Life Span Development

Late Adulthood: Psychosocial Development – Ch. 25

July 27, 2004Class #14

Theories of Late Adulthood

• Three Types of Theories– self theories– stratification theories– dynamic theories

Based on premise that adults make choices, confront problems, and interpret reality to be themselves as fully as possible people begin to self-actualize, as Maslow

described it each person ultimately depends on himself or

herself

Self Theories

Integrity vs. Despair

Individuals experience this during late adulthood In the later years of life, we look back and evaluate

what we have done with our lives Through many different routes, the older person may

have developed a positive outlook in most of all of the previous stages of development

If so, the retrospective glances will reveal a picture of a life well spent, and the person will feel a sense of satisfaction (integrity will be achieved)

If the older adult resolved many of the earlier stages negatively, the retrospective glances likely will yield doubt or gloom (despair)

Identity Theory

Identity Challenged in Late Adulthood as health, appearance, employment, crumble

Two Extremes of Coping identity assimilation—new experiences

incorporated into stable sense of identity distortion of reality and denial anything major

changed identity accommodation—altering self-

concept to adapt to new experiences viewed as an over-adjustment

Selective Optimization

Older person chooses to cope with physical and cognitive losses

Older person makes selective changes to cope with losses

This readiness to make changes is a measure of strength of the self

Support From Behavioral Genetics

Behavioral genetics support self theories twin studies: some inherited traits more

apparent in later adulthood Power of genetics extends beyond the

environments we seek even self-concept, including assessment of

abilities, partly genetic but environment always plays major role

Stratification Theories

Social forces limit individual choice and direct life at every stage, especially late adulthood

Stratification By Age

Disengagement Theory vs. Activity Theory Disengagement theory—aging increasingly

narrows one’s social sphere, resulting in role relinquishment, withdrawal, passivity

Activity theory—elderly people need to remain active in a variety of social spheres—with relatives, friends, and community groups. If elderly withdraw, they do so unwillingly due to ageism dominant view now supports activity theory

Stratification by Gender and Ethnicity

Sexual Discrimination Feminist theory draws attention to

gender divisions demographics make aging women’s issue because most social structures and

economic policies have been established by men, women’s perspectives and needs not always given a high priority, or even recognized

Stratification by Gender and Ethnicity

Many older women impoverished because of male-centered economic policies pension plans based on continuous

employment; more unlikely to be situation for women with children

medical insurance pays more for acute illness (more common in men) and less for chronic disease (more common in women)

women more likely to be caregivers for frail relatives, often sacrificing their independence and well-being

Stratification by Gender and Ethnicity

Critical race theory views ethnicity and race as social constructs whose usefulness is determined by one’s society or social system

Ethnic discrimination and racism cause stratification, shaping experiences of both minorities and majorities minority elderly more likely to be poor

and frail less access to senior-citizen centers,

clinics, etc.

Better Female, Non-European, and Old?

Positive Effects of Non-European American’s Strong Familism: fewer elderly in nursing homes elderly feel more respected elderly feel more appreciated by families in one study, minority women outlived

majority women who were economically better off but had less family support

Better Female, Non-European, and Old?

Current stratification effects may not apply to cohort shift happening now more women are working younger African-Americans less strongly

tied to church and family and have fewer children

To better understand stratification theory, we need to take a multicultural perspective

Dynamic Theories

Dynamic theories—emphasize change and readjustment rather than either the ongoing self or legacy of stratification

Continuity theory—each person experiences changes of late adulthood and behaves towards others in much the same way as he or she did earlier in life adaptive change dynamic response

Keeping Active

Reality of older people’s lives does not correspond exactly with either disengagement or activity theories

Chosen Activities

Employment has many advantages, but it is not typically something person has a choice about doing

One positive aspect of retirement: allows freedom to be one’s own person—to choose one’s main activities e.g., in areas of education, helping others,

religion, politics

Continuing Education

Elderhostel—program in which people aged 55 and older live on college campuses and take special classes Usually during college vacation periods Life-Long Learners here at Three Rivers

Around the world, thousands of learning programs filled with retirees

Many elderly hesitate to take classes with mostly younger students if they overcome this fear, typically find they

earn excellent grades

Volunteer Work Higher percent of elderly adults have strong

commitment to their community and believe they should be of service older adults especially likely to volunteer to assist

the young, very old, or sick 40 percent of the elderly are involved in

structured volunteering many of the other 60 percent volunteer informally

elderly benefit, but not if forced to volunteer

Religious faith increases with age increase in prayer and religious practice

Research shows religious institutions are particularly important to older Americans who may feel alienated from overall society

Religious Involvement

Political Activism

Elderly more so than any other age group Know more about national and local issues Political participation translates into power

ARRP—major organization representing elderly, is largest U.S. special interest group

Most elderly are interested in wider social concerns—e.g., war, peace, the environment

Home, Sweet Home

Many busy maintaining home and yard Some move, but most want to age in

place, even if adult children have moved far away naturally occurring retirement community

(NORC) created when they stay in neighborhood they moved into with young children

One result of aging in place is that many elderly live alone

The Social Convoy

Collectively, the family members, friends, acquaintances, and even strangers who move through life with an individual We travel our life in the company of others Special bonds formed over lifetime help in

good times and bad People who were part of a person’s past

help him or her to maintain sense of identity

Long-Term Marriages

Spouse buffers many problems of old age

Married elders generally are healthier wealthier happier

Long-Term Marriages

Nature of long-lasting relationships tends to get better over time sharing of accumulated experiences affectionate acceptance of each other’s

frailties with feelings of affection passionate love still exists

Divorce is rare in late adulthood Widowhood is common Death of a spouse eventually occurs

for half of all older married people Adjustment to loss varies depending

on sex of surviving partner Many older widows come to enjoy their

independence

Losing a Spouse

4 x as many widows as widowers Because women take better care of

their health, they live longer than men Husband’s death is never easy Death can mean loss of close friend,

social circle, income, and status Widows do not usually seek another

husband

Widows

Living without a spouse is more difficult for men

Widowers often lack social support Historical gender differences make

adjustment more difficult have restrictive notions of masculine

behavior

Widowers

Widowers

Over course of marriage, tend to become increasingly dependent on wives for social support of all kinds

After death of spouse, more likely to be physically ill than widows or married people of their age

Many widowers prefer not to remarry, but with favorable gender ratio and loneliness, often find themselves more likely to remarry than widows

Men are lonelier than women Those without partners are lonelier

than those with partners Divorced or widowed are lonelier Recent losses heighten loneliness The more partners lost, the lonelier

one is

Differences in Loneliness

Friendship

4 percent of people over 65 have never married most married cohort in U.S. history

Never marrieds quite content contentment is linked more to friends than

family Older women do more befriending Even oldest adjust to changes in social convoy Many elderly keep themselves from being

socially isolated

The Frail Elderly

Defined as—over 65, physically infirm, very ill, or cognitively impaired

Activities of daily life (ADLs) bathing, walking, toileting, dressing, and

eating inability to perform these tasks sign of

frailty

The Frail Elderly

Instrumental activities of daily life (IADLs) vary from culture to culture require some intellectual competence in developed countries: phone calls,

paying bills, taking medication, shopping for groceries

in rural areas of other nations: feeding chickens, cultivating the garden, getting water from the well

When caregiver has feelings of resentment and social isolation, he or she typically experiences stress, depression,

and poor health may be more likely to be abusive if he or

she suffers from emotional problems or substance abuse that predate the caregiving

other risk factors: victim’s social isolation, household members’ lack of education and/or poverty

Elder Abuse

Elder Abuse

Maltreatment usually begins benignly but can range from direct physical attack to ongoing emotional neglect

Frail elderly particularly vulnerable to abuse Most abuse is perpetrated by family

member(s) Simplest form is financial—a relative or

stranger gets elderly to sign over life savings, deed to house, or other assets

Nursing Homes

Most elderly want to avoid them at all costs believe they are horrible places

In U.S., the worst tend to be those run for-profit, where patients are mostly on Medicare and Medicaid But, overall, abuse has been reduced

In the United States and Europe, good nursing-home care available for those who can afford it