in another study based on varying parameters and different available data.[24] There are guidelinesto help reduce such conflicts in results but the method still provides a lot of room for the researcher to decide what isimportant, how the product is typically manufactured, and how it is typically used.An in-depth review of 13 LCA studies of wood and paper products[25] found[26] a lack of consistency in the methodsand assumptions used to track carbon during the product life cycle. A wide variety of methods and assumptions wereused, leading to different and potentially contrary conclusions – particularly with regard to carbon sequestration andmethane generation in landfills and with carbon accounting during forest growth and product use.

Streamline LCAThis process includes three steps. First, a proper method should be selected to combine adequate accuracy withacceptable cost burden in order to guide decision making. Actually, in LCA process, besides streamline LCA,Eco-screening and complete LCA are usually considered as well. However, the former one only could providelimited details and the latter one with more detailed information is more expensive. Second, single measure of stressshould be selected. Typical LCA output includes resource consumption, energy consumption, water consumption,emission of CO2, toxic residues and so on. One of these output is used as the main factor to measure in streamlineLCA. Energy consumption and CO2 emission are often regarded as “practical indicators”. Last, stress selected in step2 is used as standard to assess phase of life separately and identify the most damaging phase. For instance, for afamily car, energy consumption could be used as the single stress factor to assess each phase of life. The resultshows that the most energy intensive phase for a family car is usage stage.

References[1] "Defining Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)." (http:/ / www. gdrc. org/ uem/ lca/ lca-define. html) US Environmental Protection Agency. 17

October 2010. Web.[2] "Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ nrmrl/ lcaccess/ ) US Environmental Protection Agency. 6 August 2010. Web.[3] "GHG Product Life Cycle Assessments" (http:/ / ecometrica. com/ services/ #lca). Ecometrica. Retrieved on: 25 April 2013.[4] Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products (http:/ / www. unep. fr/ shared/ publications/ pdf/ DTIx1164xPA-guidelines_sLCA.

pdf), United Nations Environment Programme, 2009[5] "PAS 2050:2011 Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services" (http:/ / shop. bsigroup.

com/ en/ forms/ PASs/ PAS-2050). BSI. Retrieved on: 25 April 2013.[6] "Product Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard" (http:/ / www. ghgprotocol. org/ standards/ product-standard). GHG Protocol.

Retrieved on: 25 April 2013.[7] ISO 14040 (2006): Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework, International Organisation for

Standardisation (ISO), Geneve[8] ISO 14044 (2006): Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Requirements and guidelines, International Organisation for

Standardisation (ISO), Geneve[9][9] Rebitzer, G. et al. (2004). Life cycle assessment Part 1: Framework, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, and applications.

Environment International. 30(2004), 701-720.[10] Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). "Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an

Economic Geology Point of View." Sustainability. 2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408>[11] EPD_System (http:/ / www. thegreenstandard. org/ EPD_System. html) – www.thegreenstandard.org[12] LCA by Independent Third Parties (http:/ / www. sgs. com/ en/ agriculture-food/ Quality-Health-Safety-and-Environment/ Sustainability/

Product-and-Packaging/ Life-Cycle-Assessment. aspx)[13] EPD-The Green Yardstick (http:/ / www. environdec. com/ pageId. asp?id=301& menu=2,2,26)[14] "Cradle-to-cradle definition." Ecomii. 19 October 2010. Web. <http://www.ecomii.com/ecopedia/cradle-to-cradle>.[15] Jiménez-González, C.; Kim, S.; Overcash, M. Methodology for developing gate-to-gate Life cycle inventory information. The International

Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2000, 5, 153–159.[16] See EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – ES.1 Background, pp1.[17] Hendrickson, C. T., Lave, L. B., and Matthews, H. S. (2005). Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services: An Input–Output

Approach, Resources for the Future Press ISBN 1-933115-24-6.[18] Limitations of the EIO-LCA Method and Models (http:/ / www. eiolca. net/ Method/ Limitations. html)[19] David MacKay Sustainable Energy (http:/ / www. withouthotair. com/ ) 24 February 2010 p. 41[20] Damgaard, A, et al. Life-cycle-assessment of the historical development of air pollution control and energy recovery in waste incineration.

Waste Management 30 (2010) 1244–1250.

Life-cycle assessment 9

[21] Liamsanguan, C., Gheewala, S.H., LCA: A decision support tool for environmental assessment of MSW management systems. Jour. ofEnviron. Mgmt. 87 (2009) 132–138.

[22] J.M. Pearce, "Optimizing Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Strategies to Suppress Energy Cannibalism" (http:/ / me. queensu. ca/ people/ pearce/publications/ documents/ asp3. pdf) 2nd Climate Change Technology Conference Proceedings, p. 48, 2009

[23] Malin, Nadav, Life-cycle assessment for buildings: Seeking the Holy Grail. (http:/ / www. buildinggreen. com/ auth/ article. cfm/ 2002/ 3/ 1/Life-Cycle-Assessment-for-Buildings-Seeking-the-Holy-Grail/ ?& printable=yes) Building Green, 2010.

[24] Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky Life-Cycle Analysis: Uses and Pitfalls (http:/ / www. transportation. anl. gov/ pdfs/ TA/ 104. pdf).Argonne National Laboratory. Transportation Technology R&D Center

[25] National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03 (http:/ / www. ncasi. org/ publications/ Detail. aspx?id=2628).Ncasi.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-14.

[26] FPInnovations 2010 A Synthesis of Research on Wood Products and Greenhouse Gas Impacts 2nd Edition page 40 (http:/ / www. forintek.ca/ public/ pdf/ Public_Information/ technical_rpt/ TR19 Complete Pub-web. pdf). (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-12-14.

Further reading1. Finnveden, G; Hauschild, M; Ekvall, T; Guinee, J; Heijungs, R; Hellweg, S; Koehler, A; Pennington, D; Suh, S

(October 2009). "Recent developments in Life Cycle Assessment" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/article/ pii/ S0301479709002345). Journal of Environmental Management 91 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.06.018 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jenvman. 2009. 06. 018). Retrieved 31 October2012.

2. Bowe, Scott. "A gate-to-gate life-cycle inventory of solid hardwood flooring in the EasternUS" (http:/ / www.corrim. org/ pubs/ reports/ 2010/ swst_vol42/ 79. pdf). Wood and Fiber Science, March 2010. Society of WoodScience and Technolog. Retrieved 25 October 2011.

3. Thomas,J.A.G., ed: Energy Analysis, ipc science and technology press & Westview Press, 1977, ISBN0-902852-60-4 or ISBN 0-89158-813-2

4. CarnegieMellon. "EIO-LCA: Free, Fast, Easy Life Cycle Assessment" (http:/ / www. eiolca. net/ ). Retrieved 31October 2012.

5.5. Crawford, R.H. (2011) Life Cycle Assessment in the Built Environment, London: Taylor and Francis.6. M.W.Gilliland ed: Energy Analysis: A New Public Policy Tool, AAA Selected Symposia Series, Westview Press,

Boulder, Colorado, 1978., ISBN 0-89158-437-47. Center for Life Cycle Analysis, Columbia University (http:/ / www. clca. columbia. edu), New York8. J. Guinée, ed:, Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards, Kluwer Academic

Publishers, 2002.9. Hendrickson, C. T., Lave, L. B., and Matthews, H. S. (2005). Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and

Services: An Input–Output Approach, Resources for the Future Press.10.10. Baumann, H. och Tillman, A-M. The hitchhiker's guide to LCA : an orientation in life cycle assessment

methodology and application. 2004. ISBN 91-44-02364-211. Crawford, R.H. (2008) Validation of a Hybrid Life-Cycle Inventory Analysis Method, Journal of Environmental

Management, 88(3), 496–506.12. Jimenez-Gonzalez, C., et al. 2004. Cradle to Gate Life Cycle Inventory and Assessment of Pharmaceutical

Compounds. Intr J LCA. 9(2): 114–121.13.13. Curran, Mary A. "Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment", McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing, 1996, ISBN

978-0-07-015063-814. Kim, S. and Dale, B.E. Life cycle assessment of various cropping systems utilized for producing biofuels:

Bioethanol and biodiesel. Biomass & Bioenergy 2005, 29, 426–439.15. Ciambrone, D. F. (1997). Environmental Life Cycle Analysis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN

1-56670-214-3.16. Horne,Ralph., et al. "LCA: Principles, Practice and Prospects". CSIRO Publishing,Victoria, Australia, 2009.,

ISBN 0-643-09452-0

Life-cycle assessment 10

17. Trusty, Wayne, “An Overview of Life Cycle Assessments: Part One”, International Code Council BuildingSafety Journal Online, October 2010, http:/ / bsj. iccsafe. org/ 2010Oct/ features/ lca. html.

18.18. Vallero, Daniel A. and Brasier, Chris (2008), "Sustainable Design: The Science of Sustainability and GreenEngineering", John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, ISBN 0470130628. 350 pages.

19. Vigon, B. W. (1994). Life-Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.ISBN 1-56670-015-9.

20. Vogtländer,J.G., “A practical guide to LCA for students, designers, and business managers”, VSSD, 2010, ISBN978-90-6562-253-2.

21.21. Zamagni, Alessandra. (2012). "Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment", The International Journal of Life CycleAssessment, 17(4), 373-376.

External links• The European Commission's Directory of LCA services, tools, databases, and provider (http:/ / lca. jrc. ec.

europa. eu/ lcainfohub/ directory. vm)• The European Commission's LCA database ELCD (free of charge) (http:/ / lca. jrc. ec. europa. eu/ lcainfohub/

datasetArea. vm)• UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative; a stakeholder financed project (http:/ / lcinitiative. unep. fr/ )• Department Life Cycle Engineering (http:/ / www. lbpgabi. uni-stuttgart. de/ english/ index_e. html) – LBP –

University of Stuttgart.• Embodied Energy: Life Cycle Assessment. Your Home Technical Manual. A joint initiative of the Australian

Government and the design and construction industries. (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071024195424/ http:// www. greenhouse. gov. au/ yourhome/ technical/ fs31. htm) at the Wayback Machine (archived October 24,2007)

• LCA research at the Center for Environmental Sciences, Leiden University (http:/ / www. leidenuniv. nl/ interfac/cml/ ssp/ index. html)

• Explanation of LCA from the American Chemistry Council (http:/ / www. greenbuildingsolutions. org/s_greenbuilding/ sec. asp?CID=2132& DID=8970)

• The National Risk Management Research Laboratory's LCA website (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ nrmrl/ std/ lca/resources. html)

• What is Life Cycle Assessment whitepaper (http:/ / www. pe-international. com/ services-solutions/product-sustainability/ life-cycle-assessment/ )

Article Sources and Contributors 11

Article Sources and ContributorsLife-cycle assessment  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=606670394  Contributors: 13 of Diamonds, Aartaylor26, Abajoczky, Abelniak, Ahj1130, AidaSWilliams, Ainali,Aitias, Alan Liefting, Altermike, Amthras, Andkore, Andonic, AndreasEm, Antimony boyd, Apothecia, Ark25, Arneschulzhh, Asweatman, Athena LCA, Atrian, Axelpas, B9 hummingbirdhovering, Bamyers99, Bellemonde, Ben Harris-Roxas, Bewd04, Bijayash, Bill Hewitt, Billinghurst, Blake1960, BluRAY4, Bmhtayl, Burzmali, CUEngineeringHottie, CambridgeBayWeather,Cbustapeck, Ccastlem, Cdelmaestro, Ceyockey, Chaqueg, Chris the speller, ChrisHodgesUK, Chum2, Ckatz, ClemsonACL, Clemsonbeatgatech, Clemsongolf, Corinne reich-weiser, Cybercobra,Cyberwriter, DASonnenfeld, Daanlans, Danmaier, Dark Silver Crow, David Biddulph, DavidBourguignon, DeFacto, Deli nk, Delldot, Download, Duncandude, Dwwest87, Dysprosia, ENeville,EditHMW, Editorial90, Ego White Tray, Ekitter, El C, EmmaforEnergyEfficiency, Emunsing, Energybeing, Espoo, Faigl.ladislav, Fede.Campana, Fishingtiger89, Flannel-wing jay, FranciscoQuiumento, Gaius Cornelius, Gbgsimulationjon, Gilliam, Gnangarra, Gohhong, GoingBatty, GorillaWarfare, Gralo, Hamamelis, HannesP, Hanwufu, HazelAB, Hihowslife, Hu12, Ifca,Incrediblehunk, Infobios, Intgr, J.Verkerk, J.delanoy, Jamesturner69, Jh mueller, Jjjjjjjjjj, Joepmeijer, Joost Vogtländer, Jos 007, Jose Icaza, Julkos, Jwberry11, Karlnussbaum, Kasaalan,Kmarkey, Kslays, Laallis, Lamro, Law2010, LeaveSleaves, Leif.barthel, Leolaursen, Leyo, Lightmouse, LindseySpeed, Lradrama, Luckyz, Mac, Mack2, Marijuanarchy, Mariordo, Martarius,Materialscientist, Maxfrisch, Meanmasters, Michael Hardy, Mickeyinchina, Mikkelthrane, Misterx2000, Mlongsh, Mmj2love, Mookie25, Mr3641, Mtl1969, Mvisser008, Mwarren us, NHSavage,NOxyoSOxoff, Nanobri, Neelix, Nhacnhac, Nick Ottery, Noctibus, Nopetro, Novusuna, Nwstein, Ohnoitsjamie, Orentago, Oxymoron83, PEAinWiki, Palosirkka, Paperclip2010, Pdaffin,Pfhenshaw, Pgan002, Phil hten, Pinethicket, Rachel.macnutt, Radagast83, Rich Farmbrough, Richard.haynes, Richtlee, Rjwilmsi, Robcri, Robtrob, Rockpro, Roland2, Rstiles, Rtyq2, Rumblesnuf,SamKarlstrom, SchreiberBike, Selfless101, Shangri67, Sholto Maud, Shorespirit, SimonP, Smccoyc, Solo Deo Gloria, Sporadicautomatic, Sunray, Syockit, Tassedethe, Th507, Therudy5,Time4this, Tobialized, Tom 1, Tony1, TopTiger, Topbanana, Tostya, Trevorzink, Troyhawkins, TyA, Ultimatefrisbeetiger5, Velella, Vortexrealm, Wavelength, WereSpielChequers,Wikidudeman, Willems.stijn, Wlchristopher, Woohookitty, WorldAutoSteel, Wroudeb, Wwoods, Yiosie2356, 304 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Life Cycle Assessment Overview.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Life_Cycle_Assessment_Overview.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:GohhongFile:PhasesOfLifeCycleAnalysis.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PhasesOfLifeCycleAnalysis.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mr3641 (talk)

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/