title: LightingtheShakespeareanStage,1567-1642

author: Graves,R.B.publisher: SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress

isbn10|asin: 0809322757printisbn13: 9780809322756ebookisbn13: 9780585324845

language: English

subjectStagelighting--GreatBritain--History--16thcentury,Stagelighting--GreatBritain--History--17thcentury.

publicationdate: 1999lcc: PN2091.E4G731999ebddc: 792/.025

subject:Stagelighting--GreatBritain--History--16thcentury,Stagelighting--GreatBritain--

History--17thcentury.

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LightingtheShakespeareanStage15671642

R.B.Graves

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Copyright©1999bytheBoardofTrustees,

SouthernIllinoisUniversity

Allrightsreserved

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

020100994321

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataGraves,R.B.,[DATE]LightingtheShakespeareanstage,15671642/R.B.Graves.p.cm.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.1.StagelightingGreatBritainHistory16thcentury.2.StagelightingGreatBritainHistory17thcentury.I.Title.PN2091.E4G731999792'.025dc2199-19002ISBN0-8093-2275-7(cloth:alk.paper)CIP

ThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirementsofAmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciencesPermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibraryMaterials,ANSIZ39.48-1984.

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Contents

ListofFigures vii

Preface ix

1LightonthePlay

1

2TudorandEarlyStuartLightingEquipment

10

3EarlyLightingSystems

26

4AfternoonPerformancesattheOutdoorPlayhouses

65

5IlluminationoftheOutdoorPlayhouses

86

6DaylightintheIndoorPlayhouses

125

7TheatricalLightingatCourt

158

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8ArtificialLightintheIndoorPlayhouses

175

9PropertyLightsandSpecialEffects

201

10IlluminatingtheScene:TheDuchessofMalfiattheGlobeandBlackfriars

218

Notes 237

Index 269

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Figures

1.FrontispiecetoArdenofFeversham(London,1633) 15

2.TitlePageIllustrationofThomasKyd'stheSpanishTragedy(London,1615)

19

3.CressetsfromVariousEarlyEnglishPrintsandDrawingsPublishedbyFrancisDoucein1807

21

4.FrontispiecetoLeTérencedesDucs,FifteenthCentury 32

5.PlanAccompanyingtheManuscriptofTheCastleofPerseverance,FifteenthCentury

34

6.LeMartyredeSainteApollinefromLesHeuresd'EtienneChevalierbyJeanFouquet,c.1460

35

7.PrintoftheFrontispiecetoJohannesTrechsel'sEditionofTerence(Lyon,1493)

36

8.TheVaissellierwithPracticalHeavensinan"EnchantedHall"forafêteatBinche,1549

47

9.TheSwanPlayhouse,c.1596 48

10.DetailfromaPortraitofSirHenryUnton,c.1596 61

11.DetailofFolio8ofHenslowe'sDiary 74

12.ConjecturalDiagramsoftheSwan 87

13.TheRoseandtheFirstGlobe 89

14.TheSecondGlobe 91

15.ConjecturalRedrawingofNorden'sCivitasLondini 92

Globe

16.ConjecturalInsolationoftheRose 95

17.TheNewGlobe,2P.M.(GMT)inAugust 103

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18.TheNewGlobe,3:30P.M.inAugust 105

19.TheNewGlobe,4P.M.inAugust 106

20.OutdoorStagewithCressets,SixteenthCentury 114

21.GillisCoignet'sTheDrawingofLotsforBedlam,1592

114

22.ATableauVivantontheDaminAmsterdam 115

23.FrontispiecetoTheWits,orSportuponSport(London,1662)

131

24.TheHallatHamptonCourtPalace 133

25.TheHalloftheMiddleTemple 135

26.Cross-sectionalDiagramoftheHallatHamptonCourtwithConjecturalStage

136

27.Cross-sectionalDiagramoftheHalloftheMiddleTemplewithConjecturalStage

137

28.Cross-sectionalDiagramoftheSwan 138

29.Elevation,Plan,andCrossSectionsofaPlayhouseDesignedbyInigoJones

144

30.Cross-sectionalDiagramoftheMiddleTempleHallwithJonesPlayhouseGalleries

145

31.Cross-sectionaldiagramoftheSwan 146

32.ExterioroftheCockpit-in-CourtaftertheRestoration 148

33.ElevationandPlansforRenovationoftheCockpit-in-Court,Whitehall,c.1630

149

34.BranchedChandelierandaDeviceforDimmingCandles

198

35.ATrickAltar 215

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PrefaceOfferedhereisasurveyofEnglishtheatricallightingfromtheriseofprofessionalactingtroupesinLondontothecloseoftheplayhousesbyactofParliamentin1642.Thisperiodwhich,forconvenience,IrefertoasShakespeareansawplaysperformedinavarietyofvenues,eachwithitsownkindofillumination,anditisoneofmypurposestocompareandcontrasttheeffectofstagelightinginvariousplayhousesandondifferentplaysandaudiences.Indoingso,Ihavebeenundertheobligationofpresentingevidencefromanumberofprimarysources,secondaryworksintheatricalhistory,andstudiesinsuchfar-flungfieldsaspsychophysics,architecturallighting,andthehistoryofweather.Ihavetriedtoconsolidatethisevidenceasmuchaspossible,choosingthemostrepresentativeexamples,whilebearinginmindthatdescriptionsofoneplayhousedonotnecessarilyapplytoothersandthataneffectachievedinoneplaymaynothavebeenachievedinothers.

Whereverpossible,Iquoteintheoriginalspellingbecausetheetymologyofcertaintechnicaltermssuchas"lanthorne"isobscuredbymodernization.Similarly,pounds,shillings,andpencehavebeencitedintheiroldformswhereonepoundequalstwentyshillingsandoneshillingequalstwelvepence.Ontheotherhand,playtitles,whichwererecordedinvariousforms,havebeenregularizedinaccordancewithstandardreferenceworks,andold-styledateshavebeenadjustedtoconformwiththemodernpracticeofbeginningtheyearon1January.Occasionally,Ihavefounditusefultoincludediagramstoillustratethedirectionalityoflightinthehallsandamphitheaters,buttheseschematicdrawingsshouldinnosensebeconsideredcompetentreconstructionsoftheplayhousesorevenadequatedepictionsofotherimportantqualitiesoftheillumination.

Iamundermanyobligationsforhelpreceived.AlanDessenandthelateS.Schoenbaumgaveearlycounsel,whileMichaelShapiroofferedadviceatalaterstagewhenitwassorelyneeded.AndrewGurrgenerouslyfacilitatedmyresearchatthenewGlobeinSouthwark,asdidMichaelHolden,Tiffany

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Foster,andKristinDunstan.TheeditorsofRenaissanceDrama,ShakespeareQuarterly,andTheatreNotebookimprovedmaterialoriginallypublishedinthosejournalsindifferentform,whileBeverlyAdamczykcheckedmanydetails,supportedinpartbyagrantfromtheUniversityofIllinoisGraduateCollegeResearchBoard.DonLlewellynpreparedseveralofthedrawings,andtheofficersofthelibrariesandmuseumsincludedinthecaptionsgraciouslygavepermissiontoreproducephotographsofmaterialintheircollections.

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1LightonthePlayIhave...toldtwiceoverhowmanycandlestherearei'th'roomelighted,whichIwillsetyoudownetoasnuffeprecisely,becauseIlovetogivelighttoposteritieinthetruthofthings.NewsfromtheNewWorld(1620)

WhenthepedanticChroniclerofBenJonson'smasqueNewsfromtheNewWorldboaststhathewilltellhowmanycandleslititspresentationatWhitehall,JonsonridiculeshimjustasscornfullyasweshouldjudgeamoderncriticwhocouldthinkofnothingbetterthantocountthenumberofspotlightsatthelatestStratfordFestival.

1Wefeelthatfamiliaritywiththelightingpracticesofone'stimemakessuchextravaganceofdetailunnecessary.AndJonsonbelieved(orcametobelieveafteraquarrelwithhisscenedesigner,InigoJones)thatbydwellingonthephysicalaspectsofstageproduction,thecentraldramaticconcernsoflanguageandmeaningwereignored.Butafternearlyfourcenturies,ourperspectiveissomewhatdifferent,becausetheplaytextsthathavecomedowntousdonotcontainalltheinformationweneedtounderstandthem.Wearenotalwayssurewhatsuchsimpletermsas"top,""above,"andeven"enter"mean;stilllessdowefullygrasphowthephysicalenvironmentaffectedthemeaningoftheactors'lines.TheinterestthatattachestoearlymodernproductionarisesfromadesiretocomprehendthetheatricalenvironmentsthatJonsonandhisreadersknewbyheartbuttookforgrantedandfailedtodescribeforus.Jonsoncouldnothavepredictedthatourstageinvestigation,farfromdirectingattentionawayfromthewordshecherished,seekstounderstandthemintheirfullestcontext.

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ItisoverJonson'sobjections,then,thatIofferhereverynearlywhathisChroniclertellsushewillpassdowntousadetaileddescriptionofthekindsoflightandlightinginstrumentsusedinthetheatersofearlymodernLondon.Itracethecontrastingtraditionsofdaylit''public"playhousesandcandlelit"private"playhouses,describethedifferenttechniques,andestimatetheireffect.MypurposeistoprovideaclearerpicturethanhasheretoforebeenavailableofwhatplaysactedbyShakespeare,Jonson,andtheircontemporarieslookedlike.

Althoughthechaptersthatfollowcountunrepentantlytorchesandtapers,candlesandfootcandles,Jonsonneverthelesswarnsusofmethodologicalproblemsinrecreatingaplaybymeansofdescribingthephysicalcircumstancesofitsoriginalproduction.Asanarchaeologicalprinciple,wemustacknowledgethatallwecanknowofthepastisthedurable,butthereisnoassurancethatthedurableisthemostsignificantpartofabygonesocietyordrama.Theworthofphysicalartifactsisnotintrinsicbutrathercontingentuponthedegreetowhichartisansembodiedimportantfunctionsoftheircultureinthemandleftuscodesbywhichwecandecipherthosefunctions.

Withthediscoveryin1989ofthefoundationsoftheRoseplayhouseandthesubsequentuncoveringofaportionofthefoundationsofthesecondGlobe,wecannowbaseourstudyofperformeddramaonthedurableremainsoftwoimportantamphitheaters.Nevertheless,eventhebestreconstructionsoftheseremainsdonotnecessarilytellushowtheoriginalaudiencesinterpretedtheirsignificance.EvenifthesecondGlobestoodtodayforourinspection,wemustnotforgetthatearlymodernplaygoersmayhaveconstrueditsstructureverydifferentlyfromthewaywemighttoday.AsStephenGreenblattpointsoutinawidercontext,"Anthropologicalinterpretationmustaddressitselflesstothemechanicsofcustomandinstitutionthantotheinterpretiveconstructionsthemembersofasocietyapplytotheirexperiences."

2

Viewedasevidence,lightinonesensemaybecharacterizedastheleastpermanentaspectoftheatricalproduction.ForthespectatorsatShakespeare'sGlobe,lightwasindeedanephemeralelementoftheplay.Thestagepicturestheyadmiredvanishedassoonastheywererealized,inexorablyminglingwiththenextpicture.Theseimagescanneverberecaptured.Yetinanothersense,lightremainsoneofthemostenduringelementsinourreconstructions,becausethedaylightthatilluminatedtheoriginalGlobestage

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isthesamedaylightthatweenjoyandhaveatourdisposaltoknowandstudy.Indaylight,wepossesstheactual"material"thatShakespeareandhiscontemporariesemployedintheirtheater.WheninhisgrowingdespairLearpleads,forexample,"Oletmenotbemad,notmadsweetHeauens"(F918),wemaymissoneiconographicmeaningofhisprayerbecausewearenotsurewhattheroofoverthestage,orheavens,lookedlike.

3ButweknowhowtheskyovertheGlobecouldlookandthusareabletointerpretatleastoneconnotationofLear'sentreatyintermsofitsoriginaltheatricalsetting.Wecanseehimcryingout,notinthegloomofmanymodernrevivals,butunderanopensky,askyneverthelessunpredictable,byturnsfriendlyorwarm,stormyormenacing.Similarly,evenasOthellovowsrevenge"byyondMarbleHeauen''(F2110)anotherallusiontotheheavensortotheceilingoftheWhitehallbanquetinghousepainted"overheadewthCloudesandotherdevices"4Iago'sprayerto"youeuer-burningLightsaboue,/YouElements,thatclipvsroundabout"(F211416)speakstoawidersphereofinfluence,onethatweknowaswellasJacobeanplaygoers,evenifourunderstandingofitmaystilldifferfromtheirs.

Noonetodayneedsproofthatstagelightinginfluencesanaudience'sresponsetoaplay.Yet,ourstagelightingdiffersfromShakespeare'swithrespecttothemeansbywhichtheinfluenceisexerted,namelyitssusceptibilitytoartisticcontrol.Foritwasonlywiththeintroductionofgasandelectricityinthenineteenthcenturythatstageilluminationbecameafull-fledgedtheatricalart.Onlywhentheintensity,color,extent,anddirectionoflightfelltothedirectandflexiblecontrolofdimmerboardsandadjustablespotlightsdidthefunctionofgeneralilluminationriseabovequestionsofsimplevisibilityandactivelybegintomanipulatetheaestheticexperienceof

theaudience.

Butwhatoftheolderdramawhoselightadmittedoflittleornoregulation?DidtheungovernabledaylightattheGlobeactivelyparticipateindefiningthemeaningofthedrama?CanwesaythatthecandlelightatBlackfriarssignificantlyinfluencedeithertheperformanceortheperceptionofplaysperformedthere?Wemustrecognizetheeffectofsuchchoicesasthebuildingofa"shadow"overtheoutdoorstage,theclosingofwindowshuttersforcertaintragediesindoors,andthebringingonofpropertylightsnotjustforthepurposeofvisibilityorscenicdecorationbuttoactassignsofwhattimeandlocationthescenewassupposedtotakeplace.Fewofus,however,

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wouldclaimthattheseeffortsareequivalenttotheflexibleandcontrollableilluminationofthemodernlightingdesigner.

Buttheassumptionthatanaudience'sresponsetotheatricalilluminationderivesprimarilyfromartists'intentionsisonlyacenturyold.StageilluminationdidnotemergefullyasanexpressiveelementinthetheateruntilAdolpheAppiatoutedlightinhisinfluentialDieMusikunddieInscenierung(Munich,1899)asthemeansbywhichactors,scenery,andtextcouldbeweldedtogetherinunionwiththeunderlying"music"ofaplayinperformance.Theaterhistoriansdidnotbeginreconstructingtheoriginalcircumstancesofperformanceuntillate-nineteenth-centuryscientificarchaeologyhadassertedthataculture'spastcouldbeunderstoodbypiecingtogetheritsman-madeartifacts.ThesearchfortheElizabethanstagebeganinearnestwiththediscoveryofthefamousSwansketchin1888byKarlGädertz,butitwasinspiredasmuch,Ithink,bythesuccessfulexcavationsofHeinrichSchliemannatTroyandMycenaeinthe1870sandofSirArthurEvansatCnossosafewyearslater.EarlyElizabethan-stagescholarsworkedinaclimateofscientificprogress,aconfidencethataculture'sinnerlifecouldbeexplainedbywhatithadmadeofitsphysicalsurroundings.

Butthisarchaeologicalperspectivemayignoresomeofthespecialproblemsinherentinreconstructingnotacityorculturebutaworkofart.Forinthehistoricalexaminationofthedrama,weareobligedtoconsidernotonlytheintentionoftheartisans(playwrightandactor)asevincedbytheirremainingwork(textandstaging)butalsothemannerinwhichtheworkwasviewedbytheircontemporaries(theaudience).Archaeologicalmodelsfortheaterresearchmaythusnottakeanaudience'sresponsesufficientlyintoaccount,becausethereisnorealanalogytoanaudienceinthestudyofancientsocieties.Howmostartistsmanipulatedtheirmaterialsisinherentinfinishedpaintings,poems,orplaysinmaterialevidence,thatis,thatwecan

stillexamine.Butanaudience'sresponseleaveslittlebehindforustostudy,especiallywhen,asAndrewGurr'scensusofplaygoersreveals,muchofwhatanaudienceexperiencesduringtheperformanceisroutinelyleftunsaid.

5

Evenso,anaudience'sresponsetostagelighting,howeverdifficulttoassessdirectly,mayinturnaffecttheplaywright'scraft,becauseitisanarticleoffaithamongtheaterhistoriansthatdramatistsgenerallywritewithaneyetowardproductionandthatexpectedperformanceconditionswillaffectthecompositionoftheplay.In1948,forexample,G.E.Bentleypublishedhis

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pioneerarticle"ShakespeareandtheBlackfriarsTheatre,"inwhichhearguedthattheapparentchangeintoneofShakespeare'slateromancesmaybeaccountedforinpartbyconsciousartisticdecisionsthattheKing'smenmadeinanticipationoftheiracquisitionofthesmall,artificiallylitsecondBlackfriarsin1609inadditiontothelarge,open-airGlobe.

6Evidenceoffewerseats,asmallerstageclosertowealthierpatrons,andthesplendorofthelightingwasadducedtoexplainthepresenceofamoresophisticatedaudiencerequiringashiftinShakespeare'sthematicinterests.Afewyearslater,AlfredHarbagefollowedinBentley'sfootstepsandinShakespeareandtheRivalTraditions(NewYork,1952)paintedasimilarpictureoftwowidelydivergentkindsofdramaintendedforindoorandoutdoorproduction.Bothassumedthatthephysicalstructuresofthedifferenttheatersdeterminedinpartthestyleandmeaningofthedramasperformedthere.Theybelievedthat,despitetheKing'smen'splayingbothindoorsandoutdoors,adiscernibleshiftintheatricalstylehadbeenimposedonactorsandplaywrightsbytheconfigurationsoftheJacobeanhallplayhousesandtheirmoresophisticatedaudiences.

Fortyyearslater,however,thepictureislessclear.AlthoughAnnJennalieCookhasassertedthataudiencesatbothkindsofplayhousesweredrawnlargelyfromprivilegedmembersofsociety,AndrewGurrhasshownthat,whiletheremayhavebeenaslightincreaseinthesophisticationinthehallaudiences,Shakespeare'saudienceremaineddiverse,andtheKing'scompany"didnotradicallyalteritsrepertorywhenitmovedtoBlackfriars."7Equallyimportant,researcherslookingintostagingpracticesatthepublicandprivateplayhousesfoundlittletodifferentiatethem,andthecurrentassessmentofBentley'sandHarbage'sworkisthattheyoverstatedthecase.Indeed,

inaninvestigationofstagingpracticesforplayswrittenfrom1599to1642,T.J.Kingconcludedthatthephysicaldifferencesbetweenpublicandprivateplayhouseswerelesssignificantthanhadbeenthought."Althoughthesetwokindsofplayhousesdifferedinoutwardappearance,"heannounced,"analysisof276playsprobablyfirstactedbyprofessionalsinthisperiodshowsthattherewerenosignificantdifferencesinthestagingrequirementsofthevariouscompanies"8

ButaglanceatKing'sbookrevealsthathiscarefulanalysiscannotconclusivelycomparetheeffectofindoorandoutdoorproduction,becausehehasrestrictedthekindofevidencethatcaninfluencethemeaningofthe

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drama.Hedecidesthatthepublicandprivatetheatersmusthavebeensimilarininwardappearancebecauseheexaminesonlyfacilitiesoverwhichtheactorshadmoreorlessfullcontrol.Thus,Kingmaybecorrectinsayingtherewerenomajorchangesinstaging,becausetohimstagingmeansthetablesandchairs,doorsandpartitions,balconiesandtraps,onstage.Thetitlesofhischaptersmakethisnarrowconceptionofstagingplain:"EntrancesandLargeProperties,""AbovetheStage,""DoorsandHangings,"and"BelowtheStage."Butthesearetheveryfacilitiesthatonewouldnotexpecttochangeastheactorsmovedindoors.Thetroupeswouldbringthesametablesandchairstheyusedoutdoorswiththem.Theywouldsetupdoorsandtrapsintheirfamiliarplacesandattempttoduplicateasmuchaspossibletheenvironmenttowhichtheywerealreadyaccustomed.Oneimaginesthatthestages,stageproperties,andtiring-housewallsofthetwoplayhousesresembledeachotherasmuchaspossiblesothattheactorscouldavoidrestagingtheirplayseverytimetheymigratedfromthesummerGlobetothewinterBlackfriarsortocourt.

ContrastingwithattemptstoseeplaysaswrittenforspecifictheatersandlightingarrangementsaretheadmonitionsofCliffordLeech,J.A.Lavin,andothersthatplaywrightswrotelesstoturnagiventheatertogoodaccountthantopleasethemselvesor,attheleast,tofollowtheprevailingliteraryfashion.

9LavingoessofarastodenythattheKing'smencouldhaveseenanyaestheticdistinctionbetweentheGlobeandBlackfriarsandwillallowtheirplaywrightsnoaccommodationtoit.Lavin'sinsistenceontheinterchangeabilityofpublicandprivateplayhouserepertoryiswelltakeninregardtotheKing'smen,butLavinforgetsthatplaywrights,particularlyCarolineplaywrights,tellusthattheysometimeswrotewithspecifictheatersinmind,includingtheBlackfriars.Forexample,JohnWebsterparticipatedinadaptingaBlackfriarsplay,Marston's

TheMalcontent,totheresourcesavailableatapublictheaterin1604,whenhewascalledon"toabridgethenotreceivedcustomeofmusicke"attheGlobe.10Inspiteoftheirvariousconclusions,BentleyandHarbage,ontheonehand,andKingandLavin,ontheother,allassumethataestheticdifferencesbetweenthetheatersmaybemeasuredonlybytheintentionsoftheartistsinvolved.ToBentleyandHarbage,theremustbedifferences,becausetheyfindtheplayswrittenforeachkindoftheaterdifferent.ToKingandLavin,therecannotbeanymajordifferences,becausetheactorsapparentlytooknoaccountofthem.

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Buttherewereimportantelementsofproductionthattheplayerscouldnotbringwiththemorduplicateastheymovedbackandforthfromoneplayhousetoanother.Amongthese,theacoustics,thesizeoftheplayingspace,andthelightingremainedmoreorlessdependentontheactualproductionsiteandallowedlittleornomodificationtosuitthetastesofplaywrights,actors,orspectators.Regardingacoustics,Icanonlynoteinpassingitsimpactontheplaytextsandstaging.IncomparingtheverseofThomasKydandJamesShirley,say,wehavetotakeintoaccountnotonlytwodifferenttemperamentsattwodifferentpointsinthedevelopmentofEnglishpoetrybutalsotwodifferentkindsofacousticsthoseofthelarge,outdooramphitheatersandofthesmall,indoorhallplayhouses.Thus,whenShirleyin"APrologueattheGlobetohisComedycall'dThedoubtfullHeire,whichshouldhavebeenpresentedattheBlack-Friers"hasactorsattheopen-airGlobecomplainthattheyareforced"tobreakourlungs"incontrasttotheeasilyheardspeechatBlackfriars,wedonotneedtoexplainthedifferencebetweentherantingofKydandtheslickproficiencyofShirleysolelybyrecoursetoperceivedshiftsinsocialandliteraryfashionfromElizabethantoCarolinetimes.

11Theformoftheirrespectiveplayhousescontributedamoredirectinfluenceonthekindoflanguageappropriatetoeach.Whatismore,theacousticsavailableindoorsaffectedatleastoneimportantelementofstaging.RichardHosleyhasnotedthattheonlysignificantdifferencebetweenindoorandoutdoorstagingmethodsderivedfromtheearlyuseofapermanentmusicroomattheindoorplayhouses,inspiredbythelivelieracousticsthere.Thesemusicroomswerevisibletotheaudienceand,hence,becameavailablefordiscoveries"above"wellbeforethepracticetookholdattheamphitheaters.Indeed,HosleyfindsthattheoutdoorplayhousesdidnotadoptthepracticeuntiltheKing'smenbeganregularperformancesat

Blackfriars.12

Similarly,itissurprisingthatonlyrecentlyhavescholarsthoughttocomparethetwokindsoftheaterswithrespecttolighting,which,ofalltheelementsoftheatricalproduction,maywellbethecruciblewhereinsupposeddifferencesorsimilaritiescanbetested.ForwhileKingLearwasperformedby"hisMaiestiesseruantsplayingvsuallyattheGloabeontheBancke-side,"itwasalsoperformedindoors"beforetheKingsMaiestieatWhitehallvponS.StephansnightinChristmasHollidayes[26December1606],"asthetitlepageofthe1608quartotestifies.AtWhitehall,nonaturalsunlightcouldame-

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lioratetheplay'sgloomyviewofheaven;whenLearlookeduptotheskythere,bothheandtheaudiencesawsomethingverydifferentfromwhattheyhadseenattheGlobe.AtWhitehall,chandelierssupportingdozensofcandleshungoverhead,whichonecouldargueemphasizednotLear'shelplessnessinthefaceofunleashednaturalforcesbutrathertheartificialcontrolthatmancouldanddidoccasionallyexerciseoverthepowersofdarkness.AtBlackfriars,theKing'smen'sindoortheater,naturalwindowlightandartificialcandlelightmingledtogethertoilluminatethestage,acombinationfromwhichonemightdevelopstillanothericonographicinterpretationofthescene.

Ortochooseamorefamousexample,howdidthebarelightofOthello'scandleinDesdemona'sdeathscenebehaveinrelationtothegeneralilluminationattheGlobe,Blackfriars,andcourt?WhenOthelloentersherbedroom"withalight"andcomparesittoDesdemona'slife

Putoutthelight,andthenputoutthelight:IfIquenchthee,thouflamingminister,Icanagaine,thyformerlightrestore(Q1M)

arewetoseethislonelycandleburninginadarkenedhall,ironicallysignalinghertruechastityinanastyworld?Orrather,arewetoimagineitthrowingoutafeeblelightonabrightlysunlitstage?WasthescenepresentedillusionisticallyattheindoortheaterswithonlyOthello'sflickeringcandlelightingthestage?Inthatcase,theaudiencemighthavedifficultyseeingDesdemona'shorrifiedreactiontoOthello'saccusationswhetherornotheleavesthecandleburningfortheentirescene.BecauseShakespearespecificallyassociatesDesdemonawiththelight,wewanttograspitssignificanceandknowwhethertheemotionalconnotationsofthescenechangedastheKing'smenperformedoutdoorsorindoors,duringthedayornight,thatis,asthegeneralilluminationofthetheaterchanged.

Suchquestionsareworthaskingfortheirownsake,ofcourse.Alongwithsound,lightisthemeansbywhichallperformedplaysarecomprehended.Lightparticipatesinconcertwithlanguage,soundeffects,andmusictoproducemeaning;themoreweknowaboutwhatShakespeare'saudiencesaw,themoreweknowaboutwhatitunderstood.EvenJonson'srejectionofJones'selaboratelightingeffectspaysgenuine,thoughnegative,homageto

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thepoweroflighttoaffectthemeaningofthedrama,oratleasttheplay-wright'sperceptionofthatmeaning.

Butperhapsmoreimportantforus,suchquestionsshouldberaisedbecausetheanswerstothemcanbefoundandasthesemattersgo,canbefoundrathereasily.Foracentury,wehavebeenagonizingovertheinternalstructureofthefirstGlobeplayhouse,whenthetruthiswemayneverknowwhatitlookedlike.YetwiththediscoveriesoftheRosefoundationandpartofthefoundationforthesecondGlobe,thequalityandeventhequantityofilluminationonitsstagecanbeestimatedwithareasonabledegreeofaccuracy.Theelusiveshapesofthevarioustheaterbuildingsenterintosuchcalculations,tobesure,butestimatesbasedonthemostimportantvariablesregardinglightingthesizeoftheopeningabovetheyardandthepositionoftheheavensoverthestagecannowbemadewithsomeassurance.

13Indeed,withthecompletionoftheInternationalShakespeareGlobeCentrereconstructionofthefirstGlobe,wecannowexperimentwithstagingpracticesinsomethingveryliketheiroriginalphysicalsetting.Inlikemanner,thenumberofwindowsandcandlesemployedindoorscanbeinferredandthekindandamountoflightshedontheactorsestimated.Ifweshiftourhistoricalinquiriesawayfromthetheaterbuilding,itsstage,andphysicalproperties,itisnotbecauselightingismoreimportant.Rather,itisbecauselightpossessesuniquevalueforusasakindofevidencethatwilllastuntilthecrackofgloom.

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2TudorandEarlyStuartLightingEquipmentElizabethan,Jacobean,andCarolineplaysrefertolightsandlightinginstrumentsthatarefamiliar,ifnotcommonplace,today.Thelightsmostfrequentlymentionedindialogueandstagedirectionscandles,tapers,torches,andlanternsimposenolargeobstaclestoanunderstandingofearlyEnglishstaging,becauseourconceptionofwhattheselightswerelikeandhowtheywereusedislargelycorrectandproductive.Yet,inevitableshiftsinthemeaningofsometermshavetakenplace,andenoughsixteenth-andseventeenth-centurylightingnomenclaturehasbecomesufficientlyunclearthatabrieflookatthetechnicalprinciplesofearlylightsshouldprecedeanyexaminationoftheusestowhichtheywereputintheLondonplayhouses.

Thehistoryoflightingissopoorlyrecordedthatagooddealofconjecturemustenterintoeventhemostcursoryreview.Informationcanbegleanedhereandtherefromcasualreferences,pictures,andtheveryfewearlyinstrumentsthathavesurvived;butforthemostpart,socialandtechnologicalhistorianshavefailedtodescribethelightingpracticesofeachageandcountry.Whythisissohaslesstodowithafailuretounderstandtheimportanceoflightinsocietythanwiththeslow,nearlystagnant,developmentoflightingtechnologythatmakeswritinganysortofconnectedhistorydifficult.ForathousandyearsbeforethereignofElizabethIandfortwohundredyearsafter,lightingutensilsremainedrelativelyunchanged.LateRomansusedlamps,candles,andtorchessimilartothoseoftheTudorandStuartperiods.Infact,lampswerenotgreatlyalteredfromwhattheancient

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Greeksknewuntil1784whenamethodtocontrolauniformflowofairwasintroduced.Candleswerenotimproveduntilself-snuffingwicksreplacedtwistedcottonstrandsinthelateeighteenthcenturyandrefinedwaxesreplacedtallowandbeeswaxintheearlynineteenth.Modernexperienceteachesthattechnicalartsprogresssteadily.Butthehistoryoflightingshowsnotonlylittleornoprogressforhundredsofyearsbutalsooccasionalreverseswhenimprovementswerelostintheshuffleofchangingcultures,onlytoberediscoveredlaterorneveratall.

ThreemaintypesofdomesticlightswereemployedinearlymodernEngland:lamps,candles,andamiscellaneouscategorythatincludesrush-lights,torches,links,andtapers.Ofthem,lampsprovideanexampleofawell-developedmeansofillumination,popularinancientGreeceandRome,thatneverthelessfellintoneglectduringtheMiddleAgesandenjoyedonlylimiteduseinEnglandinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.

Lamps

Lampscanbemadeandwereinancienttimesfromanysortofconcavestoneorshell.

1Thehollowisfilledwithvegetableoranimaloil,andawick,almostalwaysofvegetablematerial,isplacedintotheoilwithoneendprotrudingintotheair.Likecandles,whoseonlyessentialdifferenceisthatthefuelisalwayssolid,lampsburnonlywhenenoughfuelcanbedrawnthroughitswicktoreplacethefuelthathasbeenconsumed.Thewickitselfalsoburnsandmustbereplaced.Butforbothlampsandcandles,thelessthelightisproducedbytheburningwickandthemoreitisproducedbytheburningfuelabsorbedbythewick,thebrighterandmoreefficienttheinstrument.SurvivingGreekandRomanlampsresembleshallowclayteapotswithoneormorespouts

usedassupportingwickchannels.PotterylampsareidealforMediterraneanclimateswhereoilsandsomefatsarenaturallyliquidandcaneasilyflowtothebottomofthelampwheretheendofthewickisusuallypositioned.Theprincipaladvantageoflampsistheirconvenience:onlywhenthefuelisexhaustedorthewicktotallyconsumeddotheyrequireattention.Thedisadvantageisthatearlylampsproducemuchlesslightthancandles.Increasingthethicknessofthewickscreatesmorelightbutalsoproducessignificantlymoresmoke.TheItalianscenetechnicianNicolaSabbattiniusedlampsextensivelyattheTeatrodelSolinPesarointheseven-

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teenthcentury,forexample,butgenerallyonlyhighabovehisscenesandawayfromthenosesofhisaristocraticaudiences.Neartheactorsandabovethespectators,hepreferredcandles.Althoughhisdescriptionofstagelightingisthefirstrecordwehaveoflampfootlights,heneverthelesscomplainsthattheyactuallymakethestageappeardarker."Lampsmusthavestrongwicksiftheyaretogiveoffastronglight,"heexplains,"[b]utifthestrongwicksarechosen,smokewilldeveloptosuchadensitythatasortofhazewillinterferewiththeviewofthespectators,whowillhavedifficultyindistinguishingthesmallerdetailsonthestage."

2

InEngland,evensimplehouseholdlampswithappropriatelysizedwickswerelessthansatisfactory,becausefineliquidoilhadtobeimportedandwasprohibitivelyexpensive.Collegeandhouseholdaccountbooksrarelylistpurchasesofoil,andwhentheydo,saladoilisusuallyspecified.3Solidandsemisolidfuelslikekitchengreaseandsuetwereplentiful,though,andseveralattemptsweremadetomodifylampstosuchfuels.Thus,lampscametobemadeofmetal(usuallyiron)sothataportionoftheflame'sheatcouldbeconducteddowntomeltthefatandcauseittoflowtothebottomofthelamp.IntheMiddleAges,whatmetaltheEnglishhadwenttowardmoreimportantutensils;thecandleandtorchsufficed.Butbythesixteenthcentury,metalbecamemoreabundantandmetallampsmorecommon.Extantinventoriesofgreathousesalmostneverincludelamps,butpoorhouseholdsinthenorthandinScotlandregularlyownediron"crusie"lampsfilledwithinferiortripe-oil.Asearlyasthe1640s,settlerstoAmericabroughttheseopensaucermetallampswiththem,wheretheybecameknownasBettylamps.4

Lampswereassociatedwithkitchensandthehearthwherespattering

greaseandsmokewaslesstroublesomethaninotherrooms.Theprocessofmeltingthesolidfatinthelampwas,afterall,theslowfryingofsuet.ThedescriptioninTheComedyofErrors(3.2)ofDromioofSyracuse'slovermaybeanot-undulyexaggeratedpictureofatypicalsettingforElizabethanlamps:"Marrysir,she'stheKitchinwench,&algrease,andIknownotwhatvsetoputhertoo,buttomakeaLampeofher,andrunfromherbyherownelight.Iwarrent,herraggesandtheTallowinthem,willburneaPolandWinter"(F88590).Carefulrenderingandclarifyingofthesuetcouldalleviatesomeofthemostdisagreeablesideeffects;butoncehouseholdershadgonetothistrouble,theyapparentlypreferredtomakecandlesanyway.

Afewreferencestolampsseemtoindicateoutdooruse.JohnStow'sSur-

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veyofLondontellshowonthemidsummerevewatchofSaintsPeterandPaulinNewFishStreetbefore1538,''everymansdoore...hadalsoLampsofglasse,withOyleburninginthemallthenight."

5GlasslampswithfloatingwickshadrecentlybeenintroducedtoEnglandfromBarcelona,buttheinferioroilsthattheEnglishhadattheirdisposalmadethemunpopularforeverydayuse.InLondon,cheap,impureoilcostnearlyfourshillingsagallonandcleaner-burningoilashillingortwomore.6Itisdoubtful,therefore,whetherhabitualdomesticusewasmadeofsuchlamps,whichatanyrateappeartohavebeenspecialfloating-wicklamps,suitableonlyinwarmtemperaturesornearthekitchenhearth.ApartfromStow,infact,wehearofLondonerslightinglanternsandtorchesforsuchwatches,notlamps.Atcourt,wherethecostoffineroilswouldhavebeenlessofaburden,lampswereneverthelessalsousedinfrequently.

Insum,theTudorandStuarterassawthereintroductionofthelampaftercenturiesofneglect.Butbecausetheperiodwasoneofrelativelyrapidchangeinregardtolamps,theirplaceintypicallightingarrangementsisdifficulttoassess.Shakespearesometimesalludestolampsinhisdialogue,forinstance,butnotoncedohisstagedirectionscallforlampstobebroughton-stage.Evenwhenhissourcespecificallymentionsalamp(asNorthdoesinhisdescriptionofalamp'smysteriousdimmingontheappearanceofCaesar'sghosttoBrutus),Shakespearechangesthelamptoataper.Itmaybethatstraygustsofwindtendedtoblowoutlampsmorereadilythantapersandcandles;suchwasthecasewiththelampreproductionsIlitasanexperimentatthe"new"Globe.Infact,Shakespearemayhavesufferedfromanaversiontolamps:ofsixteenreferencestotheminhisplays,fourcenteroncomparisonswithalamp'sbeingstarvedofoil.Nodoubttheneedtoreplenishoilwassometimesabother,but

Shakespearewastheonlydramatisttousesuchimagery.7Atallevents,onlyahandfulofstagedirectionsinalltheplaysoftheperiodcallfortheuseoflampsasstageproperties,themostimportantonebeingthedifficult-to-interpretstagedirectionatthebeginningofscene11ofRobertGreene'sFriarBaconandFriarBungay:"EnterFrierBacondrawingthecourtaineswithawhitesticke,abookeinhishand,andalampelightedbyhim,andthebrasenhead."8PerhapsGreenecallsforalampheretoconveyanexotic,ritualflavor,orthelampmaybeconnectedwiththelightningthatlaterflashesforthfromthebrazenhead.

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Candles

Ontheotherhand,candleswerethemostpopularlightsofthedaybothinprivatehomesandatthetheaters.Theatricalandhouseholdaccountbooksoftenrecordlargepurchasesofcandles,andseveralsixteenth-andseventeenth-centurypicturesshowuswhatcandlesandcandlestickslookedlikeandhowtheywereused.

Candlesweremuchasweknowthemtodaybutmuchmoreawkwardanddangeroustokeepburningforanyconvenientlengthoftime.Moderncandlesaremadeofplaitedcottonwickssurroundedbymoldedcylindersofparaffinandotherrefinedwaxes.TudorandStuartcandlesweremadeofconsiderablyinferiormaterials.Wickswerethepithofcommonsoftrushesorwerecottonorflaxstrandstwistedtogether.Suchwicksburnedunevenlyanddidnotbendoverintotheflameandconsumethemselveslikemodernplaitedwicks,inventedbyJean-JacquesCambacérèsin1820.Earlywickshadtobesnuffed(thatis,charredpiecesofwickhadtobecutoffandremoved)toreducesmokingandtoprevent"guttering,"theunfortunateresultofawick'sfallingdownintothemoltenfuel,meltingthetoprimofthecandle,andallowingliquefiedfueltorundownthesideofthecandle.Topreventthiswasteoffuel,snuffingwasregularlyrequired,andaconsiderationoftheartificialilluminationofindoortheatricalvenuesmusttakeintoaccounttheattendantswhoperformedtheseimportantduties.Forexample,aneighteenth-centuryFrenchadvertisementfortallowcandlesboastedthattheyneededtobesnuffedonlyeighttotentimesanhour.

9Moreover,dexteritywasrequiredtoaccomplishefficientsnuffing,asitwasalltooeasytoextinguishtheflameintheprocess(hence,theusualmodernconnotationof"snuff").Atwo-orthree-hourperformanceinahalltheaterlitbyseveraldozenoftheseinferiortallowcandlescouldthereforerequirehundredsofindividualsnuffing

operations,butonlyrarelydoplaywrightsmakeprovisionforthisnecessityintheirtexts.

Thefuelusedinmostcandleswasastroublesomeasthewicks.Duetoitshighmeltingpoint,beeswaxwasarelativelyodorless,carefreeilluminant,butbecauseitwasimportedfromtheContinent,beeswaxwasexpensiveandreservedmainlyforthechurch.Onspecialoccasions,theStuartcourtusedwaxinthecandlesclosesttothesovereignorintheelaboratetorchescarriedbyorfornoblemaskers;buttypically,kingandcommoneralikesufferedthe

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Fig.1.FrontispiecetoArdenofFeversham(London,1633)showingthemurderofArden

atthe"gameoftables"litbycandlelight.BypermissionoftheBritishLibrary(643c2).

disagreeableeffectsoftallow.OnlyinthereignofCharlesIwerewaxcandleswidelydeployedfortheilluminationofplays.

Themorecommonfuelincandleswastallow,whichismerelypurifiedorrenderedmeatfat,usuallyfromsheeporoxen(HalcallsFalstaff"tallow"severaltimesin1HenryIV).OneofthescavengingpromotersinMiddleton'sAChasteMaidinCheapsideexplainstheoriginoftallow:"[W]ehaueneedtogetLoynesofMuttonstill,/TosaueSuettochangeforCandles."

10Butrenderingwasdifficulttoperformcompletelyandcouldneverdisguisethefactthattheburningtallowwasessentiallybroiledsuet.InCymbeline(1.6),forinstance,IachimogivesusanideaofitssmellwhenhelikensLeonatus'sconductto"thesmoakielight/That'sfedwithstinkingTallow"(F72122).Evenaslateas1675,thefastidiousSirFoplingFlutterpinchesatallowcandleinGeorgeEtherege'sTheManofMode(London,1676)becausehecannot"breath[e]inaRoomwherethere'sGreasefrying"(63).AlthoughfewearlyEnglishcandlestickssurvive,seventeenth-centuryexamplesintheVictoriaandAlbertMuseumfeaturewide"greasepans''or"drippans"circlingthestemstocatchdrippingandsplatteringtallow.11

NotuntilwellaftertheRestorationwasthefuelrefinedsufficientlytoallowthegradualeliminationofthesedrippansfromEnglishcandlesticks(seefig.1).

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Besidesproducinganobtrusivesmell,candlessmokedprofusely.Alwaysdwellingonthedarkersideoflife,MalevoleinTheMalcontentadvises,"Stickecandlesgainstavirginewalleswhitebacke,/Iftheynotburne,yetattheleastthei'leblacke"

12WilliamO'Dea,akeeperattheSouthKensingtonScienceMuseum,hadsometallowdipcandlesmadeupbythebestmeansavailableandstillfoundthem"wretchedandinfuriating"devices:

Snuffingwassupposedtobenecessaryeveryhalf-hourwithcandlesofthebestLondontallow.WiththoseItestedtheoperationhadtobedoneeverytwentyminutesandinsomecaseswasnecessaryafterfive.Anunsnuffedcandlegavenotonlyafractionoftheoriginallight,butgreatgulliesmightappearinthepoolofmoltentallowbeneaththeflame.Themoltentallowwouldpourdownsuchagullyandinonecandleleftuntendedonly5percentofthetallowwasactuallyburntandtherestrantowaste.Acandleof8tothepoundwascompletelyconsumedinthiswayinlessthanhalfanhour;butevenwithconstantsnuffingitprovednotunusualtolosemorethanhalfthetallowby"guttering."13

Theregularsnuffingofcandlesnotonlysavesfuel,then,butalsoallowstheflametoburnbrighter.Inthelateeighteenthcentury,theFrenchchemistAntoine-LaurentLavoisierestimatedthatanunsnuffedcandlelostfour-fifthsofitsluminousstrength,andaccordingtoearlyphotometrictestsconductedbyBenjaminThompsonin179293,anunsnuffedtallowcandlecouldlosenearlytwo-thirdsofitsbrillianceinelevenminutes.14InHamlet(4.7),ClaudiusalludestothisdecreasedefficiencywhenhequestionsLaertes'loveforhisdeadfather:"Thereliueswithintheveryflameofloue/Akindofweekeorsnufethatwillabateit"(Q2L4v).

Thesmokeandodoroftallowcouldpresumablybeignoredattheoutdooramphitheaters,butthelowmeltingpointoftallowcandlesmayhavecausedotherproblemsfortheactorstherebecausetallow

couldmeltinthehotsun.InthemanuscriptplayTheLaunchingoftheMary(c.1632),forexample,asailorcomplainsthatheissohot"thatallmyfattfadesawayelike[stinkinge]TallowagaynsttheSunne."15Eventallowchandlerswhotookthetroubletobleachtheircandlesinthesunwereobligedtoundertakethisprocessonlyintheearlymorning,lesttheirwaresberuinedbythemiddayheatofthesun.16Droopingpropertycandlesmaythushaveoccasionallyin-

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conveniencedplayersintheheightofsummer,although,asweshallseeinchapter5,directsunshinerarelyshoneonthestagesoftheamphitheaters.

Ordinarily,suchcandlescouldnotconvenientlybemountedhighinchandeliersorwallbrackets,wheretheywouldbeinaccessibletotheattentiontheyrequired.Instead,shortandtallcandlesticksweretherule,exceptinthehallsofgreathouseswhereservantscouldattendtocandlesmountedinwallsconcesandwoodenorironhoopssuspendedfromtheceilingthatcouldbeloweredforsnuffing.Inthebanquetinghousesandhallsthatservedastheatricalvenuesatcourt,largebranchedchandeliers,orbranches,astheywerecalled,providedthelion'sshareoftheillumination.Thesebranches,manyofwhichweresumptuouslygarnished,couldholdfromfourtofifteenindividualcandleseach.

17IntheMiddleAges,candleshadbeenheldinplacebyimpalingthemonpricksormetalspikes,butwiththeriseoftheguildsofwaxchandlersandtallowchandlersinLondoninthefourteenthcentury,standardizationinthesizeofcandlesgraduallypermittedtheuseofsockets.18Duringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,bothmethodsofsecuringcandleswereused,largercandlesgenerallybypricks,smallercandlesinsockets.CarolineRevelsOfficeaccountsfrequentlymention"wallers"andanequalnumberof"prickers";thesewerebracketssupportingpricksonwhichlargecandlescouldbeimpaled,whichwerethenhungonwallsorpillars(theCarolineRevelsOfficeonceacquired"PilleredwallersandHookes").19Evenso,theselightingfixturescouldstilldrip,smoke,andscorch;theRevelsOfficefrequentlyprovidedplatesorpanstocatchdrippings,pasteboardstoprotectlowceilingsandnearbycolumnsfromburning,andpipestoshieldtheropesfromwhichthebrancheshung.20

Candlesweresometimesmadebyhouseholdersthemselves(byrepeateddippinginmoltentallow)orwerepurchasedfromthechandlerbythepound.Afewchandlers'billsfortheatricalproductionssurvive,andonewaytoestimatethenumberofcandlesthatlitaperformanceistodividethetotalcostofthecandlesbythepriceperpoundandthenmultiplybythesizeofthecandlesasexpressedbythenumberofcandlesineachpound.Thepriceofcandlesincreasedseveralfoldduringtheera,however.Intheearlysixteenthcentury,apoundoftallowcandlescostonlyapenny,butgraduallyrosetothreepenceatmidcentury,fourpenceby1600,andsixpencebythecivilwars.21Waxcandlesweremoredear:white(thatis,bleached)waxcan-

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dleswereregularlyfourorfivetimesasexpensive,whileyellow(unbleached)waxcandlesweretwoorthreetimesasexpensiveastallowcandles,althoughforsomereasonyellowcandleswerenotparticularlycommon.

Tallowandwaxcandleswereaboutthesamesizeoralittlelargerthanweusetoday.Inhomes,theaveragesizewasaroundsixoreightinthepound.Atcourt,candleswereoftenlarger,sometimesweighingapoundapieceormore.Thelegal"standardcandle"inboththeUnitedStatesandGreatBritainnowweighsone-sixthofapoundbutburnsmuchmoreslowlyandevenlythanearlytallowcandles,owingtotheuseofrefinedwaxesandplaitedwicks.Itisthiscandlethatyieldsthenowold-fashionedbutforourpurposes,practicalunitofilluminatingpower,thefootcandle,ortheamountoflightmeasuredonefootawayfromsuchacandle.

Torches,Lanterns,andOtherUtensils

Inathirdcategory,Igrouptogetherlightsessentiallysimilartothecandleexceptthattheirwicksweremuchlarger.Utensilssuchasrushlights,torches,links,flambeaux,andmanytapersdifferedfromcandlesinthattheywerenotprimarilymadeoffuelbutwereessentiallyallwick.Thepurposeofthelittlefuelinthemwastohelpburnthewick,whereasincandlesandlampsthewickservedtoburnthefuel.Themostinexpensivelightinginstrumentsinthiscategorywererushlights.Thesewerethethinpithsofsoftrushes,dippedbrieflyinkitchengrease.Whensupportedbywirerush-holders,theyservedasutilitylightsandnight-lightsinhumblebedrooms.

Torchesandlinksworkedsimilarlyexceptthattheirwickswereusuallyseverallengthsofhemprope,boundtogetheraroundawoodenstaff.Thetechnicaldistinctionbetweentorchesandlinksisnotalwaysclear,though.Torcheswerealwaysthreeorfourtimes

moreexpensivethanlinks,andtheirfuelprobablyincludedatleastsomewaxinadditiontothetallowandpitchcommontolinks.ToAmericans,theword"torch"connotesaroughhewnclubdippedinpitchappropriateforKuKluxKlanparades.Buttorcheswerenearlyobligatorylightsinilluminatingsumptuousmasques,andapassagefromWestwardHo!(1607)givesatruerpictureoftheirstatusinearlymodernEngland.Theauthorstellhow"theCobler,inthenighttimewalkswithhisLanthorne,theMerchant,andtheLawyerwithhisLink,andtheCourtierwithhisTorch."

22Becauseacourtierusesatorchhere,wemustpre-

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Fig.2.TitlepageillustrationofThomasKyd'sTheSpanishTragedy

(London,1615)showingthediscoveryofHoratio'smurderbysmokytorchlight.BypermissionoftheBritishLibrary(C117b36).

sumethatitwasnocrudedevice,especiallybecausethequotationimplieshabitualuse.Inconsequence,ourassociationswithsomeoftheselightsmaystandinneedofrevision.InthestormscenesofKingLear,forexample,therawpowerofnatureisaccompaniednotbyknurledclubsburningprimevallybutbygenteeltorcheswhosestaveswereprobablyrichlydecorated.Thus,lightswereassociatedwithvariousoccupationsandlevelsofsociety,andtheactorscouldusethemassignalsofcharacter.Hymen'storchandtheblacktorchesoftheFuriesareobviousidentifiersthatevenamodernaudiencemayknow,butwemaynotcatchthepretensionofVittoriaCorombonainTheWhiteDevilwhohasadornedherrooms"withseuerallkindoflights,/WhensheedidcounterfetaPrincesCourt."

23

Becauseofthesmoketheygenerated,linksandtorchesweretypically

employedoutofdoors(seefig.2).Bardolphissucha"ballofwildfire"in1Henry

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IV(3.3),forexample,thathehassavedFalstaff"athousandMarksinLinks,andTorches,walkingwiththeeinthenightbetwixttauerneandtauerne"(Q1G2v).Butevenasoutdoorlights,theypresentedadangerwhensmolderingchunksofwickfelloffthecentralstaves.DuringmidsummerwatcheswhentorchbearersfestivelymarchedthroughthestreetsofLondon,forexample,householdersregularlyplacedpotsofwaterbeforetheirdoorsasasafetyprecaution.

Asbefitstheirsophisticatedowners,torcheswereoccasionallybroughtindoorsintothegreathallsofthewealthy,wherethesmokecouldriseandsufficientnumbersofservantscouldattendtothem.Perhapsavestigeoftraditionalmummingwheretorchbearingmummersvisitedthehousesofhonoredworthiesatnight,torchesregularlyaccompaniedindoormasquesandotherentertainmentsinthespacioushallsofgreathousesanduniversities.Problemsarose,however,whentorchescameneartheatricalcostumesincrampedquarters.In1579,forexample,whentheElizabethanRevelsOfficerentedplumesforelaborateheadpiecesinamasqueofknights,itwaschargedextrabecausefourplumes"weredroptewithtorches"whilethreeexpensiveheronfeathers"wereburntewithTorches."

24Nowonderthatintheact5masquesceneofTheMalcontent,Biliosoberatesapageforlettinghistorchdripwheretheladiessit.SuchdrippingalsoobligedtheRevelsOfficetospendlargesumsonglovesforthetorchbearers.ButinlaterStuartmasques,thetorchesthataccompaniedthemasquersmaynotalwayshavebeenlit;atleastJonson,Davenant,andotherssometimestakepainsspecificallytocallforlightedtorches,implyingthatothersmaysimplyhavebeencarriedbutnotlighted.Bythe1630s,masquersweresometimesaccompaniedbyaspeciesofthetorchcalledtheflambeaux,whichwasdearereventhanthetorchbecause,toreducesmokeanddripping,itsthickwickwasimpregnatedonlybyfinewax.

Astrictlyoutdoorutensilthatislessfamiliartousnowwasthecresset(seefig.3).Thesewereironfire-basketsusuallycarriedormountedonlongpolesinwhichwovenfralesorwreathesofrushes,pitch,rope,andtallowwereburned.TheyhadalsobeencarriedbythewatchesofLondonuntilthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury,butbythecivilwarstheywerealreadyforgotten.TheirElizabethanusewaslimitedandapparentlysometimesnostalgic.Weknow,forinstance,thatbytheturnoftheseventeenthcentury,theyoccasionallyservedasentrancelightsmountedbeforethedoorsofinns,taverns,

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Fig.3.CressetsfromvariousearlyEnglishprintsanddrawingspublishedbyFrancis

Doucein1807.UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-ChampaignLibrary.

andstableswheretheyilluminatedthewayoftravelersandlentsuchestablishmentsatraditional,evenold-fashioned,ambience.

25Fromearlyon,theyweremostoftenassociatedwithoutdoorwintertimeactivitieswheretheirheatwouldbeaswelcomeastheirlight.Wehaveonlyafewreferencestotheiruseinprofessionaltheatercontexts,buttheyareoccasionallymentionedinconnectionwithlateamateurreligiousplays.IntheN-TownBetrayal(c.1500),Jesusisarrestedbysoldierscarrying"cressettys,withfeyr,andlanternysandtorchislyth"(seeJohn18:1),andaccountbooksoftheCapper'sCompany,Coventry,indicatethatitownedsixcressetsforthepageantsofTheResurrection,TheHarrowingofHell,andTheMeetingwiththeMariesaslateasthe1590s.26Butsomeofthesecressetsmayhavehadparatheatricaluses.Theaccountsof"thewacheandplay"ofWymondham,Norfolk,1538,forexample,containpaymentsforpitch,resin,andsixteenpoundsoftallowforacressetlight,butabonfireofthissizemaywellhavebelongedtothewatch,nottheplay.27Later,theterm"cresset"seemstohavebeenappliednotonlytotheutensilsthemselvesbutalsotothewovenfralesthat,

alongwithothercombustiblematerials,wereplacedintheironbaskets.Suchutensilsrequiredsteadyreplenishmentoffuel,astheirlargeflamestendedtoconsumethemselvesrapidly.

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Lanternswerealsoforoutdooruse.Theyweremerelycandlesplacedinwoodormetalboxeswithwindowsofoiledpaperandparchmentor,morefrequently,horn;hencetheusualspelling,"lanthorne."Butagain,wemaymissthedistinctionbetweenanormallanternanda"darklantern,"suchasBosolacarriesinact2,scene3,ofTheDuchessofMalfi.Darklanternsgaveoffnolightatalluntilasmalldoorwasopenedintheotherwiseopaqueshield.Theywereafavoriteofthievesandhighwaymenengagedinsurreptitiousnighttimeadventures.Bosola'sdarklanternthusfitshissinisteractionswell(hecallsithis"falce-friend")andcolorsourresponsetoAntonioattheendoftheplaywhenhe,too,resortstousinga"darkeLanthorne"inhisattempttomeetwiththeCardinal.

28Similarly,inTheBloodyBanquet,TymethescreepsintoRoxano'sbedroom''hudwinckt"andsurprisesherwhenhe"[o]pensadarkeLanthorne."29

Taperswereemployedindoors,despitetheiralsobeingmadeofrope.Taperswereusuallysingle,thinropesdippedinwaxortallow.Theysmokedandstankbuthadtheadvantageofrequiringlittlesnuffing.Hence,theywereusedasnight-lightsinbedrooms,wheretheycouldburnsafelywithlittleattention.ImogenhasataperinherbedroominCymbeline,andLadyMacbethcarriesonefromherbedroomwhilesleepwalking.Earlyemblembooksoftenusedlightsofallkindsasimagesoflifeanddeath,butbecauseofthetaper'srelativeweaknessasalightanditsassociationwiththebedroom,playwrightsoftenuseittosignalthefrailtyofhumanloveandpassion.NowhereisthiskindofsymbolmademoreimportanttothemeaningofaplaythanattheveryendofBussyD'Ambois,whenMontsurrygraphicallyshowshisfaithlesswifetheextinctionoftheirlovebyputtingoutataper:

AndasthisTaper,thoughitvpwardslooke,

Downwardsmustneedsconsume,soletourloue...AswhentheflameissufferedtolookevpItkeepeshisluster:but,beingthusturnddowne(Hisnaturallcourseofvsefulllightinuerted)Hisownestuffeputsitout:soletourloue.30

Thissenseoffrailtyissometimessharedbycandles(Macbeth's"Out,out,breefeCandle,"forinstance[F2344]);butonthewhole,candlesweremoreneutralintermsoftheirsocialconnotations.Unfortunately,taperswerealso

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placedincandlesticksandareeasilyconfusedwithtruecandles:inTheWhiteDevil,forexample,a"hallowedcandle"isbroughttoBrachianoashelieswoundedinbed,butinthenextstagedirection,thecandleisreferredtoas"theHo[ll]owedtaper."

31

Infact,themajorobstacleinattemptingtoreconstructtheartificialilluminationoftheearlydramaisthatnearlyeverylightcouldbeandwasconfusedwithothers.Torchesandtapersweresometimescalledcandles,largecandleswerecalledtorches,eventaperswerecalledlanterns.Moreover,alloftheseinstrumentswerefrequentlyidentifiedsimplybythegeneralterm"light."Occasionally,acarefulobserverlikeGeorgeCavendishdistinguishes"lightesofwaxeasbyggeastorches,"32butmorecasualwritersmerelysay"torches"andhavedonewithit.Inplays,forexample,therequirementsoftheverseoftentakeprecedenceoveraccuratedescription.OnhiswaytoCapulet'sball,Romeodemands,''Atorchforme,"buttwolineslaterannounces,"Ilebeacandle-holderandlookeon"(RomeoandJuliet,Q2B4v).Theeverydaytermwas"torchbearer,"not"candle-holder";butasistypicalofShakespeare'searlyverse,acommonwordlike"torchbearer"bowstoelegantvariationandtheexigenciesoftherhythm.

ThismuddleinterminologyalsoappliestorecordswritteninLatin.Whilelucernaisnormallytranslatedas"lamp,"onecannotalwaysbesurethatitdoesnotrefertoanotherkindoflight.Tochoosebutoneexample,"lucernae"werecitedasemployedforperformancesatQueensCollege,Cambridge,in154546,butAlanNelsonhaspointedoutthattheyprobablyrefertocandles,becausetheyarealsodescribedascostingtwopenceperpound.33Whetherfrompoeticlicenseorindifference,earlymodernwritersnamedlightinginstruments

imprecisely;orrather,thereisenoughsloppinessintheapplicationofnomenclaturethatagivendescriptionmustalwaysbeviewedskeptically.

Thereisnoreasontobelievethattheprofessionalactorsusedanyotherlightsthantheeveryday,domesticutensilsusedinhomesandbusinesses.Henslowe's"EnventarytackenofallthepropertiesformyLordAdmerallesmen,the10ofMarche1598"mentionsonlyonelightofanykind,a"beacon."34Thismayhavebeenacressetorsomeotherlargelight,butHenslowe'sgroupingitwith"ijstepells,&jchymeofbelles"indicateshemeantlessakindoflightthana"signalstation,watchtower,"or"lighthouse,"

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astheOEDdefines"beacon"inthesixteenthcentury.Perhapsthisbeaconwassomekindofarchitecturalset-pieceratherthanaspecialtheatricallight,orahistoricallyaccuratereplicaofone.

Atcourt,mostofthelightsthatilluminatedplaysandmasqueswerealsoversionsofstandardlightingutensils.TheRevelsOfficespentlargesumsonchandeliers,candlesticks,andtallowandonoccasionorderedelaboratelygildedbranches,perfumedwaxcandles,andspeciallyfashionedtorches(atorchbearerinJonson'sMasqueofQueenscarriesalightedtorch"madeofadead-Mansarme,"forexample),butthesewerelargelyforthegreatergrandeurofthedecorationandnotforspecificallytheatricallightingeffects.

TheonlykindsoflightsthatserveddistinctlytheatricalfunctionsofilluminationwereapparatusesemployedinearlyStuartmasquesasawayofcoloringandconcentratinglightontheItalianatescenes.Theseinstrumentsconsistedoflightsshiningthroughcoloredpaperorthroughglassvialsfilledwithplainorcoloredfluid.TheItaliandesignerSebastianoSerliorecountedtheuseofpaperandliquid-filledvialsascoloringmediaforlampsin1545,andhisdescriptionofthesetechniques,inthesecondbookofhisRegolegeneralidiarchitettura,waspublishedinEnglishasearlyas1611.Ifaparticularlybrightlightiscalledfor,Serlioadds,"thensetatorchbehind[avial],andbehindthetorchabrightBason."

35

Serliodoesnotspecificallymentionit,buthisvialsfilledwithliquidwillalsofocuslight.InTheMysteryesofNatureandArt(London,1634),JohnBatedescribes"HowwithoneCandletomakeasgreatalight,asotherwiseoftwoorthreeofthesamebignesse,"andthisfeatofconcentratinglightinaparticulardirectionisaccomplished,hesays,bytwoglassglobesonetoholdacandle,theotherfilledwith

distilledwatertorefractandfocusthecandle'slight(157).Asimilar,butclearer,descriptionisgiveninJohnWhite'sARichCabinetwithVarietyofInvention(London,1651).Neitherpointstoatheatricaluseofthisinvention,whichlaterbecameknownas"lacemakers'condensers"becauseofthedetailedworkitpermittedatnight,36butInigoJonesmaywellhaveemployedsimilarinstrumentstorepresentshiningjewelsandotherobjectsforhisStuartmasques.

Thereisnoevidencethatprofessionalactorsemployedcoloredorconcentratedlightattheirplayhouses,andcertainlyattheoutdooramphitheatersoneimaginesthatattemptstodosomightbeunimpressiveindaylight.

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Allthesame,wemaynotethatthecontemporaneouscorralesofSpainoccasionallyaccommodatedwhatappeartobelightssimilartomodern-daycolored-paperlanternsontheirdaylit,butwell-shaded,stages.InLopedeVega'sLaimperialdeOtón(1597),forinstance,manylights"incoloredpapers"arerevealedastherear"tiring-house"curtainisdrawnaside.

37

Impulsestowardtheatricalspectacleontheonehandandconcernforhistoricalaccuracyontheotherwillproducemoreelaboratelightsandlightingtechniquesthanwererequiredinthehome.Weknowthattheactorspaidattentiontoboththeseconsiderationsonoccasion.Spectacularlightingeffectsarenotuncommon,andtheirusemusthavecreatedsensationswiththeopening-upofhellinTheTragicalHistoryofDoctorFaustusortheburningofthetownduringZenocrate'sfuneralin2Tamburlaine.Moreover,ifHenryPeachum's1595sketchofascenefromTitusAndronicusisanyguide,Elizabethanactorspaidatleastcursoryattentiontohistoricalaccuracyintheircostumesandhandproperties.

Yet,howevermuchthedesireforspectacleorauthenticityexerteditselfinsomeareasofstaging,theevidenceforitsimplementationinlightingpracticeisthin.Spectacularlightingconsistedlargelyoffirecrackerssetoff.ThescenesinDoctorFaustusand2Tamburlaineareindeedmemorable,buttheybelongtoonlyahandfulofscenesintheplaysoftheperiod,almostallofwhichcanbestagedwithsmoke,fireworks,andtherarerosin-flash.OfShakespeare'sthirty-sevenplays,forexample,notonecallsforanylightingeffectmorecomplicatedthanastrokeoflightningeasilyproducedbysettingoffasquib.Nineteenofhisplaysrequirenolightsatall;andonlyoneortwoplays,whiletheydonotrequiremoreelaborateeffects,might

benefitfromthem.Asforhistoricallyaccurateorespeciallydecoratedpropertylights,wehaveonlynegativeevidence.Norecordsurvivesthatevenhintsatanyforeign,historical,orspeciallymadelightinginstrumentfortheprofessionalplayhouses.Andasdistinctivelynon-ElizabethanclothingandhandpropertiesarespecificallyincludedinHenslowe'slists,wecanonlyassumethattheactingcompaniesmadedowithreadilyavailable,contemporarylights.

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3EarlyLightingSystemsWhenJohnBraynebuilttheRedLionplayhouseinWhitechapelin1567andheandhisbrother-in-lawJamesBurbagebuilttheTheaterinShoreditchin1576,theypresumablybasedtheirdesignsonsomeideaorclusterofideasabouttheaterplanningthattheyhadlearnedbypracticalexperienceorthroughwrittensources.ButwhatthoseideaswereandhowmuchtheyaffectedstageproductionatthefirstLondonplayhousesarequestionsthatmayneverbesettled.AmongthestagesthatmighthavecontributedtoElizabethanamphitheatricaldesign,themostfrequentlymentionedaretheRomantheaterasdescribedbyVitruviusandhiscommentators;themedievalchurchyard,tiltyard,pageant-wagon,andplateasurroundedbyscaffoldsforseating;andthecourtyard,inn-yard,animal-baitinghouse,boothstage,civicpageant,banquetingtheater,andTudorhall.Allofthesevenueshavesimilaritiestotheamphitheaters,andsomewereusedbytheactingcompaniesasperformancespacesbeforepermanenthouseswerebuilt.ButwhethertheyservedasmodelsforBrayne,Burbage,andothermanagersorbuildersisdifficulttosay.Itisapparentthatmanyofthesepossibleinfluenceswereoutdoorplacesofentertainmentandthatsomesurroundedthecenterofinterestwithspectatorsonmorethanoneside.Forafew,thisisallthesimilaritythatcanbefound.Forothers,morestrikingparallelsareevident.Evenso,similaritiesarenotinthemselvesproofofdirectorindirectinfluence.Thedaylitringarrangementofthepublicplayhousesandthenear-circularshapeofopen-airtheatersasoldasthoseoftheancientGreeksmayhaveincommononlytheobviousefficiencyofseatingamaximumnumberofpeopleneartheactorswithouttheexpenseofbuildingaroof.

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Theprominencegivenbyanearliergenerationoftheaterhistorianstochurchsteps,pageant-wagons,inn-yards,andShakespeare'sGlobeledmanytobelievethatoutdoorstageproductionwasthecharacteristicmodeofdramainEnglanduntilthelateseventeenthcentury.Accordingtothisscheme,theoriginoftheamphitheaterlightingsystemwassimpletodiscover:fromtheoutdoorCorpusChristiplaystothestreettheatersofitinerantplayersderivedasunlitdramatictraditionnurturedwhollyonEnglishsoil.ReadersofintroductionstotheEnglishtheaterweresometimesgiventheimpressionthatoncetheplayersleftthemedievalchurchesandbegantoperforminthestreets,theycontinuedtoperformoutdoorsandneverreturnedinsideuntilShakespeare'scompanymovedintotheJacobean"private"playhouseinBlackfriars.Butresearchoverthepasttwenty-fiveyearshasshownthatthisneataccountofthederivationofpublic-theaterlightingismisleading.GlynneWickhamandothershavearguedthatthroughoutthelatemedievalandTudorperiods,thetypicalhomeofprofessionalEnglishactorswasaslikelytobeindoorsasoutdoors;thattheactors'constructionofoutdoorplayhouseswasalate-sixteenth-centuryinnovation;andthatfarfrompromptinganewstagecraftreflectedlaterintheprivatetheaters,theentertainmentsatcourtderivedfromalong-standingtraditionofindoorfestivals,influencedonlyperipherallybyContinentaltheatricalpractice.

1Wickhamconcludesthataprofessionalactor'spreferredenvironmentwasindoorsandthatonlyafinancialdesireforlargeraudiencesandanimpulsetoescaperestrictiveCitycontrolsforcedhimoutdoors.

Iftheuseofpermanentopen-airarenaswasaninnovation,wemaywellwonderwheretheactorsfoundthespecificlightingarrangementstheydidifnotinthefamiliarinn-yardsandbear-baitinghousesof

London.Historianshavelongpointedtothesevenuesastheimmediateprecursorsoftheamphitheaters,eventhoughweknowoffewearlyplaysthatweredefinitelyperformedineither.InapreliminarysummaryofthefindingsoftheRecordsofEarlyEnglishDramaproject,forinstance,AlexandraJohnstonpointsouthowlittleevidencesupportingperformancesatinnseitherinroomsorininn-yardshasbeendiscovered.2AndOscarBrownsteinandJohnOrrellhaveshownthatearlyanimal-baitingcirclesprobablyhadfewoftheplayhouseattributesthatlateranimalarenasliketheHopedisplayed,althoughanItalianvisitortotheParisGardenin1562didnotethatthescaffoldssurroundingthatarenahad"theirawningsagainsttherainandthesun."3Seatingarrange-

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mentsforspectatorsattheinn-yardsandbear-baitingarenasmaywellhaveadumbratedthoseattheamphitheaters,andbuildersmayhaveborrowedideasonconstructionfromthem.Butneitherinn-yardsnoranimal-baitinghousestellusmuchaboutthemodificationoflightinthepublicplayhouses.Completelyunexplainedisthederivationoftheheavensor"shadowe"overthestage,astheFortunecontractputsit.NoTudoranimal-baitinghouseisknowntohavehadaroofoverthepit,andthefirstwehearofaroofinaninn-yardiswhentheBoar'sHeadtavernunderwentitssecondconversionintoapermanentplayhousein1599.

4Justaslikelyaninspirationforamphitheatricallightingarrangementscanbefoundinchurchyards,whichAlexandraJohnstonshowsservedasfrequenttheatricalvenuesintheprovinces,notonlyforparishamateursbutalsoforprofessionalactors.5Inatleastoneinstance,suchchurchyardswereevenequippedwithcanopiesunderwhichprofessionalactorsplayed:in1339thebishopofExeterobjectedto"abalconyorcanopyerectedandconstructeduponpostsfixedintheground...withintheboundaryofthechurchyardofouraforementionedchurchofExeter"underwhich"rogues,actors,whores,andothervilepersons''performed"stage-plays."6

SinceRichardHosley,RichardSouthern,andothershavedrawnattentiontotheprominentuseofindoorhallsbyearlyactingtroupes,analternatemodelfortheoutdoorheavensistheceilingoftheTudorhall.7Thisceilingprovidedconveniencesthattheactorsmightnotwanttoforegoastheymovedoutdoors.Theyenjoyeditsprotectionfromtheelementsandhungfromitsraftersthehoistingapparatusneededforascentsanddescentsofactors.ButwhentheprofessionaltroupeswereforcedoutsidetheCitywallsbyplaguerestrictionsandPuritanintransigence,theycouldfindfewindoorhallsavailableto

them.Instead,shrewdspeculatorsbuiltlarge,multipurposearenasthattheactorssharedwithbear-baiters,fencers,ropedancers,andthelike.Underthesecircumstances,earlyactingcompaniesapparentlymadeshiftwithwhatwasavailabletothem,becausetheycouldnotatfirstinsistthatthespeculatorsconstructlargeroofsoverthearenassolelyforthebenefitofoccasionaltheatricalspectacleandalittleprotectionfromtheweather.

Althoughnopre-Elizabethanoutdoorstageleavesclearevidenceofsuchastructureastheamphitheaterheavens,severalpreviouskindsofdramahadfacilitiesthatanticipatedthefunctions,ifnottheform,oftheroof-canopy.Thefollowingreviewofearlylightingsystems,whilenotignoringquestions

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ofderivation,seeksprincipallytodescribeantecedentlightingpracticewithwhichElizabethanactorsmighthavebeenfamiliar.

ClassicalandEarlyNeoclassicalPrecedents

IncreasingattentionhasrecentlybeenpaidtoclassicalandneoclassicalsourcesofinspirationtoElizabethantheaterbuilders:JohnOrrell'sTheHumanStage(1988)addsanimpressivearrayofevidencetosupportthisthesisthatwasinitiallyputforwardbyFrancisA.YatesandRichardC.Kohler.

8AnditistruethattheoverallarticulationoflightattheEnglishpublicplayhousesapproximatedthatattheamphitheatersofclassicalantiquity.LikeElizabethanplays,earlyGreekandRomanperformancesweregivenbydaylight.AttheTheaterofDionysosinAthens,performancesfromthefifthcenturyB.C.onwereapparentlyheldfrommorningtoafternoonunderthesun.EarlyRomanplaysalsobeganinthemorningbutdidnotlastquitesolong.9Sotoo,theruinsofHellenistic,Graeco-Roman,Republican,andImperialRomantheatersarealmostallsituated,likemanyEnglishamphitheaters,sothattheskene*orscaenafronsistothesouth,southeast,orsouthwest.10Thisorientationmeantthatthesunshonefromhighbehindthescenebuildingduringmorningormiddayperformances.Andfinally,weknowthatasearlyasthefourth-century-B.C.phlyakesstagesofsouthernItaly,roofsweresometimeserectedoverthestage.11ThefirstwoodenstagesinRomewereprobablywithoutroofs,butoncepermanentstonetheaterswerebuiltinthefirstcenturyB.C.,anarrowroofjuttingforwardfromthescaenafronswasacommonfacilityintheatersthroughoutMagnaGraeca.12TheRomanswerealsointhehabitofstretchinglargeclothawnings(velaorvelaria)overtheirtheaterstoprotectspectatorsfromthesun.InthefirstcenturyB.C.,Lucretiusdescribedhowlightshiningthroughtheseawningscouldeventingetheatersincoloredlight:

red,yellow,andbrownawningswhen,stretchedacrossgreattheatres,flungwideoverpolesandbeams,theyrippleandflap.Fortheydyethewholethingunderthem:people,pit,stage,andscenery...andmakeitflowwithbandsoftheirowncolors.Andthemorethewallsofthetheatreareenclosed

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around,themoreallthat'sinsideisgayandfloodedwithbeautywhenithascaughtthelight.

13

PlinyandMartialtellusapurpleawningwasstretchedabovePompey'stheaterinRomeinA.D.66,andCassiusDiodescribesavelumonwhichNerowasdepictedasasungodridingachariotamongthestars.14

TheseRomanmodificationsofgenerallightingcouldnothavedirectlyinfluencedEnglishactors.Althoughsomeearly-sixteenth-centuryItalianartists,amongthemRaphael,hadmeasuredandstudiedclassicalruins,thiskindoffirsthandknowledgewasunavailabletoearlyEnglishbuilders.ThesimilaritiesbetweenRomanandEnglishoutdoortheatersregardingtimeofperformance,theaterorientation,andshelterforthestagemayaseasilybeascribedtopracticalstagewisdomastodirectimitation.Still,T.F.OrdishandGlynneWickhamhavebroughtattentiontothelong-standingtraditionofopen-aircirculargame-placesinEnglandgoingbacktotheruinsoftheRomanoccupationandcontinuingthroughtheMiddleAgeswiththeCornishplen-an-gwaryrounds,whichtheRomangame-placesmayhaveinfluenced.Bothscholarsarguethatthesebroad,shallowbowlsdugintothegroundareprecursorsoftheTudoranimal-baitingandtheatricalarenasofLondonandthattheseroundsmayevenbeconsideredlinksbetweenRomantheaterconfigurationsandtheElizabethanplayhouse'spracticeofsurroundingthestagewithspectators.15

Yet,evenifthesegame-placesdidaffecttheshapeofLondonamphitheaters,evidenceoffacilitiesforthemodificationoflightineithertheRomanorCornisharenasismeager.TheEnglishsunisseldomashotastheItaliansun,nordoesitshinedownsosteeply;itis

doubtful,therefore,thatRomansoldiersbotheredwithlargecanvasvelasimplytowatchanimalfights.Ontheotherhand,anironcounterweightfoundonthesiteoftheRomantheateratVerulamium(nearSt.Albans,Hertfordshire)maysuggestthatitsstage(enlargedaroundA.D.200)featuredasuperstructureofsomekindtoaccommodatedescentsoranauleum.16AndstagedirectionsintheCornishOrdinalia(c.1450)mentionthatstages,houses,andtentsforthevariouscharacterswereplacedaroundthecircumferenceoftheround,againpossiblyimplyingoverheadcoveringsforsomeofthescaffolds.17ButneitherthetheateratSt.AlbansnortheCornishroundsseemstohavebeenaccessibletoTudortheater-planners.EventhoughitisrelativelyclosetoLondon,theVerulamiumtheaterwasnotexcavateduntil1847.TheCornishrounds

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atSt.Just-in-PenwithandPerranzabuloewerenotstudieduntiltheeighteenthcentury,althoughin1602RichardCarewwroteofan"earthenAmphitheater,insomeopenfield"inCornwallwhere"miracles"wereperformed,whichhemayhaveseenwhenhewashighsheriffofCornwallin1586.

18Thetoneofhisdescriptionmakesclear,however,thatheassumedtheaverageLondonerhadneverseensuchathing.

AlthoughwemustrejectadirectRomaninfluenceinthederivationoftheLondonarenaplayhouses,itistruethattheElizabethansselectivelyfollowedwhattheybelievedtobeclassicalprecedent,especiallywrittenprecedent.Asaresult,theElizabethanheavensmaybeadumbratedlessbywhattheRomansactuallydidthanbywhatRenaissanceinterpreters,rightorwrong,thoughttheyhaddone.

ThegreatconduitofancienttheatricalknowledgetotheRenaissancewasthefirst-centuryRomanengineerVitruvius.Inhisfamousbook,DeArchitectura,Vitruviusdoesnotmentionthevela,buthedescribestheRomantheaterasa"curvedenclosure,"opentotheweather,witharoofaboveacolonnade"builtatthetopoftherowsofseats...levelwiththetopofthe'scaena.'"Headvisesthattheatersshouldbelaidoutsoastoavoida"southernexposure,"which,hesays,createsanunhealthyclimatebyallowingthesuntoshinefrombehindthescaenafronsontothecurvedrowsofseats(5.3.2).19Fromwhatweknownow,hisaccountroughlycoincideswithactualpracticeduringtheEmpire,exceptthattheorientationofalmostallknownRomantheatersisexactlyoppositetowhathesuggested.Unhappily,thedrawingsthatformedanessentialpartofhisexplanationsdidnotsurvive,andhisdescriptionsaresometimesvaguewithoutthem.Whatthescaenaanditsrooflookedlike,forexample,heleavescompletelytotheimagination.Itisnotsurprising,then,thatwheninterestinhim

revived,adistortednotionofRomanlightingresulted.

BytheMiddleAges,theRomantheaterhadalreadybecomeconfusedwiththepopularmimictheaters.TracingthewordscaenabacktotheGreekskene*("hut"or"tent,"akintotheGreekskia,"shadow"),earlydefinitionsofthescaenaanditsroofdescribedaboothorhousearoundwhichspectatorsassembled.AsearlyasA.D.620,theSpanishlexicographerIsidoreofSevilledefinedscaenaasaplacewithinatheater''inmodumdomus"intheformofahouse.InPapiastheLombard'sVocabulista(1053),scaenaiscalledanumbraculum,"shadedplace,"inwhichpoetsrecitedtheirplays.Thein-

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Fig.4.FrontispiecetoLeTérencedesDucs,fifteenthcentury.Terence

isseenbelowwhilehisplayisrecitedandperformedaboveinacirculartheaterwithcoveredscena.ClichéBibliothèquenationaledeFrance.

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fluentiallate-twelfth-centurydictionaryofHugutiusofPisadefinedscaenaagainasanumbraculumor"shadedplaceinthetheatrecoveredwithcurtains"andlikenedittotheboothsofmerchants.

20

IllustrationsfromearlyeditionsofTerencedemonstratethisconfusion.ThefrontispiecetotheFrenchTerencecodex,LeTérencedesDucs(c.1400),showsaround,open-airtheatrumwithacoveredscaffoldinthecenter,labeledscena(seefig.4).Infrontofthescenaaremusiciansandmaskedjoculatores.Oneactorismakinganentrancefromasidecurtainofthescena.Insidethescaffold,coveredbyanawning,theRomangrammarianandrecitatorCalliopiusisseendeclaimingfromabookofTerence.Whatissignificantabouttheminiatureisnotonlythatitportraysanearlycombinationofacoveredscaffoldwithanarena-styletheateradevelopmentthatsomeassumeoccurredinEnglandonlywiththeintroductionofboothstagesintobear-baitinghousesnearlytwohundredyearslaterbutalsothatthiscombinationisrepresentednotasaninnovationbutasareconstructionoftheRomantheater.TheartistbelievedthattheRomansplacedacovered"tiring-house"withinaringofspectatorsthatwasinturnsurroundedbyawallwithexitsandentrances.Theactorsarenotprotectedfromthesun,butthemanrecitingthetextis,andthedrawingrepresentsoneoftheearliestmodernusesofsuchprotectioninconjunctionwithacirculararena.

InhisstudyofmedievalEnglishstaging,RichardSouthernhaspointedoutthestrongresemblancebetweenthisquasi-RomantheaterandseveralearlycirculartheatersinEngland,includingthetentioftheCornishrounds.21Forexample,thediagramthataccompaniesthemanuscriptoftheEnglishmoralityplayTheCastleofPerseverance(c.1425)resemblestheFrenchTerencetheater,exceptthatbesidesthe

centralscaffold,fiveadditionalscaffoldsaredistributedaroundtheperimeteroftheplatea(seefig.5).Workingfromhintsinthedialogue,Southernconcludesthatthesescaffoldswerecoveredwithclothawnings,presumablylikethosestretchedoversimilarscaffoldsinthewell-knownFouquetminiatureTheMartyrdomofSaintApollonia(c.1460).22IntheFouquetminiature(seefig.6),theelaborateimmolationscenetakesplaceintheopen-airplatea,buttheactorsandpropertiesinsomeofthesurroundingscaffoldsmakeitclearthatactionalsooccursundertheirprotectiveawnings.InTheCastleofPerseverance,mostofthedialogueisspokenfromthevariousscaffoldswithonlytheclimacticassaultonthecastleoccupyingthecentralarea.AswiththeTérencedesDucs

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Fig.5.PlanaccompanyingthemanuscriptofTheCastleofPerseverance,fifteenthcentury.Ateachcompasspointisa"scaffold"foroneofthemajorcharacters.BypermissionoftheFolgerShakespeareLibrary.

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Fig.6.LeMartyredeSainteApollinefromLesHeuresd'EtienneChevalierbyJean

Fouquet,c.1460.MuséeCondé,Chantilly.Photo:Lauros-Giraudon.

theater,thesetworeligiousplaysdocumenttheearlyuseofroof-canopiesinconnectionwithcurvedtheatricalspaceslongbeforetheprofessionalLondonactingcompaniessetuptheirboothstagesatoneendofaTudorinn-yardorbear-baitingarena.

AlaterTerenceillustrationexemplifiesthegrowingsophisticationoftheRenaissanceconceptionoftheRomanstagecover.JohannesTrechsel'sexteriorviewofanacademictheaterontopofabrothelintheLyonTerence(1493)showsapolygonaltheatrum,opentotheweather,surmountedbyacolonnadewithalargecanopy(seefig.7).ThebuildingfollowsVitruviusin

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Fig.7.PrintofthefrontispiecetoJohannesTrechsel'seditionofTerence(Lyon,1493).UniversityofIllinoisTheatricalPrintCollection.

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outline,saveforthevelumthatTrechselcouldhavelearnedaboutfromOvid,Propertius,Pliny,Lucretius,orMartialorfromthemostinfluentialfifteenth-centurydiscipleofVitruvius,LeonBattistaAlberti.InthefirstprintedcommentaryonVitruvius,DeReAedificatoria(Florence,1485),Albertidescribedsuchasuperstructure:"Andoverallthis,asaCielingtotheTheatre,bothtokeepofftheWeather,andtoretaintheVoice,theyspreadaSailallstrewedoverwithStars,whichtheycouldremoveatPleasure,andwhichshadedthemiddleArea[thestage],theSeats,andalltheSpectators."

23

WhatisofinterestisthedegreetowhichthelightingarrangementsofTrechsel'sneoclassicaltheatrumparallelthoseinthelaterLondonamphitheaters.Trechselshowsanopen-air,polygonaltheaterwithsunlightemanatingfrombehindthestage(fromrighttoleftinthepicture).Pillarssupportarectangularcanopywhoseundersidedisplaysagadrooncloudmotifthat,ifTrechselfollowedCassiusDioorAlberti,wasdecoratedwithcelestialobjects.AlthoughthestyleofthetheaterdoesnotrecallthatofJohannesdeWitt'sversionoftheSwan,thedispositionofitspartscontrolslightinasimilarmanner.

ItisimpossibletotellwhetherTudorplayhouse-buildershadaccesstothesourcematerialsTrechselhad.Directconnectioncannotbeverified,butasOrrelldemonstrates,thereiscircumstantialevidencetosupportareal,ifunsystematic,adherencetoVitruviantheatricalprinciplesinTudorEngland.By1577,WilliamHarrison'sDescriptionofEnglandcouldentertainafavorablecomparisonofEnglishbuilderswith"OldVitruvius(LeoBaptista)andSerlo,"24showingthatVitruviuswasknowninEnglandprimarilythroughtheeditionofAlberti,whogivessuchadetailedaccountofthestagecover.The

passagemayevenimplythatanintelligentbuilderwouldhavebeenawareofVitruvianbuildingmethods.FrancisYatesfoundevidencethatseveralEnglishlibrariescontainedLatinandmodern-languageeditionsofVitruvius,Alberti,andotherlatercommentatorsbythe1570s.25BenJonson,forexample,paraphrasedAlberti'sworkextensivelyandownedseveraleditionsofVitruvius.26Moreover,forthetitlepageofhis1616folio,JonsonhadtheEnglishengraverdrawareconstructionofaRomantheatrum,basedonwhathehadlearned.Theengravingissmallanddifficulttomakeout,butthetheatrumhasasurprisinglylargehutabovethestage,muchmoreelaboratethananyclassicalauthorcouldhaveledJonsontobelieve.Although

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nonewasmoreplangentonthesubjectofclassicismthanJonson,hemayalsohavetendedtoidentifytheRomanscaenawiththeEnglishtiring-houseandheavens.Andalthoughthepointoftheremarkhassometimesbeenignored,somecredencemustbegiventodeWitt'sconclusionaround1596thattheSwan's"formresemblesthatofaRomanwork."

27Tobesure,theSwandrawingdoesnotdepictwhatwethinkofasaRomantheater,butthereseemsnoreasontodoubtdeWittthatearlytheatergoerswouldhavethoughtso.Certainly,thepaintingofitswoodencolumnsinan"excellentimitationofmarble"impliesanattemptattheclassicalstyle.

ApassagefromThomasHeywood'sAnApologyforActors,writtenaround1608,mayservetosummarizewhatanactivemanoftheEnglishtheaterknewaboutancienttheatricallightingandtheRomanstageroof.Heexplainsthatthe"firstpublickeTheaterwasbyDionysiusbuiltinAthens...inthemannerofasemi-circle."Fromit,hesays,"theRomaneshadtheirfirstpatterne,whichatthefirstnotbeingroof't,butlyingopentoallweathers,QuintisCatuluswasthefirstthatcausedtheout-sidetobeecoueredwithlinnencloth."Later,afterPompeyhadbuiltthefirststonetheaterinRome,JuliusCaesarraisedanother,equallysumptuoustheaterthat,accordingtoHeywood,hadamagnificentheavens,fullofmachinesandspectaculardevices:

[T]hecoueringsofthestage,whichweecalltheheauens(wherevponanyoccasiontheirGodsdescended)wereGeometricallysupportedbyaGiant-likeAtlas,whomethePoëtsforhisAstrology,feignetobeareheauenonhisshoulders,inwhichanartificiallSunneandMooneofextraordinaryaspectandbrightnessehadtheirdiurnall,andnocturnallmotions;sohadthestarrestheirtrueandcoelestiall*course.28

HeywoodnotonlyknewthattheRomansbuiltroofsovertheirstages

butalsosuggests,byhisreferencetotheRoman"coueringsofthestage,whichweecalltheheauens,"thathethoughttheRomanandEnglishroofswereidentical,oratleastfulfilledidenticalfunctionssuchasastronomicaldisplays.LiketheRomanheavens,severalElizabethanandJacobeanamphitheatershadpaintedzodiacsoverthestage,andthereisevidencethatcelestialdisplaysinvolvingrocketsmountedonpinwheelsabovethestagewerepopular,particularlyatHeywood'sfavoritetheater,theRedBull.Henslowe'slistofpropertiesincludesa"clotheoftheSone&Mone"thatmayhavebeenhungfromtheheavensattheRose.29And,ofcourse,boththeRomanand

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Englishstageswereequippedwithfacilitiesforthedescentofgods.OnetheaterhistorianclaimsthatthebuildersoftheEnglishamphitheatersconscientiouslyfollowedVitruviantheatergeometry,especiallyinplanningtheFortune,whoseproportionsexhibitan"exactmathematicalcorrespondence"withtheVitruvianscheme.

30Thisispossible,althoughwhytheFortunewasrectangularwhenVitruviusandhiscommentatorscalledforasemi-roundtheaterisnotconvincinglyexplained.

AnargumentagainstaVitruviancontributiontothepublicplayhouseroof-canopyisthatVitruvianinfluenceismuchmoreevidentinindoorratherthanoutdoorplayhouses.Bytheseventeenthcentury,nearlyeverymajorcourtinEuropelavishlymountedindoorentertainmentsreflectingRomanpictorialandmechanicalideas.L.B.CampbellandAllardyceNicollrecognizedthecontradictionthatwhileVitruviusdescribedanoutdoortheater,hisideaswerelargelyadaptedtoindoorvenues.TheybelievedthatearlyhumanistshadmisinterpretedVitruviusandthoughthewastalkingaboutanenclosedrectangulartheater.Asproof,CampbellandNicollpointedtothetheaterplansinthefirstillustratedversionofVitruvius,theJocundusedition(Venice,1511),whichareframedbyheavyrectangles,implying,theybelieved,indoorrectangulartheaters.31

ButT.E.LawrensonhasshownthatearlyeditorsofVitruviuswereawarethatthetheaterhedescribedwasnotonlyroundbutalsoopentotheweatherandthattherectanglesintheJocunduseditionweremerelythebordersofthewoodcuts.DescribingtheFrenchRenaissancetheater,Lawrensonconcludedthat

themovementindoorsis,aselsewhere,nottheoutcomeofatransmittedmistake,butthebreakingupofacollectivepopularartform,andaseekingnotmerelyaftershow,forthepageantsalreadyhadthat,butaftertrompe-

l'oeil*,inanenclosedspace,andeveninadarkenedroom,beforeanéliteaudiencethat,beingélite,occupiedlessspaceandcouldbesoaccommodated.32

InEngland,InigoJonesgavefinalshapetotheStuartmasquefromhispersonalknowledgeofindoorItalianscenicconventions,forwhichhewascalledVitruviusBritannicus.Buttheimpetusforthemasquewas,atleastinpart,themucholderEnglishtraditionofindoordisguisingsandmummingsthathadcomprisedcourtentertainmentssincetheMiddleAges.Thus,professionaltheater,bothpopularandelite,hadfoundahomeindoors

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longbeforetherenewalofinterestinancientlearning.Ofthis,IshallhavemoretosayinconnectionwiththelightingoftheJacobeanhallplayhouse.Forthepresent,wemayconcludethatEnglishprofessionalplayers,accustomedtoactingindoors,soughtprotectionoverthestagewheninthe1560sand1570stheywereforcedoutdoors.Tothisend,theymayhavepersuadedtheownersoftheseopen-airvenuestoimitatewhattheythoughttheRomanroofoverthestagelookedlike.Theroof-canopiesbuiltinthe1580sand1590sundoubtedlyreflectedtheowners'acceptanceoftheincreasedpopularityofdramaoverotherformsofentertainment,aswellasaconcessiontotheactors'desiretoduplicatefacilitiestheyhadenjoyedindoorsandtocultivateanauraofantiquelegitimacybybuildinganddecoratingheavensthattheybelievedfollowedclassicalprecedent.

MedievalTheaters

Inextricablymingledwithadulteratedclassicallightingtechniques,indeedprobablyalsoinfluencedbythemandcertainlyconfusedwiththem,werethecontributionsofnativecivicandreligioustheaterstofacilitiesoverthestage.BeginningintheMiddleAgesandcontinuingintotheElizabethanreign,festivalssuchastournamentsandstreetpageantsandreligiousshowssuchasthemysteries,miracles,andmoralitiesprovidedanaccessiblesourceofoutdoortheatricalcustomonwhichtodraw.

GeorgeKernodlehasbroughtattentiontothesimilaritybetweenthepre-Restorationstageandthetableauxvivants,orstreetpageantsastheywerecalledinEngland.

33InLondon,thesepageantswereperformedontwo-andthree-storyplatformsscatteredalongtheroutesthatnoblesrodeontheirwaytospecialceremonialoccasions.Thestageswerenotnormallybuiltinthestreetsbutonpreexistingstructurescitygates,waterconduits,and

marketcrossesthatlayadjacenttothemajorthoroughfaresofLondon.Favoritescenicmotifswerecaves,gardens,ships,andthelike,allegoricallyrepresentingapoliticaltheme.Butregardlessofthemotif,theupperlevelofthestagewasfrequentlydepictedasa"heaven."Fromit,gods,saints,andangelsgaveadviceonthepreservationofthecommonwealblendedwithappropriateflatterytothehonoredworthy.

Apartfromperformanceintheopenair,thesepageantsresemblethelateramphitheatersinthattheyoftenplacedaheavendirectlyabovethemainact-

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ingarea.Nodoubtbecauseofspacelimitationsinnarrowstreets,suchpageantsextendedtheirplayingareasvertically.InthereligiousstagingexemplifiedbyTheCastleofPerseveranceandTheMartyrdomofSaintApollonia,multiplestageshadbeenarrangedhorizontally.Ononesideofaroworcircleofscaffolds,aheaven(sometimesslightlyraised)hadbalancedahellorhell-mouthontheother.Butinthestreetpageants,heavenfoundaplacedirectlyoverthestage,whichinturnrepresentedtheworld.Thesepageantheavensgiveprecedent,then,forthepositionthattheheavenswerelatertotakeintheamphitheaters.Unfortunately,theydonotleavebehindgooddescriptionsofwhattheylookedlikeorclearproofthattheywereusedforprotectionfromthesunorweather.FortheLondonreceptionofRichardIIin1392,severalperformersdescendedbymeansofcloudmachinestopageantstages,butwedonothearwhethertheroofstheydescendedfromshadedthestageornot.

34Similarly,theYorkhousebookfor1486orderedthatatthefirstcitygate''aplaceinmanerofaheven"beconstructedandthat"underthehevenshalbeaworlddesolaite."35ButadescriptionofapageantfortheEmperorCharlesVinJune1522suggeststhatacelestialroofprotectedatleastoneactingarea.Thisopen-airpageantattheLittleConduitinCheapsidewassurmountedbyaheavenlyscene"inatypeinthetop."36Atypeisasmalldomeorcupola;itpresumablycoveredtheheavenlyscene,butitmayormaynothaveshadedtheactorsbelow.

Asimilareffectiscalledforina1533pageantperformedintheLeadenhallmarketplacefortheLondonreceptionofAnneBoleyn.RaphaelHolinsheddescribedapageant"withatypeandaheauenlieroofe,andunderthetypewasarooteofgoldsetonalittlemounteine."Later,"outofthetypecamedowneafalconallwhite&

satupontherooteandincontinentcamedowneanangellwithgreatmelodie."37Althoughsomeoftheseearlyheavensmayhaveamountedtolittlemorethanangelicperches,theincreasingpopularityofdescentsandascentsfromandtoheavenimpliesatypeorsomeotherstructureabovethestagetohouseorhidetherequiredapparatus.Apparently,thisisthesignificanceofadevicebuiltforthecoronationofEdwardVIin1547.Forit,therewasa"doubleScaffoldoneabovetheother,"andunderneaththeupperscaffoldwas"anElementorHeaven,withtheSunn,Starrs,andClowdesverynaturally...outofwhichtheredescendedaPhenixdownetotheneitherScaffold."38Asthisheavenwasunderanupperscaffold,wemaypresumethatthehigherscaffoldprovidedfacilitiesforthe

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hoistingequipmentand,perhaps,somesortofcoveringfortheperformers.Whethertheseroofsandtypesaffectedthelightonthemainstageisopentoquestion.

AlthoughtheEnglishCorpusChristipageant-wagonswerenotverticallyarrangedlikethestreetpageants,survivingrecordsforthemalsohintatroofsandcovers.Ourconceptionsofmedievalstaginghavechangedsorapidlyinrecentyears,however,thatonehesitateseventosummarizetheevidence.ThenotionthatallthegreatCorpusChristicycleplayswereperformedonpageant-wagons,oneplaytoeachwagon,atvarious"stations"throughoutacityhasbeencalledintoquestion.AlanNelsonhasarguedthatcycleplaysatYork,Lincoln,andChestermayhavebeenperformedindoorsintownhallsandguildhallsandthatseveralrelatedreligiousplays,especiallythoseatNorwichandCoventry,wereindoorsaswell.

39OnlyatBeverleyandatCoventry(wheretherewerelikelyonlytwoorthreeoutdoorstations)arewepositivethatthecycleswereperformedinprocessionalfashionoutofdoors.Nelsongoessofarastosuggestthatsomepageant-wagonswerepartofaseparateCorpusChristitradition,aparadeofpageantsheldinthemorningbeforethecycleplayswereperformed.Onthesepageant-wagons,heconcludes,nottrueplaysbuttableauxandshortdeclamationsweregiven.Nelson'sargumentfornonprocessionalstagingoftheYorkplayhasmetwithskepticism,40butheneverthelessremindsusthatwemayunderestimatethevarietyofenvironmentsincludingluminaryinwhichthemysterydramaswereacted.

Howeverthepageant-wagonsweredeployed,theyneverthelessprovideevidenceofroofsandraisedheavens.DespiteArchdeaconRogers'sclaim,recordedin1609,thatpageant-wagonsatChesterwere"allopenonthetopethatallbehouldersmighteheare&see,"

thereareassortedreferencestoroofscoveringwagonsinothercathedraltowns.41A1565inventoryofequipmentownedbytheNorwichCompanyoftheGrocersincludesa"Pageant,thatistosaye,ahowseofwaynskottpayntedandbuyldedonacartewithfowrewhelys,"abovewhichwas"Asquaretopptosettoverthesaydehowse.''42Whetherornotsuchatopextendedovertheactingarea,thispageant-wagonplainlywasnotcompletelyopentotheweather.GuildaccountbooksatCoventryrecordthatin1480,sixpencewas"paidtoacarpenterforthepagentrowf,"andthereareseveralpaymentsregardinga"wynd,"orwindlass.43Aroofsupportingawindlasssuggeststhatthewholestructurewasabovethestage.WickhamandF.M.Salterbelievethatsubstantialroofsweremanda-

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torytohidemachineryforascents,althoughmedievalstagetechniciansdidnotalwaysdisguisehowsucheffectswereproduced.

44Whattheascentscertainlyimplyisthatsomestructurewasabovethestagetosupportthenecessaryequipment.

SomeoftheextantaccountsofCorpusChristifestivitiesmentiontorchesandtapers,leadingseveralscholarstoconcludethatdramaticperformancescontinuedintothenightunderartificialillumination.Buttheselightingutensilsappeartorefertoliturgicalandpageantprocessionsandwatchesandnottothecycleplaysthemselves.Theprocessionsbegansoearlyinthemorning(shortlyafter4:30A.M.atYorkand5A.M.atWakefield)45thattorchesmayhavebeennecessarytoorganizethem.Severaloftheprocessionswerecalled"lights,"implyingveryearlyorverylatestartingtimes.Thereareafewrecordsofartificiallightsforindoorreligiousplaysbutnoneforthemysteryplaysthemselves.Infact,anoticeoftheoutdoorcycleatCoventryhavingtostopprematurelyonedayin1457onaccountofdarknesssuggeststhatnonighttimeperformancesbytorchlightweregiventhere.46Someartificiallightswereusedforstageproperties,ofcourse,butinconsideringtheiruseforgeneralillumination,itshouldberememberedthatthecycleswereperformedinaseasonwhenthedayswerethelongestoftheyear.Cressetsandtorchesarealsooccasionallyassociatedwithcivicpageants,buttheirfunctionwasprimarilyornamentalor,again,connectedwithnondramaticfestivities.

NeoclassicalCeilingsandMachines

IfearlyoutdoorstagesestablishedatraditionofasuperstructureabovethestageandagarbledknowledgeofRomanprecedentreinforcedthepractice,thenwehavestilltoaccountforthesizeofthe

amphitheaterroof-canopiesthat,bythemid-1590s,oftencoveredhalformoreofthestage.Becausesuchsubstantialcoversarerareinpreviousoutdoortheatricalvenues,wearelefttoassumethattheactorswereattemptingtoapproximatetheaccommodationsaffordedbytheceilingsofindoorvenuessuchastemporarybanquetinghousesandTudorhalls.

Theseceilingsofferedprotectionfromtheelements,ofcourse,buttheyalsoprovidedfacilitiesforsuchimportanttheatricalfunctionsasascentsanddescents.Farfromrepresentinganinnovation,theinstallationoftheheavensattheoutdoortheatersmeantthattechniquespreviouslyemployedin-

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doorscouldcontinue.Forexample,itissignificantthatamongtheTudordramasinourpossession,theearliesthintsofsuspension-gearareassociatednotwithoutdoorbutwithindoorstages.QueenElizabethsawaplay,probablyatGreenwich,writtenandperformedbygentlemenoftheInnerTempleasearlyasthewinterof1566or1568inwhicha"Cupidecomethdownefromheauen."

47Althoughtheplaywaslaterprinted,themanuscriptfromwhichthisstagedirectionisdrawnundoubtedlyreferstotheinitialperformanceindoors.Acupidcoulddescendbywalkingdownstairsorclimbingdownaladder,tobesure,buttenyearslatertheElizabethanRevelsOfficefurnishedaperformanceofTheThreeSistersofMantuawith"AropeApulleyAbaskettoserveintheEarleofwarwickesmenplaie."48

Incontrast,theearliestuseofsuspension-gearattheoutdoortheatersseemstohavebeennoearlierthan1588orso,morethantwentyyearsaftertheRedLionhadbeenbuilt.ThisfirstdocumenteduseofflyingapparatusataprofessionalplayhouseisinRobertGreene'sAlphonsus,KingofAragon,whichopenswiththestagedirection,"Afteryouhavesoundedthrise,letVenusbeletdownefromthetopoftheStage."Andattheendoftheplaywegetthecomplementary,"ExitVenus.Orifyoucanconueniently,letachairecomedownefromthetopofthestage,anddrawhervp."49Weareuncertainoftheauspicesoftheoriginalproduction;theplaymayevenhavebeenfirstperformedindoors.TheplayisassociatedwiththerepertoryoftheQueen'smen,however,whoaround1588wereperformingattheTheater,Curtain,andBelSavage.Evenso,theuncertaintyexpressedin"ifyoucanconueniently"indicatesthatGreenewasunsurewhetherthenecessaryapparatuswouldbeavailable.

Andthisuncertaintymayreflecttheevidencewehaveaboutwhenthe

heavensbecameapermanentpartoftheamphitheaters.Foritwasjustinthelate1580sandearly1590sthattheactorsregularlybegantofurnishtheoutdoortheaterswithsuperstructuresabovethestage.Henslowe,forinstance,installedaheavensattheRoseonlyin1592andprovideda"throneIntheheuenes"inJune1595.50PerhapsthiswastheflyingchairGreenewashopingfor,becausehisplaywasdefinitelyofferedattheRosesometimearound1594.Evidently,therevivalmissedbyafewmonthstheconvenienceofthisequipment.Atanyrate,iftheuseofascentsanddescentstellsusanythingaboutwhatwasabovethestage,thenwemustconjecturethattheintegrationoftheindoorceilingintothemiseenscènewastheanteriordevelopment

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andthattheheavensandroofsoftheamphitheatersfollowedonlyseveraldecadeslaterandowedtheirexistence,inpart,totheinspirationoftheearlierformindoors."BoyswereflowninTheWidow'sTears[c.1605]andCupid'sRevenge[1608]atBlackfriars,butattheGlobeHymeninAsYouLikeItandDianainPericlesbothenteredonfoot,"AndrewGurrpointsout,concludingthat"theplayswrittenafter1608usedflights."

51Infact,ascentsanddescentswereneversofrequentlypracticedattheamphitheatersastheywereindoors,ademonstrationthatthroughouttheperiod,suspension-gearwasmorecharacteristicoftheTudorhallandprivateplayhousewhereitwasmoreeasilyaccommodatedundertheirsturdyroofsandceilings.

Notonlydoestheactiveuseoftheindoorceilingintheproductionofdramapredatetheinstallationoftheheavens,but,asJohnOrrellhascarefullydocumented,theceilingsofseveralearlyindoortheatersbearastrongresemblancetowhatwaslaterbuiltoutdoors.52Forinstance,thehabitofpaintingastronomicalmotifsontheundersideoftheheavens,probablyonsomekindofclothstretchedacrossthecornersoftheroof-canopy,isantedatedbymanyyears.OneoftheveryearliestmoderntheatersinRome,forexample,commissionedin1513,wasatemporarystructureofwoodpaintedlikemarble.Builtintheclassicalstylewithnoroof,itneverthelessfeatureda"ceiling"ofblueandwhitecloth.53Henslowe's"clotheoftheSone&Mone"wasnotinventorieduntil1598,butby1520,whenHenryVIIIbuiltatheateratCalaisfortheentertainmentofCharlesV,anelaboratelypaintedandstuddedblueclothwith"starres,sonne,andmone"wasstretchedoveracirculartheaterunderneathamoresubstantial,waterproofroof.54Theclothwassupportedbyagiantwoodencolumnproviding"fortheformationofahandsomeandwell-

proportionedcovering,likeapavilion.''Althoughcompletelyenclosed,thiswoodentheaterwasremarkablysimilartotheElizabethanpublictheaters:acircularshapewasapproximatedbyasixteen-sidedpolygon,andspectatorswerearrangedinthreetiersofgalleriessurroundingthestageonthreesides.ThedimensionsofthegalleriesareevenwithinafewfeetofthoseintheFortunecontract.Unluckily,agreatwindblewthestar-studdedroofoff,andtherevelshadtobemovedtoanotherbuilding.Perhapsfrustratedbythisstrokeoffate,HenryorderedthegreatHansHolbeintodesignanothertemporarydisguisingtheaterandbanquethouseinthetiltyardatGreenwichin1527.Forthedisguisingtheater,anotherdoubleroofwasconstructed,theouterlayerofthickcanvasandtheinnerof

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buckramextravagantlygildedwithcelestialrepresentations.Afascinatedobserver,EdwardHall,describedhow"therofeofthischambrewasconningliemadebythekyngesAstronimer,...andinthezodiakwerethetweluesignes,curiouslymade,andabouethisweremadetheseuenplanettes."

55Englisharistocratswerefamiliarwithaheavensabovethestagelongbeforethefirstpermanentamphitheaterswerebuilt.

CharlesVemergesassomethingofanauthorityontheheavensashewitnessedanotherindoorentertainmentwithaheavensnearlyidenticaltolateronesatthepublictheaters.InAugust1549,CharlesandhissonPrincePhilip(shortlytobecomePhilipIIofSpainandPrinceConsorttoMaryIofEngland)werefetedatBincheinpresent-dayBelgium.Atmidnighttheyenteredahallinwhichan"enchantedchamber"hadbeenprepared.Thischamberfeaturedavaissellier,abaldachin-likecanopysupportedbylargecolumnsmuchthesameasintheSwandrawing(seefigs.8and9).Thecanopywas,infact,arevolvingastronomicaldisplayofgreatingenuitythatproducedartificialthunderandlightning,perfumedrain,andsugarsleet.56Buttheevening'sclimaxcamewhenthreetablessumptuouslydeckedwithfeastsmagicallydescendedfromtheheavens.Thedrawingoftheeventisacomposite,showingallthreebanquetsindifferentpositions,butaSpanishobserverwhoaccompaniedPhilipmakesclearthatthetablesdescendedoneatatime,stoppedatthepedestals(antipecho)supportingthecolumns,andthen"instantly"disappearedbackintotheheavens.Thetrickwasaccomplished,hesays,byropepulleysnearthetopofthecolumns,hidsosubtlythatnoonecouldseethem.Asthetableswerehoistedupanddown,thethunderandlightningfromabovedistractedtheaudience'sattention,andthetablesweremademysteriouslytoappearanddisappear.Theuseofsmokeandflashing

lighttodistractanaudience'sattentionisanoldmagician'strick,buttheuseofthunderandlightningfromaboveinunisonwithdescentsisespeciallycharacteristicoftheEnglishtheater.Indeed,sofrequentlydothunderandlightningaccompanydescentsthattheyarealmostobligatory.FamiliarexamplesareinCymbeline("IupiterdescendsinThunderandLightning,sittingvpponanEagle"[F312627])andinHeywood'sTheSilverAge("Thunder,lightnings,Iupiterdescendsinhismaiesty,hisThunderboltburning").57

Thus,theindoorbanquetingtheatersprovideamodelforextendingtheheavensbeyondthefloorofthehutintoalargecanopycoveringagoodpart

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Fig.8.Thevaissellierwithpracticalheavensinan"enchantedhall"forafêteatBinche,1549.BibliothèqueRoyaleAlbertIer,Brussels.

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Fig.9.TheSwanplayhouse,c.1596.SketchofJohannesdeWittascopiedbyAernoutvanBuchel.BibliotheekderRijksuniversiteitteUtrecht.

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ofthestageandsuitablefordepictionsofthefirmament.Inthe[U]nfortunateTraveller(London,1594),ThomasNashemploysthen-currentplayhousenomenclaturetodescribeabanquetinghouse"builtlikeaTheaterwith-out,withintherewasaheauencomprehendedbothunderoneroofe."Thisheaven,writesNash,"wasacleereouerhangingvaultofchristall,whereintheSunneandMooneandeachvisibleStarrehadhistruesimilitude,shine,scituation,andmotion"(14v).

JacobeanandCarolinehallplayhousescontinuedtheuseofsuchfalseceilings.AtthesecondBlackfriarsandtheCockpit-in-Court,wincheshungfromthemainroof,whileaceiling,analogoustotheundersideoftheheavens,apparentlyhidtheapparatus.AttheCockpit-in-Court,partofthefalseceilingcouldbedrawnasideforascentsanddescents;andlateramphitheatersprobablyalsohadfacilitiestodrawaclothasideortoopenahatchintheheavenstopermittheaudiencetoseeblazingstars,lightningflashes,andotherspecialeffects.AtheatersetupbyJohnSpencerandhisEnglishactorsinGermanyin1613hadafour-corneredopeningintheroofabovethestagethroughwhichbeautiful"Actiones"couldbeseen.

58InCymbeline,afterdescendingtothunderandlightningandpredictingahappyoutcome,Jupiter"[a]scends,"andLeonatusdescribesasimilaropeningintheheavens:"TheMarblePauementclozes,heisenter'd/HisradiantRoofe"(F315758).ThedescentandascentinCymbelinemayhavebeenaddedforlaterperformancesatSt.JamesandmaynothavebeenpartoftheoriginalproductionattheGlobein1611.Basedonthepaucityofreferencestodescentsinplaytextsassociatedwithit,BernardBeckermandoubtstheexistenceofanyhoistingapparatusatthefirstGlobe,althoughJohnAstingtonpointsoutthedifficultyinbasingsuchassessmentsexclusivelyontextualevidence.59Yet,evenifthesuspensioneffectwasan

interpolation,itremainsanindicationofthepopularityofsucheffectsindoorsandoftheinspirationtheindoorceilingcouldprovidetotheoutdoorheavens.ThefirstGlobemayhavebeenremedialinitsuseofspecialeffectsfromtheheavens:Shakespeare'splaysrevealapovertyofsuchspectacle,andwemustrememberthatthefirstGlobewas,essentially,theTheaterrebuilt.OtherplayhousesspecificallytheRose,RedBull,andthesecondGlobecouldcertainlyaccommodatehoistingapparatus,andnearlyalltheamphitheatersreveledinfireworksandlightdisplaysfromabove.

Incontrast,theindoorplayhousesreliedmuchlessonfireworks(forsafetyreasons)butusedtheirceilingstosupportsuspension-gearandcelestialpic-

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turesearlierandapparentlymoreactivelythantheoutdoortheaters.Perhapssomeamphitheaterheavensweretooflimsytosupportsuchparaphernalia.TheRedLion'sthirty-footturretseemstohavebeenafairlysubstantialedificeallbyitselfandmaywellhaveservedsuchapurpose,buttherecentlydiscoveredlegaldocumentspertainingtoitfailtomentionanysortofcoveroverthestage.Withoutassumingasteadyevolutionarydevelopmentoftheheavens,wemaynonethelessnotethatwiththebuildingofthesecondGlobeanditsmassivesuperstructure,anamphitheaterheavensappropriatedseveralfunctionsidentifiedwithindoorproduction.NorshouldweforgetthatthefirstprivatetheatertheplayhouseatSt.Paul'swasundoubtedlyinactiveuseseveralyearsbeforetheTheaterwasbuilt.Lackinganyinformationtothecontrary,wemayconsidertheindoortheatertheanteriorformandtheindoorceilingtheseminalmodelfortheamphitheaterheavens,evenifneo-Vitruvianandearlynativetraditionscontributedaparallelimpetusorsanctionedadevelopmentalreadyinitiatedbytheactors'desiretoduplicatecircumstancesindoors.Performingintownhallsandinnsintheafternoonoratnight,earlyactorsmusthaveoftenplayedinlowlight.Whentheyplannednewoutdoorvenues,theysoughtnottomakethestagesasbrightaspossiblebutratherinstalledcoversandpositionedthestageswheretheywouldbeshieldedfromdirectsunlight.

EarlyArtificialLighting

Thatthelightindoorswasnotalwaysbrilliantisevidencedinthemoreeasilytracedhistoryofindoortheatricallighting.Infact,evidencethatearlyactorswereathomeindoorsandthattheirmoveoutdoorsinthe1560sand1570swasanoveltyisprovidedbytheunbrokenstringofindoorentertainmentsunderartificiallightandwindowlightfromtheMiddleAgestotheInterregnum.Thebetterdocumentedoftheseindoorperformancesaremedievalmummings

anddisguisings,earlyTudormasques,anduniversityplays.Suchentertainmentsleaverecordsofampleilluminationinthehallsofwealthynobles,atcourt,andatthegreatuniversities.ButthemoredirectprecursorsofprofessionalElizabethanlightingpracticeforadultplayersarethehumblerinterludesperformedbyitinerantactingtroupesthatestablishedthemoremodestgeneralilluminationusedlaterintheprofessionalprivateplayhouses.

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Thelavishspectaclesandrevelsperformedfor,andsometimesby,thenobilityarebetterdocumented,ofcourse,becausetheyinvolvedthedoingsofimportantpersons.Courtinstructionsregarding"disguyssing"showthatasearlyas1494,HenryVIIorderedhislordchamberlaintoprovide"lightsinthehallafturethequantitieofthehallandyourediscrecionrowmeenoughforthem."

60Byallaccounts,suchdiscretionaffordedmorethanadequatelight.HenryVIII's1520circulartheater,whosedoubleceilingIhavedescribed,wasbrilliantlyilluminated,forexample.AVenetianwitnesswrotethattheinsidewastobelit"bycornucopias,servingascandlesticks,fixedaroundtheoutsideofthebanquetingarea,andbygreatchandeliers,'triomphansamerveille,'hangingfromtheceiling,alternatingwithsilk-cladwickerworkfiguresbearingtorchesintheirhands."61The1527banquetinghouseandtheaterwereperhapsevenbrighter.Inthebanquetinghouse(approximatelyonehundredbythirtyfeet),thewallssupportedatleastforty-fourcandlesticksinadditiontomanywindows.62Fortymorepricketcandlestickslitagreatarch,andfourteencandlesticksofsilverplatedecoratedatableorsurroundedtheking.Fromeighteenwainscotbeamshunganunspecifiednumberofchandelierswithatotalof230woodencandlesockets,allexpensivelygarnished.Inaddition,therewasaspecialpageantoflightswithtwentyfiguresholdingcandlesticks.

Afterdinnerinthisglory,theguestsretiredtoadisguisingtheater,alsoknownasthelonghouse.Thenameimpliesalargerspacethanforthebanquetinghall,butslightlyfewerlightswereemployed,indicatingeitherasmallerareatobelitorthatthetheaterwasnotmeanttobeasbrightasthedininghall.TheRevelsOfficeacquiredeightysilveredbasinsforthetheatertobefixedonsixteenpillarsinordertosupportandcatchthedrippingsof"greatebraunchesofwhite

wax."Twelveornatelyturnedcandlestickssupplementedthesebasins.Apaymentfor106poundsofcottoncandlesisalsorecorded,butsincetheaccountswehaveareworksaccounts,thesecandleswereapparentlyonesbywhichtheartisanspreparedthehallandwerenotusedforperformances.Assumingthatthecandlesforthechandeliersweighedsomethingontheorderoffivetoteninthepoundandthatthelargercandlesonthesidesweigheduptoapoundapiece,onenight'slightinginthebanquetinghallmusthavecostmorethantenshillingsandlightingforthedisguisingtheateronlyslightlyless.

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EarlyUniversityTheaters

RecordsofcourtentertainmentsyieldsomeofthefewearlyaccountsofindoortheatricalilluminationinEnglandthatarespecificenoughtoallowustocountthenumberoflights.ButthecourthadresourcesofwhichmostearlyTudoractingcompaniesneverdreamed,andweshouldpreferaccuratedescriptionsoftheirlesssumptuousarrangements.DocumentscollectedintheRecordsofEarlyEnglishDramaprojectfillinsomegaps,butfewrecordsofprovincialperformancesgivedetailsabouttheprovisionoftheatricallighting.ThebestevidencecomesfromaccountbooksofvariouscollegesatCambridgeandOxford,andthefullestdescriptionsareofcollegeperformancesforQueenElizabeth,oneofwhosemanythriftyhabitswastheannualsummerprogress,duringwhichshewouldtourthekingdomandbeentertainedlargelyatherhosts'expense.Inthe1560s,forinstance,twosummerprogressestotheuniversitiesonetoCambridgein1564andonetoOxfordin1566leavedetailedaccountsoflighting.

AtCambridge,thequeensawaplayat9o'clockatnightinthechapelofKing'sCollegelitonlybytorchlight.TheUniversityRegistrarywrotethattheentranceofthecollege'sofficialswasaccompaniedby"amultitudeofyegardewiththemhavyngeveryemaninhishandatorchestaffeforyeLightesofyeplayefornootherLighteswasoccupied."

63Hisspecificationthatnootherkindsoflightswereusedmightindicatethatasubduedeffectwasdesired,butwecannotbesureofthisbecausewedonotknowhowmanytorcheswereinvolved.TheRegistrarymakesclearthattheguardsholdingtorchesstoodtoeithersideofthestage,soperhapsallhemeantwasthattherestofthechapelwasnotlitorthatnoordinarycandleswereused.

Nottobeoutdone,Oxfordinvitedthequeentwoyearslater.Herstaywascarefullychronicled,anditisapparentthatOxforddidnotwanttosufferbycomparisonwiththearrangementsatCambridge.AnenthusiasticJohnBereblocktoldofsplendidlightingintheCommonHallofChristChurchforaperformanceofthefirstpartofPalaemonandArcyteatnight:

Lucernae,lichni,candelaequeardentesclarissimamibilucemfecerunt.Totluminaribus,ramulisacorbibusdivisis,totquepassimfunalibusinaequalisplendore,incertampraebentibuslucem,splendebatlocus,utetinstardieimicare,etspectaculorumclaritatemadjuvarecandoresummovisasint.64

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AccuratetranslationisdifficultowingtothemuddleinlightingterminologynotonlyinEnglishbutalsoinLatin.Inanoften-citedrendition,W.Y.Durandtranslateditthisway:

Cressets,lamps,andburningcandlesmadeabrilliantlightthere.Withsomanylightsarrangedinbranchesandcircles,andwithsomanytorches,hereandthere,givingforthaflickeringgleamofvaryingpower,theplacewasresplendent;sothatthelightsseemedtoshinelikethedayandtoaidthesplendoroftheplaysbytheirverygreatbrightness.

65

Althoughmuchofthenomenclaturewasinterchangeable,Durand'stranslationoflucernaeas"cressets"isunfortunate;noearlyLatin-Englishdictionarygivessuchadefinition.Typicaltranslationsoflucernaare"lanterne"inThomasElyot'sDictionary(London,1538)and"[a]candle,alamp,alight"inThomasThomas'sDictionarium(London,1588).Durand's"lamps"forlichniisalsomisleading.ThomasCooper'sThesavrvsLingvaeRomanae&Britannicae(London,1565)identifieslichniwiththewicksofanylightinginstrument,andtheOEDhintsthattheEnglishword''link"ismetatheticfortheLatinlichinus,"wick"or"match,"outofwhichlinksweremade.

IraisethesepointsbecauseseveralscholarshavecitedDurand'stranslationtoprovethatcressetsandlampswerecommonlightingutensilsforearlyindoorplays,eventhoughcorroborationdoesnotproceedfromcontemporarydictionaries.66InthefirstnewtranslationsinceDurand's,Wickhamcorrectedtheseinaccuraciesbutmadeothershimself.Hetranslatesluminaribusas"somanylamps,"67whereasearlydictionariesallgivemoregeneraldefinitions;Cooper'stranslationofluminareis"[t]hatwhichgeuethlight."Forfunalibus,Wickhamhas"somanycandles."Thisisnotwrong,butastheword's

etymologyderivesfromfunis,"rope,"Cooper'stranslationoffunaleas"[a]torch:acorde"isclearerandprobablymoreaccurate,especiallyforuswhoareunfamiliarwithhowtheselightsweremanufactured.Infact,Cooper'sfamousdictionaryboastsaspecialauthorityindecipheringBereblock'sLatin,becausethedictionarywaspublishedonlyoneyearbeforethequeen'sprogressandbecausebothBereblockandCooperwereOxfordfellowsatthetime,presumablysharingthesamelanguages.

Bereblockisgiventohyperbole,andweshouldhavepreferredfewersuperlativesinhisdescriptionandmorespecificnumbersandlocationsofthelights.Inthisregard,CambridgeservesusbetterthanOxford.Collegeac-

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countbooksatCambridgelistmanypaymentsforlightingequipment.Asmostofthisequipmentwasintendedfornonroyalentertainment,theaccountsgiveusalookatmoremodestproductionmethods.Basedonathoroughreviewoftheserecords,AlanNelsonshowsthatmostoftheplaysatCambridgewerepresentedatnightandthatanywherefromadozentothreeorfourdozencandlesticksweregenerallybought.

68Butlargepurchasesofcandlesarealsofrequent,lumpingtogetherexpendituresforunspecifiednumbersofplaysandperformancesinasingleentry.OneoftherareinstanceswhenparticularperformancesarelistedisfoundintheTrinityCollegesteward'sbookrecordingexpendituresforplaysperformedatChristmastide1550:69

forCandellatMrCocrofteplaie

xd

forCandellesforMrCocrofteplay

xiijd

forCandellesforstillesplay

xd

TheinclusionoftwoseparateentriesforMr.Cocrofte'splay,aswellastheuseinallthreeentriesofthesingular"play,"seemstoindicatethateachpaymentcoverslightingexpensesforonlyoneperformance.Becauseofinflation,thepoundofcandlesthathadcostonlyapennyin1527nowcostthreepence.TrinityCollegeprovidednotmuchmorethanthreepoundsofcandlesforeachperformance,therefore,andthetotalnumberofcandleswasonlytwodozenorso,dependingontheirsize.WedonotknowwhereplayswereperformedatTrinityCollegeuntilaftertheRestorationwhenaspecialComedyHousewasconstructed,buttheroominwhichplayswerepresentedcouldnothavebeenlarge,becauseneitherthechapelnorthegreathallwas

erectedby1550thecollegehavingbeenfoundedonlyin1546.Theaccountbooksofthefoundingyearmentionanexpensive"greatRowndCandelstickeforthestageInthehall,"whichItaketorefertothepreexistingMichaelHouseHall,nowsurvivingonlyinfragmentaryfoundations.70Thefoundationssuggestahallofnotmorethanfiftybythirtyfeet.71Wemayvisualize,then,asmallstageabovewhichalarge,circularchandelierwassuspendedwithperhapstwodozencandles.Ipresumethechandelierwassuspendedbecausefourteenyearslateranew"knotofCordetohangevpyegreatcandlesticke"waspurchased,althoughbythistimeIsuspectthelocationforplayinghadbeenmovedandthegreatchandelierwasbeingrehung.72

Thatthenumberofcandlesdidnotincreaseappreciablyovertheyears

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issuggestedbyapaymentoffourpenceatJesusCollege,Cambridge,"for2poundeofcandlesattRobinsonsshowe,"duringtheChristmasseasonof159596.

73ThelargestandmostlikelysiteatJesusCollegewasitshall,approximatelyfifty-sevenbytwenty-fivefeet,whichisstillstanding.74Consideringtheweightofthecandlespurchased,onlyadozenortwocandleswereused.Thus,earlyandlaterevidenceimpliesthattheatricallightingattheuniversitieswasnotalwaysparticularlybright,atleastbyourstandards.PerhapsthenocturnalsearchfortheneedleintheearlyCambridgeplayGammerGurton'sNeedle,firstperformedaround1550butrevivedseveraltimesbeforeitwaspublishedin1575,wasmadeplausiblebydimlight.Ontheotherhand,thereisnoevidencethatthecollegesstintedinallocatingwhatresourcestheyhad.Inatleastoneinstance,infact,acollegesawfittoprovidemoreresourcesthanitowned:in1561,King'sCollege,Cambridge,wasobligedtobegcandlesfromothercollegesforitsplay.AsournoteintheTrinityaccountscomplainsthatTrinitystudents"haddnocandlesbicauseoftheplaye[s]thatwa[re]sattheKyngesColledgasvponthisnight,"givingevidencethatKing's,atleast,providedmorelightfortheseplaysthanitwouldhaveforaregularnighttimesupperormeeting.75

Universityplaysweregenerallyperformedwithoutthebenefitofwindowlight.Mostplayswereactedinthewintertimeandatnight(9o'clockisthemostcommonstartingtimeatCambridge),butsomedaytimeperformancesarerecordedforwhichthewindowshutterswereoccasionallyclosed.AtQueen'sCollege,Cambridge,aperformanceofLaeliawasgivenin1595"afterdinner,theDaybeingturnedintoNyght."76On12March1623,KingJamesvisitedTrinityCollegewherehe"dinedbeforeeleven,thenwenttotheHall,which

beingdarkened,theplaybeganpresently."77KingCharleswenttoSt.John's,Oxford,inAugust1636andsawtwoplays,oneintheafternoonandoneatnight.ArchbishopLaudtellshowafterlunch,"IcausedthewindowsoftheHalltobeshut,thecandleslighted,andallthingsmadereadyforthePlay."78Perhapsthewindowswereclosedonlytopreventdraftsfromblowingthecandlesout;oritmaybethatofficialsdesiredtoemulatethenighttimeentertainmentsatcourtfortheirroyalguests.Iftheuniversitieshabituallyclosedthewindowstooutsidelight,itwouldhavebeencontrarytothecustomadoptedforallbutoccasional"nocturnals"attheprofessionalprivatetheatersinLondon.Ontheotherhand,itislikelythatmanyafternoonuniversityperformancesdidindeedfindthewindowsopen.

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ChurchPlays

Becausethepreponderanceofplaysactedatchurcheswereperformedindoorsratherthaninthechurchyard,itisnotsurprisingthatchurchesalsosponsoredartificiallylitplays.

79AtSuttertoninLincolnshire,churchwardens'accountsfortheannualplayontheFeastoftheAssumptionrefertolightsinthechurch.Theearliestrecorddatesfrom152021,whensixpencewas"paydformakyngesofyeplaaris[players]candelles."In152223,onlyfourpencewaspaidforlighting,butin1525,thirteenpencewas"paydforijliwaxtoowrladyslyght."80Twopoundsofwaxwillyieldonlyabouttwelveoreighteencandles.

InLondon,playswerealsooccasionallyperformedatnightinchurches.Forinstance,aplaywasperformedonthechurchholidayinSilverStreet,29July1557,"ateightoftheclockatnight"that"continueduntilxijatmydnyght,andthentheymadanendwithagoodsong."81In1564,theCityofNorwichsponsoredaplaybyschoolboysand"payedforTorchestoShowlighteintheChappellwhentheyplayed...iiis."82Threeshillingsisalargesum,butlightsthatwerecalled"torches"variedsowidelyinpricethatitisdifficulttoestimatetheirnumber.Becausethesetorcheswereusedtolightalargeroom(onehundredbythirty-threefeet)thatwasnolongerusedforecclesiasticalpurposes,perhapssometwodozeninexpensivetorcheswereused.83AftertheaccessionofElizabethandtheChurch'sattendantreversiontoProtestantism,churchesceasedtheatricalactivities.

EarlyProfessionalTroupes

Asfortheearlyprofessionalactorsthemselves,wehaveonlyscrapsofinformationregardingtheirlightingprocedures.Earlymoralswere

performedoutofdoors:TheCastleofPerseveranceandThePrideofLife(c.13501450)areexplicitinthisregard.ButstudiesbyT.W.CraikandRichardSouthernshowthatreferencestohalls,doors,andnighttimeperformancesbegintoappearininterludetextsinthelatefifteenthandearlysixteenthcenturies,indicatingindoorvenues,mostlikelyTudorhalls.84SeveralearlyTudorinterludesincludethefireplacescommontosuchhallsintheactionofthedrama,andinwinter,atleast,thesefiresmayhaveprovidedmuchoftheilluminationpresent.85Torchesandcandlescouldeasilyhavesupplementedthisfirelight,

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butitwouldhavebeenexpensivefortheplayersorsponsorstobuyenoughcandlestomaketheambientilluminationofhallsmuchbrighterthanthatproducedbyafire.Instead,thereisevidencethathand-heldlightingutensilswereusedto"highlight"particularactorsandactions.InJohnHeywood'sThePlayoftheWeather(c.1527),forinstance,theVicestepsoutfromtheaudienceinanswertoacallforvolunteersandasksatorchbearingbystandertogivehimmorelight:

BrotherholdevpyourtorchalytellhyerNowIbesecheyoumyLordelokeonmefursteItrusteyourlordshypshallnotfyndemethewurste.

86

Inasituationwherethecostofcandlescamedirectlyoutoftheactors'orinnkeepers'pockets,suchautilitariansystemoflightingiseasytoimagine.Whatismore,this"spotlighting,"asSoutherncallsit,demonstratesthattheplaywrightwasawareoftheabilityofconcentratedlighttodrawattentiontospecificactionsaswellastherealismpossiblewhenlightsintendedforgeneralilluminationarewovenintothetextureofthedrama.

Intheprovinces,earlytroupespreferredtoperformintownhalls;andunderElizabeth,cityofficialsgenerallyofferedthemthesefacilities,occasionallyevenconstructingstagesforthemanddefrayingthecostofartificialillumination.Inthechamberlain'saccountsofGloucesterfor156162,welearnthreepencewas"payedtoMrIngramforapoundeofcandellesatthe...playe."87Thepurchaseofonlyonepoundoftallowmeansthatonlyfourtoeightaverage-sizedcandleslittheroom.Perhapstheactorssuppliedadditionallights,althoughonedoubtstheactorsspentanymoremoneythanwasnecessary.AtBristol,the157778treasurer'saccountmentionsapaymenttoLeicester'smen"attheendoftheirplayintheYeldHallbeforeMr

MayorandtheAldermenandforlynkstogiuelightintheeuenyng."88Aslinksareassociatedwithoutdooruse,theseatBristolwereprobablyforfestivitiesfollowingtheplay.

Lateron,provincialofficialswerelesspleasedtosufferthevisitsoftouringactingcompanies.TypicaldisenchantmentisexpressedbytheYorkCityCorporation,whichin1592forbadeactorstheuseofthetownhallbecausethewindows,benches,anddoorsofitsCommonHallwerebrokenbyspectatorsattendingplays.89SybilRosenfeldconcludestheplayersresortedtoinnsandprivatehouses,butrecordsofsuchperformancesarefewandfarbe-

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tween.

90Someperformancesmusthavebeenoutdoorsinprivategardensandinn-yards,butsurvivingprovincialaccountstendtomentionsuchvenuesonlywhentherewastrouble;inJune1583,forexample,wehearofanafternoonperformanceintheyardattheRedLioninninNorwichonlybecauseofascufflethere.91

Fromthefrequentprovincialprohibitionsagainstnighttimeentertainments,however,itisclearthatactorscommonlyattemptedtoperformintheeveningwhenthelargestnumberofpeoplewerefreetoattendplays.TheBurgmotebooksfor15April1596complainofplaysstretchingintonightandorderedthatperformances"notexceedethehowerofnyneoftheclockinthenighte."92Similarly,Pembroke'smenwereallowedtoperformintheNorwichtownhallin1598onlyuntilnine.93ButatChesterin1615,wherethecityfathershadbeendisturbedbya"Scandall"occasionedbyplays,performanceswereforbiddentoextendbeyondsixo'clock.94Wecannotbesurethatnightperformancesweretherule,butthesefrequentrestrictionsprovetheywerenotoutoftheordinary,atleastbeforethecitiesundertooksternermeasurestodiscouragethem.

Wecaninferfromevidencelateintheperiodthatearlyprovinciallightingwasnotbrilliant.Oncetheurbanprivateplayhouseshadestablishedtheirregularafternoonperformances,onemightexpecttouringcompaniestoemulatethelightingproceduresoftheirLondoncounterparts.Butaslateas1636,methodsreminiscentofearlierlightingpracticepersistedintheprovinces.TheLondonprivateplayhousesregularlyperformedintheafternoon,forinstance,butin1636themayorofCanterburywascomplainingtoARchbishopLaudthat"nightplayscontinueduntilmidnight,tothegreatdisorderofthecity."95So,too,theYorkCorporationminutebooksrecordapparently

vainattemptstostopnighttimeperformancesinhalls,taverns,andprivatehomes.96Moretellingly,thecandlelightthatbythattimetypifiedtheLondonhalltheaterswassometimesconsideredanextravaganceintheprovinces.ThiscanbeadducedfromaletterwrittenonbehalfofPrinceCharles'smen,alsoin1636.Thecompanyhadrecentlygainedanunsavoryreputation,andinseekingpermissiontoperforminNorwich,theyattemptedtoimpressthecitywiththerefinementoftheirproductions.Theactorsrequestedthatonlythebestpeoplebeallowedtoattendandbywayoflobbyingfortheircausehadasympatheticcitizenwritetooneofthecityfathersregardingthelavishnessoftheirplays."IpraytellyoursonsthattheRedBull

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companyofplayersarenowintown,"thecitizenwrites,"andhaveactedoneplaywithgoodapplauseandarewellcladandactbycandlelight."

97Sinceactingbycandlelightisrepresentedasamarkofsophistication,wemayassumethatlessprosperouscompaniesoftenactedbyfewerutensilsornoneatall.Ifcandlesvouchedforrefinementaslateas1636,thenwemaysurmisethattheywereasrareorrarerwhenprofessionalactingtroupeswereininfancysomeeightyyearsearlier.

InLondon,interludeswereperformedinsideinnsandprivatehousesbeforeandafteranimal-baitingandpublicarenaswerebuilt.Asearlyas1569,theCityofLondonauthoritiesworriedthatplaysat"InnesandotherplacesofthisCitie"werespreadingtheplaguebycausingthespectatorstobe"closepesteredtogetherinsmallromes,speciallyinthistymeofsommer."98On11January1580,theLordMayorwasdispleasedtolearnthatnighttimeplayswerebeinggivenwithintheCitygates.Heattributedrecentcivildisordertoplaysacted"bynightindiu[er]sesuspectplaces"from7or8until11or12o'clock.99Playslastinguntiltwelvemidnightin"suspectplaces"implyindoor,artificiallylitvenuesandnottheopen-airinn-yards,marketplaces,andanimal-baitingarenassooftenmentionedastheforebearsofthefirstamphitheaters.

AfellowofTrinityCollege,Cambridge,ishelpfullymorespecificregardingthelocationsofsuchperformances.In1583,GervaseBabington(laterbishopofWorcester)bewailed"prophane&wantonstageplayesorinterludes"andreasonedthat"[i]ftheybedangerousonthedaytime,moredaungerousonthenightcertainely:ifonastage,&inopencourtes,muchmoreinchambersandpriuatehouses."Nighttimeinnperformanceswerethemoretobeavoided,hesaid,

because"therearemanieroumesbesidethat,wheretheplayis,&peradue[n]turethestrangenesoftheplace&lackeoflighttoguidethem,causetherrourintheirway,morethangoodChristiansshouldintheirhousessuffer."100AlthoughBabingtonattributeslackoflighttotheinns,weshouldnotconstruehisparallelismtomeanthatplaysinopen-airtheatersandinn-yardswerealwaysperformedbydaylightandthatplaysintavernandinnchambersandatprivatehouseswereonlyatnight.Butheleaveslittledoubtthatindoornightplayswerefrequentenoughtoarouseconcern.By1608,infact,asuburbaninnkeeperwastriedbytheMiddlesexjustices"forsufferingeplayestobeeplayedinhishouseinthenightseason."101Babington'snaiveclaimthatdarknessattheinnscaused

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thefaithfultolosetheirwayinvitesskepticism.ThomasNashprobablygivesatruerpictureofnighttimeinnlifewhenhetellsofayoungcountrygallantgoneto"reuellit"inLondonwhowill"hauetwoplayesinonenight"and"inuiteallthePoets[thatis,actors]andMusitionstohischamberthenextmorning."

102

Referencestonighttimeindoorentertainmentsgiveusanotionoftheprevalenceofartificialtheatricalillumination.Butartificiallightalsoaccompaniedindoorentertainmentsintheafternoon.Infact,wepossessapictureofanafternoonmasqueinaprivatehousethatmakesprominentuseoftorchlight.ThepictureisadetailfromaportraitofSirHenryUnton,diplomatistandsoldier,thatshowshisweddingfeastandanaccompanyingmasquearound1580orso(seefig.10).SirHenry,hisbride,andguestsareattable,whileexoticallycostumedmasquersclimbthestairsandenterthediningroom.Tennudechildrenbearinglong,slendertorchesaccompanythemasquers,buttheprincipalilluminationcomesfromtwolargewindowsinthebackgroundandperhapsothersinthefourthwallthathasbeencutaway.PaintedshortlyafterUnton'sdeathin1596,accordingtohiswidow'smemory,thedetailmakesnoattempttoindicatethatmuchlightderivesfromthetentorches.Theyaredrawnwithouthalosandcastnoshadows.Instead,theroomisbrightlyandevenlyilluminatedbynaturalwindowlightthetorchesmerelyaddinghighlightstotheotherwiseconventionallylitspace.Atcourt,masqueswereusuallyatnightwithartificiallightreplacingallnaturallight.Butplaysattheprofessionalhalltheaterswereintheafternoon,andtheymayhavelookedsomethinglikethismasque.

Whysomeindoorplayswereperformedintheeveningandothersintheafternoonisnotalwaysclear.Cityprohibitionsandregulations

wereimportant,butotherfactorscameintoplay.Thenobilityandgentrywerelargelyfreeduringthedaytopassthetimeastheysawfit.AfternoonentertainmentslikeSirHenry'smaythushavebeenmorerefined,asawhole,thanmanyeveningentertainmentscateringtotradesmeninneedofdiversionafterahardday'swork.Theeveningmayalsohavebeentheonlytimeavailabletomoonlightingactorsbusyduringthedayatthepublicplayhouses.Exceptforentertainmentsatcourt,then,whichinthisandseveralotherwayswereunique,professionalperformanceslittotallybyartificialmeansmustnotbethoughtofasnecessarilymorewellbredandexpensivethanperformances

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Fig.10.DetailfromaportraitofSirHenryUnton,c.1596.BycourtesyoftheNationalPortraitGallery,London.

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thatmixedbothnaturalandartificiallight.Nighttimeplaysrequiringartificiallightwerealwayssuspect,afterall,andrarelyofficiallysanctioned.SirHenrywasarich,importantperson,afriendtoEssexandevenHenryIVofFrance.Hisuseofnaturallightwashardlytoscrimponthechandler'sbillbutrathertheresultofnowunknowableschedulingconsiderations.Intheprovinceswheretroupeswerenotoccupiedduringthedayatpermanenttheaters,playsforthenobilitycouldbegivenindifferentlybydayornight.ThefourthearlofCumberland,forinstance,awealthyandpowerfulpeer,hostedadozenplaysathishomeinLondesboroughfrom1611to1612,ofwhichabouthalfwerebeforesupperandhalfaftersupper.

103

Around1604,wegetatheatricalportraitofwhatisconsideredextravagantlightingforaprofessionalplayinthehallofaprivatehome.ThomasMiddleton'sAMadWorld,MyMasters(London,1608)satirizesthewealthySirBounteousProgresswhoprideshimselfonthehospitalityofhishouse.Inthelastact,hisspendthriftnephewdisguiseshimselfasaplayerandabscondswithseveralcostlytrinkets,"borrowed"aspropertiesfortheplaythatheandhiscohortsperformforhisuncle'sguests.Asusual,Middletoninfusesthescenewithrealisticdetail,andwelearnagooddealaboutconditionsatwhatSirBounteousbelievesisanindoorprofessionalperformance.

Attheopeningofthescene,SirBounteousandhisservantsareseenpreparingforalargesupper:tablesaresetupandguestsareusheredintothe"Hall"where"theresagoodfire"(G4v).Asthebogusplayersarrive,SirBounteouswelcomesthemwith"[s]omeShirryformyLordsplayersthere.Sirra,whythiswillbeaTruefeast,arightMitersupper,aplayandall,morelightsIcaldforlight"(H1).Asagoodhost,SirBounteous'sfirstconcern,afterofferingdrink,isthe

provisionoflighting.Finalpreparationsaremade;theguestsassemblefortheplay.Buttruetohishumor,SirBounteouscontinuestofretoverthelightingarrangements.Heorders,"Morelights,morestools,sit,sit,theplaybegins"(H2).Inductionstolaterhalltheaterplayssometimesincludethelightingofcandlesjustbeforetheplaysproperbegin.Ifthisplay-within-a-playisanyguide,thepracticewasnotuniquetotheprivatetheaters.ButasthesatireisbasedonSirBounteous'sindiscriminatehospitality,Middleton'saudienceattheSt.Paul'schildren'stheatermayhavedetectedacertainexcesstotheprovisionsmade.ItwasalwaysasocialobligationtoprovideadequatelightingoldCapuletrequestsmoretorchesathisball,asdosuchworthiesasLassoandBiliosoforprivatemasquesinThe

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GentlemanUsherandTheMalcontent.ButSirBounteous'stwicecallingforlightsinadditiontothefireandlightsalreadypresentforthesuppermustaccordinglybeconsideredanindulgence.

SirBounteous'scomparisonofhisfeastwith''arightMitersupper,aplayandall"alsoconfirmsthatartificiallylitplaysaccompaniedeveningmealsattaverns.TheMiterwasanoldtaverninFleetStreet,laterfrequentedbyDr.Johnson,thatapparentlywasfamousforitseveningplays.NeitherChambersnorBentleydiscussestheMiter,butitseemstohavebeenanimportantindoortheatricalvenue.PunningallusiontoitsuseasatheaterisfoundinYourFiveGallantswhenthetitlecharactersconsiderwheretheyshouldsupwhileplanningtheirintrigue.OnegallantsuggeststheMermaid,buttheysettleontheMiter"ForthetruthisthisplotmusttakeeffectAtMiter."

104Thislogicisbasedonasyllepsis,"plot"meaningboth"intrigue"and"theactionofadrama,"withanassociatedsatiricalthrustatthetypeofdramaticfarepopularatsuchtaverns.Twentytearslater,theprodigiousgossipJohnChamberlainadmiredthedukeofBuckingham'sgenerositytofortyofhisgentlemenwhenhespentonehundredpounds"tomakethemasupperandaplaythenextnight[24April1618]attheMiterinFleet-street."105Atsomethingovertwopoundsspentoneachgentleman,theprovisionsforthisnighttimeplayweremunificentindeed.Forty-twoyearslaterstill,Mr.Pepysoverheardaperformancetakingplaceinwhatseemstohavebeenaspecialhallforentertainmentswhenhewent"totheMitreinFleet-street,whereweheard(inaroomoverthemusic-room)veryplainlythroughtheceiling."106

SirBounteous'swealthandBuckingham'spatronagegivepresumptiveevidencethatthelightingatSirBounteous'shouseandtheMitertendedtowardthesumptuous.ThelivelyBuckinghamtookanavid

interestincourttheatricalsandhadthemakingsofashowmaninhim.ThreemonthsbeforehisMiterplay,Buckinghamhadthepresenceofmindtofillina"lag"inJonson'sPleasureReconciledtoVirtuebyjumpingoutofhisseatnearthekingandcuttingascoreof"loftyandveryminutecapers"underthe"tworowsoflights"thatlitthefirstJacobeanbanquetinghouseinWhitehall.107Theeffortstopleasehisownmenratherthanthekingmaynothavebeenquitesotaxing,butIshouldnotwonderifamanthistakenwiththeatricalaffairswouldhaveprovidedbrilliantarrangementsattheMiteraswell.LikeSirHenryUnton'smasque,theseplayswerefortheenjoymentofthefortunategentryandnobility.Run-of-the-millcitizensprobablysawindoorplayslitsim-

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plybyavailablewindowlightorbythemorehomespunvarietiesofartificiallight.

Onhearingthataplayistoward,theingratiatingSirBounteousProgressthinksimmediatelyoflighting.Butfromthethousandsofnoticesofearlyindoorentertainmentsthatmakenomentionofit,Igatherlightingwascustomarilynotthemajorworryorexpenseofeithertheactorsortheirhosts.Ourignoranceofthehumblerformsofdramabothindoorsandoutdoorsmeansthattheevidencewedohaveregardingthequalityoflightingisnotstatisticallyrepresentativeofthewholebutweighteddisproportionatelyonthesideofsophisticationandsplendor.Theclearestpicturewehaveoftheatricallightingisfromcourt,butthereisnoreasontobelievethatprivatetheaterlightinghappenedtodevelopfromthepracticesweknowthemostabout.Inanycase,generalilluminationatcourt,asopposedtoitsspecialmasqueeffects,differedfrompopularlightinglessinkindthaninsheerquantity.ManyoftheactingcompanieswhomovedintotheJacobeanhallplayhouseshadalreadyperformedatcourt,butwhentheyreturnedtotheirtheaters,theyhadneitherthemoneynortheleisurethatthecourtlavishedonitsonce-a-yearentertainments.Rather,theyreliedonthewindowlightandminimalcandlelightoftheirTudorforebears.

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4AfternoonPerformancesattheOutdoorPlayhousesSunlightfloodingaplatformstageisafamiliarpicturetoanyonewhohasglancedatthemanyconjecturalreconstructionsofElizabethanandJacobeanpublicplayhouses.Weseeactorsstandingatthefrontofthestagebathedinbrightlight,evenifdarknessengulfsthetiring-housefacadeandgalleriesaroundthem.Thereisaroofofsortsabovethestage;butalltooconveniently,itcastsashadowonlyoverthosepartsofthetheaterforwhichwehavenogooddescription.Thecontroversialdiscoveryspace,musicroom,lords'rooms,and"above,"forexample,remainindarkness,whiletheforepartofthestageiscoveredwithdirectsunlight.Itlooksasthoughtheactorswerespotlightedbynaturalsunshine.

Althoughweknowthatthepublicplayhousesusuallymountedtheirplaysintheafternoon,itisbynomeanscertainthattheirstageslookedlikethispicture.Behindourimageofstarklylitactorsmovinginfrontofdimlyseenarchitecturaldetailslurks,infact,asuspiciouslymoderntheatricalconception,oneonlyalittledifferentfromthatofmanyproductionsinourmoderntheater,whereHamletatStratford,SiegfriedatBayreuth,andDidiandGogoinParisregularlystandinbrightlightbeforeapervasivegloom.

1ItispossiblethatwehavereturnedtoamodeofstagingoncepopularinearlymodernLondon.Butitisjustaslikelythatweareconfusingverydifferent,oldertechniqueswithourown.Inevitably,eachageinterpretsthesparseinformationaboutShakespeare'sstagebasedinpartonitsownaestheticsandtheaterpractice.Thegreateighteenth-centurytheaterhistorianEdmondMalonepossessedmuchoftheinformationconcerningearlyEnglishstag-

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ingthatwedo,forinstance,butcouldnotimaginetheGlobestagewithouttwohangingchandeliersforlights.

2HebelievedthisevenwhileknowingtheGlobewasanopen-airplayhouse,becausethetheaterwithwhichhewasfamiliarthetheaterofCibberandGarrickhadthem.Similarly,thenaturallyspotlightedactormaybethecreationofourownbias,andathoroughlookatthelightingofthepublicamphitheatersisinorderbeforeweproceedtothemorecomplicatedartificiallightingintheprivatehallplayhouses.

AlthoughtherearemanyrecordsofafternoonpublictheaterperformancesthroughouttheElizabethan,Jacobean,andCarolineperiods,onlyafewvaguecontemporaryreferencessurvivethatdescribetheactuallightinsidethetheaters.Thereisnoreasontodoubtthattheactorsperformedbydaylight,butwedowelltorecallthatthefirstclearassertionofthiscomesaslateas1699inapamphlet,HistoriaHistrionica."TheGlobe,FortuneandBull,werelargeHouses,"itstates,"andlaypartlyopentotheWeather,andtheretheyalwaiesActedbyDaylight."3TheHistoriapurportstorepresentthememoriesofan''HonestOldCavalier"lookingbackonthetheatershefrequentedasayouth.Assuchitisnotthekindofevidenceonwhichonelikestorely,becauseitwaspublishedoverfiftyyearsafterallthetheatersmentionedhadbeenclosedbyParliament.Still,itistheonlydescriptionoflightatthepublictheatersthatmayclaimevenaminimalweightoffirst-handauthoritybehindit.

PerformanceTimesbefore1594

InordertoevaluatetheHistoriaHistrionica'sinformationanddeterminetheavailabilityofdaylight,itisfirstnecessarytolearnatwhattimesofthedaytheoutdoorplayhousesinLondongave

performances.Wearefortunatetohaveseveralcontemporaryreferencesfromdiaries,letters,andsuch,tellingwhenpeoplewenttotheplayhouses,althoughtheevidenceisfragmentaryandoftenindisagreement.Andyeteventhisevidencemustbeusedwithcaution.Fromasyncreticdesiretodiscoverthestartingtimeofplaysata"typical"Londonpublicplayhouse,earlyinvestigatorsaveragedthemanydifferenttimeswefindrecordedintoameanstartingtimeoftwoo'clock.4TakingsuchanaverageignoresnotonlythediversityofthetenorsopublictheatersbuiltbeforetheRestorationbutalsothechangesintheatergoinghabitsthattookplacethroughouttheperiod,especiallyduringthereign

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ofElizabeth.Thetimesofperformancewerenotasstandardizedastheyareinourmoderntheater,andbecauseonesourcesaysthattheGlobebeganattwoo'clock,wemustnotconcludethatallpublicplayhousesbeganattwoo'clockorthattheGlobealwaysbeganattwoo'clockthroughoutitshistoryorduringdifferentseasonsoftheyear.

ThechangesthattookplaceinregardtoElizabethantheatergoingwerecausedprincipallybychangesinchurchgoing.ApartfromageneralantagonismbetweenProtestantsandtheactingcompanies,leadingfinallytothe1642closingofthetheaters,publicafternoonperformancesspecificallyconflictedwiththeobservanceofeveningprayer.Asvariousaccommodationsonbothsideswereoffered,thetimeofperformanceshiftedsoasnottointerferewiththisimportantreligiousservice.InitsoriginalCatholicform,vespershadformedpartoftherigidsetofsevencanonicalhoursofprayerforeachday.

5ThefirstEnglishprayerbookof1549eliminatedallthecanonicalhoursexceptmatinsandvespers,reorganizedthese,andrenamedthemmorningandeveningprayer.Thepiouswerestillcalledontoattendtheseservicesdailyjustaftersunriseandjustbeforesunset,butthesharpbreakwithtraditionhadalteredthepublic'sviewofitsreligiousduty.Churchgoing,especiallyweekdaychurchgoing,sufferedasaresult.Acenturybefore,foreignvisitorshadwonderedatthedevotionoftheEnglishparishionersattendingcommonprayertwiceaday.Buttowardtheendofthesixteenthcentury,theEnglishbegantoneglectdivineservicesexceptonSundaysandholydays,andmighthaveneglectedservicesonthesedaysaswellhaditnotbeenforstrongfinesimposedfornonattendance.In1592,forexample,thenameofShakespeare'sfatherappearedinalistofSundaychurchdelinquentsatStratford.Bythelatterhalfofthesixteenthcentury,largenumbersofLondonersneverwenttochurchonweekdaysatall.

Theproblemfortheactingcompanieswasthatforcenturies,Sundaysandholydayshadbeentheoccasionformerrymakingingeneralandtheatricalentertainmentinparticular.Plays,fairs,andsportingeventswerereservedforSundaysandthelargenumberofsaints'andfeastdaysintheoldCatholiccalendar.TheCorpusChristiplaysandSt.Bartholomewfairsarefamiliarevidence.ButundertheincreasinglypuritanruleoftheCityauthorities,theserevelrieswerefrownedonbecausetheyrecalledtheoldCatholicway.Oneoftheprimetenetsofanti-CatholicismwasthestrictobservanceoftheentireSabbathasadayofrestandprayer.NicholasBownde'sThedoctrineofthesabbathplainlylaydeforth(London,1595),tociteanextremeexample,

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promulgatedrulessostringentthatevenanimalswereenjoinednottoworkorfroliconSundays.ThispuritanemphasisondevoutSundayworshipthereforeproducedaschedulingconflictwiththeplayhouses,becauseboththechurchesandtheactingcompaniesbytraditionhadaskedthepeopleofLondontogatheronSundayandholy-dayafternoons.Ultimately,theconflictwasresolvedwhentheactors,anticipatinglargereconomicrewards,bowedtocivicpressureandrelinquishedonce-a-weekSundayperformancesforthegreaternumberofweekdayperformances.Butbeforethat,theactorswereobligedtojugglethetimesofperformanceatinnsandearlyamphitheaterssoasnottointerferewiththecelebrationofeveningprayer.

BeforetheReformation,vespersorevensongwassaidatsunsetshortlybeforegoingtobed.AccordingtotheRegularisConcordia,themedievalcollectionofrulesformonasticceremony,monksinEnglandsaidvespersatabout4:15P.M.inthewinterandat6P.M.inthesummer.

6Butamonk'sdaywaslong,andvespersforthelaitywassungearlierintheafternoon,wellbeforesupper.In1375,thebishopofLondonallowedtheparishofSt.MichaelCornhiltoholdvespersonweekdaysat2P.M.andonholydays"accordingtothelawdablecustomeoftheCitee."7UndertheTudors,customratherthanregulationalsoseemstohavedeterminedthetimeofeveningprayer;atleastfewspecifictimesareindicatedinchurchservicerecordsoftheperiod.In1553,theCityprohibitedplaysbefore3P.M.onSundaysandholydayssoasnottointerferewitheveningprayer,indicatingtheservicesbeganaround2P.M.orso.8Around1600,amemorandumbyWilliamPercyindicatesthateveningprayeratSt.Paul'swascompletedby4P.M.,suggestinga2or3P.M.startingtime.9Unfortunatelyforus,nospecifictimewasrequiredbythe

ecclesiasticalauthorities.ThebishopofLondon'svisitationarticlesof1571stipulatedonlythatservicesofcommonprayerbesaid"atconvenienthours."10Eventhoughthenamegiventotheservicewaseveningprayer,mostcontemporarydescriptionsplaceitintheafternoon.Twomodernscholarsstatethateveningprayerbeganat2P.M.,whichisreasonableenough,althoughthetimevariedfromparishtoparish.11Evenwithinaparish,thetimeofeveningprayercouldchangefromseasontoseason,hencethelackofparticularstartingtimesinchurchdocuments.Twoo'clockiscertainlytheearliesttheseservicesbegan.

ToavoidaSundayafternoonconflict,theCityorderedplayerstowaituntilaftereveningprayerwasdonetobeginperformances.InDecember1571,the

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LondonCourtofAldermengrantedalicensetoLeicester'smentoplay"atconvenienthowers&tymes,sothatitbenotintymeofdevyneservice."

12Thenextyear,thealdermenreiteratedtheprohibition,orderinghousekeepersofinns"nottosufferthesameplayestobeinthetymeofdevyneservice...intherehowses,yardes,orbacksydes."13Althoughonlyonemore-or-lesspermanentoutdoorplayhouse(theRedLion)hadbeeninoperationbeforetheseorders,theyshowthatprohibitionsagainstplayingduringeveningprayerappliedequallytooutdoorandindoorstages.

Iftheactorsperforminginsuchvenuesobeyedtheseorders,playscouldnothavebegunmuchearlierthan3:30or4P.M.Theprayerservicewastraditionallyonehourandperhapslastedevenlongerwiththeinclusionofthenewlypopularsermons,manyofwhichwerequitelong.Iftheservicesbeganat2P.M.andlasteduntil3or3:30,thentherewouldbeaconvenientthirtyminutesfortheplaygoerstowalktotheinn,payadmission,andtakeaseatbeforetheplaybegan.Thus,manyperformancesintheearly1570smusthavebegunmoretowards4P.M.than2P.M.Ontheotherhand,thenecessityofrepeatingtheprohibitionsuggeststhatitwasnotalwaysenforced.

Thedifficultywitha4P.M.startingtimeinregardtolightingistheearlysunsetinLondon,particularlyinthewinter.Inmid-December,London'ssunsetisabout3:45P.M.InNovemberandJanuary,itisjustafter4P.M.(seetablebelow).14PlayerswhobeganaftereveningprayerasLeicester'smenwereorderedtodoinDecember1571wouldfindthemselvesperformingindarknesssoonaftertheirplaybegan.

Ofcourse,someoftheselateperformancesmusthavebeengivenindoors.AndrewGurrhasshownthat,intheprovincesatleast,actors

generallyplayedindoorsinbothsummerandwinter,becauseElizabeth's1559edictgenerallyallowedplayerstoperforminacity'slargesthall.15ButinTudorLondon,largecivichallshadlongbeenunavailable,andactorsreliedoninnsfromveryearlyon.Basedontheirfamiliaritywithprovincialguildhalls,thecompaniesprobablypreferredindoorvenuesattheseLondoninns,althoughtheCity'sprohibitionsagainstbothindoorandoutdoorvenuesinallseasonsshowthatthecompaniesdidnotalwaysgettheirway.

AreasonwhycompaniesliketheAdmiral'smencouldperformoutdoorsthroughoutthewintersinthe1590swithoutconcernfordarknesswasaseriesofchangesinperformancetimes.Thesechangeswerethepracticalsolutionstocontroversiesthatoccurredregularlybetweentheactorsandthe

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SunsetTimesinLondon,1598(Old-StyleDates)

1st 7th 14th 22nd 28thJanuary 3:57 4:06 4:14 4:27 4:37February 4:46 4:51 5:10 5:26 5:38March 5:40 5:52 6:06 6:20 6:24April 6:24 6:54 7:06 7:21 7:31May 7:37 7:45 7:55 8:04 8:09June 8:11 8:14 8:15 8:13 8:09July 8:06 8:01 7:53 7:40 7:30August 7:13 7:13 7:00 6:44 6:33September 6:26 6:14 5:58 5:44 5:33October 5:26 5:14 5:00 4:45 4:34November 4:27 4:17 4:07 3:57 3:51December 3:48 3:46 3:45 3:48 3:52

City.ThepoliticalandreligiousbackgroundtoattemptsatgovernmentalinterventionhasbeendiscussedbyRichardDutton;herewecanonlytracespecificprohibitionsthataffectedthetimesofperformances.

16

InDecember1574,anActofCommonCouncilenforcedthepermanentprohibitionagainstplayingduringeveningprayerandendedthefirstofthesecontroversiesbyprecipitatingtheflightoftheactingtroupestosuburbsnotunderCitycontrol.17Iflackofsurvivingrecordsisanindication,troubledieddownwiththebuildingoftheTheaterandCurtainplayhousesinthemid-1570s,takingalargepartoftheaudienceawayfromtheLondoninnsandoutofimmediateofficialconcern.Butaflurryofcomplaintsaroseagaininthelate1570sandearly1580swhentheCity,spurredonbypuritanpreachers,soughttobanperformancesonSundaysandholydaysentirely.

Takingthesideoftheactors,theQueen'sPrivyCouncilsuggestedacompromiseandorderedthelordmayortopermitplaysintheCityonallweekdays,includingholydays,aftereveningprayerbutnottopermitperformancesonSundays.InApril1582,theyorderedthelordmayor"toreuokeyourlateinhibitionagainsttheirplayengonthesaidhollydaiesaftereueningprayeronelyforbearingtheSabothedaiewhollieaccordingtoour

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formerorder."

18Theordermakesclearthatbythistime,theactorswerewillingtogiveupSundaysforthemorenumerousandlucrativeweekdayperformances.

WhatthePrivyCouncildoesnotmakecleariswhethertherequirementtoplayaftereveningprayerappliedonlytoholydaysortoallweekdays,onmostofwhichpeopleneverwenttochurchanyway.Restorationtestimonysuggeststhattheactorsdiddelayperformancesevenonregularweekdays.InhisShortDiscourseoftheEnglishStage(London,1664),RichardFlecknoesaidElizabethanplayswereperformed"onWeekdayesafterVespers,"buthemayhavebeenreferringtoperformancesbyboyactorsconnectedwithreligiouschoirschools.19The1581minutesofthePrivyCouncilrecordonlytheirdesirethatactorsshouldplay"upontheweekedayesonly,beingholydayesorotherdayes,soastheydoeforbearewholyetoplayeontheSabotheDaye,eitherintheforenoneorafternone."20ThattheactingcompaniesdidwaituntilaftereveningprayerisadmittedtobythelordmayorinhisansweringlettertothePrivyCouncil.Buthefoundtheactors'complianceunsatisfactoryinotherways.Forwhiletheplayershadindeeddelayedtheiractualstartingtimes,theyhadenterprisinglyopenedtheirdoorsseveralhoursbefore,luringparishionersfromtheirreligiousduty.Indulgently,thelordmayorwroteofthePrivyCouncil'sinexperienceinsuchmattersandvowedthatallowingplaysonholydaysaftereveningprayer"canveryhardlybedone.''HeexplainedtothePrivyCouncil:

[F]forthoughetheybeginnenottheirplayestillaftereueningprayer,yetallthetimeoftheafternonebeforetheytakeinhearersandfilltheplacewithsuchasbetherbyabsentfromseruingGodatChirch,andattendingtoserueGodsenemieinanInne;IfforremedieherofIsholdalsorestrainethelettinginofthepeopletillafterseruiceinthechircheitwolddriuethe

actionoftheirplaiesintoveryinconuenienttimeofnight.21

Thus,ifthestartingtimesattheCityinnsweretobepostponedbyonlysomuchtimeaswasrequiredforspectatorstoassembleaftereveningprayer,thentheendoftheplaycouldfallintonight.Whatismore,thisdeferment"intoveryincouenienttimeofnight"wascontemplatedinAprilwhensunsetwasafter7:30P.M.

TheplayhousesoutsideCityjurisdictionwerenominallyfreetoignoretheseprohibitions,occasionallyofferingplaysearlyintheafternoon.Suchis

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thetenorofaletterthelordmayorwrotetoWalsingham,thequeen'ssecretary,inMay1583,complainingof"p[ro]phanespectaclesattheTheatreandCurtaineandotherlikeplaces...wchbeotherwisep[er]ilousforcontagionbisidethewithdrawingfromGodssrvice."

22Butthereisalsoevidencethattheseplayhousessometimesperformedlaterinthedayaftereveningprayer,asdidtheplayersattheinnswithinCitycontrol.InthecontinuationofHolinshed'sChronicles,forinstance,welearnthatactorsattheTheater,andprobablyattheCurtainaswell,wereperformingat"aboutsixoftheclocke"on6April1580whenanearthquakeshookLondon.23Tobeperformingat6P.M.,thesenortherntheatersprobablybegantheirplaysaftereveningprayer.Anevenworsedisasteroccurredon13January1583attheBearGardeninParisGardenswhenseveralscaffoldsfullofspectatorscollapsedat''aboutfoureoftheclockeintheafternoone,"justthetimeoftheearlywintersunset.24Andon9June1584,afightbrokeout"veryneretheTheatreorCurtenatthetymeofthePlayes,"andtheCityrecorderfoundthestreetfullofpolicewatchesat"night."25Thefightmighthavebegunbeforemidsummernightfall,buttherecorder'sletterlendssupporttoalaterstartingtimethanearlyafternoon.Atanyrate,theincidentbroughttensionbetweentheCityandtheactorstoaheadyetagain,andthePrivyCouncilsuppressedallplayinginLondon,forcingtheactingcompaniestofleetheCityandtravelorusethesuburbanplayhousesfortheremainderofsummer.26

Intheautumnorwinterofthe158485season,thenewlyformedQueen'smenpetitionedthePrivyCounciltoletthemreturntotheCity.27WedonotknowwhatactionthePrivyCounciltook,butananswertothepetitionfromtheCorporationofLondonhassurvived

thatspeakstolightingconditionsinthepublictheaters.Intheirpetition,theactorshadcomplainedthatbadwinterweathermadeperformancesoutsideLondondifficult.TheCityrepliedthatifwinterdarknesswasaproblemforthem,thesolutionwasnottobringtheplaysintotheCitybuttocontinuetoperforminthedistantlibertiesandshortentheplays:"Ifinwinterthedarkdocaryinco[n]uenience:andtheshorttimeofdayaftereueningprayerdoleauethemnoleysure:...thetrueremedieistoleaueofthatvnnecessarieexpenseoftimewhereuntoGodhimselfgeuethsomanyimpediments."28TheCity'sanswerindicatesnotonlythatwinterperformancesatthenorthernamphitheatersencounteredproblemswithdarknessbutalsothat,despitebeingtechnicallyfreeofCitycontrol,thesuburbanplayhousesafter1583orsononethelesssometimesbegan

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aftereveningprayer.TheCityappendedalistof"remedies"totheirreply:"Thatnoplayeingbeonholydaiesbutaftereueningprayer....Thatnoplayeingbeinthedark,norcontinueanysuchtimebutasanyoftheauditoriemayreturnetotheirdwellingsinLondon,beforesonneset,oratleastbeforeitbedark."

29TheCity'sphrase''playeing...inthedark"couldmeaneitherplayinginbadlightoutdoorsorunderartificiallightsindoorsatahallinaninn,forexample.ButtheCity'scarefulphrasinginthelastremedysuggeststhataneffortwasmadetoincludebothsuburbanpublicplayhousesandCityinnswithorwithoutopen-airinn-yards.Thedocumentissusceptibleoftheinterpretationthatnaturaldaylightmaynothaveservedquitetotheendofsomewinteropen-airplaypresentations,althoughtheCity'semphasisonspectatorswalkinghomeinthedarkalsosuggeststhattheQueen'smencontinuedtoplayrightuptotheonsetofdarkness,afterwhichtheyleftdepartingspectatorstofendforthemselvesinthedark.

Asithaddoneoncebefore,thecontroversybetweentheplayersandthecivicgovernmentdieddownforabouttenyears,onlytoflareupagainatthebeginningofthe1590swhenat8P.M.onSunday,11June1592,amoboffelt-makers'apprentices,whowereattemptingtofreeafellowapprenticefromtheMarshalsea,assembledthemselves"byoccasion,&pretenceoftheirmeetingataplay."30Withthesunsettingabout8:10P.M.inthemiddleofJune,8P.M.isratherlatetogivethepretenseofmeetingataplayhouse,presumablytheRose,approximatelyaquarterofamileawayfromtheMarshalsea.WeshouldbeabletoconfirmthattherewasaperformanceattheRoseonthatday,butunfortunatelythepertinententryinHenslowe'sdiaryisambiguous.Figure11showsitalongwiththeprecedingandsucceedingentries.

TheentryforAKnacktoKnowaKnaveisunusualbecauseinsteadofgivingadate,Henslowesuppliesonlyaninterlinednotereading"day."Precedingthewordisamarkthateditorstranscribeasa"1,"butwhichissimplythecharacteristicbackward-"C"bracket-markthatHensloweregularlymadeatthebeginningofeachruleseparatingtheyearandtheamountofmoneycollected.Inthiscase,Henslowewasabitsloppy:thebracketmarkisalittleabovetherule,andashefinishedthemark,hefailedtolifthispenquickly,resultinginaflourishmarkmorelikea"V"thananythingelse.Betweenthismarkandtheword"day"isafaintsmudge.Gregdescribesitas"afainttraceofafigurewhichhasapparentlybeenerased."31Intheireditionofthediary,FoakesandRickerttranscribethesmudgeasa"o"andthebracket

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Fig.11.Detailoffolio8ofHenslowe'sdiary(theentryforAKnacktoKnowaKnave

isthesixthlinedown).DulwichCollegeLibrary,London.

andsmudgetogetheras"10,"makingthenoterefertothetenthofthemonth,aSaturday.

32ButasImakeitout,thesmudgemightsignifyjustaboutanythingorforthatmatternothing;itisveryfaintindeed,andelsewhereinthediaryHenslowetendstostrikeoutmistakesratherthanerasethem.Becausetheplayismarkedasnew,perhapsHenslowemeant"1day,"meaningthefirstdayofperformance.Editorstranscribethenote"10"ratherthan''11"becauselateron,theAdmiral'smenregularlyskippedSundayperformancesinaccordancewithCitywishes,butthehabitofnotperformingonSundayswasonlysolidlyestablishedattheRosetwoyearslaterinthesummerof1594bytheAdmiral'smen.Inthesummerof1592,theRosewasoccupiedbyLordStrange'smenwhoseemtohaveperformedonseveralSundays,astheyapparentlydidaweeklater,offeringJeronimoonSunday,18June1592.33

Hence,theapprentices'riotmightwellhaveinvolvedtheRose.Andthereisfurtherevidencetosupportthissuggestion.Twoweekslater,allplayingwasforbiddeninandaboutLondonbythePrivyCouncil,

whichdreadedsuchcivildisorders.34Whenthenoblesponsorsoftheactingcompaniesaskedforrelieffromtheprohibitiononbehalfoftheirtroupes,LordStrange'srequestwasgrantedonlyifhiscompanynotperformattheRosebutatthemoredistanttheaterinNewington.35ThePrivyCouncilhadaspecificde-

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sirethattheRoseremainempty,whichtendstolinkittotheoriginaldisturbance.Thus,Strange'smenmayhaveperformedattheRoseat8P.M.,justthetimeofsummersunset.

ThislastcontroversybetweentheCityandtheplayersresolveditselfwhentheactingcompaniesrequestedandevidentlyreceivedpermissiontoperformearlierintheafternoonatthesametimeaseveningprayer.Aswehaveseen,priortothe1590sthegovernmenthadbeenmostconcernedwithkeepingthetimeofdivineservicefreeofmorealluringactivities.AlthoughtherehadlongbeennighttimecurfewlawsinLondon,officialsbelievedthatplayingaftereveningprayerposedlessharmtomoralhealththandidallowingLondonerstomisschurchaltogether.

36Thus,theCityhadmollifieditsobjectiontolateperformances;atleasttherearefewernightprohibitionsintheirregulatorydocumentsofthe1580sandearly1590sthaninthe1570s.ButaftertheSouthwarkriotandotherinstancesofunrest,bothCityandCrownbecamemoreconcernedaboutavoidingcivildisorderatnightthanprotectingtheChurchintheafternoon.AtbothGuildhallandWhitehall,concernforreligiousobservancesuccumbedtofearofsocialprotest.

ItwasinthisclimatethatHenryCarey,LordHunsdon,thequeen'slordchamberlain,wrotetothelordmayoron8October1594requestingearlywintertimeperformancesattheCrossKeysinn.LordHunsdonwrotenotinhisofficialcapacitybutasthepatronoftheLordChamberlain'smenwhomusthavemovedfromtheirsummerhomeattheTheatertotheCrossKeysearlierthatautumn.ThankingGodfortheabatementoftheplague,Hunsdonpromisedthat"wheremynowecompanieofPlayers...hauevnder-takentomethatwhereheretoforetheybegannottheirPlaiestilltowardsfoweraclock,they

willnowbeginattwo,&hauedonbetweenfowerandfiue."37Inalllikelihood,thelordmayorwouldpreviouslyhaverejectedanoffertobeginplaysat2insteadof4P.M.,becausetheearliertimeconflictedwitheveningprayer.Butby1594,socialconditionshadchanged,andHunsdoncouldrepresenttheearlystartingtimeasanadvantagetotheCityfathers.Still,headmitsthatbeforeOctober,hiscompanywasinthehabitofbeginningat4andfinishingat5or6P.M.attheCrossKeys.

Weshouldliketoknowwhethersuchperformanceswereindoorsorout.Earlyautumnperformancesatinnslastinguntil6P.M.tendtosuggestindoorvenues.GlynneWickhamhasarguedthatthehabitofassumingplaysatinnswerenormallyoutsideintheinn-yardsisunsupportedbytheevidence.38Still,DavidGallowaypointsoutaclearreferencetoaninn-yardscufflein

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Norwich"intheafternoone...ataplayintheyardattheredlyon"inJune1583.

39AndinLondonin1557,a"Lewdeplaye"wasabouttobe"plaiedthisdaye"attheBoar'sHeadinn,presumablyintheyardthatwaslaterconvertedintoafairlyelaborateplayhouse.40RegardingtheCrossKeysinn,moreover,wehaveRichardFlecknoe'sstatementinhisbriefhistoryofEnglishdramathattheCrossKeyswasaninn-yardtheater.Hedescribedhow"Companies...setupTheatres,firstintheCity,(asintheInn-yardsoftheCross-keyes,andBullinGraceandBishops-GateStreetatthisdayistobeseen...).''41Flecknoe'saccountwaspublishedin1664;itmayormaynotbereliable.WehavenorecordsoftheCrossKeysbeingusedasatheaterafterHunsdon'srequestin1594,anditisnotclearwhetherFlecknoemeantthatthetheatersintheinn-yardswerestilltobeseenormerelythattheinnsthemselveswerestillstandingintheearly1660s.Yet,Flecknoe'sreportisearlyintheRestoration,andweknowthathewasaliveandoldenoughtotravelalonetotheContinentbeforetheInterregnum.42Thus,whenhesaystheCrossKeysaccommodatedatheaterinitsyard,wecannotignorehisevidencemerelybecausewealsohaverecordsoflateafternoonwintertimeperformancesthere.

AlthoughWickhammaywellbecorrectthatactorstypicallyperformedonindoorstagesinwinterandonoutdoorstagesinsummer,wemustnotconsiderhisobservationahard-and-fastrule,becausethereiscontradictoryevidence,manyplaysbeinggivenindoorsinthesummerandoutdoorsinthewinter,although,inthelattercase,tosmalleraudiences.43JohnWebstercomplainedthatthepremiereofTheWhiteDevilattheRedBull"wasacted,insodullatimeofWinter,presentedinsoopenandblackeaTheater,thatitwanted...afullandunderstandingAuditory."Similarly,aplayerin

Jonson'sPoetaster(1602),whoisidentifiedwiththeGlobe,complainsoflowreceiptsinwinter.44Inshort,anactor'svirtuewasflexibilitytheabilitytoperformunderavarietyofconditionsinnearlyanysortofplayhouse.Inallthelettersthatpassedhandsamongthetroupes,theirpatrons,theCityCorporation,andthePrivyCouncil,theaestheticquestionoftheatricalilluminationneverarises.TheclosestwecometosuchaconcerniswhentheCitysympathizedwithplaygoerswalkinghomeinthedarkfromtheTheaterandCurtainin1584.ActorsmayhavepreferredindoorwinterquartersintheCity,butwehavenodocumentaryevidenceforbelievingthattheydidsobecauseofbadoutdoorlightingintheamphitheaters.Thewintermigrationofafewcompaniestotheprivatehallplayhousestookadvantageofartificiallight,no

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doubt,buttheirprimarymotivewasadesiretoperformasclosetothecenterofpopulationaspossible.

Welacksufficientinformationtotraceaccuratelythemovementsbackandforthoftheearlyactingcompanies,butasimilarformofentertainment,fencing,leavesrecordssuggestingthatweatherandlightingwerelessimportantmotivesformigrationthanplaguerestrictionsandprecautions.The"RegisteroftheMastersofDefense"showsthatthefencerspreferredtoholdtheirprizematchesinallseasonsattheCityinnsbutthattheregularresurgenceoftheplague,almostalwaysinsummer,obligedthemtofleetothesuburbanamphitheaterswheretheycouldignoretheCity'sprohibitionsagainstpublicassembly.

45Presumably,onecanfencelesssafelyinthebadlightofwinterthanonecanactinit,butlightdoesnotseemtohavebeenaworryforthefencersorfortheactors.Indeed,thevarietyofevidenceaboutwhetherperformancesatinnswereindoorsinahalloroutdoorsinayardsuggeststhattheactorswerenotveryparticularabouttheirlightingarrangements.WhenLordHunsdonrequestedearlierplayingtimesfortheCrossKeysinn,thechangeseemstohavebeenpromptedbypoliticalconcernsandnotbytechnicallightingrequirements.AndWebster'sandJonson'srealcomplaintisthatthewinterweatherinhibitedlargeaudiencesfromgatheringattheoutlyingplayhouses,especiallyan"understandingAuditory,"asthepatronswouldhavetostandintheyardunprotectedfromtheweather.Websterdoesnotlamentthatthe"openandblacke''RedBullmadeitdifficulttoseebutthatitpreventedordiscouragedpatronsfrommakinghimapopularplaywright.

PerformanceTimesafter1594

The2P.M.startingtimesuggestedbythepatronofthemostfamousactingcompanyofitstimehasbeensowidelyacceptedasanormthatitissurprisingtodiscoveronwhatlittleevidenceitisbased.NotonlyareweunsureifHunsdon'sstartingtimereferstoanoutdoorplayhouse,butalsowedonothavetheCity'sreplytotherequest.NordowehavesubsequentletterswithtimeindicationsfromtheCityandtheactors.Infact,oncetheirarguingfinallydieddowninthelate1590s,wehaveonlyahandfulofallusionstoperformancetimes.Andamongthishandful,thereislittleagreementastoastandardtimeforthepublicplayhouses.Indeed,onlyoneindicationofareg-

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ularstartingtimesurvives:inApril1614,anactorinLadyElizabeth'stroupeattheHopeagreedtoacontractrequiringhim"tobegyntheplayatthehowerofthreeoftheclockintheafternoone."

46Otherwise,wemustrelyontheusuallyvagueallusionsinextantletters,diaries,andthelikeastowhenspectatorsarrivedatthetheater.E.K.Chambersstatesflatlythat"beforetheendofthesixteenthcenturythetimeforbeginninghadbeenfixedat2o'clock,"butforproofhecitesonlyLordHunsdon'ssuggestionandastatementbytheSwissvisitorThomasPlatterthaton21September1599herodeovertheThames"ettwanumbzweyuhren''toseeaproductionofJuliusCaesar,presumablyatthenewlyopenedGlobe.47Evenso,thereferencemayimplyacommencementlaterthan2P.M.IfPlattercrossedtheriver"about"2P.M.,thenwemaysupposeittookhimatleastseveralminutestoreachtheplayhouseandfindaseat.48Andbecauseweknowthatspectatorsoftenexpectedtowaitintheirseatsbeforetheplaybegan,theperformancePlattersawmaynothavebegununtilcloseto3P.M.49

WellbeforeChambers,Malone'sstudyofShakespearehadannouncedjustasemphaticallythat"[p]laysinthetimeofourauthor,beganatoneo'clockintheafternoone."50Maloneofferedonlyonepieceofevidence,anepigrambySirJohnDaviespublishedaround1590,whichishardlyprecise.Theepigramdescribesatowngallantwho"goestoGilles,wherehedotheatetilone,/Thenseesaplaytillsixe,andsuppesatseauen."51Later,J.PayneCollierobjectedtoMalone'sestimateanddeclared,"Infacttheperformanceofplaysbeganatthreeo'clock."52Forhisargument,Colliercollectedthreecitationsfromtheeighty-yearperiodcoveredinhisstudy.Thefirstisfromachildren'stheatersatire,Histriomastix,orThePlayerWhipt,inwhicha"player"advertiseshiscompany'sperformancewillbegin"Atthreea

clocke."53Thesecondisthecontract,mentionedearlier,betweentheactorRobertDawesandHensloweandJacobMeaderequiringhimtobeginactingat3P.M.AndthethirdisapassagefromanentertainingbookcalledAmanda,orTheReformedWhore,thatsummarizesAmanda'safternoonscheduleinneatheroiccouplets:

Attwoaclocke,thougoesttodinnerthoWiththyLand-lady,andhermaydbelow.AtthreeuntothePlayhousebackeagen,Tobeacquaintedwithsomeothermen.54

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Apartfromthesmallnumberofsuchtimereferences,veryfewofeventheseprovidesatisfactoryevidenceregardingtheamphitheaters.Hunsdon'srequestrevealspertinentinformationaboutaninn,butwedonotknowiftherequestwasadoptedorifplaystherewereperformedinanopen-airyard.Davies'sepigramaboutthegallantwhoeatslunchuntilone,seesaplayuntilsix,andbeginssupperatsevenisofunsuredateandcouldrefertoanysortoftheater.Butithardlyreferstoa1P.M.startingtime,asMalonesuggests.Ifittookonehourforthegallanttogofromtheplayhousetosupper,thenwemaysupposeittookhimanhourtogettotheplayhousefromlunch.Thus,2P.M.istheearliestlikelystartingtime,andeventhatwouldmeanspendingfourhourswatchingtheplayandleavenotimebeforeittosecureagoodseat.Infact,theplay'snotfinishinguntil6P.M.impliesastilllatercommencement.Thethreeo'clockreferenceinHistriomastixisprecise,butCollierwaspushinghisevidenceratherhard.Theplayisasatireofaragtagprovincialactingcompanythathopestoperforminthelocaltownhall.ItrefersneithertoprofessionalLondonactorsnortoanoutdoortheater.ThedateofPlatter'stwoo'clockdescriptionisbetterfixed,butthetwoorthreedifferentplacesatwhichhesaysplayswereactedaredifficulttochoosefromthelistofpossiblesitestheCurtain,Rose,Swan,firstGlobe,NewingtonButts,andtheindoorsecondBlackfriarsandSt.Paul'stheaters,allstandingin1599,thedateofhisvisittoLondon.

The1614actor'scontractgivingathreeo'clockstartingtimeismoredefiniteasitclearlyreferstoaregularstartingtimeataspecificplayhouse,theHope.Unfortunately,thecontractisnowlostandcannotbeauthenticated.ButCollier'sotherbitofproofthecitationfromAmandaistoovaguetobeofuse,becauseitalsofailstoindicateatwhattheaterorevenatwhatkindoftheaterAmandaconductedbusinessbeforeherlong-delayedreformation.Atanyrate,Amanda'sarrivalattheplayhousetofindclientsatthreeo'clockdoesnot

necessarilyimplythatshewasparticularlyeagertoseethebeginningoftheplay.

Tothesereferencesshouldbeaddedahalf-dozenothersthatconfirmnoonestandardstartingtimebutdemonstrateinsteadconsiderableflexibilityinregardtowhenplayswereperformed.InThomasDekker'spamphletTheGulsHorne-booke(London,1609),amanwhowouldbeagallantisadvisedtogotolunchat11:30A.M.andseeaplayacrosstheriverdirectlyafterwards.

55

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Dependingonthelengthofdinner,Dekkersuggestsa1or2P.M.startingtime.ButaletterfromJohnChamberlaininAugust1624impliesalatertimefortheGlobe.Thatsummer,ThomasMiddleton'sAGameatChesswasdrawinglargecrowdsofLondoners,fightingtheirwayintoseeitbeforethePrivyCouncilsuppressedit.Chamberlainadmittedthathewouldhavelikedtoseetheplay,too,"butthatIcouldnotsitsolong,forwemusthavebentherebeforeoneo'clockeatfarthesttofindanyroome."

56HowlongChamberlainwouldhavehadtositisagainleftvague.Accountsofotherplaysdescribeaone-hourwaitasexpected,andthesecondBlackfriarstheaterpresentedaone-hourconcertbeforeeachplay.SinceChamberlainimpliesthataoneo'clockarrivalwouldmeananunusuallylongwaitingperiod,wemayestimatetheperformancebegansometimeafter2P.M.

Lookingatthewholeperiod,wecansaywithconfidenceonlythatthepublicplayhousesusuallybeganperformancesanywherefrom2P.M.to4P.M.Chronologicallyspeaking,thetimesrecordedbefore1594refermostoftentoaround4P.M.,attheturnofthecenturyperhapsmoretowards2P.M.,andcloserto3P.M.somefifteenyearslater.Gurrbelievesthereisenoughevidencetosaythatdifferentplayhousesmayhaveestablisheddifferentstartingtimes:theGlobeat2P.M.,theHopeanhourlater.57Thisisentirelypossible,butthereareseveralreferencestospectatorsdecidingtoleaveonetheaterinordertocatchaplayatarivaltheater,whichwouldbemadedifficult,butbynomeansimpossible,bydisparatestartingtimes.58Ontheotherhand,variationsinstartingtimesmayhavebeenafunctionoftheseason,withwintertimeperformancesbeginningearlierthansummertimeperformances.

ThereisoneentryinHenslowe'sdiarythatspecifiesanighttime

performancebytheAdmiral'smen:"lentvntothecompanywhentheyfyrstplayeddidoatnyghtthesomeofthirtishillyngeswchwassethe8ofJenewary159[8]."59Theearly-twentieth-centuryscholarT.S.Gravesusedthisentrytoprovethat"nightperformancesinthepublictheatreswereratherfrequentinthedaysofShakspere."60Tobesure,thereisevidenceforperformancesstretchingintotwilight,butGraveswentfurtherandinsistedthatfullnighttimeperformanceslightedbytorchesandcressetswerecommoninthepre-Restorationamphitheaters.Toreinforcehisargument,Gravesjumbledtogetherreferencestoprivate,court,andevenRestorationproductions.TheHensloweentryishisprimebitofevidence,becausetheonlyplayhouseHensloweownedorhadbusinessassociationswithatthetimewastheRose.

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Buttheformoftheentry(lendingmoneytothecompanysimplyforaperformanceratherthanfortheusualscripts,costumes,orproperties)isunusualandprobablysignifiesnothingmorethanextraexpensesincurredforaprivateperformanceindoors,suchasthetransportationcoststhatHenslowepaidayearlaterwhentheAdmiral'smen"playedinfleatstreatpryvat."

61Aprivatevenueisalsosupportedbytheentry'sreferencetoaSundayperformance,when,bythisdate,theRosenormallywentunused.Atanyrate,onenighttimeperformancedoesnotsuggestaregularpattern.

Recordsofnighttimeprofessionalperformancesintheprovincesaremorefrequent,buttheyusuallydonotspecifyperformancesites.InApril1615,forexample,thecityofHytheinKentallowedactorstoperform"inthedayetymeorEveninge(thesameplayesbeingefullyendedbeforeeightoftheClockatnyghtinyewinter&intheSumerbeforenyneoftheClockatnight)"butannouncedatwentyshillingfinetothe"ownorofanyhousewithinthisTowne[who]shallsufferanyplayerstoplayintheirhousesorbacksides"incontraventionoftheseandotherconditions.62Winterperformancesendingat8P.M.undoubtedlytookplace"intheirhouses,"butsummerperformancesendingby9P.M.couldreasonablytakeplaceinthe"backsides''ofinnsorinlargerooms.Inthearticle"PublicNightPerformancesinShakespeare'sTime,"MarvinRosenbergdrawsattentiontoapassageinThomasHeywood'sAnApologyforActors(London,1612,G2)tosupportGraves'stheoryofLondonnighttimepublictheaterplaying.63Indefendingtheactingprofession,Heywoodtakespainstoreciteeveryconceivablebenefitthatmightderivefromplays.Todemonstrateanunexpectedmilitaryadvantage,HeywoodtellsafantasticstoryofagroupofSpanishmarauderswholandedonenight

ontheshoresofCornwallandwereabouttopillageanEnglishtownwhentheywerescaredoffbythesoundofdrums,trumpets,andmilitaryalarmsarisingfromalocalplay.Rosenbergbelievesthattheeasewithwhichtheinvadersheardthestagebattlemeanttheperformancewasout-of-doors.Thismightbethecase,butjustsuchnoisedisturbedtheneighborsoftheindoorsecondBlackfriarsandtheindoorRosseter'sBlackfriarstheaters.64Moreover,ofthereferencestonightplaysinprovincialrecordsthatindicatespecificvenues,mostputtheperformancesintownhalls,guildhalls,or,increasinglyafter161418,inroomsininns.65Atanyrate,Heywood'sstoryisprobablyapocryphalanddoesnotconcerntheLondontheaters.

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AlthoughHenslowe'scontractandthestreetcryinHistriomastixbothgiveaspecific3P.M.timeforthebeginningofplays,itmaybetruethatpatronsdidnotexpectplaystobeginasregularlyoraspromptlyaswedo.Handbillsadvertisedcomingplays,butalthoughnoauthenticplaybillshavesurvived,itisdoubtfulthatparticulartimeswerespecified.AnadvertisementforbearbaitinginHenslowe'spapersgivesnoindicationofthetimespectatorsshouldassemble,nordoestheplaybillforabogusplay,England'sJoy.Indeed,Englishplaybillsdidnotindicateperformancetimesuntilthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,althoughaGermanbillforEnglishactorsin1628doesadvisetheaudiencetogatherat2P.M.

66Thislackofconcretenoticesuggeststhatsomeplaysbeganatonlyapproximatetimesorsimplywhentheactorswereready.Moderntheatersaredarkenedforthesakeofdramaticillusion,andlatecomersarenotpermittedtodestroyitbywanderingdowntheaisleslookingfortheirseats.Awell-advertisedstartingtimeismandatoryforatheaterlikeoursthathaslittlekinshipwiththekindoftheaterwherespectatorscouldcomeandgowithlittleregardforastrictscheduleorsocialpressure.Consequently,theremayhavebeenlessneedtodesignateacertainhourasanofficialstartingtime.

Yetevenifthemajorityofplaysbeganaroundtwoo'clock,itisdifficulttounderstandhowdaylightcouldhaveservedquitetotheendofmanyplaysperformedinthewinter.Althoughthe"twohours'traffic"ofthestagefromtheprologuetoRomeoandJulietisoftenquotednormatively,itislikelythatmostfullentertainmentsatthepublicplayhouseslastedclosertothreehours.Asinthecaseofstartingtimes,thereismuchconjecturebutlittlehardevidenceregardingthelengthofperformance.Inthemostinfluentialstudyofplayingtimes,AlfredHartarguedforastandardtwo-hour"allotment."

Hartsummarizedhisevidence:''Priorto1614[theterminusforhisarticle]atleastadozenallusionsweremadebytenveryimportantdramatistsandactorsconnectedwiththeprincipalcompaniesandtheatrestotheprevalentcustomofallottingtwohourstotherepresentationofaplay.Onlyonedramatistspeaksofathree-hourplayingtime."67ButDavidKleinarguesforlongerplayingtimes,listingahalf-dozenotherallusionstothree-hourperformancetimes.68Unfortunately,neitherHartnorKleindistinguishesbetweenpublicandprivateplayhouseauspices.Moreover,theybothacceptatwoo'clockstartingtimeasobligatory.Thus,Kleinbolstershisargumentforathree-hourallotmentbycitingallusionstofiveo'clockfinishingtimes.

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Still,Klein'spointthatseveral,perhapsmany,playscontinuedlongerthantheconventionaltwohoursiswelltaken.Whatismore,theactorsoftenpresentedajigafterthecompletionoftheirplays.Chambersmakestheintriguingsuggestionthatshorterplaysmayhavebeenreservedforthewinter.

69Butthiskindofschedulingmayhavebeendifficulttoarrange,consideringthenatureoftherepertorysystem.Atleast,acheckoftheperformanceschedulesinHenslowe'sdiaryrevealsnoseasonalemphasisonplaysknowntobeeithershortorlong.Presumablyjigscouldbeshortenedmoreeasilythanplays;perhapstheyprovidedtheactorssomeflexibilityinaccommodatinguncontrollablenaturallight.Afteracarefulreviewoftheevidence,AndrewGurrconcludesthatperformanceslasted"somewherebetweentwoandthreehoursinall."70

Theassumptionthatacompleteentertainmentatthetheaterlastedbetweentwoandthreehoursmeansthatsomerepresentationsfinishedintwilight.Evenifplaysbeganpromptlyat2P.M.,athree-hourdurationwouldpushtheendoftheplaypastsunsetforfourmonthsayear,fromthesecondweekinOctoberuntilthethirdweekinFebruary.Whenplaysbeganatthreeo'clock,theendofathree-hourplaywouldcontinuepastsunsetforhalftheyear,fromthemiddleofSeptemberuntilthemiddleofMarch.AttheHopeon31October1614,forexample,LadyElizabeth'smenperformedBartholomewFair,which,asJonsontellsusinhisinduction,lasted"twohouresandanhalfe,andsomewhatmore."71Astheactor'scontractsignedthepreviousspringgivesitasofficialcompanypolicytobeginat3P.M.,theplaywouldhavestretchedmorethanonehourpastsunset,unless,ofcourse,thecompanyrevertedtoanearlierstaringtimefortheautumnandwinter.SuchwastheprocedureatthecorralesinMadrid,

whereplaysstartedattwoo'clockinwinterandaslateasfourinsummer.72Itisimprobable,though,thatthisdelaywascausedbyanyartisticinclinationoftheSpaniardstoperformplaysthroughtheyearundersimilarlevelsofbrightness.MoreimportantwasthepracticaldesiretoavoidtheblazingmidafternoonsuninMadrid,whereeventodaythecityclosesdownfromonetofouro'clockinsummer.AcustomlikethisisunnecessaryinLondon.

Ifearlydarknesscauseddifficultiesandnoindoorvenuewasavailable,Englishactorsprobablysimplyshortenedtheplay,asweknowtheysometimesdidfromthecomplaintsofirateauthors.Forexample,thetitlepageofTheDuchessofMalfitellsusthatthetextwasprinted"withdiversethings

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...thatthelengthofthePlaywouldnotbeareinthePresentment."Becauseearlysunsetswouldbeoneoftheprincipalreasonsforcuttingaplay,wemayguessthattherewasalimittohowmuchpastsunsetaperformancecouldlast.

Weather

Nomatterwhattimeofdayplaysbeganorended,thequalityoflightwasalsoaffectedbyalargelyuncontrollablefactortheweather.Regardlessofthetimeortheseason,thepossibilitythatthesundirectlylitactorsonanopen-airstagecouldnothavebeengreat.Londonisnotfamousforitssunshine,andwhatevidencewehaveindicatesthattheweatherinShakespeare'stimewasratherworsethanitisnow.Intypicalsummerweathertoday,onlytwoofeveryfivedaytimehoursissunnyinLondon,accordingtomeasurementsrecordedatKewoverthepastfiftyyears.

73Inspringandautumn,thesunshinesonaverageonlyone-thirdtoone-fourthofthetimefromsunrisetosunset.

Butclimatologistsrefertotheperiodfrom1550to1680asthefirstphaseofthe"LittleIceAge,"aperiodofrelativelycooler,moreunstableweatherthanwehaveenjoyedsinceabout1850.74Itisdifficulttogeneralizefromthesparseanecdotalevidence,butapparentlyearly-seventeenth-centurywinterswerefrequentlymoreseverethanweareusedto(theThamesfreezingoveronanumberofoccasions),whilesummerstendedtouncomfortableextremeswetandcool,forthemostpart,butoccasionallyhotanddry.Allinall,London'smistsandrainsmusthavereducedtheamountoflightatleastasoftenasweshouldexpectthemtodotoday.AlthoughclimatologistsascribetheseverityofLondon'sfogstotheeffectsoftheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenthcentury,diaristsasearlyas

theRestorationlodgefamiliarcomplaintsofsmokymistsandthickfogcoveringtheCity.Anditdoesnotseemtobetruethatperformanceswereregularlycanceledonrainydays,asC.WalterHodgeshasasserted.75A1623almanacpredictedrainshowersattheRedBullandCurtainamphitheaters,where"theyshallsitdryerintheGalleries,thenthosewhoarevnderstandingmenintheyard."76DekkeradvisesagallantattheBanksidetheatersthat"if...indispositionoftheweatherbindeyoutositit[theplay]out,"mewingattheactorsandcriticizingtheirmusicareinorder.77AttheRose,theAdmiral'smenmusthaveoftenplayed

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inbadweather;ticketreceiptsinHenslowe'sdiaryrecorduninterruptedstringsofperformancesbythecompanysixdaysaweekovermanyseasons.Andweknowthat,while"unseasonable"summerweatherreducedincomeattheGlobe,itdidnotcauseperformancestobecanceled.

78Inshort,thedismalpictureWebsterdrewofthepremiereofTheWhiteDevilattheRedBullmaynotbethemereexaggerationofadisgruntledplaywright.

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5IlluminationoftheOutdoorPlayhousesBesidesthenaturaleffectsofsunandclouds,theplayhousesthemselvesaffectedthequalityofthedaylightthatilluminatedthem.TheconfigurationsoftheamphitheatersbuiltinShakespeare'sLondonmayneverbedeterminedtoourcompletesatisfaction,ofcourse,butfromtheSwandrawing,extantplayhousecontracts,perspectivemapsoftheBankside,andthepartiallyexcavatedfoundationsoftheRoseandsecondGlobe,weknowenoughabouttheshape,size,andorientationofseveraloutdoortheaterstomakeintelligentsurmisesabouttheamountandkindoflightthatilluminatedtheirstages.Thevariablesarethepositionandsizeofthestageandthe"heavens"abovethestage,thealtitudeofthesunabovethehorizon,andtheproportionsoftheplayhouse.Diagramsathroughf(seefig.12),basedonRichardHosley'sreconstructionoftheSwan,demonstratetheprinciples.

1

Letusassumethatsunlightcomesfromthesouthwest,asitdoesonaverageinthemidafternoonfromspringtoautumn.Indiagramsaandb,thestageisplacedatthenortheastsideofthetheater,oppositethesun.DiagramashowsthearticulationoflightintheSwanat2P.M.onthesummersolstice.Itwillbeseenthatattheheightofsummer,thealtitudeofthesunat2P.M.(aboutfifty-fourdegrees)ishighenoughtolightnearlytheentirestage.Diagramb,however,presentsamoretypicalperformancesituation3P.M.ontheautumnorspringequinox.Herethealtitudeofthesunisabouttwenty-sevendegrees,andonlyasmallareahighonthetiring-housewallislitdirectlyby

thesun.Inwinter,thesunissolowintheskyevenat2P.M.(only

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Fig.12.ConjecturaldiagramsoftheSwan

elevendegreesabovethehorizononthewintersolstice,forinstance)thatthestagecanneverbelitbydirectsunshine.

DiagramscanddarecrosssectionsofHosley'sreconstructionwiththestageandheavensatthenorthwestsideofthearena(orthemirrorimageofitscomplement,thesoutheast).Inc,theearlyafternoonsummersuncanlightabouthalftheforepartofthestage,whilethewallsoftheplayhouseandtheheavensshademostoftherest.Onlyathinbandoflightisallowedto

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crossthestagefromfronttoback.Diagramddemonstratesthatonanautumnorspringdayat3P.M.,nodirectsunlightcouldstrikethestageatall.

Diagramseandfrepresentthecorrespondingsituationswhenthestageisatthesouthwest,thesamecompasspointfromwhichthesunisshining.Itwillbeseenthatevenattheheightofsummerat2P.M.,nofranksunshinecouldreachthestage.

Orientation

Toobtainthebestlight,amodernlightingdesignerwouldundoubtedlyputthestageatthenortheastsideoftheyard,asinaandb.Judgingbytheshadowsinpicturesoftheirreconstructions,severalearlytheaterhistoriansputthestagethere,too,asdidtheplannersofmanyAmericanoutdoorShakespeareanfestivals.ButthepracticeinShakespeare'stimewaslesspredictable;inmanyoftheamphitheaters,infact,theorientationappearstohavebeentheexactoppositetowhatwemightexpect.

Asummaryofthemostimportantevidencefortheorientationofamphitheaterstagesandthestructuresabovethemfollows.

RedLion.TherecentlydiscoveredlegaldescriptionoftheconstructionoftheRedLionindicatesthatitsstagewaserectedina"Courteoryardelyingonthesouthsyde"ofagardenbelongingtoafarmhouse.

2Aboutthecourtweregalleries,andwithinthecourtthecarpenterbuiltastagefortyfeetnorthandsouthandthirtyfeeteastandwest.Becauseotheramphitheaterstageswerewiderthantheyweredeep(RichardHosleyestimatesanaverageratioofeighttofive),wemayconjecturethatthestageoftheRedLionfacedeithereastorwest.3

Theater.AbramBooth'sViewoftheCityofLondonfromtheNorthtowardtheSouth(c.1599)showsalargegabledhutindefinitelycenteredabovetheyard.Thehutappearstobewideralongtheeast-westornortheast-southwestdimension,whilethewest(orsouthwest)sideisfairlyheavilycrosshatched.Thesedetailsmightindicateanorthwestlocationforthestage,butthepictureissocrudelydrawnthatconjecturebasedonitcanbegivenlittleweight.

Curtain.Booth'sViewoftheCityofLondonmayalsoshowthehutoftheCurtainplayhouse.Becausethegalleriesarehiddenbyanotherbuilding,noevidenceregardingtheorientationofthestageisdiscernible.

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Rose.Thefoundationsuncoveredin1989revealthestagewaspositionedjustafewdegreeswestofduenorthbothbeforeandaftertheremodelingof1592.

4ThispositionroughlyconfirmstheapparentorientationinJohnNorden'sCivitasLondinipanorama(1600),generallyregardedasoneofthemostaccuratemapsofElizabethanLondon(seefig.13).Nordenshowsasimplegableroofwithafenestratedgable-endonthenorthwestsideoftheyardfacingsoutheast.Becauseweknowthatthestagewasinfacttothenorth,Nordenimpliesthattheridgeoftheroofwasperpendiculartothefrontofthestagewiththegable-endfacingtheyard.

Swan.Norden'spanoramashowsnosuperstructureabovetheyardoftheSwan,whileJ.C.Visscher'snotionalengraving(c.1616)showsahutatthewestfacingeast.ThedeWittsketch(c.1596)seemstoshowlightcomingfrombehindthetiring-houseandhut.

Fig.13.TheRose(left)andthefirstGlobe(right).Detailofapanoramic

viewoftheBankside,London,fromJohnNorden'sCivitasLondini,1600.RoyalLibrary,Stockholm.

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Boar'sHead.AlthoughdocumentsconnectedwiththeBoar'sHeadplacethestageandtiring-houseonthe"[w]estsydeofthegreateyard,"HerbertBerryhasshownthat,becauseWhitechapelHighStreetactuallyrandiagonallyfromsouthwesttonortheast,thetrueorientationofthestagewastothesouthwest.

5

FirstGlobe.Norden's1600panoramaalsoincludesthefirstGlobe,buttheevidenceisdifficulttointerpret.AshedoesfortheRose,Nordenshowsasuperstructurewithagableroof,whosegable-endisclearlyfacingsoutheast.OrrellseesNorden'srepresentationofthesuperstructureatthefirstGlobeasessentiallysimilartohisdepictionoftheRosethatis,agableroofwithitsridgerunningradiallyandwiththegable-endparalleltothefrontofthestage.6

Ifthisisthecase,thestagesinNorden'sRoseandfirstGlobewouldsharethesameorientation,andtheGlobestageandroofwouldbeatthenorthornorthwestsideoftheyard.ButwewouldnotexpectthisorientationbasedontheevidencewehaveregardingthesecondGlobe.BecausethefirstandsecondGlobeswerebuiltonthesamefoundation,7andbecauseWenceslausHollar'ssketch(c.1643)putstheheavensofthesecondGlobeatthesouthwest(seefig.14),wewouldpredictasimilarplacementforthefirstGlobe.Toaccountforthisanomaly,OrrellsuggeststhatNorden'soriginalsketchofthefirstGlobe,drawnfromtheperspectiveofthetowerofSt.Saviour'sChurch(nowSouthwarkCathedral)totheeast,wascopiedunchangedintohispanoramathatostensiblyshowstheBanksidefromasouthernviewpoint;hence,Orrellargues,truewestinNorden'spreliminarysketchappearsasnorthintheengraving.Onecaneasilyimaginethishappening,butaswenowknowthattheRosestagewasinfacttothenorth,wemustthenwonderwhythisapparentrotationoccurredonly

fortheGlobeandnotfortheRose,whichwaspresumablyalsosketchedfromthesamevantagepointbutwhosesuperstructureisdrawnclosetoitstrueorientation.OnewayaroundthisproblemwouldbenottoassumethatthefirstandsecondGlobessharedthesameorientation.Ifthefoundationswerelaidoutsymmetrically,itispossible,butperhapsnotlikely,thatwhentheGlobewasrebuiltin1613,itsplannersshiftedtheareaallottedtothetiring-housefromthenorthwestquadranttothesouthwest.

AmoreplausiblesolutionmaybeinferredfromNorden'spanoramaifthegable-endhesawdidnotfacetheyard.Ifweimaginethattheridgeofthe

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Fig.14.ThesecondGlobe.DetailfromWenceslausHollar'sWestparto[f]SouthwarketowardWestminster,c.1643.YaleCenterforBritishArt,PaulMellonCollection.

hutinNorden'sdepictionofthefirstGlobelayparalleltothefrontofthestage,thenthestageanditssuperstructurewouldfindthemselvesatthesouthwest,confirmingHollar.Inthisorientation,thegable-endwouldnotlieparalleltothefrontofthestagebutwouldbeperpendiculartoit.ThehutwouldthenresemblethatshownbydeWittattheSwan,exceptthatinsteadoftheSwan'shiproof,thehutofthefirstGlobewouldbetoppedbyasimplegableroof.Norden'sviewoftheGlobeissometimesdifficulttomakeout,butIwonderifthecrosshatchingtotheleftofthehut'sroofmightbeanindication,notofthatchingonthegalleryroof,butofsomesortofsaddleconnectingthegalleryroofwiththeroofofthehut,assuggestedinmyveryconjecturalredrawingofNorden'sGlobe(seefig.15).Inthiscase,thesuperstructureabovethefirstGlobestagewouldnotbeintegratedintotheframeworkofthegalleries,asOrrellsuggests,butwouldbeafreestandingturret,asarguedbyHosley.

8Althoughcertaintyisunattainable,themostlikelyplacementofthe

stageatthefirstGlobeisatthesouthwest.

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Fig.15.ConjecturalredrawingofNorden's

CivitasLondiniGlobe

FirstandsecondFortunes.Nopictorialevidenceisavailableforeitherplayhouse.HosleyarguesthatthestageofthefirstFortunewastothenorth,basedoninferenceshedrawsfromAgnesHenslowe's1616assignmentofherspouse'sleasetoEdwardAlleyn'smoietyoftheFortuneproperty.

9Thisassignmentmentionsastreetonthe''southside...ofthehousefromonedooreofthesaidhousetoanother."10AlthoughC.WalterHodgesplacedthesetwodoorsonthestagesideoftheplayhousetoallowtheaudiencetoenteralonggangwaysintotheyard,Hosleyplacesthemoppositethestage,believingthatenteringspectatorswouldclogupthesesidealleysnearthestage.Onthebasisofsymmetry,heplacesbothdoorstothesouth,butbecauseThomasPlatterimpliesthatonlyonedoorwasneededbyspectators,oneofthedoorsalongthisstreetmayhavebeenpositionedoppositethestagewhileanothermightcommunicatewithotherpartsofthehousefromthesideoftheplayhouse.TheleaseimpliesthatAlleynhimselfusedthesedoors,andtheir"large&ample"sizemayimplyusesotherthanaudienceadmission.11Hence,theorientationofthefirst(andsecond)Fortuneremainsunknown.

SecondGlobe.Hollar'ssketchshowsamammothhuttothesouthwestfacingnortheast.

RedBull.Noevidenceisavailable.

Hope.Hollarshowsthegallery-roofpeakatthesouthwestfacingnortheast.

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Regardingtheorientationoftheamphitheatersforwhichwecandrawconclusions,then,theevidenceindicatesonestagetothenorth,onetotheeastorwest,oneprobablyinthewest,oneprobablyinthesouthwest,andthreeinthesouthwest.Althoughvariationisapparent,wecannotfailtonoticethepreponderanceofstagessituatedinthewestorsouthwest.Thus,thelightingatmanypublicplayhousesseemstohavebeenasdepictedindiagramseandf.Inthesecases,wemustconcludethatdirectsunlightrarelyilluminatedtheactors.

Theimplicationsofsouthweststagesmaybedisturbingtomoderntheatergoers.Directsunlightwouldnotonlymissthestagebutalsosometimesshinefullyinthefacesofthosesittingorstandingoppositetoitinwhatweshouldconsiderthechoicestlocationsinthehouse.Thus,AlanYoungbelievesthat"practicalmenofthetheatre"wouldnotnormallyhaveplacedthestageonthesouthwestsidewheretheactorswouldbeshadedfromthesouthwestafternoonsun.

12Youngconcludesthatsomeextraordinaryexplanationmustaccountforthis"odd"orientationoftheElizabethanstage.ButthereisnoevidencethatElizabethansconsideredthisarrangementodd,nordotheexplanationsYoungoffersseemveryplausible.Hisfirstexplanationisthat,inorientingtheirtheaters,businessmenlikeBurbage,Henslowe,andLangleyfeltadesiretoemulatemedievalchurchiconographywherethechancel(God)wassituatedtotheeastandthenave(man)tothewest.ButithardlyseemsusefultoequatethegalleriesoppositethestagewiththepresenceofGod,nordoesitmakemuchsensetoequatethestage("thelittleworldofman")withthenave:ifanythingwereanalogoustothenave,itwouldhavebeenthegalleriesandyardwheretheaudiencegatheredtowatchtheplay.

Young'ssecondexplanationsuggeststhatElizabethansplacedtheirstagesatthesouthwestsideoftheplayhouseinaccordancewith

complexVitruviantriangulations.ButthisisonepointVitruviusisnotcomplexabout.Heclearlystatesthatasouthernexposureistobeavoidedbecausethesunshiningalldayfrombehindthestagehouseontotheauditoriumseatscreatesahot,unhealthyenvironmentinthecavea.13ButLondonissofartothenorththatdirectsunlightcouldrarelyhaveshoneinthetheaterswhere,inanycase,oneimaginesalittlewarmthmighthavebeenwelcomed.InRometheproblemwastheopposite.AndbecausetheprevailingwindinLondonisfromthesouthwest(RosalindcomparesstormySilviusinAsYouLikeIt

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to"foggySouth,puffingwithwindeandraine"[F1823]),itisnotsurprisingthatstageswereputinpositionswheretheactors,properties,andcostumeswouldbemostprotectedfromtheelements.

Althoughasouthwestorientationmightbeunacceptabletous,Shakespeare'saudienceapparentlythoughtotherwise.Foronething,thelackofperspectivescenerymeantthatthestagecouldbeproperlyseenfrommanyviewpoints,notjustoppositethestage.WeknowthatthekingfacednorthatmedievalEnglishtournamentssoastoavoidsquintingintothesun,andasimilarcustomprevailsatbullfightingarenaswhereseatsinthesombraareagooddealmoreexpensivethanthoseinthesun.

14Iftherewereanychoiceseatsattheamphitheaters,theywereconsequentlyprobablynearthestage,shadedfromthesun.ThomasDekker'sTheGulsHorne-bookeimpliesasmuchwhenitplacesthelords'roomsin"theStagesSuburbs."15AndDekkerconfirmsthattheseexclusiveroomswereinshadowswhenhecomplainsthattheywere"contemptiblythrustintothereare,andmuchnewSattenistheredambdbybeingsmotheredtodeathindarknesse."Duringrecentsummervisitstothefull-scalereconstructionofthefirstGlobeinSouthwark,whichhasitsstagepositionedtothesouthwest,Iwasinterestedtoseethatspectators,astheyenteredthetheater,initiallystoodorsatdirectlyoppositethestagewherehabithadlongtaughtthemtheycouldbestseetheperformance.Theygravitatedtotheseareasevenonhotsummerafternoonswithbrightsunlightshiningdownonthem.Butastheperformancebegan,andthespectatorsturnedtheirattentiontotheactors,theysometimesfoundthemselvesuncomfortableintheseareas.Thisdiscomfortwasmostnotablewhenfranksunshineenteredtheplayhousefrombehindthestage.Withdirectsunlightshiningdownonthem,manyspectatorsfoundthemselveseithertoohotorobligedtosquintdirectlyintothesun.But

evenoncool,overcastdays,manyspectatorsinthebackoftheyardgraduallymigratedtothesidesoftheauditoriumbecause,astheylookedupatthestage,theystillfoundthemselvessquintingintoaskyconsiderablybrighterthantheshadedstage.

ThemostimportantexceptiontotheprevailingsouthwesternorientationoftheamphitheaterstageswastheRose.Bywayofaccountingforthisdeviationfromtheapparentnorm,OrrellplausiblysuggeststhattheplacementoftheRosestagetothenorthmayhavebeendeterminedbyanecessitytohaveitsmainentrancefaceMaidLanetothesouth.16Whatevertheexplanation,daylightwouldgenerallyshinedownontheinterioroftheRosefrom

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thestage-rightside,occasionallylightingthestagewithdirectsunlightintheearlyafternooninmidsummer.ButbecausetheRoseinitsfirstphasewassosmallindiameter(approximatelyseventy-twofeet),lesslightcouldhaveentereditsinteriorthatatothertheaters,whoseapparentaveragediameterwasclosetoonehundredfeet.AssumingthegalleriesabouttheRose'scircumferencewerethesameheightasthosestipulatedintheFortunecontract,thissmallerdiameterwouldalsomeanthatthegallerieswouldblockoutahigherproportionoftheavailabledaylight.Figure16,basedonC.WalterHodges'sreconstructionoftheRoseinitsfirstconfiguration,showsthatat3P.M.onthesummersolstice,onlyaboutone-halfofthestagecouldbelitbydirectsunshine.

17Ontheequinoxes,whenthesunismuchlowerinthesky,onlyafewsectionsofthetwouppergalleriesontheactors'leftcouldbelitbydirectsunshine;nofranksunshinecouldhavelitthestageatall.

Fig.16.

ConjecturalinsolationoftheRose,firstphase,at3P.M.onthesummersolstice

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StageCovers

Hodges'sreconstructionoftheRoseinitsfirstphase(1587to1592)includesnosuperstructureoverthestage.Thearchaeologistsfoundnoevidenceforpillars,whichwouldberequiredtosupportanythingbutthesmallestofroofsjuttingoutfromthetiring-house.Henslowe'sdiarymakesclearthatextensiveremodelingtookplaceattheRosein1592,however,andthearchaeologistsdulyfoundthefoundationsofasecondstage(somesevenfeetnorthoftheoriginalstage),withintheperimeterofwhichtwosubstantialbaseswerediscovered,presumablytosupportthepillarsofastagecover,muchasdepictedinthedeWittrenditionoftheSwan.

Thus,theoriginalRoseseemstohavebeenbuiltwithoutastagecover,andevidencefromotherearlyamphitheatersmayindicatethatsomeofthefirstpurpose-builtoutdoorplayhousesdidwithoutthefamiliarheavensoverthestage.ThelegalproceedingsregardingtheRedLionsaynothingofaroofoveritsstage,althoughathirty-foot-highturretwaserected"uppon"thestage,whichmayhaveservedtoshadecertainareas,evenifitsprincipalpurposewastohousehoistingparaphernaliaorprovidean"above."AlthoughBoothshowsalargehutorturretabovetheTheater,hisViewoftheCityofLondoncomesnearlytwenty-fouryearsaftertheTheaterhadbeenbuiltandmaynotrepresentitsoriginalconfiguration.Basedontherelativeabsenceofstagedirectionscallingfordescentsinplayswrittenbeforethe1590s,Wickhamsuggeststhataheavensmayhavebeenaddedsometimeafterthebuildingoftheplayhousebutbefore1599.

18Onsimilargrounds,HerbertBerryconcludesthatearlyversionsoftheBoar'sHeadmayalsohavelackedstagecovers.Inthesummerof1598,thestagewaslocatedinthesouthwesternportionofthecentralyardbutnot,apparently,directlyagainstthetiring-house,makingalargeroofdifficulttosupport.Becausenoneofthesurvivingplays

associatedwiththeBoar'sHeadcallsfordescents,Berryinfersthatthestageconstructedinthisfirstmajorrenovationmaywellhavelackedaroof.19

Butotheramphitheatersbuiltorremodeledinthe1590sgiveclearevidenceofstagecovers.AlthoughtheRosewasonlyfiveyearsoldin1592,Hensloweundertooktoaddaverylargeroofindeed.Weknowthatthisroofextendedoverandbeyondthestagebecauseadepressionline,formedbyrainwaterdrippingofftheroof,isinevidenceintheyardsomefourfeetthreeinchesinfrontofthestage.20AlaterremodelingattheBoar'sHeadin1599

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alsoincludedtheadditionofastagecover,becauseweknowthat,whenthestagetherewasmovedsouthwesttoadjointhetiring-house,a"couerungeouerthestage,"apparentlyasubstantialroof,wasadded.

21

WhennewtheaterswerebuilttheSwan(c.1595),thefirstGlobe(1599),andthefirstFortune(1600)theyweredesignedwithsubstantialstagecoversfromthestart.DeWitt'ssketchoftheSwanshowsaheavensextendingwelloutfromthehutandcoveringhalfthestage.TheFortunecontractisvagueastosize,prescribingonlya"shadoweorcoveroverthesaideStadge,"tellingusinthename"shadowe"something,perhaps,ofitspurposeandeffect.22Atanyrate,thecontracttestifiesthattheFortunewasplannedwithacoverinmindandthatitwasnotanafterthoughtasattheRoseandBoar'sHead.WemayalsoassumethattheSwan'scoverwasplannedasanoriginalpartoftheplayhouse,becausedeWittdrewitonlyayearorsoaftertheplayhouseopened.

Wehavenodirectevidenceabouttheroof-canopyatthefirstGlobe.PerhapstheGlobehadalesssubstantialcoverthanotherplayhousesbuiltaboutthistime.ThefirstGlobewasconstructedhurriedly,anditmayhavelackedsomethinginthewayofopulence,atleastincomparisontothesecondGlobe.Shakespeare'splaysfrom1599to1608displayapovertyofhoistingeffects,andAloisNaglerhaspointedoutthatbecausetheFortunecontractinstructsthebuilder,PeterStreete,tocopytheGlobe(whichStreetehadbuilttheyearbefore)indetailsnotstipulatedinthecontract,theprovisionforalargestagecoverattheFortunecouldindicatethatthefirstGlobedidnotprovideasuitablemodel.23

Ontheotherhand,Hamletmayhavepointedtoabeautifully

decoratedfirst-GlobeheavenswhenhedirectsRosencrantzandGuildenstern'sattentionto"thismostexcellentCanopietheayre;lookeyou,thisbraueorehangingfirmament,thismaiesticallroofefrettedwithgoldenfire"(Q2F2).AlthoughwehavenoinformationregardingthesizeoftheheavensatthefirstGlobe,wedoknowthatthreeyearsbeforetheLordChamberlain'smenmovedthere,JamesBurbagehadattempted,unsuccessfully,tolodgethetroupeindoorsatBlackfriars.ItmaybethatsubsequentplansfortheheavensatthetwoGlobesreflectedhisinclinationtoperforminasshadedaspaceaspossible.

Weareignorantoftheformofthestagecoveratthenextamphitheatertobesetup,theRedBull(c.1606),althoughthemanyascentsonlarge,float-

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ingpropertiesinHeywood'sRedBullplayspointtowardasubstantialheavensthere.ButwearewellinformedaboutthenexttwopublicplayhousestobebuilttheHope(161314)andthesecondGlobe(1614).TheHopecontractcallsfora"[h]eavensalloverthesaidestage,"butonewhichwasnotsupportedbypostsarisingfromthestagebecausethestageitselfwasremovabletoaccommodateanimalbaiting.

24Confusingly,though,thecontractelsewherespeaksof"turnedcullumesvpponandoverthestage";these,perhaps,wereassociatedwiththetiring-house.Iftheheavensthereactuallydidextend"allover"thestage,itmusthavebeenquitelarge,becausethestageitselfappearstohavebeenatleastassubstantialasthatattheSwan,thebasicmodelfortheHope.Onewondershowsuchabroadstructure,togetherwithitsleadrain-gutters,wasadequatelysupportedwithoutstagepillars.

TheHopewashastilyplannedjustafterfiredestroyedthemostprestigiousamphitheaterinLondon,theGlobe.TheGlobewasrebuiltbythesummerof1614,andmanypatronsleavetestimonytoitsincreasedsplendor.AlthoughitsoveralldimensionsmusthavebeennearlythesameastheoriginalGlobeandTheaterbeforethat,Hollar'ssketchshowsalargeheavenscoveringnotonlythestagebutalsohalfoftheentiretheater.InadetailedstudyofthesecondGlobe,C.WalterHodgesreconstructsagreatdouble-gabledtimberroofspanningsixty-sevenfeetacrosstheyardandreachingoverthirtyfeetfromfronttoback.25Hodgesrealizedthatsuchanarrangementwouldmakethestagedimandsuggeststhattheonion-domedturretsituatedinavalleybetweenthetwoslantingroofsofthestagecoverwasaglazedcupolaorlantern,illuminatingthestagebelow.26Thisideaisattractivetouswhoareaccustomedtobrightlylightedactors,andweknowfrom

RestorationpaintingsandrecordsthatthetwoCockpittheaterswerealsoequippedwithoverheadlanterns.ButattheCockpit-in-Court,whichwasremodeledspecificallyfortheKing'smenintheearly1630s,abluebuckramceilingwasplacedabovetheactors,andthelanternwaspositionednotdirectlyabovethestagebutabovetheauditorium.27Inthisposition,itsGlobecounterpartwasnotHodges'slanternbuttheopeningabovetheyard.

AlthoughitmayseemreasonabletousthattheKing'smenwouldhavewantedmorelightonstage,thegrowthinthesizeofthecanopyovertheyearsdemonstratesthatbrightlightwasonlyasubsidiaryconcern.Hodges'sidentificationofthecupola'spurposemaybecorrect,butitmeansthattheflooroftheheavensmustberemoved,makingthesupportofsuspension-geardifficult.Hodgesputsthewinchandwindlassinsidethetiring-houseinorder

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topermitlighttoreachthestage.Inthatcase,onewonderswhatthepurposeofthesecondGlobe'sheavenswas,because,asHosleypointsout,suchaheavenscouldneitherobstructsunshinenorprovideameansofsupportinghoistingmachinery.

28

Ifextralighthadbeentheprimaryconcern,itwouldhavebeenmorepracticalfirsttoincreasethenumberandsizeofthewindowsinthewallsofthegalleriesandthetiring-house.ButasallthepanoramicmapsoftheBanksideagree,onlyafewsmallwindowswereputinthewallsofanyplayhouse.Hodgesbelievesthesewindowswerealsotohelplightthestage,butRichardSouthernhasshownthatmostofthemlightedthedarkpassagewaybehindthemiddlegallery.29Theirsmallsize,limitednumber,and(inHollar'sview)specialplacementhalfwayuptheexteriorwallscorroborateSouthern'sdescription.Iftheirpurposehadbeenprimarilytoincreasethebrightnessonstage,manymoreandmuchlargerwindowscouldmoreeasilyhavebeenconstructedthantheelaboratecupolatowerHollarshows.TheFortunecontractdoescallfor"convenientwindowesandlights[thatis,windowpanes]glazedtothesaideTyreingehowse,"whichmightmeanthatadditionallightwasdesiredthere.30Butthereferenceisprobablytoexteriorwindowsfortheilluminationofdressingroomsandpropertystorageareasinthetiring-housebehindthestage.ThissortofutilitarianratherthanaestheticpurposeisconfirmedbyHenslowe'sleavingittothebuildertodetermineconvenientpositionsandnumbers.

ThecupolainHollar'sviewofthesecondGlobeissmallandpushedbacktowardthegalleriesandtiring-house,notdirectlyoverthecenterofthestage.Whatappeartobeglazedwindowsarealsoquitesmall,andthewholetowerissetinadeepvalleybetweenthetwosteeply

gabledroofs,aninefficientplaceforlighttoenter.StuartBakerhaspointedoutthatonewouldnormallyexpectsuchalanternontheridgeofagableroof,notinavalley.31Heargues,moreover,thatsuchavalleywouldrequiresubstantialsupportandthataturretarisingfromthestage,muchliketheoneattheRedLion,musthavebeenplaceddirectlyunderneathsuchacupola.Inthisposition,aturretwouldhaveseverelyreducedtheamountofanylightdescendingfromsuchalantern.Bakerconcludesthat,ifthecupolawasalantern,itprobablylightedonlytheroomwheresuspension-gearwashoused.

Onemotiveforerectingbroadceilingsaboveotherwiseopenplayingspacesmayhavebeenthedesiretoexploittheemblematicpossibilitiesthatsuchceilingsafforded.Asnotedinchapter3,playinghadoccurredunder

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thepaintedcanvasceilingsofbanquetinghallsformorethanahundredyearsbeforetheCockpit-in-Courtwasremodeled.Butceilingsarerarelyconstructedsolelyforthepurposeofpaintingthem.SinceHosleyhascogentlyarguedthattheindoorTudor-hallscreenprovidedasourcefortheoutdoortiring-housefacade,aslikelyaninspirationfortheoutdoorheavenswastheceilingoftheTudorhall.SuchceilingsprovidedconveniencesthattheactorswouldnotwanttodowithoutastheywereforcedoutsideCitywallsintothepublicarenas.Theyenjoyeditsprotectionfromtheweather,andtheycouldhanghoistingmachineryonitsrafters.Theenlargementoftheheavensinemulationoftheindoorceilingwasprobablypromptedmorebyadesiretoavoidrainthantoavoidsunlight,butitisdifficulttodoonewithouttheother,especiallyinplayhouseswithstagestothesouthwest.Theinevitableresultwastoprotectthestagefromalltheelements.

ArticulationofLight

Althoughthegallerywallsandstagecoveroccludedmostofthedirectraysofthesun,muchindirectlightenteredthetheatersthroughtheopeningabovetheyard.Unfortunately,preciselevelsofbrightnesscannotbecalculatedowingtothelargenumberofunknownquantitiesthesizeandshapeoftheopeningandcover,thechangingdensitiesandreflectingcapacitiesofthecloudsoverhead,thetimeofday,theseasonoftheyear,andthereflectivecapacityoftheinteriorsoftheplayhouses.Thedecorationoftheauditoriumandstageissignificant,becausetheamountoflightreflectedbackbydifferentsurfacesvarieswidelylessthan10percentforblackvelourhangings,20percentforfinishedwalnut,40percentforunfinishedoak,and70percentforwhitepaint.

32WeknowthatHenslowespentagooddealofmoneytopainttheRose,butwearenottoldthecolor.33Thereisapossibilitythatmuch

oftheauditoriumofthefirstFortunewasunpainted.Thecontractdirectsthecontractortopaintonlythelords'rooms,two-pennyrooms,andthestage;otherwise,theFortune,whichwastoresemblethe"fashion"oftheGlobe,seemstohavebeenlargelyoakframingandlyme-and-hairwalls.34AssumingthattheinteriordecorationoftheSwanresembledthatoftheFortune,roughapproximationsoftheamountoflightonstagecanbemadebyconsultingtablesofseasonalvariationindaylightatLondon,estimatingthefractionofthislightthattheplayhousepermittedinside,andadjustingforthelightabsorbedorreflectedawaybytheinterior.35

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Thus,inspring,anaverageilluminationlevelat3P.M.nearthefrontofHosley'sSwanstageworksouttosomethingontheorderof150to200footcandles,thisincontrasttoabout8,000footcandlesproducedbystrong,directsunshine;about1,000footcandlesfromabright,overcastsky;andabout50to100footcandlesincommercialstoresandfactories.Insummer,theaveragebrightnessat3P.M.wouldrisetoaround250to350footcandles.Inautumn,thelevelrecedesto150to250,andinwinterdropstounder100.Asaverages,though,thesefiguresaremisleading,becauseonanygivenday,thelightcouldvarywidely.Onadull,graywinterday,forinstance,thelevelofilluminationcouldbewellunder50footcandles.Ontheotherhand,aclear,coldwinterafternoonmightilluminatethestageto300footcandlesormore,nearlyequaltothelevelsofthebrightestdaysofsummer.

Bywayofcomparison,brightbutnotbrilliantgeneralpurposelightingonthemodernstageiscommonlyrenderedby50to100footcandles,orsomewhatmoreinverylargetheaters.But100footcandlesonthemodernstagewillappearbrighterthan100footcandlesontheSwanstagebecauseofthegreatercontrastbetweenthebrightstageanddarkenedauditoriuminourtypicalprosceniumandarenatheaters.Themodernpracticeofshieldingtheaudiencefromtheglareofthesourcesoflightandofaccustomingtheireyestosemidarknesswhilewaitingfortheplaytobeginincreasesthedisparitybetweenhouseandstage.Inthepublicplayhouses,lightwasdispersedthroughoutthetheater,andtheemphasisthatpresent-daylightingdesignersbringtothestagebymeansoflightcontrastwasunavailabletoearlyEnglishactors.Modernlightingcanvarywidelyduringthecourseofaplay,butitdifferssolittlefromperformancetoperformancethatcomputersnowregularlycontrolthelevelsofbrightness.Earlymodernactorsperformedinverydifferentcircumstances.Englishweathercanalsochangequickly,butsuch

changeswillrarelycoincidewiththeatmosphereoftheplay.Exceptforchancevariations,then,thelightremainedmoreorlessconstantthroughoutmajorperiodsofaperformance,whileitcouldchangedrasticallyfromoneperformancetoanother.AudiencessawHamletbathedinwarmlightonedayandshroudedincold,dulllightthenext.

Thevariabilityoflightintensityfromdaytodayorevenhourbyhourandtherelativeuniformityoflightwithinthetheateratanygivenmomentraisequestionsregardingtheeffectofthemiseenscèneontheoriginalperformersandtheiraudience.Undersuchunpredictablecircumstances,actorstoday

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mightboastofadaptingthemselvestounplannedchangesinthelighting,modifyingthisorthataspectoftheirperformancetocompensateforortotakeadvantageofspecificweatherandlightingconditions.Butitismuchmorelikelythatthesameimpulsethatrejectedtheneedforelaboratescenicdecorationcausedbothactorsandaudiencetotreatprevailingweatherconditionsasnonartisticfactorsintheenjoymentofdramasimilar,perhaps,tothewayweviewtheateracousticstoday.Certainlythepervasiveverbaldescriptionsofscenesandmoodsrepresentamorecompellingcontributiontotheaudience'saestheticperceptionoftheperformancethandidtheweatheroverhead.Andyet,RenaissanceLondonerscouldhardlyhaveremainedcompletelyunaffectedbyAChasteMaidinCheapsideperformedinthegloomofwinteroraKingLearinthegloryofsummer.

Theatricalproprietyislargelyconventional,ofcourse,andwehavelearnedovermanyyearstoexpecttoseeourtragediansinthedarkandourcomediansinthelight.Buttheconvention,inotherforms,isatleastasoldastheTudorera.AtthebeginningofAWarningforFairWomen,forexample,HistorydebateswithComedyandTragedyovertheirrelativemeritsandunmistakablyidentifiesComedywiththelightandTragedywiththedark.Alludingtotheblackstagehangings,Historyremarks:

LookeComedie,Imarketitnottillnow,Thestageishungwithblacke:andIperceiueTheAuditorsprepardeforTragedie.

Acknowledgingtheconvention,Comedygrumbles:

Theseornamentsbeseemenottheeandme,ThenTragedie,kilthemtodaywithsorrow,Wee'lmakethemlaughwithmyrthfullieaststomorrow.

36

Inasmuchastheactorsandtheaudienceacceptedtheconvention,itisdifficulttounderstandhowthereceptionofaplaycouldnothavebeeninfluencedbylightingconditionsthatwereanticonventional.

TheNewGlobe

Withtheconstructionofthefull-scalereplicaoftheGlobeinLondonattheInternationalShakespeareGlobeCentre,ourestimatesoflightinglevelsinHosley'sSwancanbetestedandtheoveralleffectoftheilluminationas-

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sessed.Thus,onatypicalsunnydayinearlyAugust,theleveloflightatthefrontofthenewGlobestagemeasuresover400footcandlesat1P.M.andrecedestoapproximately300footcandlesat4P.M.,200footcandlesat5P.M.,andunder100at6P.M.(GMT).Inabsoluteterms,suchfiguresrepresentmorethanadequatelevelsofillumination.Buttheeasebywhichonecanviewaparticularobjectisdependent,inpart,ontherelativebrightnessofthatobjectwhencomparedtotheleveloflighttowhichone'seyeshavegrownaccustomed,whatpsychophysiologistscallthebrightnessadaptationlevel.

37Inconsequence,spectatorsstandingoppositethestageindirectsunlightareforcedtosquintatanotherwisewell-litstagethatthereforeappearslessbrightthanitwouldiflightshiningfrombehindthetiring-housewallcouldsomehowbeeliminated.

Figure17showsthenewGlobephotographedat2P.M.undersuchconditions.Thefranksunshineofahazy-sunnyskyfloodsthegalleriesdirectlyoppositethestageandagoodportionoftheyard.38Spectatorssittingorstandinginthisdirectsunshinefindthemselvespeeringintoastage-spacethatis,inmeasurablebrightness,morethanahundredtimesdimmerthan

Fig.17.ThenewGlobe,2P.M.(GMT)inAugust

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thelighttowhichtheireyesareadjusted,andintermsofperceivedbrightness,morethantentimesdimmer.Spectatorssittingintheshadeoftheuppergalleriesortotherightorleftofthestagecanviewthestagemuchmorecomfortably,buteventheymustcomparethelevelofilluminationtheyperceiveonstagewiththelevelstheyperceiveinotherpartsoftheplayhouse.Becauseoureyesadjustthemselvesnottothelowestlevelofbrightnessweseebuttotheaverageofthebrightestareasinandaroundthecenterofourfieldofvision,itfollowsthatifspectatorsintheshadeareneverthelessinapositionwheretheycanseesubstantialsectionsofbrightskythroughtheopeningabovetheyard,they,too,perceivethestageaslessthanbrilliantlylit,atleastincontrasttotheiroverallimpressionofthetheater'sillumination.Thiscontrastinbrightness,then,makesthedarkerareasinourfieldofvisionappearslightlydarkerthantheyactuallyare.Concomitantly,visualacuityalsodecreasesinareasperceivedasdarkthatis,wenotonlyseesuchareasaslessbrightbutwealsoseedetailsinthemlessclearly.Thus,evenearlyintheafternoonwithbrightdaylightstreamingdownfromthesky,thesouthweststageofthenewGlobeappears,atleasttomanyintheaudience,asonlymoderatelywellilluminated.

Thecontrastbetweentheilluminationonstageandthatintheauditoriumismostpronounced,ofcourse,underdirectsunshine,butaconsiderablediscrepancybetweendarkandbrightareasofthenewGloberemainsevenonovercastdays.Underacloudysky,theabsolutelevelsofbrightnessarereducedproportionallyineverypartoftheplayhouse,butcleardifferencesinbrightnesspersist.Onanovercastdayat3:30P.M.inAugust,forexample,lightatthefrontofthenewGlobestagemeasuresbetween350and400footcandles,thebrightestareasintheyardoppositethestagemeasureover1,000footcandles,andgazingdirectlyupintotheskyoverheadregisterssomethingontheorderof3,000footcandles(seefig.18).Theratio

betweenthelightonstageandthelightoppositethestagethusfallsfromonetotenonasunnydaytoonetothreeonanovercastday.Thischangeissubstantial,butasperceivedbrightnessisafunctionofthecuberootofmeasurablebrightness,thecontrastbetweenthelightingonstageandthatintheyardonanovercastdaywouldbeperceivedasonlyone-halfthecontrastpresentonasunnyday.Inshort,theaudiencewouldcontinuetoexperiencemuchoftheeffectofbrightnesscontrastsproducedbyfranksunshine.

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Fig.18.ThenewGlobe,3:30P.M.inAugust

Thiseffectofperceivingthestageasslightlydimmerthanitisinactualityisparticularlytrueforaudiencemembersstandingintheyardorsittinginthelowergalleries,becausetheyareobligedtolookuptoseethefacesoftheactorsand,hence,finditmoredifficultnottogazealsointothebrightskyabovetheplayhouse.Althoughwetendtothinkthatthegroundlingsoccupiedanearlyidealvantagepointfromwhichtoviewthestageaction(apartfromtheinconvenienceofhavingtostand),thesevereangleatwhichtheywereobligedtolookupattheactorsinevitablycausedthemtoadjusttheirvisiontoahigherleveloflightthanthosespectatorsinthehighestgalleriesorgalleriesclosetothestage.ThenewGlobeconfirmsthatthemorecomfortableandefficientpositionsforspectatorstoseetheactorsweretotherearofthosegalleriesrelativelyclosetothestage,asshowninfigure19.Herespectatorscaneasilyadjusttheireyestothelightonstagewithoutthedangerofglancingupatthebrightskyoverhead,becausethefloorsofthegalleriesabovethespectatorsactasawnings.Evenmoreeffectivevantagepointsare

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Fig.19.ThenewGlobe,4P.M.inAugust

attherearofthestageitselforinthewindowsofthetiring-house,wheretheaudiencesitsinvirtuallyinthesamelightastheactors.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatthelords'roomswerefoundinsuchlocations.Inadditiontogoodacoustics,proximitytotheactors,andanopportunityforsumptuarydisplay,seatsnearorevenonthestageprovidedthosewhocouldaffordthemthemostadvantageouslightingenvironmentsinwhichtoviewtheplay.

Butifspectatorsavoidedlookingupintothelight,theoppositewastrueoftheactors.Becausetheprincipalsourceoflight(theopeningabovetheyard)illuminatedthemfromasteepangle,actorswereobligedtoholdtheirheadshightobewelllit.Thisisobviouslythecaseiftheactorswantedtobeseen(andheard)byspectatorsintheuppergalleriesaroundtheauditorium,butitevenholdstrueiftheactorswantedtomakeanimpressiononthegroundlings,becauseiftheactorslettheirheadsdroop,shadowswouldobscuretheirfaces.Whereasmodernlightingdesignersregularlylightactorswithinstrumentsmountedinpositionsforty-fivedegreesabovethestage,

39theaverageangleoftheprincipalilluminationatthenewGlobeisroughly

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seventydegrees.Withtheplayhousewallsinterceptinglightfromlowerangles,theactorsareeffectivelylitfromabove.

TheamountoflightonvariouspartsofthenewGlobestagefallsintoaregularpatternoflightconcentrationwithminor,butclear,changesintheamountoflightasonemovesaboutthestage.Ingeneral,thestageisbrightestatitsfrontandgrowsdarkertowardthetiring-housewall.Whetherthedayiscloudyorsunny,thetimeearlyafternoonorneardusk,thecenterofthefootofthestagealwaysremainsthebrightestlocation.Theleftandrightfrontcornersareconsistently90percentasbrightasdownstagecenter,dead-centerstage60percentasbright,theleftandrightrearcorners50percent,andtherear-centeragainstthetiring-housewallonly35percentasbrightasdownstagecenter.Thesedifferencesinabsolutemeasuresoflightseemlarge,butatthelevelsweareconsidering(100to400footcandles),thehumaneyeperceivesbrightnesslogarithmicallyand,hence,construessuchdisparatelevelsofbrightnessasmoreequaltoeachotherthantheyareinactuality.Putanotherway,thelightonanobjectmustbeincreasedeightfoldfortheeyetoperceivethatitistwiceasbright.Althoughthefrontofthestageis,onaverage,nearlythreetimesasbrightastherear,theaudienceperceivesactorsatthefrontofthestageasonly1.4timesbrighter.Theeyecandiscernthisdifference,butnumerousresearcheshaveestablishedthatilluminationmustbedoubledtoproducesignificantimprovementsinseeing.

40

Althoughtheeyemakespoorjudgmentsabouttheabsolutequantityoflight,itneverthelesscanmakefairlyaccuratedistinctionsbetweenwhatitseesas''more"and"less"light.Whiletheperceiveddifferencebetweenthelightatthefrontandthebackofthestageissubtle,itisnonethelessdiscernible,asitwastoJohannesdeWitt,whoaccurately

indicatedthattherearoftheSwanstagewasmarginallydarkerthanthefrontbythecrosshatchingthere.KnowingthattheaudiencesattheSwanandotheramphitheaterssurroundedtheplayers,severaltheaterhistorianshavebeenpuzzledastowhytheactorsindeWitt'sviewhavearrayedthemselvesmoreorlessinastraightlinenearthefrontofthestage,asthoughtheywerenineteenth-centuryactorshuddledupnearthefootlightsofaprosceniumstage.Possibleexplanationsincludeadesiretobenearthelargestnumberofspectators,acousticalconsiderations,andthelike,butIwouldnotbesurprisedifearlymodernEnglishplayerswerenotasproneto"findthelight"ascontemporaryactorsare.

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EvenaftersunsetatthenewGlobe,visibilityremainssurprisinglyadequate,becausetheeyegraduallygrowsaccustomedtothedecreasingamountoflight.Detailsofmovementandfacialexpressionbecomelessclearbutinsomewaysarecompensatedforbythepleasant,butnolongerglaring,glowofthesettingsunaboveandtothewestoftheheavens.Oncertaindays,itisasthoughagoldenhalosurmountsthestageandheavens.Atthesametime,thelossofvisualacuitytendstoblurtheactiononstageandinvitesthespectatortopaycloserattentiontothelanguage.SittinginthenewGlobenow,onecanimaginativelyreconstructThomasPlatter'sresponsetotheconclusionofJuliusCaesarthathewitnessedatthenewlyopenedGlobeon21September1599.Forwhenduskcreptovertheplayhousearound5:30P.M.thatday,Platterheardastirringapostrophetothesettingsun:

OsettingSunne:AsinthyredRayesthoudoestsinketonight;SoinhisredbloodCassiusdayisset.TheSunneofRomeisset.Ourdayisgone.(F254549)

Platterseemsnottohaveunderstoodthenativetongue,buthemaywellhaveseenhowthis"lightingeffect"participatedinthesceneasactivelyasanycostumeorstageproperty.

LightandStaging

Ileaveittootherstodetermineifdramatistswrotewithanopen-airlightingsysteminmind.Wemaynote,however,thatonlycertainmodesofstagingwillbenefitfromsuchlightingconditions.Thelackofstrongcontrastsinbrightnessmeantthattheaudience'sattentioncouldnotbedirectedtospecificactorsorpropertiesbymeansofconvenientlyplacedpoolsoflightorbycolordifferences.TheatricalemphasiswasaccomplishedbywhatwetaketobethemoreconventionalizedtechniquesofElizabethandramaturgysoliloquies,ceremonialentrances,poeticsetspeeches,andthelike.Therelative

uniformityofthelightnecessitated,inpart,theuseofmoreexplicitsignalsandpointersonstagethanwecareforinnarrativedrama.ButconsideranadvantageofearlyEnglishlightingsystems.Althoughthe"heightenedrealism"ofthemodernlightingdesignercanmoresubtlyemphasizeanddeemphasizeactors,thatrealism,onceestablished,willnot

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allowforthemomentthepoetwantstheaudiencetoconcentratewhollyonhiswords.RhetoricaldisplayslikeGertrude'sonOphelia'sdeathorEnobarbus'sonCleopatra'sbargewereneitherhighlightedbyanti-illusionisticspotlightsnormotivatedbyrealisticlighting.Theyhadtospotlightandjustifythemselvesinaluminaryatmospheremorecloselyresemblingmodernlecturehallsthanmoderntheaters.Byneveremployingoursortofillusionintheirlighting,Elizabethandramatistswerefreetodirecttheaudience'sattentiontosometellingstagebusinessortocatchtheirimaginationsbythelanguage.

ThissortofoutdoorstagelightingmustalsobedistinguishedfromtheuniformstageandauditoriumilluminationadvocatedbysuchmoderntheaterartistsasAntoninArtaud,BertoltBrecht,andJerzyGrotowski.Theyyearnforareturntotheactiverapportbetweenspectatorsandactorsthatanaudience,sittingsubmissivelyinthedark,canneverestablish.

41Theirexperimentshavehadsomesuccess,butwemustnotconfusetheiraimswithShakespeare's.LightshiningonthemodernaudienceisareactionagainstVictorianillusionandproducesitseffectinpartbydislodgingthespectators'realisticexpectations.ToShakespeare'spublic,therewasnothingjarringaboutbeingasmuchinthelightastheactorsand,hence,nodislocationofnormalsensibilitiesandnoshockingreminderoftheartificesofthetheater.ThetemptationistoviewShakespeare'slackofillusionasequivalenttotheconsciousanti-illusionismofmuchmodernstagecraft.Tous,theconventionthatpermitsnighttimescenesonadaylitstagemaybea"perversetourdeforce"asJ.L.Styanputsit.42Butitisdoubtfulthatanaudienceunfamiliarwithdimmersandrheostatswouldhavebeensodeeplyimpressedbyaconventionthat,afterall,wentbacktotheCorpusChristiplaysandbeyond.Ourresponsetotheconvention,howeveraccurate,tendstobetooconscious.

Nevertheless,someplaysappeartodemandtheconventioninordertoexplorethefullrepercussionsoftheiraction.CriticshavelongspottedtheironywhentheblindGloucesterjumps,hethinks,offthecliffsatDoverbutinrealitymerelyfallstothestageflooringlareoftheday.Herethelightonstagecommentsunmercifullyonphysiologicaldarkness,butasimilarironyoftenattachestopretendednocturnaldarkness.WhattoCassioandRoderigoisdarkconfusion,forexample,iscleartouswhocanseeIagofurtivelywoundCassiointheirfight.Atcourt,elaboratelightingeffectsinthemasquesemblematized,ifanything,thecontrol,orputativecontrol,ofthekingover

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everyaspectofhisrealm.Attheoutdoortheaters,theactorsmayhavebeenpowerlesstocontroltheirlightbutcouldstillemployittoconveymeaning.

Thereis,forexample,asenseinwhichthenaturalillumination,becauseitwasungovernable,couldoccasionallycomplementoneoftheage'smorepersistentnotionsthatheavencould,butdoesnot,respondtoman'stragedy.WhenFaustusaskstheever-movingspherestostandstill,orwhenBosolaremindstheDuchessofMalfithatthestarsshinestill,wemustrecallthatthesunwascontinuingtotravelacrossthesky,refusingtorespondtothepatheticfallacy.InTheAtheist'sTragedy,suchreferencestouncontrollable,naturallightareexplicitandgofartowarddefiningthecompetingviewsaboutnatureintheplay.WhenD'Amvillecommitsmurder,theskydraws"thecurtainesofthecloudsbetweenethoselightsandmeaboutthisbedofearth";butwhenhebeginstofeelthehorrorofhissin,"thatBawd,theskie,there"exposeshiscrimeand''meetesmei'thefacewithallherlightcorruptedeyes."

43Itisasthoughman'sinabilitytoregulatehisworldwasoccasionallyreflectedintheactors'inabilitytoregulatetheirstagelight.

Incomedy,wearelessconcernedwiththepowersofnatureandtheworkingsoffatethanwithsocialrelationshipsandpracticalexperience.Sometimesa"oneday"conventionisadopted,franklyacceptingthelimitsoflightingvariationpossibleintheafternoonatanoutdoortheater.Butoften,imaginarydarknessisemployedtoconfusethecharactersonstage.WhiletheloversofAMidsummerNight'sDreammeanderthroughthewoods,sunlightsortsouttheircomplicatedrelationshipsforus.Dissemblingonstagecanbesimilarlyrevealed.InWilliamHaughton'sEnglishmenforMyMoney,

performedattheRosein1598,aslyfoolpretendstoofferassistancetotwoforeignersgropingtheirwaythroughthedarkstreetsofLondon.Instead,heleadsbothofthemstraightintotwopoles(perhapsthecolumnssupportingtheheavens).44Thesimplemindedjokeisfoundedonourclearlyseeingthemheadforandthenbumpintotheseobstructions.Werethedarknessconvincinglyrealized,thesceneispointless.In1HenryIV,itissupposedlydarkduringtheGad'sHillrobberyscene(2.2),buttheaudiencemustalsobeabletoseetheactionclearlybecauseHalandPoinshavealreadymadeapointofthenecessityofdifferentiatingandrecognizingthosewhoareandarenotcladinbuckram.

Toaccommodatethemselvestotheunchangeablelight,playwrightsmayhaveadopteda"daylightconvention,"suchasStyanposits,inwhichtheneu-

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trallightofthesuncomplementedtheunlocalized,wide-rangingdrama.ToStyan,theuniformityofthesunlightfreedtheimaginationofthespectatorandoffered"achallengetothepoettoconjurespecialillusions."

45Thischallengewassometimesansweredbypropertiesassociatedwithnightorbyotherspecialeffects,Styanpointsout,butmoreoftenbyasaturationofreferencescalculatedtoevokeasenseofdarkness.Certainlythisisoftenthecase,althoughStyan'sattributionoftheeffecttodaylightandoutdoorproductionmaybetoonarrow,inasmuchasthelightindoorswasnearlyasuncontrollableandevenmoreuniformthanthelightoutdoors;andothersunlitdramaGreektragedy,forinstanceisoftenwelllocalizedandseldomwide-ranging.Theinterchangeabilityofhallandamphitheaterrepertoriescouldhardlyhavealloweddependenceonaconventionthatwasinaccessiblehalfthetime.

Evenso,thesummoningupofpretendeddarknessremainsaconventionsimplybecauseitwassofamiliarandreadilyaccepted.Butwemusttakecaretoevaluatetheconventiononitsowntermsandnotonourown.Iamskepticalthatanytourdeforcecanrightlybethoughtaconventioninthetraditionalsense.Whereastheterm"convention"oncemeantthosetheatricalpracticessanctionedbylonguseandagreementbetweenactorsandaudiences,itnowtendstomeanthoseanti-illusionisticpracticesasserted,sometimesruthlessly,byeageractorsonabewilderedaudience.Forexample,theChorus'sapologiesfornonrealisticstaginginHenryVareoftencitedtodemonstrateShakespeare'srelianceontheatricalconvention.Yet,atheaterthoroughlyimbuedwithwhatwenowcallthepresentationalstylehardlyneedstoinvitethespectators'indulgencewhennightmustbeevokedbyapleato

entertaineconiectureofatime,WhencreepingMurmureandtheporingDarkeFillsthewideVesselloftheVniuerse.(F17902)

Hereandelsewhere,theChorusassuagesrealistic,notconventionalistic,expectationsoftheaudience.Whetherornotrealisticdarknesswaseverartificiallyachieved,itredoundedtotheaudience'senjoymenttobelievethattheywerewitnessinganaturalrepresentationoflifeonstage.46TheChorus'sapologiaforpretendeddarknessinHenryVpredatedthebeginningofJones'sillusionsbyahalf-dozenyearsorso,butithardlyrepresentsapatronizingin-

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vitationtochildlikespectatorstoimaginethemselvesinaworldwherenaturallawsdonotadhere.SirPhilipSidney'sDefenseofPoesy(1595)andJonson'sprologuetoEveryManinhisHumour(1598)hadalreadymadescathingfunofsuchnaivete.

Butalthoughdaylightreinforcedsometheatricaltropes,wemustnotassumethatplaywrightsandactorsregularlyreliedonsunlightoropen-airproductionfortheproperpresentationoftheirdramas.Themoreprosperousactingcompaniesperformedbothindoorsandoutdoors,andmostoftheplaysIhavementionedinconnectionwithoutdoorilluminationOthello,Macbeth,AMidsummerNight'sDream,andTheDuchessofMalfi,amongthemarealsoknowntohavebeenperformedindoorsatprivateplayhousesoratcourt.Onemightsupposethatindoorlightingproducedquiteadifferenteffect,yetitmustberealizedthatthemixtureofwindowlightandcandlelightinthepermanenthallplayhouseswasnearlyasdifficulttocontrolasthelightoutdoors.Indeed,theevidencewehaveregardingthestructuresoftheprivateplayhousessuggeststhattheywerewellprovidedwithwindowsadmittingsubstantialamountsofnaturallight.

Althoughsomecontemporarytheaterpractitionershaveembracedauniformilluminationoftheirstagesandauditoriumsasameansoffosteringaudienceparticipation,theinterplaybetweenactorsandspectatorsintheearlymodernEnglishtheaterisdifficulttoassess,becauseEnglishdramahadneverusedanyotherlightingsystem.Whateveronecanconcludeaboutcurrentpractice,thecontributionofuniformlightingtosuchinteractionisprobablyofsecondaryimportancewhencomparedtothepersonalityofthepublictobeginwithandthemannerinwhichitisinvitedtoparticipate.Werelightchieflyresponsibleforthenatureoftheatricalcommunication,wecouldexpectthesamesortofinterplaybetweenfifth-century-B.C.actorsandspectatorsaswefindintheeighteenthcentury.ForalthoughtheItalianscenographerLeonediSomihadadvocated

darkeningtheauditoriumasearlyasthe1560s,houselightsacrossEuroperemainedlitandtheaterlightevenlydistributeduntiltheintroductionofgasilluminationinthemid-nineteenthcentury.

47Indeed,somelightbrightenedthelargerauditoriumsofLondonwellintothenineteenthcentury.Theindignationofold-timersatCoventGardenwhenitwasproposedtodarkentheauditoriumforWagner'sRinginthe1890sgivesusanideahowrecentthepracticeis.

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ArtificialLight

Thepossibilitythatartificiallightsupplementedfailingnaturallighthasoccurredtoseveralresearchersconcernedaboutlateperformancetimesandearlywintersunsets.E.K.Chambersfoundit"doubtfulwhether,inthedepthofwinter,daylightcouldhaveservedquitetotheend"oftheplays.

48Buttheevidenceforartificiallightintheamphitheatersisslim,restinglargelyonthedefinitionoffalotinRandleCotgrave'sFrench-EnglishDictionarie(London,1611):"ACressetlight(suchastheyvseinPlayhouses)madeofropeswreathed,pitched,andputintosmallandope[n]cagesofyron."AssumingCotgraveisreferringtoEnglishpractice,theplayhouseshementionsin1611maybeeitheramphitheatersorhalls.Thesmokeofsuchcrudeinstrumentsmightwelleliminatetheiruseindoors,althoughcressetscouldstillbeemployedtheretoilluminateentrancewaysforspectators.TheonlystagedirectioncallingforcressetsthatIcanfindcomesfromJonson'soutdoorpageantKing'sEntertainmentinPassingtohisCoronation(London,1604),wherealadyholds"inheronehandalampe,orcresset.''49ButhereJonsonwassurelyfollowingliteraryratherthanpracticalconcerns:cressetswereheavymetaldevicesrequiringconstantreplenishmentofitsmessyfuel.Iftheladydidholdacressetinonehand(theotherhandrangabell),thenwemaybesureitwasaminiatureoneandprobablynotlit.AtTrinityCollege,Cambridge,theseniorbursar'saccountsfor154748reveallargepaymentsforcressetmaterials(pitchandbasketfrales)inconnectionwith"[e]xpensaecircatheatru[m]etludos,"50butweknowthatuniversityplayswereoftenassociatedwithoutdoorfestivities,processions,andthelikeforwhichcressetswouldhavebeenmoreappropriatethanforsmallindoorhalls,whichservedasthepredominantplayingspacesatCambridge.

ThereareseveralContinentalillustrationsofcressetslightingstagessetupintheopenair.Asixteenth-centuryFrenchpaintingplacestwoburningcressetsonlongpolestoeithersideofasimpleplatformstage(seefig.20).Thepaintingisfairlycrude,butitsdepictionofheavyclothingandadaytimeperformancemayshowthatcressetsprovidedwarmthaswellaslight.ConsideringthatCotgravewastranslatingtheFrenchwordfalot,hemay,infact,havehadsuchFrenchutensilsinmind.

Symmetricallyplacedcressetstotherightandleftofgatesandstagesbuiltforroyalentrieswerealsocommoninthesixteenthandseventeenthcen-

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Fig.20.Outdoorstagewithcressets,sixteenthcentury.

Bibliothèquemunicipale,Cambrai.

Fig.21.GillisCoignet'sTheDrawingofLotsforBedlam,1592.

AmsterdamsHistorischMuseum.

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Fig.22.AtableauvivantontheDaminAmsterdam,commemorating

thebeginningoftheTwelveYearsTruce.EngravingbyJ.C.VisscherafterVerschuring,1609.GraphischeSammlungAlbertina,Vienna.

turies,whethertheentriestookplacebydayornight.EspeciallyinFlanders,whereasuccessionofHapsburgrulerswerewelcomedinelaborateblijdeinkomsten,cressetsroutinelystoodtoeithersideofceremonialgatesandplatformsorweremountedtotherightandleftatopornatefacades.

51Duringthesameperiod,cressetssometimeslitthedialoguesandtableauxvivantsperformedonstagesbuiltinthepublicsquaresofAmsterdambyvariouschambersofrhetoric(rederijkkamers).Figure21showsa1592benefitperformanceatnightinsuchasquarelitbytwoburningcressetstoeithersideofthestage.AsimilarengravingbyJ.C.VisscherofanighttimetableauvivantcommemoratingthebeginningoftheTwelveYearsTruce(1609)showsastagelitbytwosmokingcressetsofftoeithersideofapicture-framestageandtwocressetstotherightandleftofthespectatorsassembledintheDam

(seefig.22).

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AlthoughsomeoftherederijkerfacadesbeararoughresemblancetothearchitecturalfeaturesoftheSwantiring-house,therederijkerpresentationswereratherdifferentfromEnglishdrama,insofarastheirstagesusuallyfeaturedcompartmentsattherearofthestageinwhichstaticdialogueswererecited,largepaintingswererevealed,orlivingtableauxinimitationofpaintingsweredisplayed,requiringthattheybeviewedfromavantagepointclosertothecenterlinethanwastrueintheLondonamphitheaters.

52Hence,theplacementofcressetsofftoeithersideofthestageensuredthatthesightlinesofthespectatorsviewingthesepicturesandsceneswouldnotbeobstructedbyburningflames.

TheatricalreferencestotheuseofcressetsundertheTudorsandStuartsarerare.W.J.Lawrencementionsanaccountofaplayproducedforanobleman'sweddingaround1550,whereaftersupper,"IubetheSane,aplaye,withtorchlyghtsandcressetlyghts,lxcressetsandcoftorches,andamaske,andabankett"werepresented.53Sixtycressetsandahundredtorcheswouldlightupthedarkestnight,butitisdoubtfultheywereallusedfortheplay,andthereisnoreasontosuspectthisspecialfestivaloccasionestablishedaprecedentfortheprofessionaltheatersinLondon.InamemorandumbookfoundamongEdwardAlleyn'spapers,thereisanentryofticketreceiptsfromaround1614or1615,probablyinHenslowe'shand,thatrecordseitherapaymentorreceiptofthreepencefor"creset"undertheheading"14daythenoblegrandchild."54GivenHenslowe'sidiosyncraticspelling,Iamnotsurethatthisisareferencetoburningcressets;butifitis,threepenceisbarelyenoughmoneytobuythefuelforanhour'sburningofoneaverage-sizedcresset.

TheonlyunmistakableevidenceforcressetsataprofessionalEnglishplayhousewasfoundbyC.J.Sissonandlateridentifiedandanalyzed

byHerbertBerryinhisexhaustiveresearchontheBoar'sHead.In1603,JohnMago,thebuilderoftheplayhouse,testifiedregardinghisunderstandingoftherunningcostsofthetheater,including"rushesandcressettlightsinWynterwchsomeweekscametotenortwelveshillingsaweeke."55BerryconcludesthatMago'spairingofcressetswithrushesimpliesthatthecressetsilluminatedthestage,whererushesweresometimesstrewn.Thismaybetrue,butrusheswerealsoafueltypicallyburnedincressetsorbythemselvesinrush-holders.Mago'spairingofrushesandcressetsmorelikelysignifiesonlythattheywerepurchasedfromthesamesource;hence,theirjuxtapositioncannotprovethat

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cressetswereplacednearthestage.Thatcertainweeksinthewinterrequiredmorecressetlightsthanotherssuggeststhatonepurposeforthemmayhavebeenforheat,astheaveragewintertemperatureinLondonvariesconsiderablymorefromweektoweekthantheaverageamountofwinterdaylight.Ontheotherhand,publicestablishmentslikeinnsandtavernssometimeshadcressetlightsburningneartheirdoorssothattorchesfortravelerscouldbelit,

56anditispossiblethatplayhousecressetsalsoservedsuchfunctionsforspectatorsapartfromorinadditiontolightingthestageorauditorium.Around1595,SirJohnHarringtontellsofanobleladyclimbingup"darkandprivatstaires"toanunidentifiedplayhousegallerywhentwothievesgrabherandaccidentallyputoutherpage'storch;inthestory,thepagerunsawayandreturnsbeforemuchharmisdonewith"morestoreoflight,"whereuponthethievesflee.57Becausethepagereappearssoquickly,therewaslikelyatorchorcressetneartherearentranceoftheplayhouse.

EvenifthefunctionofthecressetsMagomentionswastolightthestage,theycannothaveproducedagreateffect.Afewyearslater,SalisburyCourtspentasmuchastenshillingstosupplyonlyafewdozencandlesforoneperformance,58whereasMagosaysthattheBoar'sHeadspentthatmuchoralittlemoreonbothcressetsandrushesduringaparticularlyheavywinterweek.Whatismore,thissmallamountoffuelwouldpresumablyhavetoserviceamuchlargerstagethanatSalisburyCourt.IfcressetmaterialswereemployedinilluminatingtheBoar'sHeadstage,thedisparityintheamountsofmoneyspentonfuelatthetwoplayhousesdoesnotspeakofbrilliantresults.WhileitistruethatartificiallightsmayhavebeenemployedonlytowardtheendofwinterplaysattheBoar'sHead,thesameisalsotrueofSalisburyCourt.IfSalisburyCourtlightedcandlesforthe

durationofthewholeperformance(asappearstobethecase),thenwecannotassumethattheBoar'sHeaddidnotdolikewise.

KeithBrownhasrevisitedtheissueofoutdoorartificiallightsandarguesforcefullythatshowmenliketheKing'smenmusthaveknownthetheatricalvalueofbrightlightandthattheychosetopositiontheirstageintheshadowsofthesouthwestquadrantandcoveritwithalargestagecoverinordertoemphasizethesumptuousnessoftheartificiallightthattheycouldthenintroduce.Heproposesthat,insuchreducednaturallight,theKing'smenmadesubstantialuseofpropertylightstoproducemotivationalandmoodlighting,andBrownconcludesthatourhearingsolittleaboutcressetsdoes

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notmeanthattheywerenotemployed,becausetheneedforthem,atleasttowardsunset,issoobvious.

59

Giventhelackofclearevidence,itisimpossibletosaywithassurancethatartificiallightswereorwerenotusedattheendsofamphitheaterperformances.Still,wemustconsidertheeffectthattheuseofcressetsorotherlargeutensilswouldproduce.Toalleviateaproblemoflowlightlevels,weimmediatelythinkofresortingtostronglightsources.ButthelightinginstrumentsatourdisposalareverydifferentfromthoseaccessibletoTudorandStuartactingcompanies.Thesourcesofbrilliantlightavailabletouscanbeconcentrated,easilyshielded,and,hence,allbutignoredbyspectators.Thefilamentsofmodernlightbulbsaresosmall,infact,thatevenwithoutshieldingoureyesfromtheirglarewecanseeobjectsplacedonlyafewdegreesawayfromthefilament(whatlightingengineerscalltheglareangle).Fortwolightsourcesofequalstrengthbutdifferentsize,however,glareincreasesasthesizeofthesourceincreases.60Becauseearlylightingutensilsstrongenoughtoproducereadilyapparentrisesintheleveloflightwereinevitablyquitelarge,itfollowsthatspectatorswouldfinditdifficultnottobeblindedbytheminoveralldimlightunlessstepsweretakentoreduceglare.

Twopossiblesolutionstosuchglarepresentthemselves:cressetsandtorchescouldhavebeenshieldedfromtheeyesoftheaudiencebymeansofshuttersormetalcoverings,orthelightscouldhavebeenpositionedsuchthattheywerenotnearthelineofsightoftheaudience.BecausenoneofthecressetspreservedinthecollectionoftheVictoriaandAlbertMuseumhasashield,andbecauseofthecircularconfigurationoftheamphitheaterauditoriums,itisdifficulttoimagineashadeorshutterthatcouldeliminateglareformuchmore

thanhalftheaudience.Asweshallseeinourconsiderationofthestagelightingatcourt,InigoJoneslearnedthetrickofshieldingtheaudiencefromthesourcesofgeneralvisibilitylightonlyonhistriptoItalyin1615whenhesawwhatcouldbedonewhentheaudiencesatononlyonesideofthestage.

Therewerealsoonlyafewlocationsinwhichcressetscouldbeplacedsothattheywouldnotglareintotheeyesorobstructtheviewoflargesegmentsoftheaudience.IntheContinentalexampleswehaveconsidered,cressetswereplacedbeyondthestagefloortotheextremerightandleftofactorsfacinganaudiencesittingorstandingbeforethem.Butinatheaterthatsurroundedtheactorswiththeaudience,cressetsplacedimmediatelyto

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eithersideofthestagewouldhaveblindedorobstructedtheviewofspectatorssittingnearthem.Alternatively,cressetscouldhavebeenplacedonpolesmountedonthetiring-housefacade,butthentheactorswouldfallintosilhouettewhiletheaudiencesittingorstandingnearthecenterlinewouldbeforcedtolookdirectlyintothenakedflames.Thebestsolutionwouldhavebeentoadoptapracticesimilartothemodernplacementofspotlightshighabovetheauditoriumandstage.Butascressetsneedtobecarefullymindedandtheirfuelregularlyreplenished(figure20showsaboydoingjustthat),theywouldstillhavetobeplacedinlocationswheretheywereeasilyaccessible.Thecolumnsofthetopmostgalleriesorthecolumnssupportingtheheavensabovethestagecouldhavebeenconstructedtosupportheavycressets,andfacilitiesforthenecessaryattendantstoreachthemcouldhavebeenprovided,but,asGurrpointsout,thereisnomentionofsuchamenitiesinanyoftheextantcontracts.

Apartfromthesafetyproblemsinvolvedinpositioningconflagrationshighabovethestageoryard,theplacementofcressetsfarfromthelinesofsightofamajorityofthespectatorswouldnecessarilymovethelightsourcessofarfromtheactorsthattheywouldaddlittleadditionalilluminationonstage.Ifweassumethatacresset(producing,say,tenfootcandlesofillumination)wasplacedateitherendoftheGlobestage,eachcressetwouldproduceonlyapproximately0.025ofafootcandleatthecenterofthestage.Thehumaneyecanperceivethissmallamountoflight,butonlyifithasbecomeaccustomedtorelativedarknessoveraperiodoftimeintheabsenceofglare.Thelightemanatingfromsuchcressetscouldimprovethevisibilityofactorsstandingcenterstageonlyifallotherilluminationontheplayerswasequaltoorlessthanthesameorderofmagnitudeasthelightfromthecressets;inotherwords,verydimindeed.

ButonthesummerdaysonwhichItookreadings,thenaturallighton

thenewGlobestageatsunsetrangedfrom0.8to2.5footcandles,which,althoughdiminabsoluteterms,istoobrightfortheaveragespectatortonoticethelightemanatingfromlargeartificialsourceslocatedatthetwosidesofthestagesometwentyfeetaway.Foraspectatoraccustomedtotheselevelsofambientnaturallighttodiscernariseinvisibility,theactorwouldhavetomovewithinsixorsevenfeetofoneofthecressets.

61Thisproximitycouldbeaccomplishedbymountingthecressetsonthestagepillarsclosertothecenterofthestage;butinsuchpositionsdirectlyabovetheplayers,thecres-

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setbasketsthemselveswouldtendtoblockoutilluminationdirecteddownwardontheplayersandexacerbatetheproblemofglare.Asisfrequentlythecaseinearlylightingsystems,effortstoreduceglareandincreasevisibilityworkedatcross-purposes.

Inestimatingtheeffectofartificiallightintheamphitheaters,theimportanceofbrightnessadaptationlevelsiscrucial.Thehumaneyeisextraordinarilysensitive,abletoseetolerablyeveninmoonlight,butonlyifoureyeshavebecomeacclimatizedtodecreasinglightoveraperiodoftime.Althoughthecolor-sensitiveconesadaptthemselvestolowlightfairlyquickly,reachingfulladaptationwithintenminutes,themoreimportantrods,whichdeterminevisualacuity,adjustthemselvesmoreslowlytothedark,approachinggoodsensitivityonlyafterhalfanhourandnotreachingmaximumsensitivityuntilnearlyanhourispassedinthedark.

62Anaudiencewatchingaplaylitbynaturallightwillgraduallygrowaccustomedtothedecreasinglightandmayeasilyfindviewingcomfortablewellpastsunset.Althoughindividualperceptionswillalwaysdiffer,thewaningdaylightatthenewGlobeisentirelyadequateformostmodernspectatorshalfanhourpastsunset,anditseemsreasonabletoassumethatearlymodernspectatorswouldfindsuchnaturallightequallyorevenmoresufficient,unaccustomedastheyweretomodernincandescentlighting.InJanuary1569,infact,theCitybannedplays"afterthehowreofvoftheClocke,"whichwasanhourpastsunset.63AlthoughthelevelofilluminationproducedbynaturallightonthenewGlobestageahalfhourpastsunsetmayseemdimtous,intermsofmeasurableilluminationitwas,infact,approximatelythesameamountoflightproducedbythecandlesburningabovethehallstageslikethatatSalisburyCourt.

Havingadjustedtheireyestotwilight,spectatorswouldfindthatthe

lightingoflargecressetstowardtheendofawinterplaywouldcausethemtolosetheiraccommodationtodimlightandrequirealengthyperiodofreorientationastheyreturnedtheirfocusontothestage.Thus,iftheamphitheatersdidregularlylightcressets,theyprobablydidsonotasduskapproachedbutfromthebeginningoftheplay.Thiswastheprocedureattheindoortheaterswherecandleswerelitastheplaywasabouttobegin.Butapartfromthedistractionofanattendantclimbinguptolightthecressetsfollowedbytheirsuddenignition,thelightingofartificiallightsinthefinalminutesoftheplay

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whennaturallightwaswaningwouldhaveabruptlyraisedthebrightnessadaptationlevel,destroyingthespectators'acclimatizationtolowlevelsoflightandmakingactorsandproperties,exceptthoseimmediatelybesideacresset,appeardimmerthanbeforethecressetswerelit.

Modernlightingdesignersmakeconcerteduseofthisprinciple.Forexample,ifadirectordoesnotwanttheactionsofstagehandsvisibleduringablackout,acompetentlightingdesignerwillmakesurethattheblackoutwasimmediatelyprecededbybrightlight.UnlessmoneyisoflittleconcernasonBroadwayorintheWestEndthebestwaytoensureconsistentlyhighvisibilityonthemodernstageistoemployaslowabrightnessadaptationlevelasispractical.Infact,stronglights,becausetheyraisethebrightnessadaptationlevelprecipitously,alsoraisethelevelofilluminationbelowwhicheverythingseemsblack;thatis,theyraisethethresholdatwhichwecanseeanythingatall.

Thisprincipleappliesasmuchtotheauditoriumastothestageitself.Cressetsnearthestagewould,ineffect,maketherecessesofthegalleriesandpassagewaysfarthestawayfromthestageseemevendarkerthantheyhadappearedmomentsbeforethecressetswerelit.Theuseofbrightlightsnearthestagewouldthereforenecessitatethelightingofartificiallightsinotherareasoftheplayhouse.Iflowlightwasofmajorconcern,themostefficientwaytoincreasevisibilitywasnottolightafewlargecressetsnearthestagebutrathertodispersemanysmallsourcesoflightabouttheactingareaandauditorium.This,atanyrate,wastheprocedureusedintheindoorhallplayhousesandatcourt.

Consideringthesizeoftheareatobelit,thedesirabilityofusingasmanylightsaspossible,andtheproblemsEnglishweathermighthavecausedinkeepingthemlit,Iamskepticalthattheartificiallightsattheactors'disposalplayedamajorroleinthegeneralilluminationof

theamphitheaters.Tiremenwouldhavehadtogoaboutthestageandauditoriumlightingandreplenishingtorchesorcressets.Andshouldanywindorraincomeup,thesesametiremenwouldhavehadtotendtovulnerableinstruments.Intheprivatetheaters,therewereactbreaksduringwhichsuchdutiescouldbecarriedoutwithoutinterruptingtheperformance.Butthecustomofinter-actmusicandactbreaksdidnotspreadtothepublicstagesuntilshortlybeforeShakespeare'sretirement.

64Becausethemajorityofreferencestolateper-

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formancesandtheirpresumedneedforartificiallightsoccurredwellbeforethen(especiallybefore1594),lightsatthepublicplayhouseswouldhavehadtobelitandattendedtowhiletheplaywasinprogress.

Stillmoreinconvenientwerethedangerspresentwithburninglightsintheinflammablepublicplayhouses.Thesetheaterswerealmostentirelyofwood,anditisnotlikelythattheactorsriskedilluminatingtheirtheaterswithfiresthatmaynothavebeennecessary.LawrencetakesHowe'sdescriptionoftheburningofthefirstFortuneattwelveo'clockmidnight"bynegligenceofacandle"torefertoacandlelitperformanceatnight.

65Butbecausewepossessnoproofofanyamphitheaterplaycontinuingsolate,itismoreprobablethatacandlewassimplyleftunattendedbysomeoneworkingafterhours.IftheFortunefirein1621tookplaceataperformance,Iamamazedthatthemanyreportsofitfailedtomentionthefateoftheaudience.Whatismore,ifartificiallightweresoprevalent,asKeithBrownwouldhaveusbelieve,itispuzzlingthatthereisonlythisoneincidentthatcanbeattributedtolightingutensilstheonlyotherrecordedfireinvolvingburningcannonfodderatthefirstGlobe,thefateofwhoseaudiencewasindeedwellrecorded.

Itisinthenatureofthingsthatwecannotdismissthepossibilitythatartificiallightswereusedoutdoors.Butweshouldrecognizethatthewholequestionofsupplementallightneveraroseuntilearly-twentieth-centuryscholars,accustomedtothecarefullycontrolledstageilluminationoftheirownera,begantoworryaboutactorsperformingintheuncontrollablelightandtwilightofearlymodernLondon.Itwasassumedthattheactorsmusthavedoneeverythingintheirpowertocorrectthedeficienciesofnaturallight,thattheywould

attempttoperforminasconsistentlybrightanenvironmentaspossible.Yet,theoppositeseemstohavebeentrue.Theoccasionaldiminutionoflightdoesnotappeartohavebotheredtheactors.Indeed,theiranswertotherandomfluctuationoflightoutdoorswastheapproximationofthereducedlevelsoflightindoors.Byplacingthestageatthesouthwest,theactorswerewellshadedfromthesuninthemiddleoftheafternoon,whiletowardseveningtheaudiencecouldadjusttoalowerbrightnessadaptationlevelbecausethecanopyabovethestageeliminatedglarefromthesettingsunlowonthewesternhorizon.PracticalmenoftheElizabethantheaterapparentlywantedastageprotectedfromtheelements,in-

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cludingsunshine.Dissatisfactionwithalackofbrightnessontheirstagemustbeaccountedamodernconcern.

Thegeneralpictureoftheamphitheatersthatemergesisoneofawell-shadedstagewithneitherartificiallightforgeneralilluminationnortheextremecontrastsoflightanddarkduetodirectsunlight.

66Asanactorcameforwardtowardthefootofthestage,thelightwouldincreaseslightlybecausethecoveroverheadinterceptedlesslight.TheSwansketchshowsactorswellforwardonthestagethrowingsoftshadowstowardthecenterofthearena.SincetheconventionsofshadinginbothamateurandprofessionalnorthernRenaissancedrawings,etchings,andwoodblocksmakeitunlikelythatdeWittorvanBucheladdedshadowsinfrontoftheactorsforartisticreasons,wemaytaketheshadingasgenerallyaccurateandacceptitasconfirmationthatthestagewasplacedsothatlightshonefrombehindthetiring-house.Andapartfrommodernconjecture,thereislittleevidenceofanyconcertedefforttointroducemorelightintothetheaters.Wereadnothingoflargewindows,reflectiveinteriors,habitualuseofartificiallightsforgeneralillumination,ornoontimeperformancesbuthearratherofpaintedimitationmarble,stainedoak,blackhangings,andperformancesstretchingintotwilight.

Regardingtheeffectoftwilightonthetheatricalresponsestotheplays,wecanbelesssureofourselves,dependentassuchperceptionswereonpsychologicalreactionsoftheoriginalaudiences.Buttheuseoftheword''shadow"forwhatiselsewherecalledtheheavensintheFortunecontractandthefewnarrowwindowsweseeinthevariousperspectivemapsoftheBanksidetheatersshowthatplayhouseswerenotdesignedsolelyforthepurposeofintroducinglightintothem,howevermuchitmayhavebeenoneconsideration.Thatthestagewas

notengineeredtoappearasbrightaspracticableisalsosupportedbythefrequentbringingonofstage-propertycandlesandtapers,whoseweakflamescouldnothavemademuchofanimpressiononastagefloodedwithbrightsunshine.

Whereasmodernstagelightingtendstobehighlydirectional,emanatingfromtwodistinctpositionstothefrontoftheactor,Elizabethanlightingcamefromallaroundhim.Totheamphitheateraudience,therewasnoimpressionoflightfocusingontheactor,nosenseoflightexposinghimtotheinterpretiveschemeofalightingdesigner.Inourmoderntheaters,Ham-

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letandMacbethareexaminedunderablazingglareofspotlights,evenifapervasivegloomgathersaroundthemandintheauditorium.EnglishRenaissanceactorsmovedinmorenaturalsurroundings.Theyperformedinapleasant,ungovernablelightthatshoneonthetiring-housefacadeandspectatorsaswellasontheactors.Likethebare,openstage,theoverallilluminationpermittednotonlyflexibilityinstagingbutalsoasenseofcontinuitybetweenthestageandtheauditorium,betweentheactorsandtheirbackground.Shakespeare'saudienceviewedhisplaysbyanatural,subduedlightthat,becauseitisasfamiliartousasitwastothem,helpsustorecreatehisplaysinperformance.

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6DaylightintheIndoorPlayhousesIncontrasttothelargeamphitheatersthat"laypartlyopentotheWeather,and...alwaiesActedbyDaylight,"hallplayhousessuchastheCockpitinDruryLane,Blackfriars,andSalisburyCourtwere"smalltowhatweseenow,...hadPitsfortheGentry,andActedbyCandlelight."SostatestheHistoriaHistrionicaof1699.

1Thedistinctionitdrawsbetweenthelightingsystemsatthetwokindsoftheatersisconfirmedbyseveralearliersourcesthatmentionartificiallightinconnectionwiththehallplayhouses.Butwemusttakecarenottomakemoreofadistinctionthanwasactuallythecase.TheHistoriatellsusthe"public''playhousesemployeddaylightandthe"private"playhousescandlelight;butitdoesnotsaythattheprivateplayhouses"alwaies,"thatis,exclusively,employedartificiallight,nordoesitfollowthatperformancesthereregularlyorevenoccasionallytookplaceatnight,asissometimesasserted.2Infact,referencestothetimesofperformancesareconsistentlyintheafternoon;thenumberofcandlesemployedwasapparentlynotlarge;andsuchevidenceaswehaveindicatestheauditoriumswerewellprovidedwithwindows,admittingsubstantialamountsofsunshine.

PerformanceTimes

Earlyhallplayhousesapparentlyabidedbyeveningprayerprohibitionsmorestrictlythandidcontemporaneousamphitheaters.AlthoughallbutoneofthehalltheaterslayoutsidetheCity'sjurisdictionandcouldhaveignoredsuchprohibitions,earlyhalltheatercompanieswereecclesiasticalinoriginandapparentlyfeltnoinclinationtodoso.Thesefirstcompanieswereec-

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clesiasticalinthesensethattheywerecomposedofboyactorsdrawnfromthechoirschoolsofSt.Paul'sandtheChapelRoyalatWindsor,andtheirmastersevidentlyfeltcompelledtoobeyorderspromotingattendanceateveningprayer.Weknowlittleabouttheplayhousestheyused,buttimesofperformancescanbefixedratherpreciselyinonecaseandinferentiallyintheother.

Weareuncertainwhenthefirstchildren'splayhouse,thetheateratSt.Paul's,beganoperations.By1575,playsforthegeneralpublicwereperformedsomewherewithinthechurch'sprecincts,becauseinDecemberofthatyeartheLondonCommonCouncilgavenoticetothedeanofSt.Paul'sthatplaysandtheresortofspectatorsattendingthemwereincitingdisorderwithinhisjurisdiction.

3CommonCouncilminutesmakeplainthattherealdissatisfactionwaswiththeboys'master,SebastianWestcott,whohadrefusedtorenounceCatholicism.ButElizabeth'sapprovalofthecompanyontheonehandandherreligioustoleranceontheotherpreventedthemfromobjectingonsuchgrounds.Lackingknowledgeofanyparticularmisdeeds,theCityresortedtothevaguechargeofabettingdisorder,theindefinitenatureofwhichsuggeststhatthecompanyobservedotherregulationsmoreorlessscrupulously.IfperformancesatPaul'sweregivenatthetimeofeveningprayer,theCityfatherswouldundoubtedlyhavebroughtthemtothedean'sattention.Asearlyastherearerecords,then,performancesatPaul'swereprobablygivenaftereveningprayer.

Twenty-eightyearslater,thislatestartingtimeisconfirmedbya"NotetotheMasteroftheChildrenofPowles,"whichalsomentionsasixo'clockfinishingtime.ThenotewaswrittenbyWilliamPercyandaccompaniedseveralplaysthatheofferedthereorganizedPaul'sboysinhopesofperformance.Percyworriedthathisplayswere

"somewhattoolong";andwithamixtureofcomplaisanceandpridecommontounproducedplaywrightsofalleras,heauthorizedcuts"ifanyof...thesePastorallsandComoedyes...overeachinlength(ThechildrennottobeginbeforeFoureafterPrayers,AndthegatesofPowlesshuttingatsix)theTymeofsupper."4NotonlydoesPercymakeplainthatplayslastedfrom4to6P.M.,buthisuseoftheproscriptivephrase"nottobegin"ratherthanadescriptiveonelike"notbeginning''impliesthatthetimeofthecompany'sperformanceswasestablishedbyofficialpolicyandnotsimplybycustom.Timesmayhavevariedovertheyears,ofcourse,butbecausewehaveevidenceoflateafternoonperform-

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ancesfromthebeginningandneartheendoftheatricalactivityatPaul's,itisimprobablethatdrasticchangesoccurred.

Thenexthallplayhouse,thefirstBlackfriars,leavesusnousefulinformationregardingitstimeofperformance.Nevertheless,inasmuchasitwassetupforboyactorswhowerejoinedbytheChildrenofPaul'safterWestcott'sdeathin1582,itmaybethattheChildrenoftheChapelatBlackfriarsplayedatsimilartimes.Thisjointboys'companydisbandedin1584,andBlackfriarswentunusedasatheatricalvenueuntilJamesBurbagebegantorenovateanotherroomforplayingintheautumnof1596.HeintendedtolodgetheChamberlain'smenthere,buthisplanswerethwartedwhenlocalresidentscomplainedtothePrivyCouncil,whichquicklyputastoptotheenterprise.Althoughthetroupedidnotactthere,theresidents'petitionindicatesthatperformanceswereexpectedtocoincidewitheveningprayer.Theworriedcitizenspredictedthattheactors'drumsandtrumpetswoulddisturbbothparishionersandministers"intymeofdevineservice."

5Itwillberecalledthattwoyearspreviously,theLordChamberlain'smenhadrequestedpermissiontoperformattheCrossKeysinnbeginningattwointheafternoon.By1596,thecompany'shabitofplayingduringeveningprayerhadbecomesofirmlyestablishedthatBlackfriarsresidentsexpectednothingelse.

Inpartbecausetheboyactorsdelayedtheirplaysuntilaftereveningprayer,theresidentsdidnotobjectwhenanewChildrenoftheChapelcompanybeganperforminginBurbage'splayhousebefore1600.In1604,KingJamesgrantedthecompanyapatentastheChildrenoftheQueen'sRevels,butinFebruaryof1606,theyimprudentlyridiculedtheking'snationalorigininTheIsleofGulls.Twoyearslater,aftermoreunwelcomesatires,thekingangrilyorderedthemdisbanded.As

ithappens,itisintheinductiontoTheIsleofGullsthatwelearnthisthirdchildren'scompanyalsoperformedlateintheafternoon.Anactorposingasastage-sittingspectatorexplainshecanonlyseeanactortwooftheplaybecause"Ilayinbedtillpastthreeaclock,sleptoutmydinner,andmystomackewilltouletosupperaforefiue."6Presumably,theplaybeganaroundfouro'clock(thatis,aftereveningprayer)andcontinueduntilsixorsointheevening.

TheLordChamberlain'smenfinallytookpossessionofthissecondBlackfriarsplayhousein1608undertheirnewname,theKing'smen.AsbefitsthemostprestigioustheaterinLondon,severalcontemporarydocumentsspeaktoitstimeofperformance.By1619,forexample,thepopularityoftheplay-

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househadcausedlogisticalproblems.InalettertothePrivyCouncil,neighborsprotestedthat"multitudesofCoaches"cloggedthestreetsanddisruptedbusiness"almosteveriedaieinthewintertyme...fromoneortwoeoftheclocktillsixeattnight,whichbeingethetymealsoemostvsuallforChristeningsandburiallsandafternoonesservice."

7Certainlytheplaydidnotlastfrom1to6P.M.;itmusthaverequiredatleastanhourbeforeandaftertheperformanceforthecoachestopushthroughthetraffic.Andforspectatorswhocameearlytoavoidthecrowd,one-hourconcertsweregiventopassthetimebeforetheplaybegan.8Theplaysthemselvesmusthavelastedfromtwoorthreeo'clockuntilaroundfive.

UnderElizabeth,thePrivyCouncilmighthavelistenedtosuchacomplaint,buttheStuartcourtsconsistentlysidedwithplayersingeneralandtheKing'smeninparticular.UnderCharles,infact,ourinformationregardingperformancetimesatBlackfriarsisfurnishedbypatronsfromthehighestclassesthegentry,nobility,andeventheroyalfamily.In1628,thebishopofSalisburyacidlydescribedhowJosephTaylor,theleadingactoratBlackfriars,hadwontheadmirationofInns-of-Courtlawyersandmade"themAfternoonesmen."9Ontwoseparateoccasionsinthefallof1633,themasteroftherevels,SirHenryHerbert,foundKing'smen'splaysunacceptableandsuppressedthem"forthatafternoone."10Andfrom1633until1640,SirHumphreyMildmayrecordedsixafternoontripstoBlackfriarsinhisaccountbookanddiary.11

Fromthesameperiod,however,comesuggestionsthatafewBlackfriarsplaysmayhavebeenpresentedatnightfortheenjoymentofthequeen,HenriettaMaria.Noneofthesixrecordedperformancesthequeensawthereisdescribedashavingtakenplaceatnight,butJ.

Q.AdamsandG.E.BentleyarriveatthisconclusionbyreferencetothetypeofremunerationtheKing'smenreceived.12WhentheKing'smenperformedatWhitehallnearLondon,theyreceivedastandardpaymentoftenpounds.Butwhenthecompanywasobligedtotraveltooutlyingpalaces,theyreceivedanadditionaltenpoundsbecause,astheystipulatedintheirbillstothelordchamberlain,"ourday[was]lostatourhouse."13Becausethesebillsrecordnoextrapaymentsfortwoofthequeen'svisitstoBlackfriars(5May1636and23April1638),AdamsandBentleyassumethatnoregularperformanceswerelostandthatthequeensawspecialperformancesthatmust,therefore,havebeenatnight.14Indeed,severalscholarshavegoneontoassertthatperformancesforthepublicwerealsoregularlyatnight.15AsAdamsandBent-

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leywouldadmit,however,theirargumentforthequeen'snightplaysisconstructedofsuccessivelyappliedinferences,eachofwhichisprobably,butbynomeansabsolutely,certain.Theirargumentthusbarelysupportsitself.

Thelastchildren'stheater,inWhitefriars,hasleftbehindastartingtimeof"about"threeo'clock.Whitefriarswasleasedin1605,occupiedbytheChildrenoftheKing'sRevelsaround1608,andthencontinueduntil1614witharegroupedChildrenoftheQueen'sRevelsandotherboycompanies.In1611,amemberofPrinceOttovonHesse-Cassel'sentouragenoted,"Dastheatrum,dadiekinderspielen,istaufdiesseitdeswassers,spielenum3uhr,abernurvonmichaelisbisaufostern."

16BecauseWhitefriarswastheonlychildren'stheaterinoperationatthetime,theGermansmusthavevisitedtheWhitefriarsplayhousearoundthreeo'clock.

ThepredominanceoftheKing'smen'sBlackfriarsplayhousewaschallengedin1617whenaquondammemberofthecompany,ChristopherBeeston,remodeledtheCockpitinDruryLaneintoanindoorplayhouse,alsoperformingintheafternoon.Bythe1630s,MildmaystillpreferredtheBlackfriarstoallothertheatersbutonatleastoneoccasionwasdelightedwiththe"afternoone"playattheCockpit.17ItissurprisingthatMildmaynevernotedgoingtothelastprivatetheatertobesetup,theSalisburyCourtplayhouse(c.1629).Inconsequence,wehavenodirectevidenceastowhenplayswereactedthere,althoughitisprobablethatitsperformanceswerepresentedatthesametimeastwopublictheaters.ThiscanbededucedfromareferenceinthepraeludiumaffixedtothepublishedtextofTheCarelessShepherdess,whichhasas"TheScene.SALISBURYCOURT."Init,aparsimoniouscitizenthinksbetterofpayingthe

steepprivateplayhouseadmissionprice(oneshilling)anddecidesinsteadto"gototh'BullorFortune,andtheresee/APlayfortwopense,withaJigtoboot."18BecausetheRedBullandFortunepresumablygaveafternoonperformancesandbecausethecitizencangothereortoSalisburyCourt,thislasthallplayhouseseemstohavehostedafternoonplays,aswell.

DaylightandCandlelight

Asithappens,thebestestimateoftheamountofcandlelightemployedindoorscomesfromaproposedarticleofagreementbetweenhousekeepersandhirelingactorsatSalisburyCourtin1639.Intheagreement,thehousekeeperspromisedtopayhalfthecostofthelights,"bothwaxeandTallow,

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wchhalfeallwinterisnear5saday."

19Aswillbediscussedinthenextchapter,itisfromsuchafigurethatwecanmakeamore-or-lessintelligentguessaboutthenumberofcandlesusedatSalisburyCourtinthewinter.Dependingontheirsizeandtheproportionsofexpensivewaxcandlestocheapertallowones,thetotalnumberworksouttoabouttwotofourdozencandlesforeachperformanceagoodlynumber,tobesure,butinactualbrightnessnotevenequaltothepowerofonesixty-wattlightbulb.20Theuseofthephrase"allwinter"suggests,inaddition,thatfarfromprovidingtheprincipalsourceofilluminationallyear,candlelightwasusedprimarilytohelpdispelwinterdarkness.Foralthoughsomehallplayhouseswereusedonlyinthewinter(theKing'smen'sBlackfriars,forinstance),SalisburyCourthasleftbehindrecordsofanumberofsummertimeplays.21Aplausibleinterpretationofthefactsisthatsummertimeperformancesdispensedwithmuchorevenallartificiallightandthatwintertimeperformancesreliedonamixtureofnaturalandartificiallight.

HowsuchamixturemighthavelookedisshowninthefamiliarfrontispiecetoTheWits,orSportuponSportof1662(seefig.23).Init,weseesixteencandlesarrangedintwobranchedchandeliershangingaboveasmallstage.Theprincipallightcomesfromtheactors'right,butnotfromthechandelierthere,astheoppositechandeliercastsnosimilarshadows.Apparently,daylightwasplentifulfromthatdirection.WhatkindoftheaterTheWitsfrontispiecepurportstorepresentwedonotknow,butitprovidessomeassurancethatconjecturebasedonthe1639SalisburyCourtarticlesandonotherevidencehasnotstrayedtoofarfromthepossible.22

WindowLight

ThattheactorstookadvantageofdaylighttoilluminatetheirpermanentindoortheatersisattestedtobyThomasDekker,whonotedspecificexceptionstothepractice.InTheSevenDeadlieSinnsofLondon,DekkerdescribesatypicalLondonnightfall,sayingthathefoundthat"alltheCittylooktlikeaprivatePlayhouse,whenthewindowesareclaptdowne,asifsomeNocturnal,ordismallTragedywerepresentlytobeactedbeforealltheTradesmen."23Dekkerwaswritingin1606whenthreeearlyhallplayhouseswereinoperation:St.Paul's,thesecondBlackfriars,andWhitefriars.Thepassagesuggestsseveralpointsaboutindoorlighting.Itindicatesthatforsomehall

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Fig.23.FrontispiecetoTheWits,orSportuponSport(London,1662).Reproduced

bypermissionofTheHuntingtonLibrary,SanMarino,California(RB107896).

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playhouseperformances,daylightwasspecificallyblockedout.Italsohintsthatplayhouseilluminationwasused,notonlyforthesakeofvisibility,butalsotoreinforceaestheticqualitiesofaplay.Darknessisbothmetaphoricallyandtechnicallyassociatedwith"dismallTragedy,"andthereisthestrongimplicationthatafternoonperformancesofhistories,comedies,romances,andevennot-so-dismaltragedieswouldfindthewindowsopen.

WhatkindofwindowswerethesethatDekkerrefersto,andhowweretheyopenedor"claptdowne"?Wepossessplansandsectionsoftwoindoortheatersthatshowthepositionsandsizesoftheirwindows,andweknowenoughaboutmedievalandRenaissancearchitecturetoformanideaofthefenestrationinthepermanentprivatetheatersforwhichwehavenopictorialevidence.Further,thewindowsofseveralhallsthatweresometimesusedastheatersstandtodayforourinspection.Ofthese,mostinterestattachestothehallsatHamptonCourtPalaceandtheInnsofCourt,sinceShakespeareprobablyactedinthem.

TheGreatHallatHamptonCourtwasbuiltbyHenryVIIIandcontinuedasafavoritelocationforChristmastimeplaysuntiltheInterregnum(seefig.24).TheKing'smenwerefrequentgueststhereandonatleastoneoccasionperformedintheafternoon.

24Thehallis105feet6incheslong(includingthescreenpassage),40feetwide,and60feettothesummitofthehammerbeamroof.25Itslongitudinalaxislieseastandwest.A"minstrelgallery"atthewestenddefinesthefirstofsevenbaysandissupportedbyasimplescreenwithtwodoors,whichmayoccasionallyhaveservedasatiring-housefacade.Abovethegalleryisawindowofsevenlights,andhigherstillaretwosmallwindowstreatedalmostaspartoftheroof.Thesewindowsarerepeatedintheeastwall,whereadaisforthekingreplacesthescreen.Inthenorthwallaresevenmullionedwindows

highupaboveFlemishwalltapestriesandmoldings.Inthesouthwall,sixofthesewindowsarerepeated;intheseventhbaytotheleftofthedaisisatall,mullionedbaywindowdividedintoforty-eightlights,thepurposeofwhichwastolightthedaisandtofocusattentiononitandtheking.

Thepredominanteffect,characteristicofallTudorhalls,isthesoft,descendingnatureofthelight.Thesidewallsarepaneledanddrapedtoaheightofovereighteenfeetsothatnodirectsunshineispermittedtocrosslighttheroom.Instead,thewindowsaresethighonthewallswiththeirsillsnearlytwentyfeetabovethefloor.Thewindowsareeasilyhighenoughthat

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Fig.24.ThehallatHamptonCourtPalace.

CrownCopyright:HistoricRoyalPalaces.

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onlyintheearlyafternoonattheheightofmidsummerdoesdirectsunlightilluminatemorethananarrowstripoftheflooralongthenorthwall.Inwinter,whenHamptonCourtwasusedasatheater,thesunisneverhighenoughintheskytolightanypartofthefloordirectly.Rather,adim,gentlydiffusedlightdescendsfromthewarm-tintedglassandheavilymullionedwindowsandispartlyabsorbedandreflectedbythearches,pendants,andcorbelsofthedarkoakrooffrettedwithgold.Figure24givesagoodideaoftheindirectlightnearthefrontofthescreen,eventhoughthephotographwastakenwithdirectmiddaysummersunlightfloodingdownfromthesouthwindows.Inpointoffact,evenonthebrightestdaysofsummerwiththesunatitshighestaltitude,thehallremainsarelativelydimroomwhosewindowsadmitlessthanahundredthofthelightavailableoutside.

Inoverallplan,theGreatHalloftheMiddleTempledifferslittlefromthatatHamptonCourt(seefig.25).Constructedinthe1560s,itwasusedforaproductionofTwelfthNighton2February1602.AsatHamptonCourt,thehallisorientedeastandwestandisdividedintosevencrossbays.Inthefirstbayarethemagnificentscreen,twosmallwindows,andalargeendwindow.Inthesecondthroughthesixthbaysaresquare-headedwindows,fiveoneachside,withtransomsandfourelliptical-headedlightseach.Intheseventhbay,lightingthedais,aretwolargeorielwindows.

26ThehallisthesamewidthbutsomethirteenfeetshorterinlengththanthehallatHamptonCourt.Figure25againshowsusdiffusedlightfilteringdownfromelevatedwindows.AsatHamptonCourt,lightemanatesfromabandofveritableclerestorywindows.Evenonabrightsummerday,theaveragelevelofilluminationinsidethehallisonlyabouttwentyfootcandles.

Infigures26and27,thescreensofthesetwohallshavebeensketchedasiftheyweretiring-housefacades.Stageshavebeenplacedbeforeeach,andbywayofsuggestingthedirectionoflightfromabove,diagonallineshavebeendrawnfromthecenterofthestagetothesillsofthesouthwindows.Thediffusedlighttypicalofthesehallsseldomproducesbeamsoflightasdistinctasthesediagonallines;theyaremeantonlytoindicatethelowestanglesfromwhichdaylight,unreflectedbytheinteriorofthehall,couldilluminateactorsstandingatthecenterofastage.

Forpurposesofcomparison,IprintasimilarsketchofthestageandgalleriesoftheSwan,againbasedonRichardHosley'sreconstruction(seefig.28).Itwillbeseenthatinbothindoorandoutdoorplayhouses,lightenters

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Fig.25.ThehalloftheMiddleTemple.BypermissionoftheMastersoftheBenchoftheHonourableSocietyoftheMiddleTemple.

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Fig.26.Cross-sectionaldiagramofthehallatHamptonCourtwithconjecturalstage

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Fig.27.Cross-sectionaldiagramofthehalloftheMiddleTemplewithconjecturalstage

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Fig.28.Cross-sectionaldiagramoftheSwan

fromarelativelysteepangle,crossingthestagefromanaltitudeapproximatelyequaltotheheightofthebalconiesabovethestage.TheanglesoflightfromthehallwindowsareslightlylowerthanthatintheSwanthirty-twoandfortydegreesascontrastedwithforty-eightdegrees.Butifonetakesintoaccounttheloweraltitudeofthesunduringthewinter,latefall,andearlyspringwhentheindoortheaterswereprincipallyoccupied,itisclearthatthewallsofbothkindsoftheatersdonotpermitdirectsunlighttostrikethestage.Rather,toanobserverstandingatthecenterofthestage,theanglesaresuchthattheafternoonsunisnormallyjustbelowthehallwindowsillsinwinterandjustafewdegreesbelowthetopoftheoutdoorgalleryroofinsummer.

Thereareseveralreasonstosupposethatthepermanentprivateplayhousesweresetupinhallslikethese.Foronething,theresemblancebetweentheearly-sixteenth-centuryhallscreenandthelate-sixteenth-centuryminorumadesoftheSwanimpliesthattheirchronologicalintermediariesthetiring-housefacadesoftheprivateplayhousesof1575and1576didnotdifferwidelyfromtheseminal

models.Moreover,thefirstprivatetheater

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companiesatSt.Paul'sandBlackfriarswereoriginallyfoundedforthepurposeofentertainingElizabethinhallssuchasthese.Theboys'familiaritywithsuchhallsislikelytohavebeenafactorinthesiteschosenfornonroyalperformances,especiallysincetheboysclaimedtoplaybeforethepubliconlybywayof''practicing"theircraft"toyieldHerMajestyrecreationanddelight."

27

ThesimilaritybetweenTudorhallsandearlyprivateplayhousesisalsosupportedbytheinformationwehavepertainingtothekindsofbuildingsthatwereacquiredforprivatetheatricalproductions.Twoofthesetheaters,thesecondBlackfriarsandtheWhitefriars,wereinfactcalled"greathalls"inlegaldocumentsarisingoutofsquabbleswithintheirmanagements.PresentthinkingisthatthehallBurbageboughtinBlackfriarswasthelarge(approximatelyonehundredfeetbyforty-sixfeet)ParliamentChamberonthesecondflooroftheUpperFraterinthewesternrangeofthedissolvedDominicanpriory.IrwinSmithhasshownthatthiswasnotacharacteristicDominicanroombutratherahalltypicalofthosemadefortheuseofthecourt,withwhomthemedievalMendicantfriarsenjoyedacloserelationship.28ThenearlyequaldimensionsandthesimilarusestowhichthesehallswereputsuggestthattheParliamentChamberandtheseveralhallsatcourtwerebuiltalongthesamelines.

InBurbage'sdeedforthesecondBlackfriars,wehearnothingofwindows,althoughallthe"glasse"belongingtothepremisesisincluded.29Butinalawsuitbroughtin1609,ashareroftheChildrenoftheChapelmentionsglassandwoodenwindowsbothaboveandbelowoneachsideofthepremises:"invitrio&infenestrisligneistamsupraquaminfrainvtrisquepartibuspremissorum."30Thewindows"infra,"orbelow,donotconcerntheParliamentChamber

itself;theywereinthegroundfloorthatwasalsoboughtbyBurbage.WedolearnthattheBlackfriarswasthrough-lighted;thatistosay,ithadwindowsonbothsidesoftheroom,asdomostTudorhalls.Thetheateritselfseemstohaveoccupiedonlypartofthehall,becauseitsdimensionsweregivenassixty-sixbyforty-sixfeet,presumablyincludingthetiring-houseandstage.OnthebasisoftheanalogybetweentheParliamentChamberandotherhalls,andconsideringthesedimensions,wemayguessthatthesecondBlackfriarshadfourteensidewindowswithtenintheauditoriumitself,fiveoneachside.31Thesouthend-windoworwindowswouldhavebeenobstructedbythetiring-house.

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InasuitbroughtregardinganagreementbetweentheoriginalsharersoftheWhitefriarstheater,wehearagainofaplayhousebuiltwithina"greathall."Adepositionof1609statesthattheroomsleasedwere"thirteeneinnumber,threebeloweandtenneabove,thatistosaie,thegreathall."

32ThehallatWhitefriarsthushadformerlybeendividedintotenroomsand,likethesecondBlackfriars,was"above"otherrooms.Anearly-seventeenth-centurysurveyoftheWhitefriarsdistrictsurvivesinwhich''TheHale"isprominent,33anditistherethatChambersputstheplayhouse.ButthishallisunusuallynarrowforaJacobeantheater,onlysomesixteenorseventeenfeetwide.Asthesharersalsorented"thekitchinbytheyard,"J.Q.AdamsandWickhamassumetheplayhousewassetupintheoldrefectorythatstoodonthesecondfloorofthesouthrangeandwasapproximatelythirty-fivebyeightyfeet.34Thesurveyshowsonlythefirstfloorofthesouthrange,butthegenerallateraldivisioncomprisesfiveunits.Ifthedivisionofthehallaboveintotenroomswasaccomplishedinrespecttothearchitecturalplan,thenwemayassumethattenwindowspiercedthewallsoftheWhitefriarsplayhouse,againprobablyfivetoaside.

Refectories,orfratersastheyweresometimescalled,werethehallsinwhichreligiousorderstooktheirchiefmealstogether.SeeingthattwoimportantprivateplayhouseswerelocatedintheoldrefectoriesofMendicantfriars,itisunfortunatethatmedievalEnglishrefectoriesarenotbetterpreservedforourexamination.AtBeaulieuinHampshireandatChester,twothirteenth-centurymonasticrefectorieshavesurvivedrelativelyunchanged.Theydisplayhigh,shaftedlancetwindowsonbothsidesandlarge,pitchedtimberroofsquitesimilartothegreathalls.Oneauthority,thearchitecturalhistorianGeoffreyWebb,believesthatsuchrefectoriesweretheprecursorsofthegreat

hallsofthefifteenthcentury.35Becausethepreachingfriarsgravitatedinthethirteenthcenturytothecities,wherespace,thenandafterwards,wasatapremium,norefectoriesoftheMendicantordersescapedtheDissolutionunaltered.However,atCanterburyandatGloucester,afewmiddle-thirteenth-centurywindowsdoremaininwhatwererathersmallfriars'refectories.AtCanterbury,thewindowsaredoublelancetsaboutfivebysevenfeetwithplainquatrefoilsabove.Thefloortherehasbeenraised,soitisdifficulttoconfirmhowhighthewindowswere.AtGloucester,thesurvivinglargeend-windowisfourteenfeetabovetheoriginalfloorlevel,whiletheremainsofthesidewindowsaresomewhatlowerinahallonly

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twenty-fivefeetwide.

36Ontheaverage,refectoriesoftheDominicansandtheCarmelitesweresmallerthanthehallsoftheMiddleTempleandHamptonCourt,buttheirproportionsweresimilar,includingtheanglessubtendedbythewindows.WindowswerekepthighinrefectoriesnotonlyinadherencetotheGothicstylebutalsoforthepracticalreasonthatanarcadedroofregularlyjuttedoutfromtheexteriorwalloftherefectorytocovertheobligatorycloisterwalk.

WrittenarchitecturaltheoryinEnglishbeforetheRestorationishardtocomeby,butwhatlittlethereissupportsthispatternofhighwindowsonbothsidesofrectangularrooms.ElevenyearsafterhesawthefirstGlobeburn,SirHenryWottonpublishedTheElementsofArchitecture(London,1624),basedlargelyonVitruvianprinciples.WottonwasamemberoftheMiddleTemplewhospentagoodpartofhislifeasadiplomatinVenice,wherehewasinfluencedbyneoclassicalarchitecture.Still,heheldtheviewapplicabletomoststylesofarchitecturethatthebestlightwas"adescendingLight,whichofallotherdothsetoffmensFacesintheirtruestSpirit"(N2).HeallowedthatVitruvius"seemstohavebeeneanextreameLoverofLuminousRoomes,"butWottonhimselfpreferrednot"tomakeaHouse(thoughbutforcivilluse)allEyes,likeArgus''(G4).Especiallyinecclesiasticalbuildings,"whichwereancientlydarke,astheyarelikewiseatthisday,"caremustbetakennottodistracttheeyewithtoomanywindows.37Becausealltheprivateplayhouses,exceptingonlythetwoCockpitsandSalisburyCourt,weresetupinformerecclesiasticalbuildings,itisnotsurprisingthatapatternofclerestoryilluminationwasobserved.

Thelightingoflargeroomsfrombothsidesisendorsedbycontemporarywisdomaswell.Inashortchapteronbuilding,inThe

HolyState,publishedin1642,ThomasFuller(whoseinterestintheaterextendedtoanearlybiographyofShakespeare)expressestheopinionthat"[t]horow-lightsarebestforroomsofentertainment,andwindowsononesidefordormitories."38Fullerdoesnotreferspecificallytotheaters,ofcourse,butitmaybethathehadthemandotherhallsandrefectoriesinmindwhenhespokeof"roomsofentertainment."Withbothcontemporarypracticeandtheorycallingforhighwindowsonbothsidesofsuchrooms,itseemslikelythatwhentheactorssoughtpermanentindoortheaters,theilluminationavailabletothemresembledthatofthehallstheyhadsooftenplayedinasguests.

Figures26and27representtheuseofhallsastheystandtodayandpre-

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sumablystoodintheseventeenthcenturywithoutanyelaboratetheatricalpreparation.Onlysimple,lowstageshavebeenintroduced.Butthereisanotheraspectofthephysicalarrangementsthatmayhaveaffectedthequalityofthelight:theseatingoftheaudience.WeknowfromseveralsourcesparticularlyOfficeofWorksaccountsthathallswerenormallyfurnishedwith"degrees,"ortieredscaffoldsfortheseatingofthespectators.Inthe16034holidayseasonatHamptonCourt,forexample,carpenterswerepaidfor"makingofthestageandsettingupdegreesandp[ar]tic[i]onsfortheplayeinthehall."

39Thedegreesatcourtwerehigh,bleacher-typeaffairs(typicallyofsevenrowsofbenches)thatwereprobablyonlyofoneorder.Butintheprivateplayhouses,wherespaciousmagnificencegavewaytoquestionsofprofit,itislikelythattwoorperhapsthreeordersofgallerieslinedtheauditoriumwalls.

JonesPlayhouse

Ifweturntothetheatersforwhichcontemporaryarchitecturaldrawingsexist,wecanunderstandhowsuchgalleriesmightaffecttheauditoriumlighting.InthecollectionofdrawingsbyInigoJonesandhisdiscipleJohnWebbatWorcesterCollege,Oxford,aretwosetsofdesigns,oneofanunidentifiedindoortheaterandtheotherofrenovationsfortheCockpit-in-Court.TheCockpit-in-Courtplansandelevationwereidentifiedaslongagoas1913,butitwasnotuntilG.E.BentleystudiedthemthatitbecameclearthattheyreflectedOfficeofWorksrecordsofsubstantialremodelingtoturntheoldCockpit,whichhadonlyoccasionallybeenusedforplays,intoapermanent,activetheaterforprofessionalactors.In1969,D.F.RowanrepresentedtheothersetofdrawingsbyInigoJonesasa"missinglink"betweentheElizabethanandJacobeanprivatetheaterssetupinpreexistingecclesiasticalbuildingsandthePalladianstyleofthe

CarolineCockpit-in-CourtandlaterRestorationtheaters.40Morerecently,JohnOrrellhasarguedthattheseunlabeleddrawingsrepresentJones'sideasforChristopherBeeston'sconversionoftheCockpitinDruryLaneintoapermanentplayhousein1616.41Orrell'scaseisstrongbutcircumstantial;cautionsuggeststhatwerefertotheseunidentifiedplansasthe"Jonesplayhouse,"followingtheleadoftheInternationalShakespeareGlobeCentre,whichisreconstructingitinSouthwark.Whatevertheauspicesofthedrawings,theinformationthey

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revealissubstantial,fortheylargelycorroborateindependentlyderivedreconstructionsofthehallplayhousesparticularlyRichardHosley'sreconstructionofthesecondBlackfriars.Itismanifestlynotthattheater,butitsdiscoveryreassuresusthatrecentconjecturehasnotgonetoofarastray.

ThearrangementofthewindowsintheJonesplayhouseconfirmsthepatternoftheclerestorylightingoftheTudorhallsbutshowssignsofadaptationaswell(seefig.29).TheplayhouseisalittlesmallerthanthehallsatHamptonCourtortheMiddleTemple;but,again,theproportionsaresimilar.Sixelliptical-headedwindowsareplacedaroundtheauditoriumhighabovethestageinthesecondgallery,whilenolightatallentersfrombelow.Thecrosssectionshowsthatasimilarrowofwindowscouldeasilyhavebeenaccommodatedinthelowergallerybutthatnonewasneeded.Onlynarrow-slitwindows(similartothoseinviewsoftheoutdoorpublictheaters)lighttheotherwisedarkpassagewaybeneaththefirstgallery.

Thewindowsintheuppergalleryareunusualarchitecturally,andtheysuggest,Ithink,howTudorhallswereconvertedintoprivateplayhouses.BothnativeEnglishandContinentalproportionswouldhaverequiredsuchwindowstobenearlytwiceastallastheyarewide.ButJoneshasapparentlycutofftheirlowerhalves,leavingtheremainingtopsofthewindowstoosmallandtoohighontheexteriorwalls.Whythesillshavebeenraisedisexplained,ofcourse,bythepositionofthesecondgallery.Asmaybeseeninthecrosssectionthroughthestage,thesteppedgallerywouldhaveobstructedlightenteringfromthebottomhalfofanormallyproportionedwindow.Theheightofthewindowsillsabovethegroundhasconsequentlybeendeterminedbyextendingalineintersectingthecenterofthestageandthegallerybenchesthroughtheexteriorwall.Therakeofthegallery(aboutforty-threedegrees)thusequalsthelowestangleatwhichunreflectedlightmaystrikethecenterofthestage.

ToexemplifyhowtheheightoftheJonesplayhousewindowswasdetermined,IhaveplacedtheJonesplayhousegalleriesatthestage-leveloftheMiddleTemple(seefig.30).Itwillbeseenthatthesecondgalleryblocksoutthelowerportionofthesidewindow,producing,ineffect,asmaller,higherwindow.

42ThesimilaritybetweenthispartiallyobscuredhallwindowandthepermanentlyreducedwindowsintheJonesplayhouseisunmistakable.IfearlyprivatetheatergalleriesweresetupinhallswithwindowssimilartothoseintheMiddleTempleorHamptonCourt,thenthereducedsizeand

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Fig.29.Elevation,plan,andcrosssectionsofaplayhousedesignedbyInigoJones.

TheProvostandFellowsofWorcesterCollege,Oxford.

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Fig.30.Cross-sectionaldiagramoftheMiddleTemple

hallwithJonesplayhousegalleries

elevatedpositionoftheresultingopeningswouldmatchtheshortenedandraisedwindowsofJones'sdrawings.AllJoneshasdoneistomaketheobstructionpermanent.

Infigure30,asecondlinehasalsobeendrawnintersectingthetopofthewindowandthecenterofthestage.Thisupperdiagonallinegivesanideaoftheapparentwidthofthebandoflightfromthesidewindows.Toimaginethetotaleffectofnaturallightfromallthewindows,oneshouldthinkofthisbandasrevolvedaboutaperpendicularaxis,producingaconeoflight

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withitsapexatthecenterofthestage.Wereallwindowsthesamesizeandevenlyspreadaroundthehall,lightfromthewindowsoppositethestagewouldbelessbrightandlowerthanfromthesidesowingtotherectangularnatureofthehallandtheconsequentgreaterdistanceofthewindowsoppositethestage.Butinactuality,lightfromalldirectionsdescendsatvirtuallythesameangleandintensitybecausethewindowsoppositethescreensinroomssuchasthehallsatHamptonCourtandtheMiddleTempleandintherefectoryatGloucesterarehigherandlargerthanthesidewindows,therebycompensatingfortheirgreaterdistance.

Infigure31,aheavenshasbeenaddedtotheSwansectionandsimilardiagonallineshavebeendrawn,theupperoneintersectingtheroofabovethestage.Thetotalimpressionofthisamphitheaterilluminationmaylikewisebeestimatedbyrevolvingthisbandaboutaverticalaxis.Theimpressionscreatedbytheconesofnaturallightattheindoorandoutdoorplayhousesarethusroughlysimilar.Inbothkindsoftheaters,tallsidewallseliminatefranksidelight,whilearoofabovethestageeliminatesoverhead

Fig.31.Cross-sectionaldiagramoftheSwan

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light.Primaryilluminationisrenderedbyacircleofindirectlightemanatingfromanangleofaboutfortyorfiftydegreesabovethehorizontalplaneofbothindoorandoutdoorstages.

AlthoughthedateandprovenanceoftheJonesplayhouseplansareuncertain,theplansappeartorepresenteithertheextensiveremodelingofapreexistingbuildingorthedesignofanewtheater,intendedfromthestartfortheproductionofdrama.Iftheseconddecadeoftheseventeenthcenturyiscorrectforthedate,thenthedesignofthewindowsmaywellhaveincorporatedchangesmadelesspermanentlyintheprivatetheatersaroundtheturnoftheseventeenthcentury.TheownerofthefirstBlackfriars,letitbenoted,complainedthatwhentheChildrenoftheChapelvacatedthepremisesin1584,hiswindowswere"spoyled."Andin1609,asharerofthereorganizedcompanytestifiedagainsthisformercolleaguesthat,again,thesecondBlackfriarshadbeenleft"dilapidated...andunrepaired,namely...inthewindowglassandinthewoodenwindows."

43ArecurrentexpenseafterCambridgetheatricalswasalsotherepairofwindows.Nearlyeveryyearinonecollegeoranother,glazierswerehiredtofix"windoweswchwerebrokendowenattheplaies.''44Perhapsgalleriesrisingabovethewindowlevelweresetupalongthewallsandtheirscaffoldsfastenedtothewindowjambs,orspectatorsinthetoprowofthegalleriesleanedorwerepushedagainstthewindowglass.Ineithercase,someportionofeachwindowwouldbeobstructedbythegalleryitself,bymodificationstothecasementsorshuttersfortheprotectionofthewindowsorbythespectatorssittinginfrontofthem.

Cockpit-in-Court

Atfirstglance,theCockpit-in-Courtseemstocontradictthispattern

ofangledilluminationfromaboveandtheenclosureoftheperformingspacebyhigh,solidwalls.AnexteriorviewoftheCockpitpaintedbyHendrikDanckertaround1675showsnotonlytworowsofsquare-headedwindowscirclingthetheaterbutalsoasmalllanternatopthecastellatedwalls(seefig.32).AlthoughtheupperwindowsareinapositionsimilartothoseintheJonestheater,thelowerwindowswouldallowsunlighttofloodlowerportionsoftheauditoriumwhilethelanternwouldintroducelightfromoverhead.Perhapsanexceptionwasmadetothestandardpatternoftheaterlighting,becausethebuildingJoneswasconvertingintoaplayhousewasnotatypical

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halland,moreover,wasnotoftenemployedfordaytimeperformances.ButbasedonananalysisoftheverticaldimensionsoftheCockpit-in-CourtandtheplacementofthewindowsinDanckert'spainting,JohnOrrellhasarguedthattheCockpit-in-Courtmayhaveaccommodatedonlyonegallerycirclingtheauditorium,thusoccludinglightfromthelowerorderofwindows.

45Moreover,pertinentOfficeofWorksaccountsalsosuggestthatsomeofthewindowswerecoveredandthatmuchofthelightfromthelanternwasobstructedbyafalseceilingabovethestage.

TheplanfortheCockpit-in-CourtshowsthatJoneshituponthenotionofplacinghisstagewithinthreesidesoftheoriginaloctagonwiththeauditoriumcomprisingtheremainingfivesides(seefig.33).ButJonesencoun-

Fig.32.ExterioroftheCockpit-in-CourtaftertheRestoration.Detailfrom"Whitehall

&StJame[s]'sPark"byHendrikDanckert,c.1675.BerkeleyCastle.

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Fig.33.ElevationandplansforrenovationoftheCockpit-in-Court,

Whitehall,c.1630.TheProvostandFellowsofWorcesterCollege,Oxford.

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teredproblemsinfittingsuchanarrangementintothesmallspaceavailable.Tomakeroomforthetiring-houseandstage,Jonespushedthestageforwardintothehall,obliginghimtojointhewallsextendingfromeithersideofthescaenafronsnottoanangleoftheoctagonbuttooneofitsfaces.Itwillbeseenthattheprosceniumwalltoeithersideofthestagejoinseachsidewalloftheauditoriumattheunfortunatepositionwheretherewerepreexistingwindows.Becausetheseprosceniumwallspresumablyextendedfromthestagefloortothetopofthescaenafrons,itisunavoidablethattheoutsideedgeoftheprosceniumnotonlyjoinedthesidewallitselfbutalsoabuttedagainstthetwowindows,oneabovetheother,oneachsideoftheauditorium.

Theseintersectionsoftheprosceniumwallsandsidewindowswouldhavebeenawkwardatbest.Thewallswouldhaveobstructedlightenteringtheauditoriumandcreatedarchitecturalproblemsofwhattodowiththewindowopeningsandhowtosupporttheprosceniumwallsthatmustsomehowbeattachedtothesewindows.Theonlysatisfactorysolutionwouldhavebeentoboardupthewindowbays,makethemflushwiththeinteriorwalls,andthenproperlyjointheprosceniumtothenow-solidsidewalls.Howevertheconjunctionwasaccomplished,theauditoriumwindowsnearthestagemusthavebeenmodifiedinsomewaysoastoaccommodatethejoiningoftheextensionsofthescaenafronsandthesidewallsoftheauditorium.

Atoneofthestage-rightwindows,forinstance,Webbhasindicatedadoorwaycommunicatingwiththetiring-houseandgallery.Werethedoorwayandwindowonthesamelevel,theirintersectionwouldhavebeenevenmoreungainlybothstructurallyandvisually,becausethedoorjamb(representedbyasmalldot)wouldhavebeenunsupportedandexposedwhileitranuptheinteriorfaceoftheopenwindowbay.Atthestage-leftwindow,asimilardifficultyarises.HereWebbalsoindicateswhatappearstobeadoorwayintheprosceniumwallnextto

thesidewindow,buthehastreatedtheopeningdifferently,inkingintheoutlineofthedoor,perhapstoindicatethatitwastobenewlyframedorboardedoveraswell.Again,thearchitecturalandaestheticproblemsarisingoutoftwoaperturesabuttingeachotherinacornerimplyeitherthattheopeningintheprosceniumwallwasnotatthesameheightasthewindowbayorthatthewindowbaywasindeedwalledupandmadepartofthesidewall.Orrellarguesforthefirstsolution,butiftheverticaldimensionsofthewindowsandtheirheightsaboveground-levelare

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takenintoaccount,itisunlikelythatadoorthatcommunicatesbetweenthegalleriesandtheuppertiring-housecouldbepositionedsoastoavoidabuttingeitherthelowerorupperwindowsnearthestage.SinceDanckertshowsthedistancebetweenthetopofthelowerwindowsandthebottomsillsoftheupperwindowsinthenorthwall(thestage-rightwalloftheauditorium)asnomorethanthreeorfourfeet,therewouldsimplynotbeenoughroomforadoorwaytobeplacedverticallybetweenthem.

46

Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatOfficeofWorksaccountsbothbeforeandaftertheInterregnumspeakofpaintingoverandboardingupwindowsintheCockpit-in-Court.Therenovationaccountsof162930,forexample,listapaymentofthirtyshillingstopaintersfor"payntingelikeglassexxtypaneswchhadbinLightes."47Wedonotknowwhichwindowswerepainted.Twentypanessuggestthatonlyafewwindowswereinvolved.Butthemotiveforpaintingpanestolooklikeglassislogicallyexplainedonlybythecircumstancethatthewindowshadbeenboardedupontheinsideofthebuilding,makingthemlookstrangefromtheoutside.Thepaintingwasthusprobablynotforthebenefitoftheinteriordecorationbutameansbywhichthenow-blankwindowscouldbemadepresentabletopassersbyinSt.JamesPark.AftertheRestoration,whenthetheaterreopened,OfficeofWorksrecordsmentionsimilarpractices.InJanuary1662,carpenterswerepaidfor"bourdingvp2windowes,"andthefollowingApriltwosetsofshutterswereinstalledwhenjoinerswerehiredfor"makingshuttingwindowesforyeCockpitplayhowse,"whichwerefourfeetthreeincheswideandfourfeettenincheshigh.48Someoftheseboarded-upwindowsandshuttersmayhavebeenintendedforthetiring-house,butthemeasurements(whencomparedinthecornersofthebuilding.Thatnotallofthewindowswerewalledupisattested

tobyapaymenttoplasterersinOctober1661for''poynting[applyingmortararound]theglassinthreewindowesatthecockpitplayehouse."Perhapsthesewerethethreecornerwindowslightingthestairwaysandthepublicentrance.

Analternativetoboardingupwindowsthatcouldnolongerservetheirpurposewastomovethem.JohnAstingtonhasnotedthatDanckertshowsthetwolowerwindowsonthestage-rightoftheauditoriumasconsiderablyhigheronthewallthanthecorrespondingwindowsbehindthestage.49Heconcludesthatthesestage-rightlowerwindowswereraisedsoastobeclear

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ofrankedseatinginthegallery.Ifthisisso,thenitspeaksofaneffortbothtomaintainthepresenceofdaylightinthetheaterandtoraisetheanglefromwhichthedaylightdescended.Allwecansayforcertainisthat,atsometimebefore1675,thelowerstage-rightwindowswereatadifferentheightthantheircounterpartsbehindthestage.

ThelanternabovethepitmusthavebeenanoriginalorveryearlyadditiontotheCockpit.AdrawingbyWyngaerde,datingfromthemid-sixteenthcentury,showsalargepolyhedralcantroofadornedwithanimpressivelantern.

50Butwhenthebuildingwasremodeledintoapermanenttheaterintheearly1630s,overheadfacilitieswereconstructedthatwouldlikelyscreenoutdaylightfromthelantern.Inthe162930accounts,artisansaredescribedassettinguppoststosupportaceilingand"cuttingfittingandsoweingofCallicoetocoueralltheroomeouerheadwthintheCockpitt."Thisclothfalseceiling,garnishedwithmany"StarresofAssidue,"wassuspendedby"agreatnumberofCopprings[copperrings?metallicdecorativepieces?]toDrawetheclothtoandfro.''Atthesametime,apropertymakerwaspaidfor"hangingtheThroneandChaireintheCockpitwthclothboundaboutwthwhalebonepackthredandwyerforthebetterfouldingofthesametocomedownefromtheCloudstotheStage."Orrellassumesthatthisdescendingthronewaspositionedupstageclosetothescaenafrons;thisispossible,butbecausethecantroofbeganitssteepascenttowardthecenterofthebuildingatjustthispoint,itseemsmorelikelythatthehoistingmachinerywaslocatedfartherdownstage.Itakeitthatwhenthebuildingwasconvertedintoapermanenttheater,thespaceimmediatelybelowthelanternbecameahuttohousemachinery.Belowthishutand"tocoueralltheroomeouerhead,"aclothheavenswashungbyringsandwires.Butthisheavens,orpartofit,couldbedrawnasidesothatthethronecouldbeloweredthroughthecloth.

Withallthisparaphernaliainterveningbetweenthelanternandthestage,onewondershowmuch,ifany,naturalilluminationcoulddescendfromabove.

Itremainstobesaidthatneithertheboarding-overofwindowsnortheuseofclothfalseceilingswasunusual,architecturallyortheatrically,indoors.Courttheatersasearlyas1522hadbeencompletelycoveredbylarge,star-studdedcloths,welldescribedbyJohnOrrellinTheHumanStage.51InthesecondJacobeanbanquetinghouseatWhitehall,completedin1622,wheretodayonecanseetwoordersofwindows,Jonesboardedoverthe

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lowerwindows,turningtheminto"bastardwyndowes,"asJohnWebblatercalledthem.

52Inhisstudyofthisfamousbuilding,PerPalmedemonstratesthatatleasteightofthefourteenlowerwindowswereeitherwalledup,convertedintonichesforstatuary,orcoveredwithrichtapestries.53Here,forceremonialoccasionsparticularly,butperhapsalsoforafternoonplays,JonesemulatedtheEnglishhalltraditionofilluminationfromhighabovethemainfloor,whiletheking'sstatewasbrilliantlylitbyagreatwindowintheendwall.

ShutteredWindows

WhenDekkerspeaksofwindowsthatcouldbe"claptdowne"andAlexanderHawkinsof"woodenwindows,"theydonotrefertothecommonsashwindowsweknow,slidingsashesnothavingbeeninventeduntillateintheseventeenthcentury.54EvenwoodencasementwindowsthatcouldopenoutwardsfromaverticalhingewereuncommoninEnglanduntilInigoJonesmadethemfashionableafterhereturnedfromtheContinent.55Thus,thewindowsintheoldecclesiasticalbuildingsatBlackfriars,Whitefriars,andSt.Paul'swereprobablyframedbyheavystonetraceryandnotbywood.Ifthesewindowscouldbeopenedatall,theywouldnothaveworkedupanddownbutwouldhaveincorporatedseveralsmalllightswhoseironcasementscouldbeswungoutwardslikeadoor.ThewindowsDekkerandHawkinsrefertomusthavebeenwoodenshuttersor"shuttingwindows,"astheywerecalled.MostearlyEnglishwindowshadnoshutters,butwhentheydid,theshutterswerenormallyontheinteriorsideofthewindowandcouldbeopenedinwardlyfromthesidesortoporlessfrequentlyslidhorizontallybackandforthingroovesacrossthewindow.

Wehavenospecificevidenceofwindowsbeingclosedattheprofessionalindoortheaters,althoughrecordsof"woodenwindows"inthesecondBlackfriarsundoubtedlyrefertowoodenshuttersratherthantowoodenwindowframes.56WedoknowthatforafewafternoonperformancesatCambridgeandOxford,hallsweredarkenedbyclosingsuchshutters.57Dekker'sreferenceto"claptdowne"suggeststhattheshuttingwindowsheknewwerehingedtoatransom,butanallusionbyBenJonsontoJones'stheatrical"windows"inthesecondJacobeanbanquetinghouse,maskinghouse,orperhapseventheCockpit-in-Courtmayimplyslidingshuttingwindows.Inthe1631

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or1632poem"ToInigoMarquessWouldBe,"acorollarytothescathingattackin"AnExpostulationwithInigoJones,"Jonsoncontrastedatruearchitect'sachievementswithJones'stheatrical"shopp/Wthslydingwindowes,&falseLights."

58

Dekkeralsomakesclearthatwhenshuttingwindowswereemployed,theywereclosedbeforethebeginningoftheperformance.Theirbeingclappeddown"ifsomeNocturnal,ordismallTragedywerepresentlytobeacted"meansthattheycouldnothavebeenusedtoindicatedarkness,say,inanyillusionisticsenseasthesceneoftheplaychangedfromdaytonight.Someonewouldhavehadtositbesideeachwindowandopenandclosetheshuttersoncueasthetimeoftheplaywassupposedtochange.Iventuretosaytheexpenseofhiringapprenticestoperformthisdutywouldhaveeliminatedthepracticefromnormalconsideration.Sincetheshuttingwindowswereclappeddownatthebeginningoftheplayandsincetheirclosingwasassociatedwiththeoverallmoodoftheplayratherthanwiththespecifictimesoftheplay'saction,thedarknessDekkeralludestoisartistic,compositionallightingratherthanrealistic,motivationallighting.

Dekkertellsustheshuttingwindowswerealsoclosedfor"nocturnals,"butwhatkindofshowsthesewereisnotrecorded.W.J.Lawrencedescribesthenocturnalasasubgenreofcomedyinwhichdarknesscausesthemajorcomplications.59Hefindsahalf-dozenplaysfromboththepublicandprivatetheaterrepertoriesthatfithisdescriptionsamongthem,AMidsummerNight'sDream,TheMerryDevilofEdmonton,andTheDutchCourtesan.Butnotoneoftheplaysheciteswasevercalledanocturnalincontemporarydocuments,

andotherevidenceregardingthenocturnalhardlysupportsLawrence'stheory.InanundatedJacobeanprospectusforamammoth,butunrealized,amphitheater,planswereannouncedtopresent"NOCTURNALLSofvnexpressable[thatis,mute]Figures;Visions,andApparitionsFigureingdeepeMelanchollyandvnusuallRepresentationes."60Thesenocturnalswereapparentlysaddumbshowsratherthancomedies.

Inanotherpamphlet,Dekkerimpliesthatnocturnalsweremoresolemnthantragedies.Undertherubric"Playhousesstandempty,"inhisWorkeforArmorours,Dekkerdescribestheplagueof16089,whentheplayhousedoorswerelockedand"thePlayersthemseluesdidneuerworketillnowe,thereComodiesareallturnedtoTragedies,thereTragediestoNocturnals,andthebestofthemareallwearyofplayinginthoseNocturnallTragedies."61

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Nowifcomediesbecametragediesduringtheplagueandtragediesbecamenocturnals,thenitseemsnocturnalsmusthavebeenmelancholyindeed.SinceDekkerstatesthattheregularplayhouseswereempty,thesenocturnalsandnocturnaltragediesmusthavebeenpresentedelsewhere.WeknowthattheKing'smen,Queen'smen,Prince'smen,andtheQueen'sRevelschildrenofBlackfriarsallperformedduringthe16089winterseasonatcourtandthattheKing'smenreceivedspecialremuneration"fortheirprivatepractiseinthetimeofinfeccon."

62DoesDekkermeanby"thebestofthem"performing"NocturnallTragedies"duringtheplaguethatthesecompaniesplayedatnightforroyaltyandthenobility?Marston'sAntonioandMellida(London,1602)mentions"nocturnallcourtdelights"(E3),whichmightreinforcesuchaconstruction.Doesheimplyby"thePlayersthemseluesdidneuerworketillnowe''thattheactorsweresohardputtoearnalivingthattheyperformedwheneverandwherevertheycouldandthat,inconsequence,theirplaysbecamesadandmelancholylikenocturnals?Ordoeshemeanthat,inplaguetime,allthatwasfittingtobeperformedatnightweresadsongsorpoems,likeJohnDonne'stouching"NocturnaluponSt.Lucy'sDay,beingtheShortestday"(1631),orthelaterecclesiasticalreadingwhere"Fryeries...saytheOfficesforthedead,andcauseaNocturnaltoberehearsed"?63Atallevents,thenocturnalappearstohavebeenaveryminordramaticformjudgingbythedearthoftheatricalreferencestoit.Alargercorpusofdramamayfairlybedesignated"dismallTragedy";butwhenDekkerassociatedclosedwindowswithbothtypesofplays,Iwonderwhetherhewaspointingtoanessentialdifferenceorsimilaritybetweenthem.Inthelattercase,"dismallTragedy"asusedinTheSevenDeadlieSinnsofLondonwouldbesynonymouswiththe"NocturnallTragedies"intheWorkeforArmorours,andwecouldassumethatprivateplayswererarely

performedwiththeshuttingwindowsclosed.

Moreover,thereisthepossibilitythattheclosingoftheshuttingwindowshadlittletodowithreducingtheamountofdaylight.AllDekkermaymeanisthatwhenplayswereperformednocturnally(thatis,atnight),thewindowsandshutterswereclosed.Peopletendtocloseshuttersanddrapesatnighttocovertheblackholesinthewall,tokeepoutnightvapors,andtopreventpassersbyfrompeepinginside.ForthePyramusandThisbyplayinAMidsummerNight'sDream,forexample,Bottommakesthestartlingsuggestionthatthewindowcasementsofthehallbeopenedsothatrealmoonshine

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mightlightthescene(3.1).Actorsperformingsurreptitiouslyatnightduringtheplagueintavernswouldcertainlyhaveclosedthewindows,iffornootherreasonthantopreventnonpayingpatronsfromwatchingperformancesorofficialsfromreportingthem.Atanyrate,theclosingofwindowsandshutterswasprobablymoreafunctionofthecomfortoftheaudienceandactorsthanoftheaestheticenvironment.Inthedepthofwinter,windowsandshuttersmightbeclosedtokeepoutthecold;butowingtothesmokeandfumesofthecandles,Iimaginetheywerenothabituallyclosedtherestoftheyear.AftertheRestoration,PepysmentionsopenwindowsatKilligrew'sDruryLaneseveraltimes,butalwaysinthespring.

Beforeturningtotheartificialilluminationoftheprivatetheaters,weshouldhavesomenotionoftheamountofnaturallightthatsuchwindowsintroducedintotheplayhouseauditoriums.Wecanphysicallymeasurelightinextanthalls,butthecalculationofnaturallightwithinabuildingnolongerstandingisobviouslyinexact,dependingonthevaryingpowerandchangingdirectionoflightfromoutside(includingobstructionfromneighboringbuildings,buttresses,andthelike),thelocationandsizeofthewindows,thetypeofglazing,andthereflectanceoftheroom'sinterior.Byassumingthepresenceofanaverageovercastsky(astandardestablishedbytheCommissionInternationaledel'Eclairage)andbyusingprotractorsforthedeterminationofdaylightfactorsfromarchitecturaldrawings(availablefromtheBuildingResearchStationofGreatBritain),alongwithothersimplifyingconveniences,however,onecanestimatethepercentageoflightfromtheskythatabuilding'swindowswilladmitinside.

64

IntheMiddleTemplehall,themanylargewindowspermitroughly

twopercentofthetotallightfromtheskytoreachthestage.Iftheskyisbrightlyovercast,theluminanceonstageequalsabouteighteenfootcandlesbutdecreasestoaroundtwoorthreefootcandlesondarkwinterdaysat3P.M.Ontheotherhand,thefewsmallwindowsoftheJonesplayhousewillintroducelessthanhalfasmuchlight,thequantityonstagerangingfromunderonefootcandleondarkafternoonstosevenoreightfootcandlesonbright,overcastafternoons.TheCockpit-in-Courtwithitstwoordersofwindowswouldhavebeenalittlebrighter,reachingapproximatelyninefootcandlesonbright,overcastdaysat3P.M.,assumingforthemomentthatnoneofthewindowswasboardedup.

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TheselevelsofbrightnessarelowerthantheaverageilluminationmeasuredatthenewGlobe.Candlessupplementedthenaturallightindoors,ofcourse,butitshouldbeborneinmindthatalltheselevelsrepresentmeasurable,notapparent,brightness.Abrightlylitlocationoutdoorswillhavealevelofilluminationbetweenonethousandtothreethousandfootcandles,whilewindowlitpapersonadesktypicallyreflectonlythreetoeightfootcandles.

65Yetobserverscancomfortablyaccustomtheireyestoviewingbothafteronlyafewminutes.Therangeofhumanvisualadaptationisthuseasilymorethanonethousandtoone.Becausetheratioofnaturallightattheamphitheaterstothatatthehallplayhouseswasatmostthirtytoone,theadaptationrequiredtoseebothstagesasequallybrightfallswellwithinthepossiblehumanrange.Inconsequence,wemustnotthinkoftheadultprivatetheatersasdim,atleastnotintheearlyafternoon.Onthecontrary,wemayimaginethemassatisfactorilylitevenbyourownstandardsandentirelyadequatebymedievalandearlymodernstandards.

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7TheatricalLightingatCourtLongbeforetheyestablishedprofessionalindoorplayhouses,troupesofadultandboyplayershadactedfrequentlybeforeTudormonarchsunderartificiallightinthehallsofstate.BythetimeofQueenElizabeth,responsibilityforthelightingoftheseperformancesfellprimarilytotheRevelsOfficeinthequeen'shousehold,andsincemanyofitsaccountssurvive,wecanreconstructagooddealoftypicallightingarrangementsatcourt.Undoubtedly,theseaccountsgiveuscluesastowhatprofessionalprivatetheaterlightingwaslike,butwecannotassumethatcourtmethodsinevitablyfiltereddown(orup)totheplayhousescateringtothegeneralpublic.IofferasummaryoftheartificiallightatcourtbywayofdescribingcourtlightingtechniquesandcontemporarytheatricalequipmentandinhopesthatRevelsOfficerecordswillplacethemorescatteredreferencestoprofessionalplayhouselightinginunderstandablecontexts.

PerformanceTimes

Theextensiveuseofartificialilluminationatcourtwasprimarilyafunctionofthewintertimeseasonandlatehoursatwhichmostperformancesweregiven.UnderbothTudorandStuartmonarchs,playsandmasquesatcourtnormallybeganaround10P.M.androutinelystretchedwellbeyondmidnight.TarletonissaidtohaveactedbeforeElizabethuntiloneo'clockinthemorning,andforeignambassadorsoccasionallycomplainedof10P.M.startingtimesandrevelsextendinguntil1:30and2inthemorning.WhenJon-

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son'sPleasureReconciledtoVirtueendedearlyonthemorningof17January1618,forexample,OrazioBusino,chaplaintotheVenetianembassy,grumbledaboutwendinghiswayhomeat2A.M."halfdisgustedandexhausted."

1

Giventhelackofcompleterecords,however,Chambers'sconclusionthat"courtperformanceswerealwaysatnight"maybetoocategoricaland,atanyrate,doesnotapplytolateJacobeanandCarolinepractice,whichfellbeyondhisscope.2Accordingtolateraccounts,theKing'smenperformedFletcher'sRollo,DukeofNormandyattheCockpit-in-Courtduringthe"daytimeatWhitehall"on21February1631andLodowickCarlell's1ArviragusandPhiliciaatHamptonCourtonthe"Afternoon''of26December1636,forexample.3HowmanyotherCarolineplaysandmasqueshaddaytimepresentationsatcourtisdifficulttosaybecausethebestsourceofinformationinthisregard,themasteroftherevels,SirHenryHerbert,didnotalwaysbothertonotethetimesofperformancesprecisely.Ofthenearlysixdozenplaysandmasquesatcourtmentionedinhisofficebook,Herbertindicatesthat52percentwereat"night,"5percentonagiven"day,"and2percentonan"afternoon,"while42percentofhisrecordsgivenoindicationofthetimeofperformance.4

Othersources,liketheDeclaredAccountsoftheChamber,alsorarelylistperformancetimesatcourt,buttheyoccasionallyindicatetwoseparateperformancesonthesameday.Forinstance,theKing'smenperformedtwiceonboth6and17January1608.5BecausemostofthesemultipleperformanceswereinFebruary,matineesmayormaynothavebeenperformedaftersunset,whichoccurredaround4:45P.M.atthebeginningofthemonthandafter5:30P.M.attheend.Thefirstperformanceofaplayon1January1604musthavestartedearly

enoughtoallownotonlyforanotherplay(presumablyAMidsummerNight'sDream)butalsoforamasqueandbanquetafterwards.6Andbecausebothplayswereactedbythesamecompany(theKing'smen)whowouldhaverequiredsomesortofbreakbetweenperformancesthefirstplaymaywellhavebeenperformedbeforesunset.

Althoughmostcourtproductionsinthewintermusthavebeenperformedwithoutbenefitofnaturallight,weshouldneverthelessrecallthatthehallsinwhichtheseproductionscametolifewere,asarule,generouslyfenestrated.WehavealreadynotedthatthehallatHamptonCourtisilluminatedbysixteenlargeandfoursmallwindows.TheElizabethanbanquetinghouseatWhitehallhadatleastsixty-threecasementwindowsinadditiontotwo

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greatbaywindows.

7ThewallsofthefirstJacobeanbanquetinghousewerepiercedwithforty-sixdouble-casementwindowsintwoorders,andJones'ssurvivingbanquetinghouseismagnificentlylitbytwenty-eightlargesidewindows,alsointwoorders.8Thatsomeofthesewindowswereoccasionallycoveredwithtapestriesorboardedover,however,suggestsapartialdiminutionofnaturallight,evenifthereasonforcoveringwindowshadmoretodowiththemechanicsofplacingofdegreesinfrontofthemthanwithaestheticconsiderations.Ontheotherhand,wefindareferenceintheaccountsoftheOfficeofWorkstotheapparenteliminationofdaylightinthehallatWhitehall.In1625,carpenterswerepaidfor"[b]oardingvppallthewyndowesintheHall,settingvpprayles,andboardesvppontheDegreesandfittingtheHallforPlayes,"implyingdaytimeperformancestherethatemulatedanighttimeatmosphere.9Butbecausethereisonlythisoneexplicitrecordofboardingupallthewindows,wecanimaginethatnaturallightnormallymingledwithcandlelightwhenperformancesbeganbeforesunset.

LightingEquipment

ExtantRevelsOfficeaccountsfrequentlytelluswhatsortsoflightinginstrumentsilluminatedtheaudiences,actors,andmasquersatcourt.Butbecausetheaccountsrunbytheseason,itisdifficulttodistinguishbetweenthefacilitiesmadeavailableforthevariouskindsofentertainmentthattheRevelsOfficesupervised.Rarelycanindividualexpendituresbelinkedtospecificmasques,plays,dates,andlocationstoprovidedetailedpicturesofgivenperformances.Instead,wemustsettleforageneralideaofstandardElizabethanlightingequipmentandproceduresbeforeInigoJonesmadeseveralimportantchangesincourtlighting.

JudgingbytheRevelsOfficeaccounts,theprincipallightinQueenElizabeth'shallscamefromcandlesmountedinwhatwerecalledbranches.Thecandlesweregenerallyoftallow,notwax,andwerepurchasedinthreedifferenttypeswick,cotton,andwhite.Wickcandleshadwicksofflaxorrushes;theywerecheaperthantheothersbutwereboughtinfrequently.Cottoncandlesweremadeoftallowimpregnatingcottonstrandsandwerebyfarthemostpopulartype.Theycameinvarioussizesbutwereoftenquitelarge,typicallyweighingapoundapiece.Whitelightswereusedlessoftenandwererathersmall.Theirnamederivedfromthebleachedtallowusedintheirmanufacture.

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Thebranchessofrequentlymentionedintheaccountswerecandelabrausuallysuspendedabovethehallaschandeliers.Inhallswithhigh-pitchedroofs,brancheswerenothungdirectlyfrombeamsorraftersbutfromwiresstretchedacrossthehallfromonewalltoanother.For"BraunchesthatbarethelightesinthehallatHamptonCoorte,"forexample,theRevelsOfficebought"Wyertostraynecrossethehall&tohangthebrauncheswiththelightes,"whilecarpenterssuppliedvicesandwinches"todrawthewyerstightewhereonthelightesdidhangcrossethehall."

10WeknowthatoneplaybyLeicester'smen(ofwhomJamesBurbagewasamember)andanotherbytheMerchantTaylors'children,aswellastwoshortmasques,wereperformedunderthesehanginglightson21and23February1574.ThefollowingChristmas,whentheChildrenoftheChapelandLeicester'sandLincoln'smenacted,"Wyerofthegreatesorte"wasagainpurchased''tohangortostraynecrossethehallatHamptonCoorte."InacanvasandlathbanquetinghouseatWhitehall,twenty-fourbranchesand"Wyertohangthemby"aswellas"Greatewyersthatwentcrossthehall"wereprovidedforaJune1572masque.11SimilarentriespertainingtothehallsandtemporarybanquetinghousesatWhitehall,Windsor,andGreenwichforplaysbysuchtroupesasWarwick's,Sussex's,Chamberlain's,andtheChildrenofSt.Paul'sandtheChapeldemonstratethathangingbrancheswerecommonforprofessionalplaysatcourt.

ThenumberofbranchesusedinElizabeth'svarioushallsfallswithinanarrowrangenormallytwenty-eightortwenty-nine.AtWhitehallin1572,therewereonlytwenty-four,andatRichmondin1575,onlynineteen.12Butbythe1580s,thequantityhadincreased,andthebrancheswerefurthermorenumberedintwodistinctsizes,regularly

designatedintheaccountsasgreatandsmall.AtWindsorin1583,twenty-sixsmallbranchesandthreegreatoneslitthehallwheretheLordChamberlain'smenplayed.AteitherGreenwichorSomerset(theaccountsarenotclear),thereweretwenty-foursmallandfourgreatbranchesinthe158485season.13Whilevaryingslightlyovertheyears,thenumbersatWhitehallshowhowstandardizedtheElizabethanarrangementswere.InFebruary1579,fourteensmallbranchesweremended,andeightsmallandthreegreatwerenewlypurchased.ForChristmastideentertainmentsin157980,thereweretwenty-sixsmallandthreegreat,andagainthefollowingChristmas,twenty-sixsmallandthreegreat.14Jacobeanarrangementsweremoregenerous.In1611,theRevelsOfficeincreasedthenumberoflargebranchesinthefirstJacobeanbanquetinghousetotwelve.

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Ayearlater,thirty-sixlargebrancheswereordered;thesemusthavesupportedalargenumberofcandles,butassomethirtyplayswereperformedthatseasoninvariouslocationsaswellastwomasquesinthebanquetinghouseandoneinthehallatWhitehall,itisimpossibletoestimatetheamountoflightforanyoneperformance.

15

HowthebrancheswerearrangedabouttheEnglishhallscannotbedeterminedfromtheaccounts.ButtheVenetianchaplainwhosawJonson'sPleasureReconciledtoVirtuethroughtothebitterendinJanuary1618happenstotellusthattherewere"tworowsoflights"inthebanquetinghouse,thesmallbranchesapparentlyhavingbeeneliminatedentirely.16UnderElizabeth,thethreeorfourgreatbrancheswereprobablyhungoverthestageorthecenterofthehallwhiletenortwelvesmallbranchesweredistributedtoeachside,perhapsmountedasbranchedsconces.Lightmayhavebeenconcentratedneartheactors,butevidenceforsuchapracticeisnotforthcominguntillateintheperiod.Indeed,becausesomanyElizabethanarrangementswereobligedtoserveforbothplaysandmasques,inwhichlargedancingareasneededtobelit,wecanassumethatarelativelyevendistributionoflightprevailed.

Someofthebranchescouldbeloweredbywiresandpulleyssothatthecandlescouldbelit,snuffed,andextinguished.Lines,ropes,andpulleysarefrequentlymentionedintheaccounts,butthereareonlyafewexplicitreferencestotheraisingandloweringoflights.In1576,wiredrawerssupplied"TenpoundofwyerfortheComingvpofthesmalllightes"atWhitehall,andin1612"8.newPullyesfortheBranches"werepurchased.17Specialutensilsmentionedforthemanagementoflightinclude"Alongstaftoreachevp&downeyelightes''forWhitehallplaysormasquesin1574and"Dowtes

[doubters,thatis,extinguishers]forCandells"and"snuffersvjpaire"in157980.18Suchutensilsarenothabituallymentioned,however,andIassumethatthesewereusedasstagepropertiesbytorchbearersinmasques.The1527accountsforthebuildinganddecorationofthebanquetinghouseatGreenwichlist"4greatcansor[of?]reedstolightthecandles";perhapssuchutensilsremainedrelativelysimpleovertheyears.19IntheearlyJacobeanaccounts,themasterwiredrawernormallychargedexpensesforsixassistantsworkingbothdayandnightimmediatelybeforeeachperformance.By1633,fivemenwererequiredtoworksixdaysandsixnightseachtohangbranchesinthehallatWhitehall.20Thewiredrawerssawtotheinstallation,

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decoration,andrepairofthelightsratherthantotheirbeinglitandsnuffed,dutiesthatwerehandledbyservantsofthehallorchamber.

Onlyoccasionallydotheaccountsindicatehowmanycandlesweresupportedbyeachbranch.InJune1572,awiredrawerwaspaid"forwhiteRowndeplatesturndeinwithacrestforxxiiijbraunchesechebearingiiij(forlightes)."

21Withonlyfourcandlesoneachbranch,Ipresumethesearewhattheaccountselsewherecallsmallbranches.Forthe16045season,however,eight"Gre[a]ttBranchestoholdefiftingreatLightesApece"wereacquiredpresumablyforthegreatchamberinWhitehall.22Ifthesefiguresforsmallandgreatbranchesaretypical,thenwemayestimatethattheaveragetotalnumberofcandlesforcourtperformancesfrom1576toaround1588wasforty-fiveinthesmallbranchesandninety-sixinthegreatbranches,oratotalof141candles.

Jacobeanaveragesarelarger.In1605,thegreatbranchessupported120candles,andthesmallonesatleastthirty-two,probablymore.In1611,whentwelvenewbranches"ofthelargestsort"werepurchased,therewasaminimumof180candlesinallshiningoverhead.23Itwasunderthisparticularsplendor,weknow,thatearlyproductionsofTheTempestandTheWinter'sTaleweregiven.Thenextyear,theRevelsOfficepurchasedthirty-sixgreatbranchescontainingfifteenlightseachforvarioushalls.BytheendofJames'sreign,however,thesizeofthebranchesalsoseemstohavegrown:in1621,branchesthatheldfifteenlightswerecalled"ordinary"incontrasttomoreexpensive"greate"branchesthatweregarnishedwithgiltandcrowns.24

Thatthegreatbranchesheldninety-sixcandlesin1572isconfirmedbythepurchaseofninety-sixcorresponding"plates,"whichisa

common,thoughsomewhatambiguous,termthroughouttheaccounts.Theterm"plate"seemstohavebeenusedinatleastfoursenses:(1)shallowpansbeneaththecandlestocatchdrippings;(2)metalsheetsplacedabovethecandlestoprotecttheceilingfromburning;(3)mountingsforwallbrackets,perhapsreflective;and(4)giltorsilverplatingonbranches,candlesticks,orwallbrackets.Sinceoneplatewasoftenprovidedforeachcandle,onepurposewastopreventtallowdrippingsandcharredwicksfromfallingonthespectatorsandplayersbelow,aswastrueatGreenwichin1520and1527whenlargebranchesstoodingiltbasinsattachedtothetopsofpostsservingaspartofthedegreesaccommodatingtheaudience.25ForChristmastideplaysandmasquesateitherHamptonCourtorGreenwichin157273,therewere

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"Rowndeplatesforsockettes"and"wyertohangthemby,"implyingthatoneplatewasattachedtoeachcandlesocket.

26

Atothertimes,however,plateswereattachedtotheceiling,notaboveeachcandlebutabovetheentirebranch.In1605,forexample,onelargeplatewasprovidedforeachoftheeightbranchesatWhitehall"tokepeyeGreatbranchesfor[from?]bur[n]ingeyeRoufeofyeChamber."27PerhapsthegreatchamberatWhitehallhadadangerouslylowceiling.Eventhebrickbanquetinghousebuiltin1607requiredsimilarprotection;thereisnomentionofplatesforitsceiling,whichpresumablywashigh,butin1612fourdozenlarge"pastbordestosavetheColloumes"wereordered.28Apparentlythe"tworowsoflights"inthebanquetinghousewereattachedtocolumnsarisingfromeachsidegallerytosupporttheroof.Iftheolderbanquetinghouseshadhorizontalceilingsasthepresentbanquetinghousedoes,platescouldeasilyhavebeenattachedtotheirpaintedcanvasceilings.Butthismethodwouldhavebeenunnecessaryinhallswithhigh-pitchedroofs.Jones'sbanquetinghousecertainlydidnothaveplatesattachedtoitsceiling,asaconstantfearwasthatsmokefromthecandleswoulddamageRubens'spaintingsthere.Infact,CharlesIwasobligedtobuildawoodenmasquinghousein1637because,asonecourtierexplained,"theKingwillnothavehisPicturesintheBanqueting-househurtwithLights."29

Branchesusuallyrequiredroundplates,butotherkindsofplateswereassociatedwithwallbracketsandcandlesticks.ForautumnrehearsalsinthegreatchamberatSt.John'sofJerusaleminBlackfriars(wheretheRevelsOfficeitselfwaslocatedin1580),eightinexpensive"PlatesfortohangevponWallestosett.vCandellsin"wereprocured.30Thesemusthavebeenfive-branchedwallbracketswith

platesprotectingthewalls.OtherplatesboughtbytheRevelsOfficearespecifiedas"forpillers,"for"Boordes,""forwalls,"and''forhattes."31Thislastreferenceto"Plateswithholesforhattes"hasbeentakentoimplyalantern-likeutensilinwhichacandle,securedtoaflatplate,wassurroundedbyacylindrical"hat"attachedtotheplatethroughholes.32Somethinglikethisispossible,butsuchaninterpretationisbasedentirelyonamodernuseoftheterm"hat"(from"stovepipehat,"anineteenth-centurycoinage)todescribethereflectiveshieldsaroundgasfootlightsandearlyelectricspotlights.

Plateswerealsoacquiredforusewithsimplecandlesticks.Wehearof"PlatesforsmallCanstickes"in1573and"PlatesfortheCandlestickes"thefollowingyear.Therearealsorecordsof"Dubbleplatecandlestickes"in1572

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and1573andof"BranchesmaiedofDobllwhitPlat"in1611.

33Theseprobablyrefertodrippansortoplated,thatis,gildedorsilver-plated,branches.OtherextravaganciesincludedthreeCaroline"Cristall"branchesandaJacobeanbranchorbranchestrimmedwithfortydozen"Lookingglasses,"thatis,smallmirrorsorcrystals.34Ontheotherhand,thedecorationofotherbranches,eventhoselightingtheauditorium,wasessentiallytheatrical:agooddealoftroublewastakentogarnishbrancheswithinexpensivemetalfoilcalledarsedine,cutintointricateshapessuchasroses,tassels,andpendantsinordertomakethemappearmorerich.

Truecandlestickswerepurchasedinalargevarietyofstyleshand,stock,small,high,vice,andprick.Someofthesenamesexplainthemselves:handcandlestickswerecarried;prickcandlestickssupportedcandlesnotinsocketsbutimpaledonmetalspikes.Iassumehighandsmallcandlesticksstoodonfloorsandtablesrespectively,butotherexplanationsarepossible.Icanoffernoprecisedefinitionsoftheattributives"stock"and"vice."In157980,twelvestockcandlestickswereacquired"forpainters"whooftenworkedlateintothenightfinishingthegarnishingsforthehalls.35Probablytheyweresimplymadeofwood.Vicecandlestickswerethemostexpensive,costingashillingapiece.Theword"vice''maydescribeamethodofsecuringthecandlesbysidepressure,butitmorelikelyreferstoscrewclampsofsomesort,bywhichthecandlestickscouldbefastenedtorailings,scenery,cornices,andthelike.

Smallandstockcandlestickswereboughtinlargenumbers,sometimesasmanyasfourdozeninoneholidayseason.High,vice,hand,andprickcandlestickswereboughtinsmallerquantities,usuallylessthanadozenatatime.Foranygivenseason,however,onlytwoorthreestyleswerepurchased.In157273,forexample,the

RevelsOfficeobtainedfourdozensmallbutonlytwelvehighandtwelvevicecandlesticks.Thenextyear,thenumberofhighcandlestickswasdecreasedtosix.Thefollowingyearsawthepurchaseoffourdozenstockandsixvicebutnosmallorhighcandlesticks.HandandprickstyleswereboughtonlytwiceeachintheElizabethanandJacobeanyearsforwhichwehaverecords.36

Theusestowhichthesecandlestickswereputvaried.Somewereusedasstageproperties,asoneobviouslywasin1574whena"silktreeforAdeviseinoneoftheCandellstickes"wasmadeforaCandlemasplayormasqueatHamptonCourt.Awaxchandleralsoprovidedsixornatelydecoratedcandlesticksandsix"sweetelightesofwhitewex,"presumablyforthemasque,

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sinceitwasdescribedasa"MaskeofLadieswithlightesbeingvjvertues."

37Othercandlesticksmayhavebeencarriedbythetorchbearers,whoregularlyaccompaniedthemasquers.

AlthoughtheRevelsOfficepurchasedsuchutensilsformasques,itseemslikelythatprofessionalactorssuppliedsomeoralloftheirownpropertylights.Butevenforthemasquesthatitproduced,theRevelsOfficedoesnotseemtohaverecordedpaymentsforallthelightingequipmentandmaterialnecessary.AtleastthatisonewayofinterpretingtheremarkableconsistencywithwhichtheStuartRevelsOfficespentpreciselythreepoundseachseason,yearinandyearout,"forTorches,lights,andCandles,ashathbeeneaccustomed."38Onemighthavethought,becausesomeyearswitnessedconsiderablymoreentertainmentsthanothers,thatagooddealofvariationintheamountofchandlerygoodspurchasedwouldreflectvariationsinthenumberoflightsrequired.Butalthoughthenumberofcandlesticksandbranchesorderedeachyearvariesgreatly,theamountspentoncandlesandtorchesdoesnot.Threepoundswouldnormallybuyapproximatelyeighthundredtallowcandlesandseveraldozentorches,whichwouldprovidesufficientlightingforperhapssixorsevenmodestentertainmentsalongthelinesofthoseunderElizabeth.

ButtheearlyStuartsregularlyenjoyedmanymoreeveningsofrevelsthansixorsevenandapparentlyviewedthemundermoreamplelight.Hence,thefigureofthreepoundsismuchtoolowtoaccountforallthelightingrequired.InoneoftheyearsforwhichtheRevelsOfficerecordedpurchasesofonlythreepoundsforlights,wearefortunatetohaveaseparatememorandum,dated31December1631,onthebackofoneofJones'sdesignsforAlbion'sTriumph,requestingthepurchaseoffourdozentorches,threedozen"ordinary"torches,

sixteendozenwaxlightsforthebranches,andtwohundredsises,orsmalldevotionalcandles.39Thememorandumdoesnotgivethecostoftheselights,butbyitselfthisorderwoulduseupnearlyhalftheyearlylightingallotmentoftheRevelsOffice.Evenmorebrightlylit(andundoubtedlythemostextravagantmasqueoftheera)wasJamesShirley'sTheTriumphofPeace(performedatthebanquetinghouse,3February1634,andrepeatedattheMerchantTaylors'Hall,13February1634).AlthoughtheRevelsOfficeagainrecordedapaymentofonlythreepoundsforlightsthatyear,thecombinedresourcesofthebenchersoftheInnsofCourtspentnolessthan£142ontorchesforthetwoevents.40Suchasumcouldpurchasenearly

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athousandtorchesandsomefiftyflambeauxforeachpresentation,althoughmanyofthesemusthavebeendeployedfora"shewthroughthestreets,"whichSirHenryHerbertfound"glorious."

41WearelefttosurmisethattheRevelsOfficeprovidedlightingforgeneralilluminationofplaysandmasquesbutthatmanyofthetorchescarriedbythetorchbearersandatleastsomeofthespeciallightingarrangementsassociatedwithJones'sincreasinglyelaboratescenerywerepaidforbyothercourtfunds,bythesponsorsofmasques,or(lesslikely)fromJones'sownfees.PerhapsanunstateddistinctionaboutwhowasresponsiblefortheilluminationoftheearlofSalisbury's1607EntertainmentoftheKing&QueenatTheobaldsliesbehindtheequivocalcommentintheinventoryofexpensesthat''MrIoneshathallthewaxelightestorchesandcandlestickes."42

Itisreasonabletoassumethattheresponsibilitiesforpaymentmayhavebeendeterminedbythedifferentpurposestowhichvariouslightswereput.AftertheRestoration,lightingexpensesareclearlydividedamongsuchcategoriesas(1)tallowcandlesfortheplayers'rehearsalanddressing-roomneeds;(2)waxcandlesforthebranchesinthehall;(3)torchesforguards,porters,andwaiters;(4)yellowwaxlightsforthescenes;and(5)waxlightsfortheking'sandqueen'spresences.43Thepre-InterregnumRevelsOfficesdonotfurnishusthissortofdetail,butOxfordrecordsoccasionallyprovidemoreparticularcategoriesofexpenditures.FortwonighttimeplaysbeforeCharlesIatChristChurchinAugust1636,forexample,Jonespurchasedsometwenty-threedozenwaxlightstoilluminatethehallandscenerybutpurchasedonlylessexpensivetallowcandlesforthemusicroomsandtiring-roomsand"fortheBackepartoftheSceenes."44AftertheRestoration,the"vsualallowances"forlightswereproportionallysimilar:in1679,thelordchamberlaingaveorders

stipulating,ineffect,that34percentofthelightingexpendituresbeforthehall,63percentforthescenes,and3percentforthedressingroomsandbackstageareas.45

Whateverthepre-Interregnumaccountingprocedures,thememorandumforAlbion'sTriumphandtheMiddleTemplewarrantsforTheTriumphofPeacedemonstratethatbytheearly1630s,largenumbersofwaxlightsilluminatedJones'sspectacles.Withtheliteraryinhibitionsof"BenJonsonbeing...discarded,"asonecourtgossipputit,Jonescouldaccomplishhisgoalofmakingmasques"nothingelsebutpictureswithLightandMotion."46

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StageLightingforMasques

Beforereturningtotheprofessionalplayhouses,weshouldcontrastthetheatricalilluminationtypicaloftheTudorcourtwiththemoreelaborateilluminationthatInigoJonesarrangedforStuartmasques.Atthetimethatadultactorsbegantoinhabittheprivatehallplayhouses,Jonesintroducedimportantinnovationsinstagelightingforthesophisticatedamateurperformersinmasques.Theseinnovationsconcernedthecolor,placement,andmovementoflightonhisscenes.Jonesusuallyexperimentedwithallthreeoftheseaspectsatonce,butearlyinhiscareer,coloredlightseemstohavefascinatedhimmost.InJonson'sMasqueofBeauty,forexample,performedinthebanquetinghouseatWhitehallon2February1609,Jonescreateda"tralucentPillar,shiningwithseuerall-colour'dlights";andinthenextyear,thefriezesoftheHouseofFameintheMasqueofQueens"werefilldwthseuerall-colourdLights,likeEmeralds,Rubies,Saphires,Carbuncles,&c."

47Forafewyears,coloredlightshiningthrougharchitecturalscenicelementswastherage:theMasqueofFlowers,performedbythegentlemenofGray'sInnatthebanquetinghouseon6January1614,featuredpyramids"glisteringwithtransparentlights,resemblingcarbuncles,saphires,andrubies."48Theseeffectsmayhavebeenaccomplishedbyplacinglightsbehindcoloredglassorcoloredoiledpaper.InthesecondbookofhisRegolegeneralidiarchitectura(Paris,1545)andagainintheEnglishtranslationof1611,theItaliandesignerSebastianoSerliosuggestsplacinglightsbehindglass,paper,orpaintedclothinhiscomicscenesothat"alltheroundelsandQuadranswhichyouseeintheBuildings,theyareartificialllightscuttingthrough,ofdiuerscolours.''49Jonesfrequentlymadewholepiecesofsceneryglowbythismethod.InOberon(1January1611,

banquetinghouse,Whitehall),afterthecustomaryscenewithadarkrock,agloriouspalaceisdiscovered"whosegatesandwallsweretransparent";thispalace,inturn,openedtorevealfairiesbearinglights,which,presumably,furnishedtheilluminationthatradiatedthroughthetransparentshutters.50

Tostrengthentheeffectofcolor,Serliorecommendsplacingspecialbottlesorglassesfilledwithcoloredwaterinfrontoflampstoactaslenses.Theseglasseswerethenplacedsothattheyprojectedthroughsmallholescutinthescenery.Thus,inJonson'sEntertainmentoftheKing&QueenatTheobalds,22May1607,aftertheopeninggloomyscenelitbyonlyonelight,

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agloriousshrineisdiscovered,inthecolumns,frieze,andcorniceofwhich"wereplaceddiuersDiaphanallglasses,fill'dwithseuerallwaters,thatshew'dlikesomanystones,oforientandtransparenthiewes."

51Thenextyear,Jonesjotteddownalistofexpensesontheversoofadesignforanothermurkyscene,chargingthreeshillingseightpence"forglassesforyeRocke,"apparentlyalsoforcoloredlightinamasquetoentertainJamesinthelibraryofSalisburyHouseintheStrand,May1608.52

OneofthefewdiscussionsofearlymodernstagelightingwasoccasionedbyaminordebateaboutwhetherlampsorcandlesburnedbehindthesebottlestoilluminateJones'sscenes.BasinghisviewonItalianpracticeandtheEnglishtranslationofSerlio,AllardyceNicollmaintainedthat"lampsweremoreconvenientlyadapted"thancandles"forback-stagework,"butC.F.Bellassertedthatoilwasneverused.53Bell'sargumentisthestronger:hisanalysisofSerlio'sinfluenceonJonesiswellinformedandjudicious,andthereisnoevidenceofanywidespreaduseoflampsoutsidethekitcheninStuartEngland.Moreover,theRevelsOfficeaccountsclearlydemonstratethatcandlessuppliedtheprincipalilluminationofbothauditoriumandstage.

Allthesame,Bellmayoverstatethecase.Foronething,hemakesnodistinctionbetweentheutensilsprovidingoverallilluminationofthestageandthosepositionedinopeningsinthescenerytoproducecoloredlight.Heleavestheimpressionthatmostofthelightonstagepassedthroughbottles,whereastheactualnumberofinstancesinwhichglassesarecalledforissmallandconfinedtotheyearsfrom1607to1614orso.Toclinchhisargumentagainsttheuseoflamps,Bellcitesthe1631memorandum,alreadyreferredto,requesting

sixteendozenwaxlightsforbranchesinadditiontotorchesandsises.Hereasonsthat"theexpenditureofsuchagreatquantityofwaxcanscarcelybeaccountedforunlesscandlesalonewereinuseforlightingbothstageandauditorium."54Butchandeliersorbranchedwallsconceswouldbeunsuitableforprojectingcoloredlightthroughthescenes,and,atanyrate,theRevelsaccountsforthatholidayseasonmakeitclearthatmostofthesebrancheswerenotspecialtheatricalinstrumentsbutratherstandardutensilscarteddowntoWhitehallfromDenmarkandSomersetHouses.Indeed,thesixteendozenwaxlightswereundoubtedlyintendedforthesixteendozen"Wallers"and"Prickers,"thatis,wallbracketsandspikesonwhichtoimpalelargecandles.55Byconfusinggenerallightingwithspeciallycoloredlight,Bellarguesthat,becausepaymentsforlampsandoilare

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"entirelyabsentfromtheRevelsAccounts,"waxmusthaveburnedbehindJones'svials.ButBell'sassertionnotwithstanding,thereisatleastonereferenceto"lamps&Vialles"intheElizabethanRevelsaccounts,andontheauditoriumplanthatJohnOrrellsuggestsrepresentsthe1605theateratChristChurch,Oxford,isanotethat"manylightsorlampsofseueralcoulersmaybeplaced"onaporticoneartheking'sstate.

56AftertheRestoration,lampswerealsooccasionallyhungabovethescenes,asSerlioandNicolaSabbattinihadsuggested,althoughnotapparentlybehindthescenes.57

TheRevelsOfficeaccountsindicatenopurchasesofoil,andthesinglerecordoftheuseoflampsdoesnotimplyheavyuse.Thisrecord,inalongsummaryofexpensesforthe158182season,readsinpart,"CandleslinksTorcheslighteslamps&Vialles."58Thatlampswereplacedneartheendofthelistaftertheinclusive"lightes"suggeststheselampswerenotmajorexpenses.Infact,theirjuxtapositionwithvialsclearlysuggeststhattheywereusedinspecialcolored-lighteffects.Certainly,theuseoflampsratherthancandlesinconjunctionwithvialswouldhavesolvedonepracticalproblem.Thedifficultyinusingacandletoshinethroughaglassvialisthat,asthecandleburnsdown,theangleatwhichthelightisprojectedbythecondensingvialwillchange,castingthebeamofcoloredlightgraduallyhigherasthecandlegrowsshorter.Givenasubstantialreservoirofoil,however,thepositionoftheflameofafloating-wicklampremainsmoreorlessstationary,and,hence,thecoloredlightemanatingfromtheglassvialcanbefocusedinaparticulardirectionwithlessfearthatthedirectionwillchangeasthemasquewearson.Italianpracticeindicatesthatlampswerefoundmostusefulinpositionswhereitwasinconvenienttoattendtothelights.For

example,Sabbattini,whoequippedtheTeatrodelSolinPesaroaround1636,employedlampsbehindthetopofhisprosceniumarchwheretheycouldbelefttoburn,butbecausethelampssmokedprofusely,hepreferredtoplacecandlesnearhissceneswheretheycouldconvenientlybetrimmed.

Theuseofpaper,fabric,andglassbottlestocreatecoloredlightwould,ofcourse,tendtodecreasethebrightnessproducedbyanyoneflame.Apparently,somecolorsoccludedmorelightthanothers.Inhisessay"OfMasquesandTriumphs"(1625),writtenafteryearsofobservingandevensupervisingmasques,FrancisBaconadvised,"Letthescenesaboundwithlight,especiallycolouredandvaried,"butadmittedthatnotallcolors

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workedwell:"TheColoursthatshewbestbyCandle-lights,"hewrote,are"White,Carnation,andaKindofSea-Water-Greene,"inshort,relativelyunsaturatedcolors.

59Effectsproducedbyshininglightthroughliquidsofdeeperhueblues,purples,andredswereapparentlylesssuccessful.

Toproduceastrikingeffectwithcoloredlight,then,thegeneralilluminationmustbekeptdim,astheItaliandesignerLeonediSomirecognizedbythemid-sixteenthcentury.60Apparently,thiswasnotthedirectioninwhichJoneswantedtogo.ThoughJoneswasfondofdarkscenesatthebeginningofhismasques,hiscoloredlightingeffectsweremorefrequentinbrightlyilluminatedscenesthaninscenesofgloom.Andindeed,overtheyearsJonesreliedlessoncoloredlightingeffectsandmoreonsheerbrilliance;atleast,therearefewerandfewerreferencestocoloredlightinthetextsanddescriptionsofhisCarolinemasques.Itmaybethatcoloredlightwassocommonbythenthatitwentunreportedorthat,becausewearemissingsomanydescriptionsofthe"bodilypart"ofmasquesfromthe1620s,wesimplydonotpossesstherelevantdata.Still,evenwhenJoneshimselfseemstohaveprovidedthedescriptionofthemiseenscène(asforTempeRestored,1632),wehearnothingofcoloredlight.PerhapsJonestooklessinterestincolorforitsownsake;hecertainlydrewfewercolorrenderingsastheyearswentby.

Inemphasizingbrilliance,Jonesalsoexperimentedwiththeconcentrationoflightontoparticularobjectsandareas.NicollandBellassumethatmuchofthisconcentrationwasaccomplishedbyglassvials,anditispossiblethatcondensingglasseswereusedforthispurpose.Butsphericalcondensingglasseswillfocuslightonlyatadistanceequaltothedistanceoftheflamefromtheglassand,hence,couldnotilluminateanobjectsituatedmorethanafootortwofrom

theglass.Aglobeflattenedononeside,likeamodernconvexlens,wouldthrowlightfarther,ofcourse;Serliomentionsthat"ifthebottels...onthesidewherethelightstandswereflat,orratherhollow,itwouldshowtheclearer,"buthisconditionalmoodcausesonetodoubtifevenhisproximitytoVenetianglassmakerscouldregularlysupplyhimwithsuchinstruments.61CertainlytheearlybozzeglassesfoundattheTeatroOlimpicoandprominentlydiscussedbyNicollareallspherical.ThepurposeofSerlio'svialslikeJones'swasclearlylesstofocuslightontoparticularscenicelementsthantoprovidedecorativehighlightsonthescenesthemselves.

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Toeffectbrilliancebyconcentratinglight,Jonessimplyusedthemethodshehadadoptedforhisscenechangesthemachinaversatilisandthemachinaductilis.Joneshadlearnedthattoproduceaneffectofglowingbrightness,heshouldhidethesourcesoflight,placetheutensilsclosetothescene,andmaketheobjectstobelitasreflectiveaspossible,henceJones'srelianceonmetallicfabricsandmetallicsequins,orwhatFeliceinAntonioandMellida(1602)calls"glisteringcopperspangs,/ThatglisteninthetyreoftheCourt"(E3).InTheMasqueofQueens,forexample,thebrilliancesurroundingthequeensintheHouseofFamecamenotonlyfromthefriezeswith"seuerall-colouredLights"butalsofromthereflectionofthoseandotherlightsonthequeens'costumes,or,asJonsonputsit,"Thereflexeofwch,wthotherlightsplac'dinyeconcaue,vpontheMasquershabites,wasfullofglory."

62Jonesfoundsuch"concaves''usefulnotonlyasturntablesbutalsoinconcentratingthelightontoarelativelysmallarea.Thus,TheHaddingtonMasque(9February1608,banquetinghouse,Whitehall)reliedonan"illustriousConcaue,fill'dwithanampleandglisteringlight"inwhichthemasquerswerediscoveredinaturningeighteen-footsilversphere.63

Thelightsintheseconcavesweresometimeshiddenbehindreveals,castingtheirlighttowardthecenteroftheconcave.The"greatconcaueshell"inthemasqueBlackness(6January1605,banquetinghouse,Whitehall)"wasstruckwithacheu'ronoflights,which,indentedtotheproportionoftheshell,strookeagloriousbeame"onthemasquers.64Presumably,theseindentationsprovidedsupportfortheutensilsandservedtoshieldthesourcesoflightfromtheeyesoftheaudience,astheydidinGeorgeChapman'sTheMemorableMasque(inthehallatWhitehall,15February1613),wherea"rich

andrefulgentMineofgolde"featured

lights...soordered,thatthoughnonewereseene,yethadtheirlustresuchvertue,thatbyit,theleastspangleorsparkeoftheMaskersrichhabites,mightwitheaseandcleerenessebediscernedasfaroffasthestate[oftheking].65

Likehisuseofcoloredlight,Jones'stechniquesforconcentratinglightevolvedovertheyears.Earlyon,Joneswascontenttoconcentratelightonrelativelysmallareas(shells,caves,mines,andthelike),usuallywithinamachinaversatilis.AfterhisreturnfromItalyin1615,Joneswasinclinedtospreadbrillianceoveranentireperspectivescene,aneffectheapparently

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hadadmiredattheTeatroOlimpicoinVicenza.InJones'scopyofthe1601editionofAndreaPalladio'sIQuattrolibridell'architettura,JonesrecordshisimpressionsoftheTeatroOlimpico,whichhevisitedon23September1613.Therehesawthreethree-dimensionalperspectivealleywaysdisappearingintothedistancebehindtheornatescaenafrons.Hewasparticularlyimpressedbytheplacementofthelightsinthesidealleys:"OnthePassagesofthesidesallthelighteswearPlaced,"henoted,presumablymeaningthatinadditiontotherelativelydimgeneral-purposeilluminationofthestageandcavea,manylightswereplacedbehindthescaenafrons,brightlyilluminatingthepassagewaysbuiltinforcedperspective.

66Jonescanhardlymeanthat"all"thelightsforthestagewereplacedinthesidealleys,butbecauselightsinthealleyscouldbeplacedmuchclosertothescenery,itmaywellhaveappearedso.Whenthemachinaductilissupplantedthemachinaversatilisasthewayofchangingscenes,JonescouldmoreorlessduplicatethelightinghehadadmiredinVicenzabyplacinglightsbehindtheslidingshuttersorprosceniumarchtoproducebrightnessovertheentirescene.Thus,inTheGoldenAgeRestored(1January1616,Whitehall),shuttersaredrawnasidetodiscovera"Sceneoflight,"andinTempeRestored(14February1632,banquetinghouse,Whitehall),asimilar''LightsomeSceneappear'd."67

ThewondersooftenexpressedbyspectatorsatJones'slightingeffectscomesinpartfromthisplacementoflightbutalsofromhistechniqueofmovingandturning,notthelightsindividually,butthewholestructureonwhichthelightsweremountedoronwhichtheobjecttobeviewedwasdisplayed.ThetextofDaniel'sTethys'Festival(5June1610,banquetinghouse,Whitehall)quotesJones'sowndescriptionofoneoftheseeffects:"Firstattheopeningoftheheavensappeared

threecirclesoflightsandglasses,onewithinanother,andcamedowninastraightmotionfivefoot,andthenbegantomovecircularly."68Heretheringssupportingthelightsandglassescouldnotonlybeloweredbutalsoberevolvedtoproduceashimmeringilluminationthatdistractedtheeyesofthespectatorssufficientlytohidethemethodofchangingthescene.SimilarlyinCampion'sMasqueofLords,askyisrevealedwitheightlargestarsmoving.Thestarsvanishandcloudsgivewayto"artificialfires,withseverallcirclesoflightsincontinualmotion."69SucheffectscontinuethroughoutJones'scareer,andW.A.ArmstrongcorrectlyremindsusthatJonson'sridiculeofJones's

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ffeatofLantern-lerry:wthfuliginousheatWhirlinghisWhymseys

refersnottoadistasteforgorgeouslightassuchbutto"lightsandmachineswhichmovedbeforethespectators'eyes."

70Still,inJones'sdefense,wemaynotethatovertheyearshisexperimentswithmovinglightbecamelessabstractthantheywereoriginally.Intheearlymasques,weoftenseecirclesoflightturning,moreorlessgratuitously,onorwithinmachinaeversatileswithlittleornoconnectiontotheillusionisticoreventheallegoricalenvironment.Inthelatermasques,lightsstillmove,buttheytendtodosoaspartofapictorialrepresentationofaplace,howeverimaginary.Insteadofrevolvingcircles,mostofthemovinglightsintheCarolinemasquesaccompanyfloatingcloudsandrefulgentgloriessurroundingdeiexmachinae,asinTempeRestored(1632),Coelum*Britannicum(1634),andTheTempleofLove(1635).71

Althoughmasquesceneswerecommoninplaysproducedattheprofessionaltheaters,thereislittleevidencethatthissortofspectacledevolvedtotheprofessionalhallplayhouses.72Allthesame,JohnOrrellhasunderlinedJones'spersonalandprofessionalassociationswiththeadultplayers,andJonesmaywellhavedesignedBeeston'sCockpitandcertainlydesignedtheCockpit-in-CourtatWhitehall,atwhichadultcompanieswereregulartenants.73Asweconsidertheartificiallightattheseandotherprivatetheaters,then,InigoJones's(andour)knowledgeoftheatricalilluminationatcourtmayhelpustounderstandthelesswell-documentedpracticesintheindoorhalltheaters.

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8ArtificialLightintheIndoorPlayhousesHavingconsideredtheavailabilityofdaylightintheprivateplayhousesandtheuseofartificiallightatcourt,wecannowattempttomakesenseofthesparsereferencestoartificiallightattheprivateplayhouses.Idistinguishbetweenartificiallightandnaturallightattheseindoorplayhousesforconvenienceandforthepracticalreasonthatcontemporarydescriptionsdidso,too.Butforthepresent,Idonottakeupthequestionofartificiallightscarriedbytheactorsasstageproperties.

Theseprinciplesoforganizationareopentocriticism.Certainly,theytendtodisintegratethetotalvisualeffectintodistinctelementsthattheaudienceneversawexceptinrelationtoothers.Butbecausethelightproducedbydaylight,chandeliers,andstagepropertiescouldnotbeeasilycontrolled,eachsourceoflightremainedmoreorlessindependentfromtheothers,sometimesproducingdisparateeffectsandevenparticipatinginapparentlycontradictorytheatricalconventions.Wehaveseenevidence,forexample,thatdaylightwasreducedforcertainsombertragediesbyabsorbentblackhangingsoutdoorsandperhapsbywindowshuttersindoors.Butthereisnoevidencethatcandlesweredimmedorevencouldbedimmedforsimilarreasons.Infact,inFletcher'sTheQueenofCorinth(c.1617,Blackfriars),burningtapersareexplicitlyassociatedwithtragedy.Theheroinehasshutherselfupinherroomafterhavingbeenrapedandhasobstructedallthewindowlightwithblackhangings,wearetold.Butshehasmanytaperslightingtheroom,whichherfriendfindsunhealthy.Thefriendcounsels

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outwiththeseTragickLights,Andletdayrepossessehernaturallhowres:Tearedownetheseblacks.

1

Theconventionalusesofdaylightandcandlelightthusattendoppositeeffects.

ArtificialLightintheAfternoon

Becausetheearlychildren'scompanieswaiteduntilaftereveningprayertobegintheirplays,littlenaturallightcouldhaveilluminatedtheirhallsinthedepthofwinter.InacommendatoryversetoFletcher'sTheFaithfulShepherdess,forinstance,whichhadbeenunsuccessfulatitspremierebytheQueen'sRevelsboysatthesecondBlackfriarsin1608,BenJonsondescribedtheunreceptivespectatorsas"rank'dinthedarke."2Thephraseisafusionofdoublemeanings:"rank'd"suggestingbothsocialrankandtieredseating,"darke"referringbothtotheputativeignoranceofFletcher'saudienceandtotheliteraldarknessinwhichtheysat.AstheQueen'sRevelsboysperformedonlyfromaroundMichaelmas(29September)untilEaster,naturaldarknessinevitablyaccompaniedmanyoftheirperformances.3

AcommentbyaGermantouristvisitingthesecondBlackfriarssixyearsearliermayormaynotimplythatnodaylightilluminatedthechildrenthere.AdiaryentryofFredericGerschow,tutortothedukeofStettin-Pomerania,saysthatthechildren'sperformanceswere"AllebeyLichteAgieret,welchseingrossesAnsehenmachtt"allactedbylights,whichmakesagreateffect.4Itisunclearifby"Alle"hemeantthattheilluminationwasfurnishedexclusivelybyartificiallights,orifhewassayingthechildrenusedlightsateveryperformance,orifhe

simplymeantthatthewholeeventwasartificiallyilluminated,incontrasttotheamphitheaters.Consideringthatthevisitwason18Septemberwhenthesunsetatalittlebefore6P.M.,onewouldbesurprisedifnosunlightilluminatedtheentireperformance.Tohaveproduceda"greateffect"throughoutthelargeParliamentChamberwouldhaverequiredmanycandlesindeed.Inalllikelihood,theaudiencesatinwindowlightforthemostpart,whilecandleswereplacedasneartheactorsaspossibletoemphasizethesplendoroftheircostumes,withwhichGerschowwasmuchtaken.

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Althoughthechildren'stroupesweremostactiveinthewinter(preparingforandrepeatingtheirJanuaryandFebruaryentertainmentsforthemonarch),wecannotsaythatartificiallightwasabsolutelynecessarythroughouteachperformance.Infact,theinductiontoMichaelmasTerm,performedatSt.Paul'saround1604,suggeststhatnightfalloccurredneartheendoftheplay.Middletonconfirmsthetwo-hourdurationmentionedataboutthesametimebyWilliamPercy(4to6P.M.)butinlegalmetaphorsappropriatetohisthemepromisestheaudiencethat"weedispatchyouintwohowers,withoutdemure;yourSuiteshangnotlonghereafterCandlesbelighted."

5Thephrase"notlong...afterCandlesbelighted"mightrefertoplayhousecandleslitneartheendoftheperformance,butitmorelikelymeansthattheplaywouldnotdetaintheaudiencemuchpastcandlelightingtimefortheCityingeneralapparentlyaround6P.M.atthattimeofyear.

Hence,darknessmaynothavebeenthesolereasonfortheuseofartificiallight.Thechildren'scompanieswereaccustomedtoactingunderthequeen'scandlelightandmaynothaveforegoneitsrefinedassociations,nomatterhowmuchdaylightpouredthroughthewindowsattheirowntheaters.Aslateas1636,candlelightwasadvertisedasameasureoftheatricaldistinctionandrefinement,eventhoughithadbecomecommonplacelongbeforethat.6Onthebasisofthechildren'stroupes'attentiontosuchmattersastouchedontheirreputations(theadoptionoftheword"private"todescribethoroughlypublicperformances,forexample),wemaysurmisethatearlytroupesusedcandlelightnotjustforthesakeofvisibilitybutinhopesthatitssophisticationwouldcontributetotheirgoodreport.Earlymasques,mummings,anddisguisingshadforcenturiesbeenperformedto

artificiallights,whetherornotthelighttheyprovidedwasnecessary.BecauseofextremeheatinthebanquetinghouseatWhitehallinJune1610,forinstance,torchbearerswereomittedatthelastminutefromSamuelDaniel'sTethys'Festivalwithoutcomplaintsaboutdarkness.7ForSirHenryUnton'sweddingmasque,torchlightgracedthefestivitieseventhoughstrongsunlightcamethroughthewindows,brightlylightingtheroom.Visibilitywasundoubtedlytheprincipalimpetusforintroducingcandles,butitmaynothavebeentheonlyreason.

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LightingandExtinguishingtheCandles

Severalplayhouseinductionsmentionorshowusthelightingofplayhousecandles.TheearliestcomesfromMarston'sWhatYouWill,actedatSt.Paul'sin1601.Attheopening,thereistheauthorialstagedirection"BeforetheMusickesoundsfortheActe:EnterAtticus,Doricus,&Phylomuse,theysitagoodwhileontheStagebeforetheCandlesarelighted,talkingtogether."Immediatelyfollowingisthestagedirection"EnterTier-manwithlights,"whereuponDoricusexclaims,"OFiesomelights,sirsfie,lettherebenodeedsofdarknessedoneamongvs."

8Weneednottakehisreferencetodarknessliterally,ofcourse,butthestagedirectionsmakeclearthatspectatorsfindingtheirseatsorwaitingfortheplaytobegindidsowithoutthebenefitofartificiallight,atleastnearthestage.Instead,candleswerelitonlyjustbeforetheplaywastobegin.Referencetoasingletiremanalsoindicatesthatonepersoncouldattendtothecandlesquicklyandconvenientlybecause,asAtticusexplains,"theStageissoverylittle."

WegetaglimpseoftiremenlightingcandlesatanadulthallplayhouseinJonson'sTheStapleofNews(London,1631),performedaroundFebruary1626,whentheKing'smenoccupiedBlackfriars.9Intheinduction,fourladygossipsdecidethattheywillsitonthestageliketheirmalecounterparts.Butwhen"TheTiremenentertomendthelights,"theProloguemustcalmthem:"Nay,startnotLadies,thesecarrynofireworkestofrightyou,butaTorchi'theirhands,togiuelighttothebusinesse."Atthesametime,weheartheBook-holder(probablyfromwithinthetiring-house)givingthetiremendirections:"Mendyourlights,Gentlemen.MasterPrologue,beginne."10WhilethetheateratSt.Paul'swassmallenoughtorequireonlyonetireman,theprestigiousBlackfriarssometwentyyearslaterlavishedtwoor

morementoattendtothelights.Yet,theuseoftheword"mend"heremayimplythatsomeofthecandleswerealreadyburningbeforetheprologuebegan.Whetherdaylightorminimalcandlelightilluminatedtheauditorium,itmustbetruethattherewasenoughilluminationtopermitspectatorstofindtheirseatsandadmireeachothers'clothesaswellastoallowtheactorstobegintheinductionwithoutafullcomplementofcandlelight.TheladiesinTheStapleofNewsenjoyalivelyconversationandthegallantsinWhatYouWillsit"agoodwhile''beforethecandlesarelighted,andonedoubtssuchactionstookplaceinutterdarkness.

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Atcourt,wheremoneywasoflessconcern,mostofthecandleswerealsonotlituntiltheplayormasquewasreadytobegin.WhenOrazioBusinowenttoWhitehallinJanuary1618,hearrivedtwohoursbeforethekingwasduetoappearbecausehewantedtoviewtheladiesathisleisure.WhenheenteredthefirstJacobeanbanquetinghousearound8P.M.,"therewaslittlelight,asifitwerethetwilightofduskordawn,"herecalled,becausethetworowsoflights"weretobelit[only]atthepropertime."

11Ifthecourtdidnotsquandermoneyonartificiallightatnight,thenonedoubtsthattheKing'smenwerelavishwithcandlelightintheearlyafternoonbeforetheirplaysbegan.

ThecorrespondingextinctionofcandlesiscalledforbyastagedirectioninacollectionofthreeplayspublishedaftertheRestorationastheGratiaeTheatrales(London,1662).12Intheepiloguetothefirstplay,Thorney-Abbey,thedeathoftheheroisassociatedwiththeputtingoutofcandles.Weareremindedthat"deathbetidestoMen,andTaperstoo,"afterwhich,inafootnotedstagedirection,itisexplainedthat"HeretheCandlesareputtingout"(*6v).Giventhevagariesoftheepilogue'sauspices,wecannotclaimitnecessarilyreferstoeitherpre-orpost-Interregnumplayhouses.Whateverthevenue,thepracticeofquicklyputtingoutthecandlesattheconclusioncomplementsthelightingofcandlesimmediatelybeforetheplaywastobeginand,moreover,speakstotheprobabilitythattherewassufficientwindowlightor,inthedepthofwinter,sufficientnumbersofwallsconceslefttoburnintheauditoriumandexitpassagestoensurethatspectatorscouldmaketheirwayhomewithouttrippingovereachotherinthedark.

Regardingthekindsoflightingutensilsused,privateplayhouselightingdoesnotseemtodiffermuchfromthatprovidedbythe

ElizabethanRevelsOffice.Survivingplaytexts,inductions,preludes,andepiloguesmentiononlycandlesandthegeneralterm"lights"inregardtoartificialilluminationforvisibility.Thesereferencesarenotplentiful,butwithcorroborationcomingfromtheRevelsOfficeaccounts,theytakeprecedenceasevidenceovervagueallusionstotorches,lamps,andcressetsinanevensmallernumberofnon-playhousesources.InFrancisLenton'ssatiricpamphletTheYoungGallant'sWhirligig,forexample,wehearthatthepennilessherohassoldthefineclothesthatonce"glistredintheTorchyFryers."13Butthephrase"TorchyFryers"hasobviouslybeencompressedtofittheiambicpentameterandtorhymewiththeprecedingline.Itprobablyconnotednomorethan

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anartificialthatis,aburningmethodofillumination.Similarly,aphraselike"lamps,whichataplay,"foundinGeorgeWither'sFaire-Virtue,mayprivilegepoeticrhythmovercarefulclassificationoflightingutensils.

14Oilwassoexpensivethateventhewealthiesthomesregularlydidwithoutlamps;evenatcourtwehaveseenthattheirusewasconfinedtooccasionalcoloredlightingeffects,effectsthatwerenotreproducedattheprivateplayhouses.

ManagementofArtificialLight

Anotherdescriptionofayounggallantintheplayhousementionscandlesandapparentlyreferstotwochandeliersoverthestage.InoneofThomasOverbury'spopularcharactersketches,publishedaround1615,astage-sitting"Phantastique"showsoffhisclothes,"andwhenthePlayisdone,ifyoubutmarkhisrising,'tisakindofwalkingEpiloguebetweenthetwoCandles,toknowifhisSuitemaypasseforcurrant."15Sincestage-sittersenteredandexitedthroughthetiring-houseandnotfromthepit,16Overburyismakingthepointthatthegallantisostentatiouslyparadingoverthestageinsteadofmodestlyretiringdirectlythroughthetiring-housewall.Infact,thegallantbrazenlywalkstotheplacefromwhichtheepiloguewasspoken,presumablydownstagecenterand"betweenthetwoCandles."Thereareseveralpossibleinterpretationsofthepassage.Perhapscandlesticksorwallsconceswerepositionedtothesidesofthestage,andthearea"betweenthetwoCandles"wassimplythestageitself.W.A.ArmstrongtakesthesceneinTheChangeling(London,1653)whereDeFloresstabsAlonzoasproofofsuchsconces.17DeFloresinduceshisvictimtoturnhisbackbyinvitinghimto"takespeciallnoticeofthatSconcebeforeyou''(D4).ButArmstronghasmisunderstoodthepassage:"TheSconce,"asAlonzohimselflater

comments,ispartofthe"impregnableFort"heistouring,whichcanbeseenthroughawindow(D3v).18Infact,theterm"sconce"wasnotappliedtowallbracketsuntiltheRestoration.TheRevelsOfficecalledsuchequipment"platesforwalls,""wallers,"andthelike,andotherreferencestosconcesinsuchplaysasTheMalcontent("EnterMendozawithasconce"[C4v])refernottopermanentwallmountingsbuttoakindofportablelantern.Wecannotbesurewallbracketsneverlitthestage,butitshouldbepointedoutthatsconcesintheRestorationtheaterwererelegatedtothewallsoftheauditoriumandonlylaterandonspecialoccasionsplacednearthestage.CongrevedescribedabrilliantlylitgalaperformanceatDorsetGardenin1701that"was

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allhungwithsconcesofwax-candles,besidesthecommonbranchesoflightsusualintheplayhouses."

19

TheremaininginterpretationofOverbury's"twoCandles"isthattwochandeliershungsymmetricallyabovethestageandthatactorsspeakingepiloguesdownstagecenterwouldtherebybestanding"between"them.ThisarrangementiscorroboratedbyTheWitsfrontispiecebutbynootherpre-Restorationsource.Still,theinterpretationofOverbury'scandlesasstagechandeliersmeetswithlesscountervailingevidencethandoesthinkingofthemasfloorcandlesticksorwallbracketsandissupportedbytheRevelsOffice'spersistentuseofthreeorfourgreatbrancheshangingaboveearlycourtperformances.

TheWitsfrontispiece(1662)showstwobranchedchandelierssuspendedbylongwiresovertheleftandrightedgesofanarrowthruststage(seefig.23).Eachchandeliersupportseightcandleswithdrippansbeneatheachsocket.Thechandeliersappeartohangratherlowtothestage,buttheartisthashandledtheperspectivecrudely.Whilethevantagepointofthedrawingandthepositionofthechandelierswouldseemtoindicatewearelookingdownonthebranches,theyareneverthelessdrawnfromthepointofviewofsomeonelookingupatthem.Itmaybethatthebrancheswereactuallyhigherthanisshownbutthattheartistloweredthemsoastosimplifyrenderingthegalleryabovethestage.Theprincipallightcomesfromtheactors'rightbut,judgingbytheshadows,notfromthebranchthere.Apparently,daylightwasplentifulfromthatdirection.Crosshatchingindicatesthattherearofthestagewasdimmerthanthefront,butthesixdouble-wicklampsservingasfootlightsarenot,againfromtheshadowscastatthecharacters'feetandonthehostess's

gown,verybrightincomparisontothesunlight.TherelevanceofTheWitsfrontispiecetopre-Interregnumplayhousesisuncertain.Inhisedition,J.J.Elsonconcludesthatthedrawingwas"purelyaworkoftheartist'simagination"andnotarenderingof"theactualsettinginwhichsomefurtiveCommonwealthshowsweregiven."20JohnAstingtonhasrecentlytracedseveraliconographicsourcesforthepictureandconcludesthat,whileitwasprobablybasedonpre-1660stheatricalstyle,itshouldnotbeconsideredevidenceforanyparticulartheater.21AlthoughnotraceofEnglishfootlightspredatesTheWitsfrontispiece,itsarticulationofsunlightandcandlelightiscongruouswithwhatwehaveconjecturedwastypicalofpre-Restorationhalllighting.

Wegetanotionofthepersonnelrequiredtotendtoburningcandlesin

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themasquesceneofTheTwoMerryMilkmaids(1620).Lodwickeisseenreviewingthearrangementsjustbeforehisprivatemasqueistobegin.Heordershisgentlemanusher,"PrayhaueacarethoselightsbenotoffensiuevntotheLadies,theyhangsuspiciously."By"offensiue,"hemeansnotonlythatthecandlescouldfallordripontheaudiencebutalsothatleaningcandlessmokedprofusely,creatinganunpleasantodor.Thegentlemanusherdelegatesthejobtoanusher;"LooketothoselightsIpray,"hesays,''myLordisveryangry,fearingtheymightdotrespasse."Theusherinturnrepeatstheordertoagroom,whereuponthegroomreplies,"Theyshallsir,where'sthefellowheereshudlookevntotheselights,thingsaredonesovntowardly."Afterashortwhile,wegetthestagedirection,"EnterFerdinand[thegentlemanusher],GroomeswithTorches."

22

Attheheightofitsfinancialsuccessin1624,theKing'smenboastedtwenty-onehirelings,mostofwhomwereactorsandmusicians.Whennotrequiredonstageorinthemusicroom,somemayhavebeenpressedintoserviceascandle-snuffers,butacitationfromthepraeludiumtoTheCarelessShepherdessimpliesonlyafewattendantsorevenoneregularlysawtothecandlesatSalisburyCourtaround1638.Commentingonthepovertyofmostplaywrights,acitizenopines:

IdonotthinkbutIshallshortlyseeOnePoetsuetokeepthedoor,anotherTobeprompter,athirdtosnuffthecandles.23

Consideringthedisparityinavailablepersonnel,theprivatetheatercompaniescouldrelyononlyafractionofthenumberoflightingattendantsatcourtandinnoblehouses.OthertroupeshadevenfewerhirelingsattheirdisposalthantheKing'smen.Itisunlikely,therefore,

thatenoughattendantswerepresenttowatchlightsspreadgenerouslythroughouttheentiretheater.

Becausethemajorconcernwasthedrippingofhottallow,lightshangingoverspectatorswereprobablyavoided.Itwouldhavebeenawkwardanddistractingtoraiseladdersortolowerbranchesintheauditoriumtosnuffsmokingordrippingcandlesduringtheperformance.AthisItaliancourttheater,Sabbattiniassignedtoeachchandelierintheauditoriumone"reliableperson"equippedwith"twopoleslongenoughtoreachthecandletops.""Ononeofthepolesisataperforlighting,"heexplains;"ontheotherpoleisaspongesoakedinwater...toextinguishacandlethatbeginstodripbe-

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causeitisnotburningevenly."

24AsitisunlikelythattheJacobeanprivatetheatercompaniescouldsparethismanyattendantstowatchbrancheshangingabovethepit,itisimprobablethatthetwenty-eightbranchescommontoearlycourtplaysweretransferredenmassetotheprivateplayhouses.Iftherewereartificiallightsinthepit,theyweremorelikelytohavebeenplacedtothesidesandneartheboxes.Thisarrangement,atanyrate,wasthepracticeaftertheRestoration:atWren'sDruryLane(1674),thescenesbehindtheprosceniumarchwerelitbyfourbranches(eachwithtwelvecandles),theapronstagebytwosimilarbranches,andthehousebyapproximatelysixteensconces,holdingtwoorfourcandleseach,whichwereprobablyplacedonthepillarssupportingthegalleries.25Indeed,thereisnoevidenceofachandelierhangingabovethepitinLondonuntilGarrick'stenureatDruryLaneinthemid-eighteenthcentury,whenlesstroublesomewaxcandleswereused.

Thecandlesburningabovethestagewouldalsohaverequiredattentionduringperformances.Thetiremenwholitandextinguishedthelightsatthebeginningandendoftheplaypresumablywouldalsoemergefromthetiring-housetotrimorextinguishsputteringcandlesduringactbreaksorevenduringtheaction.Ortheactors,whowouldhavebeentheunhappytargetsoffallingcandledrippings,maywellhavemendedbothersomecandlesthemselves.WehavenospecificreportsofactorsperformingthischorebeforetheRestoration,butafteritthereareoccasionalreferencestotheplayerssnuffingthecandlesevenwhiletheyacted.26

SalisburyCourt

Wearefortunateinthat,forSalisburyCourtin1639,wecancomparethetotalamountofmoneyspentonlightingwiththatspentatcourt.In

1849,PeterCunninghampublishedatranscriptionofaseriesofarticlesendorsed"InstructionsTouchingSalesberyCortPlayhouse,14Septem.,1639,"whichcontrastedanoldandanewsystemofdividingtheplayhouse'sexpensesamongthehousekeepersandtheactors.Oneofthearticlesexplainsthat,whilethehousekeepershadformerlynotpaidanythingforillumination,theynowagreedtopay"Halfeforlights,bothwaxeandTallow,wchhalfeallwinterisnear5saday."27Sinceitisclearthearticlesweredrawnuptoconvincetheactorshowgenerouslythehouseholdersweregoingtotreatthem,wemay

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assumethat"near5saday"isagenerous,evenaninflated,figure.Inthefollowingcalculation,Iadjustthishalf-expensetofourshillingsadaytoallowforthehouseholders'exaggeration.BecauseweknowtheaveragepriceofcandlesinthelateCarolineperiod(sixpenceapoundfortallow,twoshillingsapoundforwax)andtheirtotalcost(eightshillings),wecanmakearoughestimateofhowmanycandleslitSalisburyCourtifwemakeseveralassumptionsastothesizeandtypeofthecandlesused.

Inallottingcosts,Isetasidetwoshillingsofthedailytotaltoaccountforbackstageandrehearsallightsandforthetorchesthatlitthecandlesandservedasproperties,aswellasformiscellaneousexpensessuchaspropertylanterns,torches,squibs,matches,flints,tinderboxes,snuffers,douters,andgeneralreplacementandupkeep.IfSalisburyCourtreplaceditsequipmentasoftenasthecourtdid,twoshillingswouldnotbesufficient.Theprivateplayhousesgaveasmanyasonehundredmoreperformancesayearthanthecourtdid,runningupexpensesdayinanddayout,afterall.Ontheotherhand,actorswerenotobligedtobuynewbrancheseveryyear,astheRevelsOfficeoftendid.Sincetorchescostoverashillingapiece,twoshillingsisnottoomuchtoascribetomiscellaneouslightingexpenses.

InestimatingthesizeofthecandlesemployedatSalisburyCourt,wemaynotethat,althoughtheRevelsOfficeacquiredseveraldifferentsizesovertheyears,mostcandlesatcourtweighedfourteenorsixteenounceseach.GiventhebudgetatSalisburyCourt,onlythreewaxcandlesofthisweightcouldhavebeenpurchasedeachday.Buttheywouldnothavebeencompletelyconsumedduringasingleperformance.Presumingthataslittlewaxandtallowwasthrownawayaspossible,wemayestimateamaximumnumberofsourcesoflightbysettlingontheaveragesizeofcandlesthatwouldbeefficientlyconsumedduringanyoneperformance.Awaxortallow

candleweighingsixinthepoundwillburnfornearlyfourhoursifitiswelltrimmed.Butiflefttogutteranddrip,agoodhalfofthefueliswasted,andthecandleswillburnlessthantwohours.Therefore,Itakeitasthesmallestcandlethatwouldhavebeenpracticalintheprivateplayhouses.Acandleweighingsixinthepoundisalittlemorethantenincheslongandalmostthree-quartersofaninchindiameter.ThecandlesinTheWitsfrontispieceareapparentlyclosetothissize.

Bymeansofsuchassumptions,then,wemaycalculatetheapproximatenumberofcandlesatSalisburyCourt.Ifallthecandleswereofwax,general

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illuminationwasprovidedbyamaximumofeighteencandles.Ifthree-quarterswereofwaxandone-quartertallow,thentherewouldhavebeenfifteenwaxcandlesandfivetallowcandlesforthesameamountofmoney.Butifthenumberofwaxandtallowwereequal,thentherecouldhavebeenfourteencandlesofeach.Andifonlyone-quarterwereofwaxandthree-quarterstallow,thentherecouldhavebeenasmanyastenwaxcandlesandthirtytallowones.

The1639articlesdonotrecordthesharesofwaxandtallowatSalisburyCourt.Sincewaxhadlargelysupplantedtallowintheoverheadbranchesatcourtsomesevenyearsearlier,wemightguessthatmorethanjustafewwaxlightswereemployedandthatthetotalnumberofcandleswas,therefore,closertotwentyorthirtythanforty.Thearticles'specificationoflights,"bothwaxeandTallow,"suggestsmorethanatokenuseofwaxcandles.Butourmoderninclinationtowardfindingevolutionaryprocesseseverywheremayleadusastrayinaccountingforashiftfromtallowtowax.AsearlyasthepremiereofFletcher'sTheFaithfulShepherdessatBlackfriarsin1608,hisfriendBeaumontdeploredspectatorswhobasedtheiropinionsofplaysonsuchephemeraaswhether"thewax-lightsbenewthatday."

28Beaumontconfirmsthatlargewaxcandlescouldbereused,butIdonotknowthatwecantakehimtomeanthatwaxwasregularlyusedattheearlychildren'splayhouses.Thatcandleswerereusedshowsthateconomywasanimportantconsiderationinthelighting.Beaumont'spointisthatthenewwaxlightswerespecialenoughtoswayanuncriticalspectator'sjudgment,especiallyatthepremieresofplays.Aslateas1667,ThomasKilligrewreportedtoPepys"[t]hatthestage[oftheremodeledTheaterRoyal,BridgesStreet]isnowbyhispainsathousandtimesbetterandmoregloriousthaneverheretofore.Now,wax-candles,andmanyofthem;then,notabove3lb.oftallow."29Threepoundsoftallowmakesonlyabouteighteencandles

ofsixinthepound,slightlylessthanappearstohavebeenusedatSalisburyCourtin1639andslightlymorethaninTheWitsfrontispieceof1662.TowhatperiodKilligrewwasreferringby"heretofore"and''then"isnotbeyonddoubt.TheBridgesStreettheaterwasbuiltin1663butclosedbytheplagueandthegreatfirefrom1665to1666,duringwhichtimeKilligrewmadetheimprovementshedescribedtoPepys.Heprobablymeantthattallowwasusedfrom1663to1665,buthemaybecastinghismindbacktothepre-Interregnumtheatershewroteforasayoungman.TheBridgesStreettheaterwasapproximatelythesamesizeas

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oralittlelargerthantheaveragepre-Interregnumhalltheater.

30Killigrewobviouslythoughtthreepoundsoftallowinsufficientforaplayhouseofthesedimensions,buthenonethelessillustratesthatlargenumbersofwaxcandleswerenotstandardequipmentbefore1667.

Whatevertheproportionsofwaxandtallow,itisplainthatSalisburyCourtemployedonlyaboutone-tenththenumberofcandlesusedattheCarolinecourtroughlythirty,say,ascontrastedwithovertwohundred.WedonotknowtheexactdimensionsofthetheateratSalisburyCourt,althoughaccordingtoa1629indenture,theplayhousesatonaplotofland42by140feet;achamberbuiltovertheoldtheaterin1660was40feetsquare.31Ifitswidthweresomethingcloseto40or42feet,thenthisdimensionwouldapproximatethewidthsofotherhallsandtheatersHamptonCourt(40),MiddleTemple(40),secondBlackfriars(46),Jones'splayhouse(42),andWhitefriars(35).Giventhesimilarityinsizes,onecanbestexplainthereductioninthenumberofcandlesfromcourttoprivatetheaterpracticebyassumingthatthecandleswereconcentratednearthestageandthattheprofessionalplayhouseauditoriumsmadedowithwindowlightorminimalcandlelight.

AfurtherimplicationoftheSalisburyCourtarticleisthatcandlesseemtohavebeenusedinthewinterbutnotnecessarilyinthesummer.Thearticlespeaksoflightingexpensesincurred"allwinter,"butwehaverecordsofplaysproducedthereinthelatesummertime.32Infact,thereisreasontobelievethattheoccupantsofSalisburyCourtatthattime,QueenHenrietta'smen,performedthereregularlyduringthesummerbecausetheyhadnoalternateoutdoorvenueanddonotseemtohavemadeprovincialsummertours.33Wearelefttoassumethatsummerplaysrequiredfewornoartificiallightatall.Ifthe

windowsatSalisburyCourtwereanywherenearaslargeasthewindowsinsurvivinghalls,artificiallightwouldcertainlynothavebeennecessaryinthesummer.Inwinter,earlysunsetsandovercastdaysweresofrequent,evidently,thatcandleswerelitdailyasamatterofcourse.

Weshouldliketohaveasdetailedfiguresoflightingexpendituresforothertheaters.Perhapssomeweightcanbegiventothefactthatinenumeratingthevariouscategoriesofexpenses,legaldocumentsconnectedwithboththesecondBlackfriarsandWhitefriarsmentionlightsneartheendoftheirlists.InalawsuitbetweenthesharersandhirelingactorsemployedbytheKing'smen,forinstance,thecostofrunningboththeGlobeandBlackfriarsin1635

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isgivenasninehundredoronethousandpoundsayear,including"wagestohiredmen&boyesmusickelightes&c."

34Similarly,inthearticlesofagreementbetweenthesharersoftheWhitefriarssigned10March1608,theplayhouse'sexpensesarelistedas"gatherers,thewages,theChildrensbourd,musique,bookekeeper,tyreman,tyrewoman,lights,theMaisteroftherevell'sDuties,andallotherthingsneedefull."35Fromthesewecansaythatlightingwasnotthemajorexpenseofthecompanies.

Cockpit-in-Court

Wehavenorecordsofday-to-dayexpensesforcandlesattheCockpit-in-CourtatWhitehall,butforitsrenovationintheearly1630swehavedetailedOfficeofWorksaccountsthatmentionthefixturesinwhichcandleswereplaced.Althoughithadlongbeenavenueforprofessionallyproduceddrama,theCockpit-in-CourtapparentlyreopenedinNovember1630withnewfacilities,butthefirstwehearofitslightingarrangementsoccursthefollowingMaywhentheRevelsaccountsmentionremovingandthenhangingbranches.InaccountsfortheyearOctober1631throughSeptember1632,nolessthanfifteencandelabraorchandeliersarementioned.JohnDeCritz,HisMajesty'sSergeantPainter,waspaid"fordiuerstimesCullouringinGouldcullo:rtheBraunchesofxveCandlesticksintheCockpitt."36Ofthesefifteenbranches,twelvewereplacednearthestageandareagaindifferentiatedassmallandgreat:"tennsmallerandtwoegreaterthenthotheraboutandbeforetheStage."AnunspecifiednumberofgreatbranchesperhapstheremainingthreeofthefifteenDeCritzpaintedwereplaced"inthefrontofthestage."Thetennewfixtureswere''CandlestickesofIron,"beautifullygarnishedatacostofthirtyshillingseach.ButtheheatordrippingofthecandlesobligedDeCritztoregildallthebranchesseveraltimes.Thenextyear,theOfficeof

Workspurchasedtwoveryexpensivechandelierswith"diversebranchesfortheCockpit"atatotalcostofoverthirteenpounds.Igatherthesereplacedeitherthe"twoegreater"branches"aboutandbeforetheStage"ortheunspecifiednumberof"greatBraunchesinthefrontofthestage."Butintheverynextyear,163334,theRevelsOfficeagainorderedtwogreatbranchesatacostofsixteenpounds.

Thedistinctions,ifany,between"about,""before,"and"inthefrontof"thestageareratherfine.Smallbranchescouldhavebeenattachedtothe

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scaenafronsortheprosceniumwallandhavebeenconsideredspread"about"theactingarea.InNovember1660,whentheCockpitwasagainrefurbished,"twentyfairegilltBrancheswththreeSockettsineachforCandlesandSixSconcesforthePassagesthataredarke"wereordered.

37IftheseRestorationfixturesresembledpre-Commonwealthones,wecouldestimatethatthetensmallbranchesheldthirtycandlesandthatthetwogreateronesheldperhapsanotherthirty,withthreemorebrancheslightingotherpartsofthetheater.Perhapstheselastthreebrancheslittheauditorium,butthefirstwespecificallyhearoflightsneartheaudienceisinthe163435Revelsaccounts,whichcallfortwelverelativelyinexpensive"greatwallersforyegalleryatyeCockpitt"aswellas"24PlattsmadeforyeCockpittforwaxlights.''Thepositioningoflargelightsinthegallerysuggeststhatitwaspoorlylitbylightsnearthestageandbythefourwindowspiercingthegallerywalls(seefig.33).

IftwogalleriesencircledtheCockpitauditorium,oneisinclinedtoputsixwallersineachgallery,although,becauseeachgallerywasdividedintoonlyfivebays,theplacementofsixfixtureswouldhavebeenarithmeticallyinconvenient.Perhapsthebayfortheking'sstatehadspeciallightingutensils;elsewhereintheaccountsforthatyearwehearoftwo"CandlesticksforyeState,"althoughtheyarenotrelatedspecificallytotheCockpit.Ontheotherhand,ifmostoftheambientlightinthetheatercamefromchandeliersoverhead,thelowergallerywouldlieindeepershadowsthantheuppergalleryandwouldrequiremorefixtures.

ArticulationofLight

Severaldescriptionsofcourtlightingtellusthatthehall"asbrightas

day,"orwordstothateffect.Butintermsofmeasurableillumination,ahallcannotaccommodateenoughcandlestoequalthestrengthofaveragedaylight.Becausesubjectivebrightnessisafunctionofthecuberootofactualbrightness,thenumberofcandlesnecessaryforevensmallincreasesinperceivedbrightnessincreasesgeometrically.Todoubletheapparentbrightnessofanactor,oneneedstolighthimwitheighttimesasmanycandles(fromthesamedistance).38Thedifficultyinattemptingtoequalthestrengthofsunlightbymeansofcandlelightlies,therefore,inthephysicallimitationthatahallwouldneedtobeliterallyfilledwithcandles.Apartfromleaving

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littleroomfortheactorsoraudience,somanyburningcandleswouldquicklydepletetheoxygenandthecandleswouldgooutoftheirownaccordandleavetheaudiencegasping.Whatthesimilemeans,ofcourse,isthatcomparedtotheartificiallightcommontomostseventeenth-centuryrooms,thelightonthetheatricalsceneatcourtwasmuchbrighter.

Aswesawintheconsiderationofartificiallightintheamphitheaters,differencesintheperceptionofbrightnessarefunctionsoftheaverageleveloflighttowhichonehasadapted.Unlikemodernlightbulbs,candlesflickerandyieldvaryingamountsoflight.Thesevariationsoccasionallydistractourattention,but,moreimportant,theymakeitdifficultforthepupiloftheeyetoadjusttoonecomfortableandefficientaperture.Theeyecanadapttothebrightestextremeofavariablelightsourcewithinseconds,butitcannotadapttothelowestextremeunlessvariationsareeliminatedandalowleveloflightissustainedformanyminutes.Influctuatinglight,then,theeyewilladapttothegreatestandnottheleastamountoflight.Inconsequence,aflickeringsourceoflightwillappeardimmerthanitsaveragestrengthwouldsuggest,especiallywhenthenumberofcandlesissmallandthefluctuationsaregreater.Themorecandlesthereare,thelesspronouncedthevariationandthebettertheeyecanadapttoitsmostefficientlight-gatheringcapability.Conversely,whencandlesarelitinaroomwheresunlightisplentiful,thepupiloftheeyewillnotdilatesoastoperceivethecandlelightefficientlybutwillclosedowntoanapertureatwhichitmaycomfortablyviewthebrightersunlight.Thisiswhycandlesseemsomuchdimmerduringtheday.Anassertionthatcandlelightisasbrightasdaylightcanonlybemadeatnight,therefore,whenthereisnodaylighttoreducethesizeofthepupil.

Intheprivateplayhouseswehavebeeninvestigating,daylightwasmorepowerfulthancandlelightexceptaftersunset.Ifweassumethat

thirty-twocandleshunginchandelierstenfeetabovetheJonesplayhouse,thentheratioofstagelightfromartificialandnaturalsourcesonatypicalovercastafternoonat3P.M.inautumnisaroundonetotwenty.Thatistosay,thewindowlightwas,onaverage,twentytimesstrongerthanthecandlelightintermsofmeasurablebrightness.Thecontributionsofeachtotheoverallilluminationmaybeimaginedbyreplacingthecandleswiththemorefamiliarlightbulb.Comparisonsbetweencandlesandelectricfilamentlampsarenotespeciallyproductiveunlessthecandlesarerelativelyclosetogetherandthelightbulbsaresmall.Onesixty-wattlightbulbwillproducealightflux

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nearlyequaltothatofonehundredcandles.Butwhilethelightnearanelectriclampwillbebrilliant,tenfeetawaythelightwillbeonlyone-hundredthasstrong.Thesameprincipleholdstrueforcandles,ofcourse,butthelargenumberofcandlesrequiredtoequalasinglebulbcanbespreadoveranareaofsomesize,producingalowbutevenlydistributedarticulationoflight.Shakespeareneedednolightmetertoappreciatethisphenomenon.ThebrightnessofJuliet'scheek,hesaysduringthebalconyscene,wouldshamethemostbeautifulstarsjust"[a]sdaylightdothalampe"(RomeoandJuliet,Q2D2).Tohim,evenmoonlightcanoutshineacandle.NerissainTheMerchantofVeniceremembers"whenthemooneshonewedidnotseethecandle,"fromwhichinstancePortiageneralizeswithherlawyer'sgiftfortautology,"Sodooththegreaterglorydimthelesse''(Q213).AndwhileWither'splayhouse"lamps"wereprobablynottruelamps,henonethelessmakesclearthattheycouldaddnoluster

TowhatTitangauebefore,NeitherdoththeirprettybeamingsHinderoughthisgreatergleamings.

39

Theadaptationthatpermitstheeyetobecomeaccustomedtoawiderangeofbrightnessalsocontrolsourabilitytodetectdifferencesinbrightnessoncetheeyehasadaptedtoaparticularlevelofillumination.Inbrightdaylight,thisabilitytoperceivecontrastsisgreat:theeyecanseedifferencesinbrightnessamountingtolessthan1percentoftheaveragebrightnesstowhichithasadapted.Butinthelessbrilliantlightoftheprivateplayhouses,theeyeperceivesdifferencesinbrightnessonlywhentheyaregreaterthan10percentoftheaveragelevelofillumination.Thus,whiletheeyecanreadilyadapttothedarknessindoors,itcannotseedetailsasefficiently.Astheaveragelevelofbrightnessdecreasesarithmetically,one'sability

toseecontrastsandtodifferentiatebrightnessesdecreasesgeometrically,andobjectsofvariouscolors,shapes,andreflectancestendtomergetogetherinamonotonouslyundifferentiatedgraypicture.Indarkness,asJohnHeywoodretoldtheoldsaw,

Thefaireandthefoule,bydarkearelykestore.Whenallcandelsbeout,allcatsbegrey.Allthyngsarethenofonecolour,aswhosay.40

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Inthehallplayhouseswheretheamountofdaylightwasatbestonly10percentoftheamountattheamphitheaters,theflamesofthecandlesreplacedthehighlightsthattheeyecouldnotnormallyfindindoors.Thecandlesaffordedrelieffromthemonotonyoftheinterior,justas"accentlights"lendrefreshingcontraststocontemporaryroomswithoutraisingthegenerallevelofillumination.Thecandlesintheprivateplayhousesservednotsomuchtoduplicateastoimitatethemorevariedlightoutdoors.

InexperimentsconductedinvariousTudorhalls,Ifoundthatonehourbeforedusk,theamountofnaturallightonafour-foot-highstageplacednearoneendofalargehallwaslessthantenfootcandles.Atsunset,theaveragelevelofilluminationonstagewaslessthanonefootcandle.Insuchdimlight,actorsonastagecouldclearlybemadeout;butasthelightwaned,theirfaceslostdefinitionandquickmovementsbecameblurred.Indeed,itwasrelativelyeasytolettheeyewanderawayfromtheactors,andatestaudiencereportedthattheysometimesfoundthemselveslookingelsewhereorattendingonlytothewords.

Anhourbeforesunset,severaldozencandlesburningoverheaddidnotaddappreciablytotheperceivedamountofbrightnessonstage,buttheyneverthelesscreatedawarmer,morepleasingatmosphereandhelpedtofocusthegazeofthespectatortowardthestage,wherethecandlesburningoverheadservedto"frame"theplayingspaceandinvitespectatorstofocustheirattentiontowardtheactors.Somethingverysimilartothiseffectalsooccurredattheamphitheaters,where,asIhavenoted,apleasingorangeglowoftensurroundedtheheavensatdusk.Inthewaningnaturallightinthehallplayhouses,artificiallightfromabovehelpedtodefinetheoutlineofeachactor,especiallybyarticulatingtheshapeoftheplayers'heads,hats,andshoulders.TheimportancethatAndrewGurrhasrecentlyattachedtoShakespeareanhatsasameansofconveyingvitalinformationtotheaudiencewas

underscoredbytheseexperiments,whichshowedhowmucheachhat,whenlitfromabove,coulddefineacharacter'sphysicalpresenceonstageevenindimlight.

41

Neartheconclusionsofmanyperformancesinthedepthofwinter,thecandlelightinevitablytookonalargerburdenoftheillumination,andinmyexperimentsIattemptedtoduplicatevariousconfigurationsofartificiallightatthehallplayhousesaftersunset.Thevariableswerethenumberandplace-

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mentofthecandles,thesizeofthehall,andthereflectivityoftheinteriorwallsandceiling.Inaverysmallhall(thirtybyfortyfeet)withlight-coloredwallsandwiththreedozencandlesarrangednearthefrontofthestage,anentirelyadequate,evenbeautiful,illuminationprevailed.Butinalargerhallwithhigh,stained-timberceilingsandwithonlytwodozencandlesburningtenfeetabovethestage,measurablebrightnessdecreasedtofractionsofonefootcandleaftersunset.Onlylarge,slowgesturescouldbeclearlyreadfromtheauditorium.Ahalf-hourpastsunset,theactorsonthestageappearedtomoderneyesassomanypresencesratherthanpersons.

Apartfromthenumberofcandles,thereflectanceoftheceilingabovethestageanditsdistancefromthecandlesweremostcrucial.Alight-coloredrooforclothstretchedabovethestagebutstillfairlyclosetothecandlescouldincreasetheamountoflightontheactorsbyasmuchas10to20percent.Apartfromanyiconographicfunctions,clothsandceilingscouldservetoreflectcandlelightandalleviateglare,especiallyintheatersandbanquetinghousesintendedlargelyfornighttimepresentations.

Thehigherthebrancheswerehung,thelessglarebutalsothelesslightontheactorsindeed,thelesslightbytheinversesquareoftheincreaseddistance.Wedonotknowhowhighthebrancheswerehungintheprofessionalplayhouses,butthewiresthatwerestretchedacrossthehallatHamptonCourtmusthavebeeneighteenornineteenfeetabovetheflooriftheywereattachedtothecornicesrunningalongthesidewalls.Assumingthatthecandleshungafewfeetbelowthesewiresandthatthestagewasfourorfivefeethigh,thenthemaximumheightofthecandlesabovethestagefloorwaselevenortwelvefeet.Corroborationofthisestimatecameinmyexperiments,wheretheoptimumheightofthecandlesalsofeelwithinthisnarrowrange.Becauseraisingthebranchesfromtenfeettotwelvefeet,say,reducedtheamountoflightontheactorsbynearly30percentbut

reducedglareforspectatorsbylessthan10percent,itbecameclearthatitwasinefficienttohangthebranchesmuchhigherthantwelvefeetabovethestagefloor.

42Withthebrancheslowerthanninefeet,glarereducedvisibilitybyupwardsof50percent.

Oneofthemostinterestingresultsoftheseexperimentsconcernedtheplacementofthecandlesanditsrelationshiptothemovementoftheactors.Toachievethebestvisibility,onemighthavethoughtthatthecandlesshouldbepositionedascloseaspossibletotheactors,directlyoverthemiddleor

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fronthalfofthestage.Butitwasclearthatabetterlocationforthebrancheswasayardortwoforwardofthefrontedgeofthestage,justasinthemoderntheater,wheretheprincipallightemanatesfrominstrumentshangingabovetheaudienceandprojectingdownataforty-five-tosixty-degreeangletothestage.

Inoneexperimentwiththirty-twocandlesburninginfourchandeliersplacedtenfeetabovethefrontofthestage(andsupplyingtheonlylightinthehall),itwasfoundthattheactors'faceswerebestseenwhentheystoodapproximatelytwoyardsupstageofthehangingbranches.Whentheystooddirectlyunderneaththebranches,whereonewouldhaveexpectedthebestlight,onlythetopsoftheirheadsandshoulderswereclearlyseenwhiletheirfacesandthefrontsoftheirbodieslayinshadows.Thispoorilluminationdirectlyunderneaththebrancheswasduenotonlytotheperpendicularangleofthelightbutalsototheexcessiveamountoflightthatwasobstructedbythebranches,thebodiesofthecandlesthemselves,andthedrippansbeneaththem.Thus,narrowconesofshadow,withtheirapicesateachflame,descendedperpendicularlydownfromthecandles,makingtheareadirectlybelowthebranchesoneoftheworstlocationstostandifonewantedtobewellilluminated.

Movingayardortwoupstagebroughtanactoroutofthisshadowandretainedenoughtoplighttodefinehissilhouette.Butasactorsmovedstillfarthertotherearofthestage,theybegantodisappearindarkness.Atonlythreeyardsupstageofthelights,measurablebrightnessontheactorsdecreasedbyhalfandperceivedbrightnessbymorethantwo-thirds,becausethesteadyglareofthecandlesmadethemseemdimmerbycontrast.Whencandlelightservedastheonlymodeofillumination,therefore,certainlimitationsintherangeoftheactors'movementsimposedthemselves.Whereasinthemixednaturalandartificiallightbeforesunset,theactorswereadequatelylitwherevertheymovedonstage,theeliminationofgeneralnaturallight

obligedtheactorstoremainrelativelyclose(butnottooclose)toahangingchandelierinordertobeseen.Evenaddingchandeliersfartherupstagedidnotappreciablyalleviatethisproblem,becausetheseinstrumentsonlyaddedbacklightandproducedyetmoreglare.

Thislimitationonanactor'smobilitycouldbetemporarilyalleviatedbyhiscarryingahand-heldlightilluminatinghisface,anditmaybethatearlymodernactorsemployedthistricktowardtheendoftheirnighttimeper-

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formances,aswhen,forexample,thesleepwalkingLadyMacbethcarriedacandleduringanighttimeperformanceofMacbeththatwaslikelygivenatHamptonCourton7August1606.Atthedaytimeplayhouses,ontheotherhand,theactorplayingLadyMacbethwasfreetomovewhereverhewished.Thus,theartificiallightingandtimeofperformanceaffectednotjusttheatmosphereoftheplayhousebutalsothemovementsand,inacertainsense,theactingstyleoftheplayers.

Giventhewidelyacceptedprogressionfromwhatisusuallydescribedasanolder,presentationalstyleofactingtomodernrealism,wetendtoassumethatseventeenth-centuryactingwaslikelypresentational.Thismaywellbetrue,atleastincomparisontotheactingweknow,butthegeneral,overalllightingthatprevailedinmostseventeenth-centuryplayhousesmaygiveindirectevidenceofamorenaturalstylethanissometimesthought.Thegradualdelayinperformancetimebytheearlyeighteenthcenturyandtheresultingeliminationofalldaylightinthetheatersnecessitatedadifferentplayingstylenearthechandeliersand(eventually)footlightsthanhadbeentrueintheearlyseventeenthcentury,whenamorewidelydiffusedlightallowedactorstobeseennomatterwheretheystoodonstage.WhenDenisDiderotaskedMadameRiccobonioftheParisThéâtreItalienin1758whyactorscouldnotmovealloverthestageinthebourgeoissettingsheadvocated,sherepliedthatthefacesoftheactorswerenotvisiblethreefeetfromthelamps.

43Butbytheendoftheeighteenthcentury,theintroductionofmoreandmorelightsaboutandoverthestageallowedtheactorsonceagaintomoveawayfromthefootlights.OneofthereasonsMrs.Siddons'sfamousinnovationwithLadyMacbeth'staperwaspossiblewasthat,by1785,DruryLaneboastedseventy-twofootlightsanddozensofcandlesilluminatingthestage,bothfromaboveandfromtheside

wings.Intheearlyeighteenthcentury,Mrs.PritchardhadbeenobligedtocarryLadyMacbeth'staperwithherwhileshesleepwalkedthegloomyrecessesofthestage.Butcitingthe"impracticability"ofwashingoutadamnedspotwhilejugglingacandlestick,Mrs.Siddonscausedanuproarbyputtingthecandledownbusinessmadepossible,inpart,bytheincreasedvisibilitysheenjoyedwherevershewalked,particularateithersideofthestage.44Theevenlydistributedilluminationattheendoftheeighteenthcenturywas,ineffect,areturntothediffusedilluminationatboththepublicandprivateplayhousesintheearlyseventeenthcentury.

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Intheabsenceofwindowlight,however,themovementsofJacobeanandCarolineactorswould,inonerespect,haveappearedmoreartificialtousthanforlateractors.Iftheonlylightshiningontheactorscamefrombranchesabovethem,thentheactorswouldbeobligedtoholdtheirheadshighinordertobeseen.Inmyexperiments,asactorsmovedclosertothehangingbranches,theyhadtotilttheirheadsbacklesttheirfacesdisappearinshadows,creatinganeffect(atleastforus)oftheatricalposturing.Laterseventeenth-centurytheatersattemptedtosolvethisproblembytheintroductionoffootlightsand,intheeighteenthcenturywhennighttimeperformancesbecametherule,bylightemanatingfromthesidewings.Boththesemethodsofintroducingartificialsidelightweresimplyawayofreplacingthegentlyangledwindowlightofpre-Interregnumafternoonperformances.

Althoughthestagewouldbenominallybrighterthattherestoftheplayhouseaftersunset,wemustnotthinkofthestageasamodernshowcasewheretheaudience'sattentionwasdrawntowardbeautifulpicturesbehindaprosceniumframe.Exceptforsomecostumesandproperties,theenvironmentmorenearlyapproximatedthatofalectureroomtoday,whereoverheadartificiallightnormallysupplementsthewindowlight.Incomparinghallplayhouselightingwithourowntheatricalillumination,wemustrememberthatourpsychologicalassociationswithcandleswerenotsharedbyRenaissanceLondoners.Therewasnothingquaint,old-fashioned,orromanticaboutcandlestothem.Forus,theflickeringsubtletyofcandlesmaycallupfeelingsofpoignantsophisticationornaturalwarmthorexquisiteloneliness.Buttothespectatorsattheprivateplayhouses,theeffectwasratherthereverse.Insofarasthecandleswerefewinnumber,theaudiencefounditselfinthedreary,dulllighttheysaweverydayintheirhomes,businesses,andinns.Butinsofarasthecandlesatcourt,say,weremanyandprovidedbright,overall

illumination,earlymodernspectatorscouldbedeeplyimpressed.Butevenatcourt,therewasnothingexoticaboutthebrilliance.Atmost,itstruckthespectatorsasrichandextravagant,sometimesgorgeous,butneverpreciousortheatrical.Inmoderntheaterswherestagelightisproducedbyinstrumentsespeciallydesignedforthepurpose,privateplayhouseilluminationcannotbeduplicatedbyplacingspotlightsorevenchandeliersinplainviewoftheaudience.TheselightshavedifferentconnotationsforusthantheydidforShakespeare'spublic.

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ComparingHallandAmphitheaterIllumination

Inimaginingtheeffectoftheilluminationsystemsindoorsandoutdoors,wemaytend,perhaps,tomakemoreofadistinctionbetweenthemthanisborneoutbytheevidence.Infact,thetwolightingsystemssharedmanysimilarities.Daylightenteredeachkindoftheaterfromapproximatelythesameanglesanddirections.Justasaspectatorstandingintheyardatapublicplayhousewouldperceiveabrightglowoflightabovetheheavens,soalsowouldaspectatorattheprivateplayhousesperceivebrightlightemanatingfromthebrancheshangingabovetheactors.Thetopandbacklightingshiningintoanamphitheatertowardsunsetwasthusduplicatedinthehallplayhousebyeitherthehall'sendwindowabovethescreenorbychandeliersglaringoverthestage.

Inconsequence,IdonotseethatwemustattributeanyshiftindramaticstylesolelytoindoorlightingwhentheKing'smenbegantakingupwinterresidenceatBlackfriarsin1609.TheKing'smenhadbeenaccustomedtoperformingindoorslongbeforethat.From1594to1608,infact,whenwethinkofthecompanyasplayingoutdoors,wehaverecordsofninety-threeindoorperformancesandatleasttwenty-eightmoreprobableindoorperformancesintheprovinces.Incontrast,weknowofonlythirteenrecordedperformancesoutdoorsthreeattheGlobeandtenatNewingtonButts.

45AlthoughAndrewGurrhasdefinedsomeintriguingdifferencesintherepertoires,rhetoric,anduseofswordplaytypicalofthetwokindsofplayhouses,thereislittletoindicatethatthesedifferenceswerecausedbydistinctmodesofillumination.46Norcanwenecessarilylayanyincreaseinsubtletyorrefinementintheactingtothechargeofthecandlelight.Thestrengthoflightindoorswasonaveragelessthanthatattheamphitheaters,andtheflickeringshadowsinthehallplayhousescanhardlyhavemadeiteasierfortheaudiencetocatch

subtlegesturesthaninthesunlightoutdoors.Iftherewasanydifferenceintheactingstyles,itmaybeattributedtothesmallersizeoftheauditoriums,notthekindoflightingthere.

Butwhilewecannotargueanysimplecause-and-effectrelationshipbetweencandlelightandthestyleofthechildren'sandlateradults'indoorplays,wecanthinkofsuchlightasoccasionallyansweringtheneedsofthedrama.Especiallyattheconclusionsofsomeindoorplays,onefeelsthatthecandlelightmayhavecomplementedthelessprofoundlytragicorcomicres-

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olutionsthatbegintotakeholdasthedramamovedintothelateJacobeanandCarolineperiods.Intheearlyoutdoorplays,thewaningsunlightcansometimesbeconstruedasunderscoringthefinalityofthehero'sdestructionintragedyandtheculminationanddissipationoftheday'sintrigueincomedy.ThesunliterallysetsonthelivesofFaustusandLearandonthelovers'quarrelsinTheComedyofErrorsandFriarBaconandFriarBungay.Butastragedymovesindoors,thereis,perhaps,alessprofoundfeelingoflossorofthevictoryofthepowersofnatureoverman.Wemaydoubtthataprevalenceofartificiallightcausedsuchshiftsintone,butwemustconsiderthedegreetowhichartificiallightmayhavecontributedtothatnewtoneonceithadbeenestablished.Asforindoorcomedy,wemightsaythatthecomingofnightinmanyplayssignalsnotsomuchtheconsummationofthelovers'desiresasthesatiricandself-consciousvictoryofthewitsovertheirdupes,ofartificeovernature.Ofcourse,anynewstylesinplaywritingwereundoubtedlytheresultofsocial,intellectual,andpoliticalfashionsratherthanofparticulartheatricalambiences,butitiseasytoimaginesuchnewplaysmakingtheirpointsparticularlywellbycandlelight.

Butevenifsuchgeneralizationsapplytomorethanafewnewplayswrittenforthehalltheaters,theoldoutdoorplayswerefrequentlyrevivedindoors.Thus,thelightingsystemswereobligedtofitawiderangeofplays,andwewouldexpectthatthetechnicalcapabilitiesanddramaticconventionsofthetwolightingsystemswerenotsoverydifferentfromeachother,exceptthatindoorilluminationwastheoreticallysusceptibletomorecontrolthanoutdoorillumination.A1638woodcutfromNicolaSabbattini'sPraticadifabricarsceneemachinene'teatrishowstwotincylinderssupportedbycordsandpulleysthatcanberaisedandloweredoverstagecandles"[w]henitisdesiredtodarkenthewholestageinamoment"(seefig.34),butIhavebeenunabletofindanyevidenceconfirmingtheuseofsuch

equipmentinEngland,evenatcourt.

47Noplaytextsindicatethatcandlesweredimmedorextinguishedtogivetheimpressionofdarknessornight,nor,conversely,thatadditionallightswerelittopresentbrightness.Aswehaveseen,changesinbrightnessatcourtwereeffectedbytheopeningandclosingofshutters,notbylightingandputtingoutcandles.

Althoughcandlescouldhavebeenextinguishedentirelyintheindoorplayhouses,therewereseveralobstaclestotheregularuseofsuchamethodforobtainingdarkness.First,theputting-outoflightswouldnothavepro-

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Fig.34.Branchedchandelierandadevicefordimmingcandles.Printsof

illustrationsfromNicolaSabbattini,Praticadefabricarsceneemachinene'teatri(Ravenna,1638).UniversityofIllinoisTheatricalPrintCollection.

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ducedasignificantdifferenceintheamountoflightuntilnearsunsetorunlesswindowshutterswerealsoclosed.Sunlightshiningthroughthewindowswouldhaveobliteratedtheeffect.Second,atiremanwouldhavehadtocomeoutofthetiring-houseandthenlowerandextinguishthecandleswhiletheplaywasinprogress.Andwhenthe"dark"scenewasfinished,hewouldhavehadtoenteronceagainandrelightthem.Ifthenightsceneslastedforentireacts,theextinctionandrelightingofthecandlescouldbeperformedduringtheactbreaks.ButCarolinenightscenesbeginandendinthemiddleofactsorspilloverintothenextjustasoftenastheycoincidewithactbreaks.Moreover,nostagedirectionorprompter'smarkinginanytext,printedormanuscript,evenhintsthatthecandlesinthebrancheswereputoutorlitduringthecourseoftheplay'sactionoritsactbreaks.TheearliestEnglishallusiontotheextinctionoflightsforthesakeofaplay'smoodcomesaftertheRestorationwhentheProloguetoDryden'sTheRivalQueens(1664)tellstheaudiencethat"reformingPoetsofourAge...blowoutCandlestogiveLighttoth'Plot,"anindicationthatthepracticewasnewandnotcarriedoverfromtheCarolinetheaters.

48

Stillanotherobjectiontotheextinctionofcandlesisthatthewickssmolderforseveralminutesaftertheyhavebeenputout.Thehotwickscontinue"frying"thetallow,asSirFoplingFlutterputsit,creatingadisagreeableodorandnotalittlesmoke.IassumecandlescouldbemorepleasantlyextinguishedaftertheRestorationbecausewaxwasbythentheprincipalfuelabovethestage.BeforetheRestoration,nightscenesweresuggestedbypropertiesassociatedwithnightandbypantomimemethodsthatworkedaswellindoorsasout.Thus,whileThomasHeywoodhadtheGreeksclimboutoftheTrojanhorse"asifgropinginthedarke"attheRedBullaround1612,

RichardBromecouldlikewisedirectaboyactorattheCockpitinDruryLanein1639totailafteranothercharacter''asinthedarke."49Thereisahandfulofstagedirectionscallingfordimmerlightinplaysperformedattheprofessionaltheaters,buttheseareassociatedwithpropertylightsandnotwiththegeneralillumination.Jonson'sCatiline(1611),forinstance,containstherubric,"Adarknessecomesouertheplace."ThinkingofperformancesatboththeGlobeandBlackfriars,W.J.LawrenceguessesthatdarknesswaseffectedbyemittingsmokethroughastagetrapontheauthorityofanarrativedescriptionintheargumenttothethirdactofJonson'sunfinishedTheSadShepherd:"Therearisethamistsodainely...darkningalltheplace."50

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Unfortunately,thereisnoevidencethatTheSadShepherdwasperformedanywhere,andthereisnoconfirmingstagedirectioninthetext,whichissorepletewithstagedirectionsthatonewouldexpectit.TherubricinCatilinesoundslikeamasqueeffect,anditcorrespondsindatetothemasquesceneintheKing'smen'sTheMaid'sTragedy,performedatBlackfriars,wherethefigureof"Nightrisesinmists."

51Butwhilemistsmighthaveaccompaniedafewnightscenes,theyperhapsrepresentednightmorebysymbolismthanillusionism.MistsmightnothaveindicatednightwithoutacharacternamedNighttopointouttheidentification.ThedarknessinCatilinewasalsolikelysuggestedratherthanrealized,becauseJonsonprovidesaconvenientsignalofdarknesswhen,atthemomenttheargumentcallsfordarkness,thetextindicatesthata"vestallflame"goes"out."52Amodernlightingdesignerwouldlowertheamountoflightonstageatthesametimethevestalflamegoesout,butthenextchapterwillshowthatthegeneralilluminationofthetheatersandtheilluminationemittedbypropertylightssometimesworkedquiteindependentlyofeachother.

Thearticulationoflightinthehalltheaters,then,couldeasilyapproximatethatattheamphitheaters.Asteady,diffusedlightwithoutstrongshadowsemanatedfromhighabovethestageatnearlythesameanglesasitdidoutdoors.Despitetheadditionofafewdozencandlesoverthestageandperhapsafewinthedarkestcornersoftheauditorium,themajorcomponentoftheilluminationwasnaturaland,therefore,largelyungovernable.Artificiallightmayhavelentasenseofrefinementtosomeproductions,butnotnecessarilyso.Candleslitthegraciousentertainmentsatcourt,tobesure,butasfrequentlytheylitbarroomrevelsintavernsandsurreptitious"private"performancesbysomeofthepoorestcompaniesoftheperiod.Theuseofcandles

wasneithersomethingnewinthehistoryoftheatricalproductionnoratechnicalimprovementthatenlargedthepaletteofartisticchoicesopentotheactorsandplaywrights.Artificiallightservedtoattenuatetheextremesofthefluctuatingdaylight,butitmadepossiblenomajoreffectthatcouldnotbeachievedbydaylightalone.Instead,thecandlelightrepresentedacontinuationandexploitationoflong-standingtheatricaltraditionsaswellasacannyadaptationtothemutablefashionsofearlymodernEnglishplaygoing.

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9PropertyLightsandSpecialEffectsBesidesthegeneralilluminationoftheplayhouses,variouskindsoflightingutensilsandfireworkswereusedaspracticalstagepropertiesandinspecialeffects.Stagedirectionscallforfamiliarcandles,tapers,lanterns,andtorchesaswellassuchcuriositiesassuns,moons,blazingstars,strokesoflightning,andburningcities.ManyofthesehavebeendescribedbyW.J.Lawrence,LeeMitchell,andothers,togetherwithassessmentsoftheirfunctionsasstageimages.

1Itisnotmypurposetogooverthesamegroundagain.Rather,Iwishtofocusontherelationshipbetweenpropertylightsandtheoverallilluminationintheplayhouse.Further,Ishouldliketoexaminewhetherplaywrightsusedpropertylightsdifferentlyinthepublicandintheprivateplayhouses.Forunlikemanystageproperties,handheldlightsandspeciallightingdevicesweremoreorlessdependentuponthegeneraltheatricalenvironmentfortheireffect,andadramatist'sexpertiseinusingsuchpropertylightscannotbemeasuredwithoutreferencetotheambientlightonstage.

Intakingupsuchquestions,difficultiesarisethatmakedefinitiveconclusionselusive.Themosttroublingproblemisthatwedonotalwaysknowwhichplaysmaybeconsideredpublicandwhichprivate.Theassuranceonatitlepagethataplaywasactedindoorsoroutdoorscannotbeignored,ofcourse,butatthesametime,itisnotproofthataprintedstagedirectioncallingforapropertylightdoesnotderivefromapromptbookpreparedforadifferentvenue.Forexample,W.A.ArmstronghastakenthestagedirectioninHenryChettle'sTheTragedyofHoffman,"Enterasmanyasmaybe

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spar'd,withlights,"toimplythatthegeneralilluminationwasnotstrongattheindoorCockpitinDruryLane,wherethetitlepageofthefirsteditionsaysitwasacted.

2Butwhowrotethisstagedirection,andtowhattimeandplacedoesitrefer?Thetentativephrase"asmaybe"suggestsitwaswrittenbytheauthorandnotbywhoeverpreparedtheauthorialtextforproduction.WeknowfromHenslowe'sdiarythattheAdmiral'smenpaidChettlefortheplayasearlyas1602.3Inthiscase,thestagedirectionmayreflectproductionattheoutdoorFortunetheater,thatis,ifChettlewasthinkingofacertaintheaterinthefirstplace.4Ontheotherhand,theplaybearsevidenceofrevision,nodoubtforitsrevivalindoorsattheCockpitaround1630.Didthereviserwritethisstagedirection,takingpoorindoorlightintoaccount?Oneisinclinedtodoubtit,becausehepresumablywouldknowtheresourcesavailableandnothavebeensovague.Andinanyevent,thestagedirectiondoesnotnecessarilypointtoadesireformoreillumination.Theselightsarebroughtonforaformalsceneofmourningatnight,onlyforty-twolineslong,neartheendoftheplay.The"asmanyasmaybespar'd"maysignalonlyawishforceremonyandspectaclewhilethelightsthemselvesrepresentanattempttoindicatepretendeddarknessonadaylitstage.

AbetterexampleforArmstrongcomesfromMarston'sWhatYouWill,almostcertainlywrittenforthePaul'sboysaround1601andpublishedin1607.Inthelastact,astagedirectionreads,"EnterasmanyPageswithTorchesasyoucan."5Butagain,thetheatricalsituationrevealsthatMarstonwasprimarilyemployingtorchesassignalsforthecomingofnightandforthepreparationsprecedingtheplay-within-a-playabouttobeperformed.Theselightsarebroughtononlysome150linesbeforetheendoftheplay.Onewouldthinkthatifthe

playhouseilluminationwasconsistentlysodarkastowarrantextrastagelights,theywouldhavebeenintroducedsooner.Thesetorchesmayhavecompensatedforwaningdaylight,butonesearchesinvainforapatternofchildren'splaysthatbroughtonlightsattheend.Hadlocutionslike"somanyasmaybe"regularlyreferredonlytotorchbearers,onemightviewtheirpurposedifferently.Butsuchphrasesoftenoccurwithoutanymentionoflights.AstagedirectionforaweddingprocessioninRobertArmin'sTheHistoryoftheTwoMaidsofMore-clack,"Enter...someotherwomenforshewe,"givesasimplerreasonfortheemploymentofthelargestcastpossible.6

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FunctionsofPropertyLights

Thus,weencounteranotherproblemindealingwithpropertylightsnamely,wecannotalwaystellwhattheirfunctionsweresupposedtobe.Didtheauthorofthesestagedirectionswantmorelightonstage,ordidhemerelywantmorecharactersandparaphernaliathere?Wasitthetorchlightthatproducedthesenseofceremony,oronlythelargenumberofattendantsholdinglightingutensils?IdoubtthatMarston,Chettle,orChettle'srevisersawanyneedtodifferentiatethesefunctions,butforourpurposes,wemaydistinguishamongthreerolesthatpropertylightsplayedinrelationtothegeneralilluminationrolesthatIshallcallillusionistic,realistic,andemblematic.

Byillusionistic,Irefertostagelightthatattemptedtoduplicatelightingintherealworld:darkfornight,brightforday,artificiallightforindoors,naturallightforout-of-doors.Thecriterionhereiswhethertheplaywrightattemptedtoapproximateimagestheaudiencewouldrecognize.Byrealistic,Irefernottoverisimilitudeoftheilluminationbuttotheuseofpropertylightinginstrumentsasrealisticdetail.Inthissecondrole,torchesortapersdidnotaccomplishtheirtheatricalpurposebymeansoflightbutbytheirappropriatenesstothesceneandtheauthenticitywithwhichtheactorsusedthem.WhetherornotLadyMacbeth'staperaccuratelyreproducedthelightingofacastleatDunsinane,forexample,itnevertheless"realistically"signaledsuchinformationasthetimeofthesleepwalkingscene(night),theplace(indoors,sincetaperswererarelyusedoutside),andeventhecircumstancethatherwalkwasunplanned,sincesheisnotaccompaniedbytheusualretinueofattendantslightingherway.Byemblematic,Irefertousesofpropertylightsnotstrictlyverisimilarbutfigurative.ExtensionsofthiscategorywouldincludevariousiconographicassociationsLadyMacbeth'staperconstruedasatoken

ofherloneliness,forexamplebutmainlyIhaveinmindtheuseofsuchlightsassuns,moons,stars,andcometsassignsofnightandday,orderanddisorder,andthelike.

Sometimespropertylightsservetheatricalpurposesintwoorthreeofthesemodesatonce.Inscenesofpomp,forinstance,theintroductionofmanyrichlygarnishedlightscouldthrowenoughartificiallightonthescenetocreatetheillusionoftheartificiallightatanobleentertainmentinahall.

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Thelightinginstrumentsthemselvescouldcontributetotherealisticdecorationofthescene.Andonemightarguethat,insomecases,theglitteringtorchesemblematizedtheartificeandunnaturalnessofthecourts,forexample,duringsuchironicmasquesasthoseinWomenBewareWomen(5.2),TheMaid'sTragedy(1.2),andeventheMousetrapplayinHamlet(3.2).Inthesescenes,illusion,realism,andemblemsworktogethertoproduceaconcertofvisualmeaning.Whentorchbearersentered"somanyasmaybe,"theplaywrightswantedbothbrillianceandacrowdedstage,aswellassomeofthesophisticationassociatedwithtorchlight.

7

Butinthemoreprevalentuseofstagelightsasameansofevokingdarkness,thethreemodescanworkagainsteachother.Lightemittedbytheinstrumentsbroughtonstagetoaddrealisticdetailobviouslypreventedtheillusionisticdepictionofnight.Althoughthisconventionhadbeenadumbratedinthedaylittheatersofantiquity,8theremarkableaspectoftheuseofpropertylightsinboththeamphitheatersandhallplayhousesisthatindicationsofdarknesswereeffectedbytheintroductionofmore,ratherthanless,lightontothestage.Lightparadoxicallyrepresenteddarknessandassuchmustbeaccountednotillusionistic.Butinanothersense,thedeploymentofpropertylightswasveryrealistic,becauserealpeopledolightcandlesandtorcheswhenitgetsdark.Inotherwords,theactiononstagewasrealenough,eveniftheilluminationonstagewasnot.Whentorchesandtaperswerecarriedonstagetoindicatethatascenewassupposedtotakeplaceatnight,thetheatricalstatementwasthataninstrumentoflighthadbeencalledintouse.Itwastheinstrument,orrathertheimaginaryneedfortheinstrument,andnotthelightitproducedthatrepresentedthedarkness.Perhapstheactorssometimescarriedunlitutensils,becausethelighttheymightproducewouldaddlittleto,

indeedwouldworkagainst,theevocationofdarkness.AnexperimentatthenewGlobeplayhouseshowedthatwhiletheflameofacandlewasvisibleindaylight,itslightfluxwasnot.Onwindydaysespecially,theactorsmightevenhavehaddifficultyinkeepingopen-flamedcandleslit.Evenagood,moderncandleblewoutmorethanonceasIwalkedacrossthenewGlobestage.

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ConventionsofIndoorandOutdoorIllumination

Yetinthehallplayhouses,onewouldthinkthattheilluminationprovidedbystagelightswassometimesillusionistic,becauseitwasthesamelightthatilluminatedallhallsatnight.W.J.Lawrence,forone,wasconvincedthatthe"rearstage"wasinsuchanobscurepositionthattheaudience's"inconvenience...almostinvariablydemandedthebringinginoflightsatthecommencementofallinner[stage]scenes."Later,Lawrencechangedhismindandadmittedthatlightswerebroughtonjustasfrequentlyforwhathecalls"outer"scenes.Buthecontinuedtoarguethattheinnerstageandtiring-housewallmadetheartificialilluminationemanatingfromthesebrought-onlightslookmorereal.

9Similarly,HarleyGranville-BarkerthoughtthatImogen'staperinthebedroomsceneofCymbelinewasdoublyeffectivebecauseitnotonlyhelpedtosymbolizeherchastitybutalsojoinedwiththecandlelightalreadypresenttoproducetheillusionoftheintimateartificiallightinherbedroom.10

Butthegeneralilluminationofanyplayhousehadtoshineonbothindoorandoutdoorscenes.IfwefollowLawrence'sandGranville-Barker'stheorytoitslogicalconclusion,thenweshouldhaveasituationwhereindoorsceneswereplayedillusionisticallyatBlackfriarsandconventionallyattheGlobe,whileoutdoorsceneswereplayedillusionisticallyattheGlobeandconventionallyatBlackfriars.Thereisamarginalincreaseofindoorscenesinchildren'stheaterdramabutnoinklingofareversalintheconventionsoflightingastheactorsperformedindoors.DistinctionsinlocationwereeffectedbywhatIamcallingrealism,notbyillusion.Whenascenewassupposedtotakeplaceindoors,lightsdesignedforindoorusewerebroughton.Byfarthemostcommonlightsintroducedinto

scenesLawrencecalls"inner"weretapers,whichweretypicallyusedasnight-lightsinbedroomsandtents.LikeImogenandLadyMacbeth,Evadne(TheMaid'sTragedy,5.1),Clarinda(Lovers'Progress,3.1),andMerione(TheQueenofCorinth,3.2)havetapersbytheirbeds.WhenCassiusmeetsBrutusinhistent,theysitnearataperthat,afterBrutusretiresandCaesar'sghostappears,growsdim"HowillthisTaperburnes"(F2288).11Whenthescenesshifttooutdoors,torchesandlanternsreplacetapers.InthefirsttwoscenesofOthello,wegetnolessthanthreecallsfortorchesasthecharactershurrytothecouncilchamber;onceinside,theactionisaccompaniedonlyby"lights."Attheend

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oftheplay,asAlanDessenpointsout,Iagocarriesatorchinact5,scene1,indicatinganoutdoorscene,whereasOthellocarriesacandleintoDesdemona'schamberinact5,scene2.

12Whethertheaudiencewastothinkofthesceneasindoorsoroutdoorswasdeterminedbythetypeoflightingutensil,notbyitslight.Inusingtheshapeoftheutensilsratherthanthequalityorquantityofthelighttheyproducedtohelpsetthescene,theactorswereconsequentlyfreetousethesamestaginginwhatevergenerallighttheyfoundthemselves.

Dependingonhowitwasdescribed,alightingutensilcouldsignalmultiplelocations,anddramatistscouldemphasizetheatmosphereoffirstoneandthenanotherlocation.Forexample,Dessenhasalsonotedtheinconsistencythat,althoughthemonumentsceneofMuchAdoaboutNothing(5.3)beginswithanentranceof"threeorfourwithtapers,"indicatinganindoormonument,later,whendaybreaks,DonPedroorders,"putyourtorchesout"(Q12v),indicatinganoutdoorlocation.13ButhereShakespeareisemployingasecondaryassociationoftaperstheirconnectionwithreligiouslocationsandceremonies.Thus,identicallightinginstrumentsarecalledtaperswhenShakespeareemphasizestheirsacredcharacterbutarecalledtorcheswhenthemoodturnsromantic.Similarly,inact3,scene1,ofAntonio'sRevenge(1600,Paul's),tapersaccompanyAndrugio'shearsetochurch;butoncehissonAntonioplotsrevenge,pagesreenterwithtorchesinsteadoftapers.TheoneShakespeareanexampleoftapersusedinasimpleoutdoorsceneoccursin2HenryVI,whenthebarefootEleanorcarriesaburningtaperin"openpenance"(2.4),butherethetaper'sassociationwithreligiousceremonytakesprecedenceoveritsmoretypicaluseasasignalofplace.

Inthehallplayhouses,then,whereonemighthaveexpectedthatlightscarriedonstagewereusedtoamplifytheexistinglight,thesamepracticeofindicatingdarknessbytheoccasionalintroductionofpropertylightstookhold.BlackfriarsplayssuchasTheElderBrother(4.3),Love'sPilgrimage(1.2),TheFairMaidoftheInn(1.1),TheMaidintheMill(1.3;4.3),andTheKnightofMalta(4.2),aswellasahostofprobableBlackfriarsplayslikeAlphonsusofGermany("EnterAlphonsustheEmperourinhisnight-gown,andhisshirt,andatorchinhishand"),14usestagelightstoindicatedarkness,nottoincreasethesenseofbrightnessintheplayorthetheater.Sotoo,Cockpitplays

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likeShirley'sTheMaid'sRevenge(3.6),TheWittyFairOne(4.4),TheWedding(4.4),andTheLadyofPleasure(3.1)employstagelightsexactlyastheyareusedintheoutdoortheaterstorepresentdarkness.Theinterestingcorollarytothisconclusion,moreover,isthatdespitetheattempttosuggestdarkness,therehadtobeenoughlightonstagefortheaudiencetoseewhatkindoflightingutensilwasbroughtonaswellastoseeotherimportantsignalsoftime,place,andcharacterthathadnothingtodowithlight.

CorroborationthattheevocationofdarknesswasnotillusionisticcomesfromShakespeare'ssatireofthemechanicals'naiverepresentationalexpectationsinact3,scene1,ofAMidsummerNight'sDream.Inpreparingfortheirplay,Quincepointstothemajorobstacleforanillusionisticpresentation:"thatis,tobringtheMoonelightintoachamber:foryouknow,PiramusandThisbymeetebyMoonelight."Snug,Bottom,andtheothersareliteralists;theyinsistonconsultinganalmanactolearnwhetherthemoonwillbeshiningonthenightoftheirplay.Whentheydiscoverthatthemoonwillindeedbeout,Bottomfindsthesolutiontotheproblemsimple:"Whythenmayyouleaueacasementofthegreatchamberwindow(whereweplay)open,andtheMoonemayshineinatthecasement."Bottomcontendsthatmoonlightmaybestberepresentedbytherealthing,butQuince,whohashadmoreexperienceinthesematters,believesthattheemblematicapproachisbetter.Hesuggests,"[O]nemustcomeinwithabushofthornsandalanthorne,andsayhecomestodisfigure,ortopresentthepersonofMoonshine"(F85872).

ThejokerestsinpartonthefactthatnoonechampionsthemethodofrepresentingnightthatElizabethanplaywrightsusedmostoftentherealisticmode.Noonesuggeststhatafewtokenpropertiesassociatedwithnightbebroughtonstage.Bottomproposesanillusionistictechniquethatispatentlyabsurd.ButalthoughwemayfindQuince'semblematicsolutionjustasludicrous,thereisreasontobelievethat

theElizabethansfounditlessso,oratanyrateconsideredamanholdingalanternonlyalittlelesssophisticatedthanotheremblemsfornightrepresentationsofmoonsandstars,forexample.

15

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MoonsandStars

Suchemblemsasmoonsandstarsweremostpopularbeforetheturnofthecentury,buttheycontinuedthroughouttheperiod.AmongtheAdmiral'smen'sproperties,inventoriedin1598,forexample,was"theclotheoftheSone&Mone."

16Whatthiswasisnotclear:itmayhaveresembledthecostumesthatdressedPhoebusandPersephoneinThomasHeywood'sAgesplaysforQueenAnne'smen,17oritmayhavebeensomesortofpaintedemblemofdayandnightalongthelinesoftheAdmiral'smen'sown"sittieofRome."Inthelastactof1TroublesomeReignofJohn,PhiliptheBastardcastshiseyesup"toheauen"andsees"FiueMoonesreflecting,asyouseethemnow.''Werethesemoonsonlyimaginary?Tomakeitexplicit,wegetthestagedirection,"TherethefiueMoonesappeare."18Theplayisearly,ChambersassigningittotheArmadaperiodof1588,butwecannotsaydefinitelythatitwasperformedindoorsoroutdoors.19WhenShakespearewrotethesamesceneforoutdoorproductioninhisKingJohn,however,thesephysicalmoonswereeliminatedandtheirappearanceonlynarrated.

Weareleftwondering,though,whatthesemoonslookedlike.Therewereutensilscalled"Moons"inearlymodernEngland;accordingtotheantiquarianThomasWright,theywereglobe-shapedlanterns.20GeorgeKernodleispositivetheeffectin1TroublesomeReignofJohnwasproducedby"amachinewhichmadeonemoonwhirlabouttheothers,tosymbolizeEnglandandherscornofpopishlands,"ontheauthorityofsuchmachinesinContinentaltableauxvivants.21Ofthesepossibilities,neithertheAdmiral'smen'sclothnorKernodle'smachinecanbethoughtofaslightingeffectsassuch,becausetheyemblematizenightinpictorialratherthaninluminaryterms.Wright'smoonlanternandQuince'slanternaretruelightingutensils,butunless

theywereemployedindarkenedhalls,theytoomightachievetheireffectlessbylightthanbysymbolism.Likerealisticpropertylights,totheextentthatsuccessfulemblemsofnightdidnotdependonlightalone,theyaffordedaflexiblemeansofindicatingnight,whichworkedaswelloutdoorsasindoors.

Otherimportantemblemsassociatedwithnightwerethestarandblazingstarorcomet.Thesemaybetracedbacktothenativitystarsinmedievalreligiousdrama,manyofwhichproducedtheireffectinbroaddaylight.But

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starswerealsofeaturedintheChesterCathedralinliturgicalplays.Latechurchwardens'accountstherelistseveralpaymentsforstars,including"apullytothestarr&settingitvp4d"in1558.

22TheLondonCordwainershadthree"greattstars"fortheirBethlehempageant"withiijreglassesandacordforthesamesteris."23SimilarstarsoncordswereusedatYarmouthinNorfolkfrom1462to1512.Churchwardens'accountsthereinclude"leadingthestar''and"anewbalklinetothestarandryving[pulling]thesamestar."24WiththeReformation,nativitystarswentoutoffashion,butIdoubtthatstarsonlinesandpulleysdid.Someofthesestarsmayhavebeenpaintedeffectsratherthanburninglights.Wereadnothingoftalloworwaxforthem,andonewouldthinkitdangeroustopullburninglightsalonglinessuspendedabovetheparishioners.TheCordwainers'starswith"glasses"mightbesomesortoflamp,but"glass"morelikelyreferstoamirrororcrystal.Probablypiecesofglassglitteredonthestars,reflectingbacktheexistinglight.

Mostofthestagedirectionscallingforstarsintheprofessionaltheateroccurearlyintheperiodandwould,therefore,oftenrefertoopen-airproductions.InadumbshowinTheBattleofAlcazar,performedaround1589bytheAdmiral'smen,thereisthunderandlightningasIrisdescendsfromtheheavens.Thencomesthestagedirection,"HeeretheblazingStarre."ThePresenterofthedumbshowelaborates:"Nowfiriestarresandstreamingcometsblaze,"afterwhichanotherstagedirectioncallsfor"Fireworkes,"andthePresentercontinues,"Fire,fireabouttheaxiltreeofheauen,/Whoorlesround."25TheBirthofMerlin,ascribedtoShakespeareandRowleyonitstitlepage,givesasimilardescriptionofablazingstar.Again,thunderandlightningprecedetheclimacticmomentwhenthe

"BlazingStarappears,"andafire-breathingdragonappearsoutofa"flamingring"fromwhichalsoemanatesevensmaller"blazingstreams."26Rowleyseemstohavewrittenorrevisedtheplayin1608whilehewasworkingforQueenAnne'smenattheRedBull,buteventhoughtheRedBullwasfamousforitsspecialeffects,onewonderswhetherallthefireRowleydescribeswasreal,painted,orimaginary.27

Becauseblazingstarsaresooftenassociatedwithpyrotechnics,oneexplanationofthemisthattheywereakindoffireworksrepresentingcomets.Unfortunately,noRenaissancehandbookorlistoffireworksmentionsblazingstars.JohnBate'sTheMysteriesofNatureandArthasashortchapterex-

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plaining"HowtomakeStarres,"butthese,welearn,weremerelysmall,roundfirecrackers.Fromtheiringredients,moreover,itisclearthatBate'sstarswouldnotcreatemuchlight,despitetheirname,butonlyaloudreport.

28Batealsodescribesa"flyingDragon"adragon'sbodyattachedtoarocketthatranalongalinewhichmightexplainthedragon'sheadinTheBirthofMerlin,whilethatplay'sflamingringmaybeagirandolewhirlingabouttheblazingstar.BecauseblazingstarsweresopopularattheRose,itisdisappointingthatHenslowe'sinventorydoesnotincludeone,althoughhislistisbynomeanscomplete.Thetroublewithfireworksisthattheyaredangerousandcauseunpleasantodors.Theseproblemsmayhaveraisedlittleconcernattheoutdoortheaters,butindoorsitwasotherwise.TheProloguetoShirley'sTheDoubtfulHeirproclaimsthat,astheplaywasintendedforBlackfriars,therewouldbenosquibsinit.InNorthwardHo!,aPaul'splayof1605,improvidentgallantsarecomparedto"squibsthatrunvponlynes."29AsimilarmetaphorinMarston'sParasitaster,aBlackfriarsplayofthesameyear,alsorefersto"squibsrunningvponlines''that"Stink."30

Ifblazingstarswerefireworks,wemighttentativelyconcludethattheycouldbeusedonlyoutdoors.SuchistheopinionofInga-StinaEwbank,who,inthecontinuingcontroversyovertheauthorshipofTheRevenger'sTragedy,offerstheblazingstarinact5,scene3,asevidencethattheplaywaswrittenforoutdoorproductionattheGlobeand,hence,cannothavebeenwrittenbyMiddletonforthechildrenatBlackfriars.31HerargumentforattributiontoTourneurturnsonChambers'sremarkthatincomparisontotheRedBullanditselaboratefireworks,"TheGlobe,withitstraditional'blazingstar,'isleftfarbehind."32ShetakesChamberstomeanthatblazingstarsweremorecharacteristicoftheGlobethananywhereelse.ButEwbankhas

misunderstoodChambers.By"traditional,"hemeantonlythatblazingstarswereolddevicesandthatinthecompetitionfornewspectacle,theGlobehadnotkeptpace.HedoesnotmeanthatblazingstarswereuniquetotheGlobe;indeed,Ihavebeenunabletofindoneplay,otherthanTheRevenger'sTragedy,thatcontainsablazingstarandisassociatedwithGlobeproduction.33

AlthoughmostblazingstarsareassociatedwiththeRoseandRedBull,wecannotentirelydiscounttheiruseindoors.BoththemanuscriptandquartoversionsofThomasGoffe'sTheCourageousTurkcallforblazingstars,andthemanuscriptstatesthattheplaywasacted21September1618bystudents

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ofChristChurch,Oxford,presumablyindoors.

34ThestagehistoryofIfYouKnowNotMe,YouKnowNobodyisconfused,butthereisastrongpossibilitythatthesecondpart(orsectionsofit)wasperformedattheCockpitinDruryLanearound1630.35Quartospublishedbeforeandafterthisrevivalincludestagedirectionscallingforblazingstars.AttheGlobeon23May1633,SirHumphreyMildmaysawFletcher'sRollo,DukeofNormandy,whosetextdescribesadescending"brightstarre"thatmayormaynothavebeenactuallyshown.Butthetextof1636canaseasilyreflectcourtperformancesin1630,1631,or1637.36AccordingtotheHistoriaHistrionica,aperformanceofRollowasinprogressattheCockpitinDruryLanewhenthatplayhousewasraidedin1648.37Itmaybethatsomehalltheatersresortedtolesscombustiblemethodsofshowingstars:asaglosstothequestion"Howmanystarres...?,"astagedirectionintheundatedmanuscriptplayTimoncallsfor"thesigneofthe7starr[es]."38Wedonotknowforwhomthisplaywaswritten,butitsfrequentquotationofGreekproverbsandotherpedantriesimplyastudentperformanceindoors.Onthewhole,wemaysaythatblazingstarsmayhavebeenpresentedlesselaboratelyandlessoftenindoors,butanydeclineintheirpopularitymayaseasilybetracedtotheJacobeandistasteforthenaiveemblemsoftheElizabethansastoaJacobeanfondnessforindoortheaters.

Inregardtothegeneralillumination,itisinterestingtonotethatmostblazingstarsoccurlateintheactionoftheplays.Igivetheirpositionsinredactedactsandscenes:BattleofAlcazar,5;CaptainThomasStukeley,5;TheBirthofMerlin,4.5;TheRevenger'sTragedy,5.3;2IfYouKnowNotMe,3;Rollo,5;TheCourageousTurk,5.Coulditbethatblazingstarsweremeanttolookmorerealinthegatheringdarknessattheendoftheplay?Orweretheysimplydelayedsothat

theriseindramatictensionwasparalleledbyanincreaseinspectacle?Anappearanceofthreesunsearly(2.1)inthebadquartoof3HenryVI(TheTrueTragedyofRichardDukeofYork)mightarguelikewisethatsunswouldlookmorenaturalinthebrightafternoonlight.Inthefirstfolioversion,Edwardexclaims,"Dazlemineeyes,ordoeIseethreeSunnes?"whileRichardgivesalongdescriptionof"ThreegloriousSunnes"comingtogethertobecome"butoneLampe,oneLight,oneSunne"(F67883).Butinthequarto,Richard'snarrationistrimmed,andastagedirectionisadded:"Threesunnesappeareintheaire"(QB3v).Whatthesesunslookedlikeisevenmoredifficulttoimaginethanwhatmoonslooked

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like.ItseemsunlikelythattheEnglishhadanylightsattheirdisposalthatcouldhaveproducedconvincingsunsout-of-doors.

39PerhapssomethingontheorderoftheAdmiral'smen's"clotheoftheSone"wasemployed,atechniqueeffectiveinnearlyanytheatricalenvironment.

OtherFireworks

Outdoors,andperhapsindoors,fireworkswereoftenemployedfortheirownsakewithoutregardtoassociationswithnightandday.DoctorFaustus,performedattheRoseandFortune,isfamiliarevidence.Notmanyseriousplaysnowadaysemployfireworks,andweperhapsneedtorethinktheirappropriatenesstocertainkindsofdramathatwereneverintendedtobetakenrealistically.Forexample,thesoberacademiciansofVicenzausedfireworksextensivelyattheTeatroOlimpicoin1585fortheirrevivalofKingOedipus.40Amoderntheatergoer,usedtoscenicillusionism,mightspeculateuneasilyaboutwhichmomentsoftheplayweredeemedmostappropriateforfireworks.

Buteveniffireworksdidnotsupporttheimaginarytimeorplaceoftheplay,onestillwondershoweffectivefireworkswereinthedaytime,whetherindoorsoroutdoors.Fireworksareclearlybetteratnight.Theconjecturethatcertainplaysmayhavebeenperformedlateinthedaybecausetheyincludedfireworkssuggestsitselfbutwithoutconclusiveevidence.WedoknowthatattheBeargardeninSouthwark(c.1584),fireworksconcludedtheday'sgames.41AndalookatDoctorFaustusshowssixusesoffireandfireworkswithadistinctprogressionofmoreandmoreelaboratespectacletowardtheend.Forthisplay,perhaps,Marlowemayhavebeenawarethatitmightbewisetodelaythebiglightingeffectsuntilthesunwasbeginningto

sink.Thus,throughthefirstfouractsofthe1616Btext(Greg'sdivisions),fireworksareusedonlytofrightenpeoplethePope,hisCardinals,andthesoldiers.Thisfrightcanbeaccomplishedbythenoiseofthefireworksalone,forweshouldrememberthatElizabethanfireworksdidnotproducethelong-lasting,brilliantlycoloreddisplaysweenjoy.InTheBrokenHeart,Fordmakesthepointthatfireworksproducedtheireffectmostlybynoise,notbylight:

Sosquibsandcrackersflyeintotheayre,Thenonelybreakingwithanoyse,theyvanishInstenchandsmoke.42

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ButinthefinalsceneofDoctorFaustuswhen"Hellisdiscouered"(apparentlythe"Hellmought"includedintheAdmiral'smen's1598inventory),weknowthatsomethingmorethannoisewasresortedto.

43ProbablytheaudiencesawnoneofwhattheBadAngeldescribes(anever-burningchair,damnedsoulsbeingtossedonforks,bodiesbroilinginlead)exceptintheirmind'seye,buttheAdmiral'smendidnotleaveeverythingtotheimagination,either.Wearefortunatetohavetwocontemporaryaccountsoftheplay'scatastrophe.InAstrologaster,JohnMeltontellsofaperformanceattheFortunebefore1620:"amanmaybeholdshagge-hayr'dDeuillsrunneroaringouertheStagewithSquibsintheirmouthes,whileDrummersmakeThunderintheTyring-house,andthetwelue-pennyHirelingsmakeartificiallLightningintheirHeauens."44Andinasatireonwarfare,WorkeforArmorours,ThomasDekkermentionsthatinonebattle,"wildefireflewfromone[army]toanother,likesquibswhenDoctorFaustusgoestothediuell."45Muchoralloftheeffectoftheburninginhellmighthavebeenrepresentedbyfireworksorsmoke(medievaldevilsarefrequentlypicturedwithbellows),althoughneitherMeltonnorDekkermentionssmoke.

Artificiallightningfromtheheavenscouldhavebeenproducedbyanumberofmethods.Bothflamesandstrokesoflightningweresometimesproducedbypowderedrosinthrownorblownpastaburningtorch.Thistechniquewaspopularearlyintheperiodbut,liketheblazingstar,fellintosomedisreputelater,eventhoughitwascitedasthecorrectmethodformakinglightninginthe1611EnglisheditionofSebastianoSerlio'sArchitettura.46In1599,theKing'smen'sAWarningforFairWomendisdainfullyrecalledthecrowd-pleasingentrancesofvengefulghostswhen"alittleRosenflashethforth,/LikesmokeoutofaTabaccopipe,oraboyessquib."47Aslateas1636,

RichardLovelaceintheepiloguetoTheScholars,aWhitefriarsplay,wasstillcomplainingaboutsomeoftheaudience'sloveforrosinlightningflashes.48Lovelaceisnotquiteclearonthematter;evidentlyrosinflashescouldalsobeusedindoorsatWhitefriars,althoughhecertainlydisapprovedofthem.Similardisapprovalwasvoicedregardinglightningproducedbysquibsrunningonlines.Insomequarters,atleast,boththeseeffectswereconsideredlessrefinedandlesssafethanvariousContinentaltechniquesforrepresentinglightning,whichneverthelessdidnotbecomepopularinEngland.49

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FireEffects

Mostfireswererepresentedsimplybysmoke.Literarystagedirectionsofdescentsintohellmentionfieryexhalationsandthelike,butitwouldhavebeendangeroustohaverealflamesemanatefrombeneathwoodenstages.InRobertWilson'scomedyTheCobler'sProphecy,writtenbefore1594,thePriesttellsus,"TheCabbinofContemptdothburnewithfire,"butweknowfromthestagedirectionthattheeffectwasactuallymoremodest.Inaplayhousestagedirection,thetiremanwasordered,"[F]romonepartletasmokearise."

50OneoftherareplayhousedistinctionsbetweensmokeandfireismadebystagedirectionsinJohnFletcher'sBonduca.Inact3,scene1,wewitnessaDruidsacrificeduringwhichceremoniesareperformedatanaltar.Astagedirectioncallsfor"[a]smoakfromtheAltar,"andBonducadulynotesthat"[t]hefiretakes."Buthissisterisupsetthat"noflamerises.''Moreprayersareoffered,astagedirectionreads,"Aflamearises,"andBonducahappilyannouncesthat"[i]tflamesout."51BibliographicalanalysisofthetextshowsthatthesestagedirectionsoriginatedintheplayhouseandnotsimplywithFletcher,whomightonlyhaveimaginedthatthedifferencebetweensmokeandflamescouldbedemonstratedonstage.Fromthecastlistappendedtotheplay,Chamberscandateittoeitherthe160810or161314seasonwhentheKing'smenwereperformingatbothBlackfriarsandtheGlobe.52ProbablyasimilartrickaltarwasusedataboutthesametimefortheKing'smen'sBlackfriarsplayTheTwoNobleKinsmen,inwhichEmiliaputsahinduponanaltarandsetsfiretoit,whereuponthehinddisappearsandinitsplacearosetreeascends(5.1).Oragain,aplayperformed"ninedaystogetherattheGlobe,"Middleton'sAGameatChess,requiresanaltarfromwhich"flamesaspire,"tapers"setthemseluesafire,"andstatuesmoveinadance.53Clearly,theuse

ofsuchaltarsbothindoorsandoutdoorssuggeststhatplaywrightscouldrelyontheaudience'sreadilyunderstandingthesamelightingconventionsinavarietyoflightingenvironments.

Luckily,wehaveanexampleofhowsuchaltarscouldwork.TheEnglishmagusRobertFludddescribedatrickaltarinhisTechnicalHistoryoftheMacrocosm(Oppenheim,1618).Itworkedbyemittingsmokeandfirethroughaholeinthetopofthealtarthatcouldbeopenedandclosedbyaslidingplate(seefig.35)Fluddexplainstheapparatusthisway:

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Housescanbeburned,sacrificialaltarscanburstintoflames,trailingandbeardedcometsmadetoappear,brimstoneeffected,andmanyotherspecialeffectsofthiskindbytheuseofatriggeringmechanism...ifacandlestickwithalitcandleissetinthehollowofanaltaroutofview,insuchawaythattheburningflametouchesasheetofcoppercoveringasortofopeninginthetopsurfaceofthealtar.Bythemovementofaleadweightorofwateratacertaintime,thesheetwillbesecretlyremoved,andtheflame,issuingthroughtheopening,willkindlewhateveritfindsoverthealtarthatiscombustible.

54

Fig.35.Atrickaltar.IllustrationfromRobertFludd,Utriusquecosmimaiorisscilicet

etminorismetaphysica,physicaatqvetechnicahistoria,TomusPrimus,TractatusSecundus:Denaturaesimiaseutechnicamacrocosmihistoria(Oppenheim,1618).

UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-ChampaignLibrary.

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Fludddoesnotassociatethisapparatuswiththetheater,butburningaltarscenesarefrequentenoughtobelievethatthistrickandsuchscenesmayhavesharedtechniquesor,atleast,acommonorigin.Fludd'smethodofcreatingaconflagrationmightevenhavebeenappropriateforsucheffectsas"theTowneburning"inthebackgroundduringZenocrate'sfuneralin2Tamburlaine(2.2):

55

Ifthen,apalaceconstructedinpaperorwoodorsomeperfumedcombustibleisplacedthere[ontopofthealtar],everythingwillburn.ThusforthedestructionofTroy,theburningofNero'sRome,thetorchingofSardanalausanditspalace,andotherdisplaysofthiskind,thisdevicewillbeespeciallyuseful.56

Anothermeansofproducingsucheffectsreliedonalcohol.Thereisevidencefortheuseofalcoholinburningpropertiesindoorsasearlyas1553whentheRevelsOfficebought"onepottleofaqauviteforthepageauntofma[r]ceandtoburneinotherproperties."57Theblueflameofalcoholisnotverybright,however,andmaynothavebeensuitableintheamphitheaters.Toproducefireeffectsforhisindoorintermezzi,Sabbattiniadvisedplacingalcohol-soakedclothsonperiaktoiandthenlightingthecloths;but,hejudiciouslywarns,thistechniqueshouldbe"avoidedasmuchaspossibleonaccountofthedangersometimesattendantonit."58

AlthoughfewerfireandlightningeffectswerecalledforinJacobeanandCarolinetexts,thedecreasecannotbeexplainedsolelybyariseinthenumberofhalltheaters.Earlyindoorplaysespeciallythosewritteninthe1560sand1570scontainnumerousfireeffects,anindicationthatthepopularityofsuchconflagrationsceneswasdeterminedbyfashionasmuchasbytheproductionvenue.In1572,forinstance,awaxchandlermadeanexpensive"deviceincounterfetingThunder&

Lightning"foraplaybytheChildrenoftheChapelatcourt.59Sinceachandlerandnotapainterwasresponsible,wemustassumethatsomekindofburninglightwasusedindoorstorepresentlightning.Butotherindoorentertainmentsemployedveryconventionalizedmethodsofrepresentingfires.In1566,QueenElizabethsawaplayatOxfordatnightinwhichacharacterascendedfromhellwith"flaminghead,feet,arms."60Similarclothing''sprinkledwithbloud&flames"isfoundinthedumbshowbeforeact4ofGorboduc,performedattheInnerTemplein1561.61Perhapscostumeswereflame-coloredordecoratedwith

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stripsofcloththatresembledflameswhentheactormoved.SuchappearstobethemethodusedincostumingInigoJones'sfieryspiritsforJacobeanmasques.

62InthelatemoralityplayAllforMoney,bothDamnationandJudashavegarments"paintedwithflamesoffire,"atechniquethatclearlyaffordedthetroupeaflexiblemeansofstagingthatwouldbeappropriateinnearlyanyvenue.63

Insum,theevidencewehaveindicatesnosubstantiallydifferentuseofpropertylightsindoorsoroutdoors.ThecontrastsofdarknessandlightontheEnglishRenaissancestagewerefirstandforemostfunctionsoftheimageryinthespokenwordsand,hence,workedtheireffectsmostprominentlyintheimaginationsofthespectators.Someofthelightsbroughtonstagemayneverhavebeenlitormayhaveproducedtheireffectbyconventionalsymbolism.Itisalltooeasytooverestimatetheallusivepoweroflightusedonstagebymeansofselectivecitations.OnlyhalfofShakespeare'splaysuseanylightsatall,andofthosethatdo,themajorityuselightssimplyasrealisticdetail.64Propertylightswereimportanttechnicalconsiderations,butlessbecauseofthelighttheyproducedthanbecauseofthescenestheyhelpedtoset.Lightscarriedbytheactorshadtheabilitytoparticipateintheconcertofaction,language,andtheatricalenvironmentbycreatingmoodsand,attimes,byhelpingtoshowwhat,when,andevenwhowassupposedtobeonstage.Andfinally,theuseofsuchpropertylightsandspecialeffectssuggeststhatthestageconditionsatthepublicandprivatetheaterscouldnothavebeeninsuchoppositionastoobligedramatistsoractorstorewriteplaystofitdifferentlightingsystems.

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10IlluminatingtheScene:TheDuchessofMalfiattheGlobeandBlackfriarsRecentscholarship,inparticulartheRecordsofEarlyEnglishDramaproject,andthediscoveriesofthefoundationsoftheRoseandGlobeplayhouseshaveprovideduswithamorecomplexviewofearlymodernEnglishtheatersandstagingthanwastrueonlysomefiftyyearsago,whenitwascommontospeakof"theElizabethantheater."FollowingtheleadofG.F.Reynoldsinthe1940s,scholarshavetakencarenottocreateageneralizedreconstructionofa"typical"playhouseandhaveinsteadsoughttorecognizedifferencesamongtheearlyplayhousesthatShakespeareandhiscontemporariesknew.Allthesame,wedowelltorecallthatevenatoneplayhouse,verydifferentkindsofsceneswereperformedunderitslightandthatsomeofthesescenesmaybesaidtohavetakenadvantageoftheprevailingillumination,sometodisregardit,andotherstocallattentiontoadisparitybetweenthepretendedlightofthesceneandthereallightinthetheater.Inshort,thereisasenseinwhichvariousactionsonstagemayhaveinvitedtheaudiencetoconstruetheprevailingilluminationdifferently.UnaEllis-FermormakesthecharmingobservationthatthedecadenttoneofmanyJacobeandramasmusthavebeenwellservedbyasunsetreflectedintheskyabovetheoutdooramphitheaters,butinmidsummer,thoseJacobeantragedieswouldhavebeenaccompaniedmoreoftenbyglaringsunshine.

1

Asoftenasnot,therefore,thenaturallightcontributedlittleornothingtoanysenseofillusion,evenifitcouldoccasionallyhelptoclarify

thestagingofcertainmomentsintheplay.Duringnighttimescenes,forexample,the

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daylightintheplayhousemeantthattheaudiencecouldclearlyseeactionsthatweresupposedtobeobscuretothecharactersonstage.Ashasbeennoted,theimaginarydarknessofsuchplaysasAMidsummerNight'sDreamandOthelloconfusesthecharactersonstage,whileweknowpreciselywhatishappeningtothem.Macbethisoneofthedarkestplaysoftheperiod;sceneafterscenetakesplaceatnightorinthedarkestcornersofthepalace.DespiteitsoriginalproductionatthesunlitGlobe,itisonlyattheveryendoftheplay,whenthesunbreaksoverBirnamForest,colorsareunfurled,andMacbethtakesuparms,thatthenightmarecometoanend.Farfromattemptingillusion,Shakespearefashionsthedramasothatthestagelightcontrastsironicallywiththeaction.J.L.StyannotesthatwhenRosscommentsonthegloomyomensintheskyafterDuncan'smurder

ThouseesttheHeauens,astroubledwithmansAct,ThreatenshisbloodyStage:byth'Clock'tisDay,AndyetdarkeNightstranglesthetrauailingLampe:Is'tNightspredominance,ortheDayesshame,ThatDarknessedoesthefaceofEarthintombe,WhenliuingLightshouldkisseit?(F93035)

Shakespearegoesoutofhiswaytopointoutthedaylightconventionthatpermittednighttimescenesonasunlitstage.

2

Still,Shakespearegoesfurtherthansimplycallingattentiontoadiscrepancybetweenthereallightintheplayhouseandthepretendedlightinthescene.Evenatthebeginningoftheplay,Macbethisawareofwhathisvillainymustlooklikeinthelight.WhileplottingthemurderofDuncan,hevainlyprays,"LetnotLightseemyblackanddeepedesires"(F339).Toanamphitheateraudience,the"seelingnight"thatMacbethhopeswillveilmurderand"Cancel"hisdutydid

notexist.Macbethwould"SkarfevpthetenderEyeofpittifullDay"(F1206),butasRossremindsus,livinglightdidindeedkissthestage.Asmembersoftheaudience,weseeMacbeth'sdesiresplayedoutinbroaddaylight.SimonFormansawMacbethattheGlobeinApril1611,butwhentheplaywasperformedatcourt(probablyatHamptonCourtinAugust1606),onedoubtsRoss'smovinglineswerecutbecauseofdifferentlightingarrangements.Shakespearedidnotdependonthesunfortheeffectanymorethanhedependedonnaturetoproviderealthunderandlightningforthewitches.

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Comparedtomodernpractice,earlystagelightingenjoyedamorecasualrelationshipwiththedrama.Itwasfreetoenhanceaestheticattitudesornot.Therewasnoinsistencethatthelightfitthemoodoftheplayateveryturnandnomoreexpectationoflogicalconsistencyintheilluminationthaninthecostumingorscenery.Whenthecharacteroftheilluminationparalleledthescenicdesign,theactorsmightormightnotpointthecorrespondencesout.Butwhentheplayhouselightandthesceniclightweredissimilar,theactorswerealsofreetoexploitthediscrepancyifthatseemedprofitable.

Thismultifariousexploitationoflightnotwithstanding,severalscholarshaveattemptedtoassignplaystospecifictheatersonthebasisoftheluminaryatmosphereoftheplaysthemselves.InhisadmirableRevelsPlayseditionofTheDuchessofMalfi,JohnRussellBrownarguesthatthescenewiththe"deadman'shand"(4.1)canhavebeeneffectiveonlyinadarkenedtheaterandthattheplaymustthereforehavebeenwrittenwiththeKing'smen'sindoorBlackfriarsplayhouseinmind.

3Butthetitlepageofthe1623firsteditionstatesclearlythattheplaywas"[p]resentedprivatly,attheBlack-Friers;andpubliquelyattheGlobe."BecauseBrowntakesthelightingofthisextraordinaryscenetobecriticaltoaproperunderstandingofitsoriginalstagingandeffect,Ishouldliketoexaminethesceneinrelationtowhatweknowoftheilluminationatboththeatersandinthehopethatacloselookatthelightshiningonaspecificscenewillservetobalancethediagrammaticsketchoflightingwehavebeenobligedtodraw.AlthoughIhappentothinkhisinterpretationofthefactsisnotthemostplausibleone,Brownneverthelesscallsattentiontoanimportant,perhapsevencrucial,pointofcomparisonbetweentheamphitheatersandhallplayhousesnamely,theirlighting.InassigningTheDuchessofMalfitoBlackfriarsonthebasisofitsstagelight,

Brownatleastreferstoanaspectofproductionthatdependsontheessentialformoftheplayhouse.

Foranexampleoftheinfluencethatstagelightingcouldexertonanaudience'sresponsetoaplay,weneedlooknofurtherthanWebster'sothergreattragedy,TheWhiteDevil,performedonlyayearorsobeforeTheDuchessofMalfi.WhenTheWhiteDevilwasproducedatanopen-airplayhouse(almostcertainlytheRedBull)earlyin1612,theplayfailed,notbecausethedramatistoractorswereinept,butbecausetheplayhousewasdarkanddrearyorsowehaveheardWebsterclaim.Theplaywasacted"insodullatimeofWinter,"hecomplains,"insoopenandblackeaTheater,that

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itwanted(thatwhichistheonelygraceandsettingoutofTragedy)afullandunderstandingAuditory."

4ThosewhoknowLondoninthewintertimecansympathizewithWebster,althoughitshouldbeaddedthatmanyplaysdidsucceedinthewinterdespiteoutdoorperformance.Still,Webstermayhimselfhavelivedtoseetheplayandhisexcusesforitsfailureatanopen-airplayhousevindicated.Accordingtothetitlepageofthe1631secondedition,TheWhiteDevilwaslaterrevivedandperformed"diuerstimes"attheindoorCockpitinDruryLane,whoseroofandartificiallightspresumablyaffordedtheplayanditsspectatorsmorehospitableaccommodations.

Noonewilldoubtthatplayhouseconditionshaveasubstantial,ifnotalwayssodetermining,effectontheaudience'sperceptionofaplay.Insofarastheatmosphereinaplayhousemaybesaidtoinfluenceaspectator'sresponse,onenaturallysupposesthatplaysperformedintheindoorandoutdoorplayhousesevokedresponsesthat,allotherthingsbeingequal,differedinproportionasthetwotheatricalenvironmentsdiffered.Inassessingthedistinctivecontributionsoftheindoorandoutdoorplayhouses,however,itisdifficulttokeepotherthingsequal.ThesuccessofTheWhiteDevilinthe1630smayhavebeendueasmuchtochangingliteraryfashionsastodifferencesbetweentheplayhousestructuresandtheirlightingsystems.Ortheactorsandstagingmaysimplyhavebeenbetter.Withsomanyunknownquantities,atheatricalequationisnotreadilysolved;onecanneverbesurewhetherWebster'sgloomypictureofTheWhiteDevil'spremiererepresentsanaccurateexplanationofitsfailureoristheexaggerationofadisgruntledplaywright.ButinthecaseofTheDuchessofMalfi,severaloftheseindeterminatequantitiesareconvenientlyeliminatedfromconsideration.Forinexaminingthe

stagingofthedead-man's-handsceneattheGlobeandatBlackfriars,weareconcernedwiththesamesceneperformedataboutthesametimebythesameactingcompany.

Inact4,scene1,ofTheDuchessofMalfi,theDuchess'sbrotherFerdinandbeginshislong-delayedpunishmentofherforremarrying.Atthebeginningofthescene,weseeFerdinandshortlybeforeheistovisittheimprisonedDuchess.Welearnthathehasarequesttomakeofherasaconditionfortheirmeeting,whichhebidsBosolaconveytoher.Ferdinandretires,theDuchessenters,andBosolainformsheroftheunusualrequest:itisthat"neitherTorch,norTaperShineinyourChamber"duringtheinterviewbecauseFerdinandonce"rashlymadeasolemnevoweNeuertoseeyou

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more."

5TheDuchessagreestotheconditionandorders,"Takehencethelights."Ferdinandreenters,andthedarknessisestablishedinanabruptlyrealistictouchwhenheisobligedtoasktheDuchess,"Whereareyou?"Ferdinandthenremarks,"Thisdarkenessuitesyouwell,"andwithironicandsinisterundertonescontinues:

Ithadbinwell,Couldyouhaueliu'dthusalwayes:forindeedYouweretoomuchi'th'light.(I-Iv)

Bythishealludesnotonlytothetrickheisabouttoplaybutalsotoseveralcloselyinterwovenconnotationsof"light"herwantonness,herhavingbeentoofreelyexposedtoothermen,andeventheefficacyofdarknesstohidehisownincestuousinclinations.TherefollowsFerdinand'sofferofreconciliation;"here'sahand,"hesays,whileinanapparentlyauthorialstagedirection,wereadthathe"givesheradeadmanshand"ashisown.TheDuchessdutifullykissesit,butwhenherlipsfeelhowcoldthehandis,shecriesout,"Hah?lights:ohhorrible";whereuponFerdinand,inoneofWebster'smostbrutallines,orders,''Letherhauelightsenough."

BrownbelievesthatthescenemustbeplayedindarknesssothattheaudiencewillexperiencethesameshocktheDuchessdoeswhenlightsarebroughtbackonandsheseestheseveredhand.Heargues,rightly,thatanaudiencemightwelllaughtoseetheDuchessholdingapropertyhandwhileFerdinandpromisesthathewill"leauethisRingwithyou,foraLoue-token:/Andthehand,assureasthering.""Whatwouldbedifficult,clumsy,andgrotesqueattheGlobe,"Brownconcludes,"couldbethrillingandsensitiveinthedarkenedauditoriumoftheBlackfriars."6

Butevenifweagreethatshockingtheaudienceisadesideratum,arewepositivethatactualdarknesscouldbeachievedattheBlackfriarsor,ifitcould,thatdarknesswasthemostlikelymeansbywhichsuchashockwasproduced?Whenhereenters,Ferdinandpresumablycarriesthehandinhiscloaksleevetopretenditishis.DarknesswouldnotberequiredtoavoidgivingthetrickawaytoeithertheDuchessortheaudience.Andwhenhe"gives"herhishand,needweimaginethathepassesittoher,thatis,actuallyhandsittoher?Itseemsmoreprobablethatwhensheofferstokisshishand,hesimplyextendshissleeveforward.Shemightthencrosstohim,kneel,takethehandinhers,andkissitwhilehecontinuestoholdtheprop-

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ertyhandthroughhissleeveasthoughitwerehisown.Whenshenoticesitscoldness,hecouldthenreleaseit,lettingherholditasecondortwoinastonishmentuntilinaparoxysmofhorrorsheletsitfalltotheground.RichardBurbage,whocreatedtheroleofFerdinand,mustcertainlyhavepossessedthetalentstoperformthisliteralsleightofhandintheGlobedaylight.Indeed,asseeninbrightlight,themomentwhenBurbageletthehandgowouldhavebeensubstantiallyasshockingandagreatdealmoresuddenandjarringthanthecorrespondingreintroductionoflightontheBlackfriarsstage.Ifanythingwereclumsy(nottomentiondistracting),itwouldhavebeentherushinginofservantscarryingtorchesandcandlesfromthetiring-houseatatimewhenourattentionshouldbefocusedontheDuchess.Ievenwonderifthesuddenbringingoftorchesintoadarkenedauditoriumwouldnothavetemporarilyblindedtheaudienceattheverymomenttheyneededmosttoseetheseveredhand.Asitis,thestolidtoneofFerdinand's"Letherhauelightsenough"hardlysuggestslightswerebroughtbackoninenoughofahurrytostartletheaudience.

Surelythehorrorderivedasmuchfromtheactors'reactionstothehandasfromthehanditselfjustasitdoesinsuchanalogouspublictheaterscenesasBenvolio'scuttingoffFaustus'sheadorLavinia'senteringtoherbrotherswithherhandscutoffinTitusAndronicus.Toinsistthattheeffectresidedmoreinablood-drenchedstagepropertythanintheactors'horrifiedresponses(and,justasimportantinshockinganaudience,inpreparingtheaudiencenottoanticipatethoseresponses)istounderestimatethesophisticationoftheaudienceandtooverestimatetheskillsoftheJacobeanpropertymakers.ItistostartoncemoredownthequaintpaththatleadsfinallytolittlegreenlightstwinklingontheGhost'shelmetinHamletwhilethestartledfacesofHoratioandthewatchareinvisibleonadarkenedstage.

7ThedeadhandproduceditsgruesomeeffectprimarilybythewordsandactionsoftheDuchessbothbeforeandaftershekissedit,justastheGhostinHamletfrighteneditsoriginalaudiencebecauseitwasseentofrightenthepreviouslycalmandunsuspectingHoratioandHamlet.Toproducethedead-handsceneillusionisticallyindarknessmeansthattheaudiencecanseeneithertheDuchess'sinitialshocknorhercontrastingself-possessionatthebeginningofthescene;alittlewaxhandismadetocarryalmosttheentireburdenofthisstrikingeffect.Ifthiskindofillusioninthelightingwereactuallyrequired,onecouldargueaseasilythattheshadowFerdinandthrows

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intheoutdoorgalleryscene(5.2)requiredoutdoorperformanceforaneffectivepresentation.

Inanycase,thedead-man's-handsceneasoriginallystagedin1613or1614neednothavebeenblazinglylitattheGlobe.

8Asshowninchapter5,nostrongsunlightcouldhaveilluminatedtheactorsatanytime.Thestagewassowellprotectedfromtheelements,infact,thatiftenwindowslitthehallatBlackfriars,then,dependingonthetimeofperformanceandtheseasonoftheyear,itmayoccasionallyhavebeenpossibletoilluminatetheBlackfriarsstagewithnearlyasmuchnaturallightasthesecondGlobestageitself.Moreover,thelatenessofthescene(act4)inthislongplay(itsfirstquartoreachesto104pages,nearlytwicethenormallength)wouldhaveputanopen-airperformanceoftheeffectclosetotwilightinspringandautumn,assumingtheKing'smenfollowedthepracticeofLadyElizabeth'smeninApril1614attheHopeofbeginningplaysat3P.M.9

Forthatmatter,Blackfriarshardlyneededthespecialindoor"lightingdevice"Brownhypothesizes,eithertoproducedarknessortoinspireWebstertowritethescene.Blackfriarsplaysweregiveninthewinter,andawintertimeperformanceofact4,scene1,wouldnecessarilybeplayedintwilightbecauseBlackfriarsplaysapparentlybegannoearlierthan2or3P.M.WedonotknowthedatesonwhichTheDuchessofMalfiwasfirstplayed,butOrazioBusino,inareportdated7February1618(28January,Englishstyle),discussesTheDuchessofMalfiasthoughithadrecentlybeenonthestage.10InadvancingthetheorythatWebsterfashionedtheplaywithBlackfriarsinmind,Brownhingeshisargumentonthepresumedfactthatthe"auditoriumcouldbedarkenedbycoveringitswindows."Butevenwiththewindowswideopen,littlenaturallightcouldhaveilluminatedthe

dead-handeffectatBlackfriars.Hadtheperformancebegunevenasearlyas2P.M.,Idonotseehowtheeffectcouldhavetakenplacemuchbefore4P.M.justthetimeofLondon'swintersunset.ThediminutionoflightwasuniqueneithertoBlackfriarsinparticularnortotheindoortheatersingeneral.Theearlywintersunsetmanagedtheeffectallbyitself.Farfrombeingdarkened,theartificiallylitBlackfriarsstagewouldhaveappearedbrighterinrelationtotherestoftheauditoriumattheendoftheplaythanwhendaylightfloodedthroughthewindowsatthebeginning.Asthedaylightwaned,theapparentbrightnessonstagewouldhaveincreasedbecausethestagecandleswouldhavecontributedagreatershareofthetotalillumination.Ifonewantedtoarguethat

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TheDuchessofMalfiwaswrittenespeciallyforBlackfriars,onemightaswellpointtothesuitabilityofartificiallighttotheincreasingly"artificial"showsbywhichFerdinandentertainstheDuchessthedeadman'shand,thewaxfiguresofAntonioandherchildren,andthemasqueofthemadmen.

11Notdarkness,butartificiallightsuitstheplaytowarditsconclusion.

BrowncitesnoevidenceforhisassertionthatthewindowsatBlackfriarscouldbecovered.Apparently,hehasinferreditfromDekker'sreferenceto"claptdowne"windowsinTheSevenDeadlieSinnsofLondon.Certainly,itwouldhavebeenpossibletoclapdownwindowshutters,butDekkermakesitclearthatwhenthiswasdone,thewindowswerecoveredwhentheplayswere"presentlytobeacted,"thatis,beforethebeginningoftheperformance.Inthatcase,itwouldhavebeendifficulttoproducerealdarknessaspropertylightswerecarriedoffstageorasthetimeoftheplaywassupposedtochangefromdaytonight,becausesometenapprenticeswouldneedtoopenandclosetheshuttersoncueinwell-rehearsedunisonfortheeffecttoproducetheresponseBrownposits.Atanyrate,itisunlikelythatsuchamethodofchangingtheamountoflightwouldhavebeenavailabletotheKing'smenwhentheyrevivedTheDuchessofMalfion26December1630inthenewlyremodeledCockpit-in-Court,whereperformanceswereroutinelygivenatnight.12EvenwiththeauditoriumwindowsatBlackfriarscovered,thestagewouldstillhavebeenlitbytheplayhousecandles.Theselightsmighthavebeenextinguishedtodarkenthesceneaswell;butthenthetiremanwouldhavehadtolowerandextinguishlightswhilethescenewasinprogressandrelightandraisethemsometimelater.Itispossiblethatthewholeofact4wasperformedindarkness,but,aswehaveseen,

noextantpre-Restorationplaybookevenhintsthatwindowswerecoveredorcandlesextinguishedduringtheactbreaks.

Theonlyconvenientwaytodecreaselight(ortosuggestthatitwasdecreased)wastoremovestage-propertylights,andthisisthemethodthatWebster'sdialoguetellsuswasused.Toproduceasignificantchangeinlight,however,wouldhaverequiredalargenumberofsuchpropertylights.ForifsometwoorthreedozencandlesburnedovertheBlackfriarsstage,thenatleastanotherdozenorsohand-heldcandleswouldhavebeenrequiredtoproduceadiscerniblefallorriseinthelevelofilluminationastheywereremovedorbroughtbackonstage.BrownaddsastagedirectiontohistextindicatingthatBosolaremovesthelights,butonedoubtshecouldhave

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removedandthenquicklybroughtbackonthelargenumberoflightsneededtoshocktheaudience.

ItismoreprobablethattwoorthreelightswerebroughtonstagewhentheDuchessenteredandthatdarknesswasindicatedsymbolicallybytheirremoval.Althoughdarknesswasusuallysuggestedbythebringinginoflightsratherthanbytheirremoval,propertylightsheldclosetotheactorsmayhavebeenabletoindicatedarknessmoreillusionisticallybybeingextinguished,atleasttowardtheendsofplayswhenthedaylighthadbeguntofade.WhenParisentersthegraveyardinthelastsceneofRomeoandJuliet,forexample,hispage'storchisaconventionalindicationthatthesceneispresumedtotakeplaceatnight.Butimmediatelyafterward,Paristellshispage,"[P]utitout,forIwouldnotbeseene"(Q2L2).

13IftheboyhadheldthetorchclosetoPariswhentheyfirstentered,thenitsextinctionsoonafterwardmighthaveeliminatedsomeofthehighlightsonParis,atleastincontrasttotheenteringRomeoandBalthasaralsocarryingatorchtowhomShakespearewantstheaudience'sattentiondirected.Similarly,ifafewlightswerebroughtonquicklyinTheDuchessofMalfiandheldclosetothedeadman'shand,thenasmallincreaseinlightonitispossibletoimaginenotenoughtojolttheaudience,certainly,butenoughtosuggestthatthepreviousdialoguewaspresumedtotakeplaceindarkness.

Whateverthecase,thepointisthatbothParisandtheDuchessneedtobeseenwhiletheyaresupposedtobestandinginthedark.Farfrombeinggrotesqueinthelight,oneofthescene'smostprovocativemomentswouldbeobscurediftheaudiencecouldnotseetheDuchesskissthehand"affectionately"(I1v).Ishouldnotbesurprisedif,insteadofconcealingthehandashisown,Burbagesignaledsomehowtotheaudiencethatthehandwasindeedadeadman'shand.Herkiss

wouldthenbeallthemoreironicanddegrading.Infact,theironypervadingFerdinand'sspeechessuggeststhatWebsterwaslessconcernedwithshockingtheaudiencethanwithcreatingdramaticsuspense,agrowinganxietyintheaudiencethatwhattheyfearmighthappenwillhappen.Whetherthepointwasshockorsuspense,whetherthedarknesswasonlysymbolicorwassuggestedbyaslightdiminutionoflightneartheactors,thesceneworksbestwhenplayedinenoughlighttoallowtheaudiencetoseewhatisgoingon.Assuch,thescenewasaseffectiveoutdoorsasindoors.

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IregrethavingtotakeissuewithProfessorBrownindiscussingthelightingofthisscene,notonlybecauseoftheexcellenceofhisedition,butalsobecauseheistheonlyeditoroftheplaytoventureaplayhouseascriptionbasedonspecifictechnicalevidence.OthershavebeenhappytorelegatetheplaytoBlackfriarsonthebasisofwhattheytaketobean"indoor"or"oppressive"atmospheresurroundingtheplay.

14Indeed,therehasbeenatendencytoassignbright,happyplaystothepublictheatersanddark,melancholyplaystotheprivatetheaterswhennoexternalevidenceisavailable.Suchassignmentsignoreallthecountervailingevidence(theGlobe'ssomberHamletandMacbeth,forexample,orthepopularityofsuchbrightcomediesasTwelfthNightandTheComedyofErrorsindoors)andusuallyarguecircularlythatthenatureofaplayhouse'silluminationmusthavebeenwhateverwouldcomplementthemoodoftheplaybeingassignedtoit.WhileBrowngivesTheDuchessofMalfitoBlackfriarsbecauseofits"partiallydarkenedstage,"forinstance,FrankKermodecallsBlackfriarsthe"naturalhome"ofTheTempestbecauseofthe''brightlylitstage"there.15TheirassessmentsarenotnecessarilycontradictorytheBlackfriarsstagecouldhavebeenbothbrightandcapableofbeingdarkened.Butitisclearthatneitherdescriptioncanbetakenasfactandthatbothscholarshaveselectedonlythepresumedcharacteristicsthatfittheirtheories.ExternalevidencefororiginalBlackfriarsproductionthinenoughforTheDuchessofMalfiandnonexistentforTheTempesthasbeenstretchedtofitless-than-definitiveinternalevidence.16

WhetherornotWebsterwroteTheDuchessofMalfispecificallyforBlackfriars,itiseasytoseehimofferingittotheKing'smenin1613aftertheliterallydismalfailureofTheWhiteDevilatthe"openand

blacke"RedBullin1612.BesidesbeingbetteractorsthantheQueen'smenandabletoattractmoresophisticatedaudiences,theKing'smenwouldnothavehadtoperformhisnewplayunderagloomywintersky.ButifBrownisrightandadarktheaterwasessentialforaconvincingpresentationofTheDuchessofMalfi,thenWebstermighthavedonebettertohavehaditproducedattheopenandblackRedBullinsteadofthesummertimeGlobeandartificiallylitBlackfriars.

Theliteraryhistorianmightinsistthatadramatist'screativefacultiesplayalargerpartinshapingascenethandothenecessitiesofphysicalproduc-

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tion.Thematterissometimesdifficulttosettle,turningasitdoesontheusuallyunknowableintentionsoftheplaywright.Still,inWebster'scase,similaritiesbetweenthedead-handsceneandasceneinTheWhiteDevilsuggestthatthedarknessimpliedinbothwasinspiredmorebyhispersonalvisionthanbyhistakingadvantageofspeciallightingequipment.

ForalthoughWebster(andapparentlyhisfriendThomasDekker)hadhopedthatthepremiereofTheWhiteDevilwouldtakeplaceunderfairskies,Websterextinguishesstage-propertylightsintheplayformanyofthesamereasonstheyareremovedinhissupposedlyindoorDuchessofMalfi.

17Inact1,scene2,ofTheWhiteDevil,BrachianoandVittoriacontrivetospendtheirfirstfurtivenighttogether.LikeBosola,Flamineofollowsordersandarrangesthatnolightsshineduringtheirtryst.Hetellstheservants,"[T]ishis[Brachiano's]pleasure/Youputoutallyourtorchesanddepart"(B2).WhenBrachianoenters,Vittoria(liketheDuchess)isimmediatelytoldthatdarknesssuitsheractions;shehears(againliketheDuchess)fromherownbrotherthatdarknesshideshersin:"Comesister,darkenessehidesyourblush"(B4v).Sheisremindedbyherownfamilymember(inthiscasebyhermother)thatshehasbeentoo"light,"thatis,wanton(C1v).Thenocturnal"witch-craft"thatdeceivestheDuchess(I1v)isthesame"witch-craft''thatluresVittoria(C1v).Andofcourse,darknessthroughoutunderscorestheillicitsexualityofthescene.

Inact4,scene1,ofTheDuchessofMalfi,Ferdinandgivesreasonsfortheremovaloflightsonsimilargrounds.Andwhilethesexualitythereisnotovertandiseasilyoveremphasized,itisnonethelessreal.18Whatismore,Websterhastakencaretolinkthedarknessofthedead-handscenewithFerdinand'sdeepinvolvementinhissister's

sexuality.ForitwaswhenFerdinandfirstdiscoveredhermarriagethathejealouslymadethevownevertoseeheragain,whichlaterprovidesthepretextforthedarknessinact4,scene1.Shehadremindedhimthenofheryouthandbeauty,buthermarriage,ashelateradmits,"drewastreameofgall,quitethroughmyheart"(K3v).ItwasFerdinand's"to[o]wilfull"andrashresponsetotheDuchess'sownsexuallongings(G)thatprecipitatesthedarknessofthedeadman'shand.Thus,whenFerdinandandtheDuchessmeetinherdarkbedroomatnight,andhewishesshecould"haueliu'dthusalwayes,"healludesnotonlytotherevengehecanexactindarknessbutalsotoincipientsexualfeelingshecanexpressonlyinthedarknessofaveritabletorturechamber.

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Tobesure,thesuitabilityofdarknesstoillicitlovewasacommonrhetoricalfigure.WhenShakespeare'sTarquinisabouttoravishLucrece,Tarquinputsouthistorch,"Forlightandlustaredeadlieenemies."

19Similarly,thebedtrickinMeasureforMeasuremustbe"ith'darke"towork(F1814);Annabellain'TisPityShe'saWhoreblushesafterspendingthenightwithherbrotheronlywhendaylightcomes(2.1);andArbacesinAKingandNoKingnearlyrepeatsFerdinand'swordswhenhetellswhohebelievestobehissisterthatifsheconsentstolovehim,''thydwellingmustbedarkeandclose/WhereImayneuerseethee."20

Butwhiletherhetoricalfigureishardlyunique,Webster'suseofitis,providingevidencethatthedarknessinthedead-handscenewasnotintroducedmerelytoseizeanopportunitythatthenewlyopenedBlackfriarsafforded.Forintwoseparateplays,Websteristheonlydramatistoftheperiodtoshowustheremovaloflightsforscenesinvolvingimproperlove.Websterhasturnedthefigure-in-wordsintoafigure-in-action,asH.T.PricedescribesWebster'spersistentpractice.21Inbothplays,thedarknessprotectingillicitloveissignaledbytheactualextinctionofpropertylights,anindication,Ithink,thattheeffectinTheDuchessofMalfiwasnotsimplyWebster'sexploitationofanewlyavailableindoorlightingdevicebutratheracharacteristicstageimagethatheknewwouldworkaswellattheRedBullandGlobe.Aglanceatthetwoplaysshowsthatthenetworkoflightimageryinthemisofapiece.Apervasivegloomstranglestheheroine'slightandcynicallyquestionswhetherthatlightwasnotillusoryallthewhile.Vittorialikensherselftoaglitteringjewel"ThroughdarkenesseDiamondsspredtheirritchestlight"(F2v)towhichFlamineolaterrejoins,"Glories,likeglowe-wormes,a

farreoffshinebright/Butlookttoneare,haueneitherheatnorlight"(H4vi).Likewise,theDuchess"staines[thatis,eclipses]thetimepast:lightsthetimetocome"(B4),eventhoughBosolamustremindher,too,that"Glories(likeglowe-wormes)afarreoff,shinebright,/Butlook'dtoneere,haueneitherheate,norlight"(K).Theverytextureoftheimagerypointstowardasingleconceptionofthedramaticsignificanceoflightanddarknessandcallsintoseriousquestionanyefforttoseetheplaysaswrittenwithdifferentplayhouseatmospheresandlightingsystemsinmind.

WithnocompellinginternalevidencetosuggestthatTheDuchessofMalfiwascomposedwithaneyetowardBlackfriarsproduction,wereturnfinallytotheonlypertinentexternalevidence,thetitlepageofthe1623first

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edition.ItgiveshonorofplacetoBlackfriars,butitdoesnotfollowthattheKing'smenperformedtheplaythereasearlyas1614.King'smen'splayspublishedintheearly1620sfrequentlymentiontheBlackfriarsontheirtitlepages,eventhoughmanyoftheseplaysareotherwiseknownashavingpremieredattheGlobe.Thetitlepageofthe1619firsteditionofAKingandNoKingsaystheplaywasactedattheGlobe(probablyin1611),butasecondeditionin1625mentionsonlytheBlackfriars,implyingarevivaltheresometimebetween1619and1625.Philasterwaspublishedin1620asactedattheGlobe,eventhoughitisnowusuallydatedtoaround1609and,oninternalevidence,assignedtoBlackfriars.

22Thesecondquartoof1622mentionsboththeGlobeandBlackfriars,againsuggestinganindoorrevivalaround1621.Oragain,the1622firstquartoofOthellonamesboththeGlobeandBlackfriars,butweknowthatOthellowasperformedsomefouryearsbeforetheKing'smenevenbeganactingatBlackfriars.ThenameofBlackfriarsonaquartopublishedin1623,then,provesnothingaboutwhereTheDuchessofMalfiwasperformedtenyearsearlier.ItremainspossiblethatTheDuchessofMalfiwaspremiered"publiquelyattheGlobe"andonlyeightornineyearslaterrevived"privatly,attheBlack-Friers."

Itakeact4,scene1,ofTheDuchessofMalfitobeacrucialinstanceofhowwemayuseaknowledgeofstageconditionstounderstandtheperformanceandeffectofanElizabethandramacrucialnotonlybecauseoftheimportanceofthesceneintheplaybutalsobecausetheplayitselfstandsjustatthepresumedshiftfrom"publictheater"to"privatetheater"sensibility,fromexclusivelynaturaltomixednaturalandartificialillumination.Ishouldliketosuggest,moreover,thatanalysesofspecifictechnicalproblemslikelightingandacoustics

maymoreprofitablydistinguishbetweentherespectivecontributionsoftheamphitheatersandhallplayhousesthancanambiguouscomparisonsofstyleandthesocialcompositionoftheaudience.Thedangeristhatifwebeginbyassumingthatperformancesattheindoorandoutdoorplayhousesdifferedsignificantly,theneventhesmallestshredofevidencepointinginthatdirectionmaybegiventoomuchweight.WerewenotabletodateOthello,forexample,tobefore1605,anattempttoidentifyitsoriginalplayhousemightwellhaveyieldedthesameconclusionasBrown'sregardingTheDuchessofMalfi.ForinthelastactofOthello,thereisanimportanteffectthat,ifitwasintendedasalightingeffect,wouldhavebeendifficulttoseeattheGlobe.WhenOthelloentersDesdemona'sbed-

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room"withalight"andcomparesittoher"Putoutthelight,andthenputoutthelight"(QM)onecannotimaginethateitherthecandleoritsextinctioncouldhavemademuchofaneffectonthedaylitGlobestage.Mayweconclude,then,thatShakespeareintendedtheaudiencetoseealonelycandleburninginadarkenedhall,poignantlysignalingherchastityinanastyworld?Orarewetoseeitthrowingoutafeeblelightonabright,openairstage?WasthescenepresentedillusionisticallyatBlackfriarswithonlyOthello'sflickeringcandlelightingthescene?Inthatcase,theaudiencemighthavehaddifficultyseeingDesdemona'shorrifiedreactionstoOthello'saccusations.Orcanweratherbelieve,ontheauthorityofthedead-handscene,thatDesdemona'sdeathscenewasperformedinsufficientlightatbothplayhousesandthatthetheatricalpointresidedmoreinpoetryandactingthaninlighting?

WepossessnodescriptionoftheoriginallightingofTheDuchessofMalfi,butwedoknowthatwhentheKing'smenperformedOthellointheElizabethanbanquetinghallatWhitehallon1November1604,theRevelsOfficewenttosomeexpenseandtroubletoprovidealargenumberoflights.Theofficepaidthirtyshillings"formendingeofyeOldBrau[n]chesforAplayeonHallomasNight"andapparentlypurchasedsixnewbranchesfortheperformance,aswell.

23BecauseInigoJones'slightingeffectshadnotyetbeenintroducedatcourtandbecause,inanycase,Jonesisnotknowntohaveaidedintheproductionofprofessionalplaysatcourtuntil,perhaps,1616,24Ithinkwemayassumethatthenearlytwohundredcandlesshininginthebanquetinghallwerenotextinguishedandrelitastheplaymovedfromdaytonight.AndifareportoftheKing'smen'sperformanceofOthelloatOxfordinSeptember1610referstoanindoorvenue(asitislikelyto),thenwemaybelievethatsuchsceneswereplayedinmorethanadequatelight.WelearnthattheOxfordaudiencewas

deeplymovedbyDesdemona'sdeathsceneandespeciallybytheexpressiononherfaceasshelaydead:"cuminlectodecumbensspectantiummisericordiamipsovultuimploraret."25ThatDesdemonaarousedpityipsovultu,"byherfacealone,"meansthattheaudiencecouldseeeventhesmallestdetailsclearlyandthat,iftheplaywasindoors,darknesswasnotattemptedbyextinguishingthecandles.Theabilitytoseesuchdetailsinnighttimescenessuggests,infact,thattheactorswerenotregularlyobligedtoaltertheirmethodsofstagingastheymovedfromoneplayhousetoanother.Someofthesmallestindoorhallsmayhaveal-

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lowedtheaudiencetoenjoysubtleractingthanwaspossibleoutdoors,butHosley'sreconstructionofthesecondBlackfriarsshowsthatthemajorityofspectatorstherewerenearlyasfarfromthestageasthoseinthelargestamphitheaters,wheretheaudiencecouldsurroundtheactors.Hence,ifthegeneralilluminationweregood,audiencesatbothkindsofplayhousecoulddiscernaboutthesamedegreeofrefinementintheacting.ThelastactofOthello,likethedead-man's-handsceneinTheDuchessofMalfi,couldbeperformedoutdoorsandindoors,intheafternoonoratnight,bydaylightorcandlelight.

Inpointoffact,thesteady,overallilluminationoftheamphitheatersandhalls,farfromimposingarestrictionontheactorsandplaywrights,meantthateveninscenesofpretendeddarkness,theaudiencecouldseeandrespondtothevisualmediaoftheactors'craft.TheKing'smenatOxford,forinstance,"movedtheaudiencetotears,notonlybytheirspeech,butbytheirgesturesaswell."

26Thus,aswereadTheDuchessofMalfiandcomeacrossseveredhandsandwaxcorpses,wemustnotforgettheexpressionsandgesturesoftheactorsthatsodeeplymovedtheoriginalaudiences.Thelargelyungovernablestagelightingoftheeraunderscorestheimportantbutmissingevidenceoftheactingandconfirmsindirectlythatthestagingattheindoorandoutdoorplayhousesmaynothavebeensodifferentinregardtoanaspectofstageproductionthatonemighthaveassumedwoulddefinetheprincipaldifferencebetweenthem.

Whereasmodernlightingtendstobehighlydirectional,emanatingfromtwodistinctpositionstothefrontoftheactor,earlyEnglishlightingemanatedfromallaroundtheactor,surroundinghimwithsoft,indirectlight.Therewasnoimpressionoflightfocusingontheactor,nosenseofthelightexposinghimtoourvieworthe

interpretiveschemeofthelightingdesigner.TheactorsmovedinthesamelightallLondonersmovedineveryday.Therewasnothingtheatricalortwo-dimensionalaboutit,nothingtosuggestthattheplaycreateditsownspeciallight.Sincethelateeighteenthcentury,wehavebeenpleasedtocallouractors"stars"inhonorofthebrilliantlighttheyseemtoradiateinourdarkenedtheaters;Shakespearecalledactors"shadows."Puckwonders"[i]fweshadoweshaueoffended"(AMidsummerNight'sDream,Q1O3v),andtoMacbeththepoorplayerthatstrutsandfretshishouruponthestageis"butawalkingShadow"(F2345).Picturingtheplayhousesheknew,itiseasytoimaginewhyShakespearefavoredthisimage.Theac-

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torsemanatednotheatricallightoftheirownbutratheractedintheshadowsoftheheavensortheindoorroof."Thebest,inthiskinde,arebutshadowes,"saysTheseusofthedrama(AMidsummerNight'sDream,Q1H1v),bywhichhemeansshadowsofrealityplaysbothonceremovedfromtherealworldandatthesametimeilluminatedandmadeunderstandablebyit.

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Notes

1LightonthePlay

1.C.H.HerfordandP.andE.Simpson,eds.,BenJonson,11vols.(Oxford,1925-52),7:514.

2.StephenGreenblatt,RenaissanceSelf-Fashioning(Chicago,1980),4.

3.AllShakespearecitationsarefromCharltonHinman,ed.,TheFirstFolioofShakespeare:TheNortonFacsimile(NewYork,1968)or,exceptwherenoted,theappropriatequartosinMichaelJ.B.AllenandKennethMuir,eds.,Shakespeare'sPlaysinQuarto(Berkeley,1981).Folioreferences(F)areto"throughlinenumbers,"quartoreferences(Q)tosignatures.OnallusionstotheheavensoverthestageinKingLear,seeWilliamR.Elton,KingLearandtheGods(SanMarino,1968),161-63.

4.Othellowasperformedunderthisceiling1November1604;seetheOfficeofWorksaccountsinMaloneSocietyCollections10(1975[1977]):20.SubsequentreferencestotheMaloneSocietyCollectionsserieswillbecitedasMSC.

5.AndrewGurr,PlaygoinginShakespeare'sLondon(Cambridge,1987),205-51.

6.G.E.Bentley,ShakespeareSurvey1(1948):38-50,andrecastwithadditionalmaterialinShakespeareandHisTheatre(Lincoln,Neb.,1964),65-128.

7.AnnJennalieCook,ThePrivilegedPlaygoersofShakespeare'sLondon(Princeton,1981);Gurr,Playgoing,167.

8.T.J.King,ShakespeareanStaging:1599-1642(Cambridge,Mass.,1971),2.

9.CliffordLeech,"TheDramatists'Independence,"ResearchOpportunitiesinRenaissanceDrama10(1967):17-23;J.A.Lavin,"ShakespeareandtheSecondBlackfriars,"TheElizabethanTheatre3(1973):68-81.

10.JohnMarston,TheMalcontent(London,1604;fac.rpt.Menston,1970),A4.

11.JamesShirley,PoemsEtc.(London,1646),154-55.ShirleyhadoriginallywrittentheplayfortheindoorWerburghStreettheater,Dublin,whichapparentlywassimilartotheBlackfriars.Shirley'sTheCourtSecret(London,1653)was"preparedfortheSceneatBlack-Friers"butneveracted,accordingtothetitlepage.TheprinterofI.C.'sTheTwoMerryMilkmaids(London,1620;fac.rpt.London,1914)assertedthateveryplaywright"mustgovernhisPenneaccordingtotheCapacitieoftheStagehewritestoo,bothintheActorandtheAuditor"(A1v).

12.RichardHosley,"ElizabethanTheatresandAudiences,"ResearchOpportunitiesinRenaissanceDrama10(1967):13-14;andseeAndrewGurr,"PlayinginAmphitheatres

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andPlayinginHallTheatres,"TheElizabethanTheatre13(1994):47-62,forthelimitationsthatthesmallerstagesinthehallplayhousesmayhaveimposedonscenesofbattleandspectacle.

13.PriortotheuncoveringoftheRose,thebestreconstructionofamphitheaterlightingwasJohnOrrell's"SunlightattheGlobe,"TheatreNotebook38(1984):69-76,rpt.withadditionalmaterialinTheHumanStage(Cambridge,1988),88-102.

2TudorandEarlyStuartLightingEquipment

1.GeneralbackgroundonlampsisfoundinF.W.Robins,TheStoryoftheLamp(andtheCandle)(London,1939).EarlylightinginstrumentsarebestseeninRupertGentleandRachelFeild,DomesticMetalwork,1640-1820,rev.B.Gentle(Woodbridge,1994),114-218;GabrielHenriot,EncyclopédieduLuminare(Paris,1870),1;andLadislausvonBenesch,DasBeleuchtungswesen(Vienna,1905),rpt.asOldLampsofCentralEurope(Rutland,Vt.,1962).

2.NicolaSabbattini,Praticadifabricarsceneemachinene'teatri(Ravenna,1638;rpt.Rome,1955),bk.1,chap.39,p.55,trans.inA.M.Nagler,ASourceBookinTheatricalHistory(NewYork,1952),88.Sabbattini'schaptersontheatricallightingwerefirstprintedin1636.

3.Rushesweresometimesdippedinsaladoiltomakethemburn,atleastamongthewealthy:privy-purseexpensesofHenryVIIIfor1529listabottle"ofsaletoyleandforRusshestobrennewt.thesaidoyle";seeR.Goodwin-Smith,EnglishDomesticMetalwork(1937;abridgeded.Leigh-on-Sea,1973),31.

4.ArthurLaing,Lighting(London,1982),43;ArthurH.Hayward,ColonialLighting(1923;rpt.NewYork,1962),19.

5.JohnStow,SurveyofLondon(London,1598),H6v.

6.StanleyWells,PeriodLighting(London,1975),84;JamesRogers,AHistoryofAgricultureandPricesinEngland,7vols.(London,1886-1902),6:652-53.

7.CarolineSpurgeon,Shakespeare'sImageryandWhatItTellsUs(Cambridge,1935),113.

8.RobertGreene,FriarBaconandFriarBungay(London,1594),G1v.AlthoughthereisnolampinGreene'sAlphonsus,KingofAragon(London,1599;fac.rpt.London,1926),italsofeaturesabrazenhead"setinthemiddleoftheplacebehindtheStage,outofwhich"theElizabethanequivalentofstagehandsaredirectedto"castflamesoffire"(F1v).

9.Laing,Lighting,36.

10.ThomasMiddleton,AChasteMaidinCheapside(London,1630;rpt.Menston,1969),E1-E1v.

11.G.GlenGould,PeriodLightingFixtures(NewYork,1928),180-81.

12.Marston,TheMalcontent,E1v.

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13.WilliamO'Dea,TheSocialHistoryofLighting(NewYork,1958),3.

14.GöstaM.Bergman,LightingintheTheatre(Stockholm,1977),54.

15.WalterMountfort,TheLaunchingoftheMary(MS,fac.printingOxford,1933),fol.319b.

16.RandallMonier-Williams,TheTallowChandlersofLondon(London,1970),1:43.Theword"stinkinge"isinterlinedanddeleted.

17.MSC13(1986):10.

18.JohnDummelow,TheWaxChandlersofLondon(London,1973),12.

19.MSC13:141.

20.MSC13:10,32,51,57,andpassim.

21.Rogers,AHistoryofAgricultureandPrices,5:398-400,6:652.In1588,astatuteregulatingLondonvictuals-pricessetapoundof"TalloweCandlesmadeofwicke"atthreehalfpennies;in1599,thepricewasincreasedtofourpence.SeeABookeConteiningAllSuchProclamationsaswerePublishedDuringtheReignofQ.Elizabeth(London,1618),folios343-44.

22.ThomasDekkerandJohnWebster,WestwardHo!(London,1607;fac.rpt.London,1911),D.

23.JohnWebster,TheWhiteDevil(London,1612;fac.rpt.London,1970),E3v.

24.AlbertFeuillerat,ed.,DocumentsRelatingtotheOfficeoftheRevelsintheTimeofQueenElizabeth,MaterialenzurKundedesälterenenglischenDramas21(Louvain,1908):296.

25.Stow,SurveyofLondon,H6v;ThomasBlount,Glossographia(London,1656;rpt.London,1670),s.v."cresset":"anoldwordforaLanthornorburningbeacon."

26.StephenSpector,ed.,TheN-TownPlay,EarlyEnglishTextSociety(Oxford,1991),1:289;R.W.Ingram,"'Tofindtheplayer,'"TheElizabethanTheatre5(1975):35-36.

27.MSC11(1980[1981]):119-32.

28.JohnWebster,TheDuchessofMalfi(London,1623),E2,N1.

29.T.D.,TheBloodyBanquet(London,1639;rpt.London,1962),F1v-F2.Aneighteenth-centuryEnglishdarklanternispicturedinHayward,ColonialLighting,pl.43.ThesinisterconnotationsofdarklanternscontinuedwellintothetwentiethcenturywhenwriterslikeConanDoyleandDorothySayersmadeuseofthem.

30.GeorgeChapman,BussyD'Ambois(London,1607),14-14v.Onthetaperasemblem,seeDieterMehl,"EmblemsinEnglishRenaissanceDrama,"RenaissanceDrama2(1969):52.

31.Webster,TheWhiteDevil,K2-K2v.

32.GeorgeCavendish,TheLifeandDeathofCardinalWolsey(MSc.1558;printedLondon,1959),69.

33.AlanH.Nelson,EarlyCambridgeTheatres(Cambridge,1994),112.

34.R.A.FoakesandR.T.Rickert,eds.,Henslowe'sDiary(Cambridge,1961),319.

35.SebastianSerly,TheFirstBookeofArchitecture(London,1611),bk.2,chap.3,fol.26v.

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36.IllustrationsanddescriptionsoftheseglobesarefoundinFrankL.Horton,"NewThoughtsonEighteenth-CenturyLighting,"Antiques67.1(1955):56-57.

37.N.D.Shergold,AHistoryoftheSpanishStage(Oxford,1967),204.

3EarlyLightingSystems

1.GlynneWickham,EarlyEnglishStages,3vols.(NewYork,1959-81),2,pt.1:153-275.

2.AlexandraJohnston,"'AlltheWorldWasaStage':RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama,"inTheTheatreofMedievalEurope,ed.E.Simon(Cambridge,1991),124.

3.OscarBrownstein,"WhyDidn'tBurbageLeasetheBeargarden?AConjectureinComparativeArchitecture,"inTheFirstPublicPlayhouse:TheTheatreinShoreditch1576-1598,ed.H.Berry(Montreal,1979),81-96;Orrell,TheHumanStage,14-20.

4.HerbertBerry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse(Washington,1986),111.

5.Johnston,"'AlltheWorldWasaStage,'"124.TheQueen'smenplayedin"theColledgeChurcheyarde"inGloucesterin1589-90;seeRecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cumberland,Westmorland,Gloucestershire,ed.A.DouglasandP.Greenfield(Toronto,1986),311.

6.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Devon,ed.J.Wasson(Toronto,1987),320.

7.RichardHosley,"TheOriginsoftheShakespeareanPlayhouse,"inShakespeare400,ed.J.C.McManaway(NewYork,1964),29-39;

RichardSouthern,TheStagingofPlaysBeforeShakespeare(London,1973),257-535.AlthoughHosleyandSouthernoveremphasizedhallscreensasforerunnersoftiring-housefacades(manyhallstageswerenotplacedagainstscreens),theywereamongthefirsttostressindoorhallperformancesbyprofessionalactors;seeAlanH.Nelson,"HallScreensandElizabethanPlayhouses,"inTheDevelopmentofShakespeare'sTheater,ed.J.Astington(NewYork,1992),57-76.

8.FrancisA.Yates,TheTheatreoftheWorld(London,1969);RichardC.Kohler,"TheFortuneContractandVitruvianSymmetry,"ShakespeareStudies6(1970):311;"ExcavatingHenslowe'sRose,"ShakespeareQuarterly40(1989):475-82;and"VitruvianProportionsinTheaterDesignintheSixteenthandEarlySeventeenthCenturiesinItalyandEngland,"ShakespeareStudies16(1983):265-325.SeealsoJohnOrrell,"TheArchitectureoftheFortunePlayhouse,"ShakespeareSurvey47(1994):16.SkepticismregardinghowthoroughlyamphitheatersfollowedVitruviusisvoicedbyS.P.Cerasano,"RaisingaPlayhousefromtheDust,''ShakespeareQuarterly40(1989):483-90.

9.A.C.Pickard-Cambridge,TheDramaticFestivalsofAthens,2nded.(Oxford,1968),64,67;W.Beare,"Rome,"inTheOxfordCompaniontotheTheatre,ed.P.Hartnoll(London,1967).CliffordAshby,"DidtheGreeksReallyGettotheTheatrebeforeDawn--ThreeDaysRunning?"TheatreResearchInternational17(1992):2-7,emphasizesthepaucityofevidenceregardingperformancetimesinGreektheaters.

10.MargareteBieber,TheHistoryoftheGreekandRomanTheaters(Princeton,1961),115,119,169,171;CliffordAshby,"TheSitingofGreekTheatres,"TheatreResearchInternational16(1991):181-201.

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11.Bieber,GreekandRomanTheaters,135,147,180.

12.AllardyceNicoll,TheDevelopmentoftheTheatre,5thed.(London,1966),41,43;JamesT.Allen,StageAntiquitiesoftheGreeksandRomans(1927;rpt.NewYork,1963),91.GeorgeC.Izenour,RoofedTheatersofClassicalAntiquity(NewHaven,1992),reconstructsseveralsmall,completelyroofedauditoriums,lit,heconjectures,bywindowsandlanternsprojectingabovetheroofs.

13.Lucretius,TheNatureofThings,trans.F.Copley(NewYork,1977),84-85.

14.Bieber,GreekandRomanTheaters,179.

15.T.F.Ordish,EarlyLondonTheatres(London,1899),15-24;Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,2,pt.1:161-72.

16.KathleenKenyon,TheRomanTheatreofVerulamium(n.p.,1963).

17.JaneA.Bakere,TheCornishOrdinalia:ACriticalStudy(Cardiff,1980),155-56.TheplaysoftheOrdinaliaseemtodatefromaround1375.

18.Bakere,TheCornishOrdinalia,12-13.

19.Vitruvius,TheTenBooksonArchitecture,trans.M.H.Morgan(1914;rpt.NewYork,1960),138,148.

20.MaryH.Marshall,"TheatreintheMiddleAges:EvidencefromDictionariesandGlosses,"Symposium4(1950):9,21,24-25.

21.RichardSouthern,TheMedievalTheatreintheRound,2nded.(London,1975),56-58.

22.Southern,TheMedievalTheatreintheRound,117-20.ThekinshipbetweenearlyEnglishandFrenchstaginginsummarizedbyHardinCraig,EnglishReligiousDrama(Oxford,1955),138.

23.TenBooksonArchitecturebyLeoneBaptistaAlberti,trans.CosimoBartoliandJamesLeoni(1755;fac.rpt.London,1955),178.Onneoclassicaltheaterarchitecture,seeMichaelAnderson,"TheChangingScene:PlaysandPlayhousesintheItalianRenaissance,"inTheatreoftheEnglishandItalianRenaissance,ed.J.R.MulryneandM.Shewring(NewYork,1991),3-20.

24.QuotedbyRobertSarlos,"DevelopmentandOperationoftheFirstBlackfriars,"inStudiesintheElizabethanTheatre,ed.C.Prouty(Hamden,Conn.,1961),167.

25.Yates,TheTheatreoftheWorld,27-35.

26.RoyStrong,SplendoratCourt(London,1973),70;Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,11:599.

27.TranslatedinD.F.Rowan,"'TheSwan'Revisited,"ResearchOpportunitiesinRenaissanceDrama10(1967):34.

28.ThomasHeywood,AnApologyforActors(London,1612),D2-D3.

29.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,320.

30.Kohler,"TheFortuneContractandVitruvianSymmetry,"311.

31.L.B.Campbell,ScenesandMachinesontheEnglishStageDuringtheRenaissance(Cambridge,1923),20;Nicoll,TheDevelopmentoftheTheatre,74-75.

32.T.E.Lawrenson,TheFrenchStageintheXVIIthCentury(Manchester,1957),12-13.

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33.GeorgeR.Kernodle,FromArttoTheatre(Chicago,1944),72-98.

34.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:70.

35.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:89.

36.Kernodle,FromArttoTheatre,94.

37.RaphaelHolinshed,Chronicles(London,1587),3:932.

38.RobertWithington,EnglishPageantry(1918;rpt.NewYork,1963),1:186.

39.SeeAlanH.Nelson,TheMedievalEnglishStage(Chicago,1974),78,93,114,136,148,159.

40.Forasummary,seeStanleyJ.Kahrl,"TheStagingofMedievalEnglishPlays,"inTheTheatreofMedievalEurope,138-39.

41.W.W.Greg,ed.,ChesterPlayStudies(London,1935),166.Rogersdiedin1595.

42.NormanDavis,ed.,Non-CyclePlaysandFragments(London,1970),xxxv.

43.HardinCraig,ed.,TwoCoventryCorpusChristiPlays(London,1957),89,99.

44.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:170;F.M.Salter,MediaevalDramainChester(Toronto,1955),68-70.

45.A.C.Cawley,ed.,TheWakefieldPageants(Manchester,1958),xxv.

46.Craig,TwoCoventryCorpusChristiPlays,74.

47.R[obert]W[ilmot],etal.,GismondofSalerne(MSc.1568;fac.printingLondon,1912),fol.9.Intheprintedversionof1592,whichthetitlepagesayshadbeen"[n]ewlyreuiuedandpolishedaccording

tothedecorumofthesedaies,"Cupidonly"commethoutoftheheauens"(A2v).Perhapstheplaywasrevivedinavenuewithoutdescentmachinery;or,asthereisnorecordoflaterperformance,"reuiued"maymeanthatWilmotandhisfriendsreturnedtoworkingonthetextaftersomekindofhiatus.

48.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,296.

49.Greene,Alphonsus,KingofAragon,A3,I3.

50.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,7.

51.AndrewGurr,introductiontoPhilaster,byFrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher(London,1969),xxxvii.

52.Orrell,TheHumanStage,30-60.

53.SeeBonnerMitchell,"CircumstanceandSettingintheEarliestItalianProductionsofComedy,"RenaissanceDrama4(1971):190.

54.SydneyAnglo,Spectacle,Pageantry,andEarlyTudorPolicy(Oxford,1969),159-61.IfollowAnglo'stranscriptionsandtranslationsofthe1520sourcesthroughout.ForareconstructionoftheCalaistheater,seeRichardHosley,"TheTheatreandtheTraditionofPlayhouseDesign,"inTheFirstPublicPlayhouse,60-74.

55.Anglo,Spectacle,217.

56.CalvetedeEstrella,ElfelícimoviajedelmuypríncipedonFelipe(Antwerp,1552;rpt.Madrid,1930),2:68.Thefollowingdescriptionisparaphrasedfrom67-69.

57.ThomasHeywood,TheSilverAge(London,1613),I4v.PresumablytheplaywasproducedattheRedBull.

Page243

58.E.K.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4vols.(1923;corr.ed.Oxford,1951),3:78.

59.BernardBeckerman,ShakespeareattheGlobe(NewYork,1962),106;JohnAstington,"DescentMachineryinthePlayhouses,"MedievalandRenaissanceDramainEngland2(1985):119-33.

60.FrancisGrose,ed.,TheAntiquarianRepertory(London,1807),1:313.

61.Anglo,Spectacle,161.

62.ThefollowingdescriptionisbasedonBuildingandRevelsOfficeaccountsofMay1527,printedinWickham,EarlyEnglishStages,2,pt.2:212-20.

63.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,ed.AlanH.Nelson(Toronto,1989),1:234.

64.QuotedbyWickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:356.

65.W.Y.Durand,"PalamonandArcyte,Progne,MarcusGeminus,andtheTheatreinwhichTheyWereActed,asDescribedbyJohnBereblock(1566),"PMLA20(1905):505.

66.FelixSchelling,ElizabethanDrama(BostonandNewYork,1908),1:107;W.J.Lawrence,TheElizabethanPlayhouse(Stratford,1913),2:13;andO'Dea,TheSocialHistoryofLighting,155.

67.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:359.

68.Nelson,EarlyCambridgeTheatres,111-13.

69.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,1:166.

70.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,1:152.

71.RoyalCommissiononHistoricalMonuments,AnInventoryofthe

HistoricalMonumentsintheCityofCambridge(London,1959),2:209andmaps.

72.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,1:208.

73.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,1:357.

74.RoyalCommission,AnInventoryoftheHistoricalMonumentsintheCityofCambridge,1,facingp.84,andmaps.

75.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,1:212.

76.G.C.MooreSmith,CollegePlaysPerformedintheUniversityofCambridge(Cambridge,1923),33.

77.G.E.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,7vols.(Oxford,1941-68),4:529-30.

78.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,5:1263-64.

79.JohnM.Wasson,"TheEnglishChurchasTheatricalSpace,"inANewHistoryofEarlyEnglishDrama,ed.J.CoxandD.Kastan(NewYork,1997),26.

80.MSC8(1974):91-92.

81.E.K.Chambers,TheMediaevalStage(Oxford,1903),2:382.

82.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Norwich,1540-1642,ed.D.Galloway(Toronto,1984),52.

83.D.F.Rowan,"ThePlayersandPlayingPlacesofNorwich,"inTheDevelopmentofShakespeare'sTheater,90.

Page244

84.T.W.Craik,TheTudorInterlude(Leicester,1958);Southern,TheStagingofPlaysBeforeShakespeare.Nelson,EarlyCambridgeTheatres,passim,demonstratesthatCambridgestageswerenotalwayssetagainsthallscreens,asassumedbyHosleyandSouthern.

85.JohnHeywood,JohanJohan(London,1533;fac.rpt.London,1972),A2v,B4v;HenryMedwall,Nature(n.d.;fac.rpt.London,1908),G1.

86.JohnHeywood,ThePlayoftheWeather(London,1533;fac.rpt.London,1914),A3.

87.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cumberland,Westmorland,Gloucestershire,299.AndrewGurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies(Oxford,1996),181,194,listsonlyafewpaymentsbycivicauthoritiesforcandlesandtorchesforprofessionalplayers.

88.JohnT.Murray,EnglishDramaticCompanies(London,1910),2:214.

89.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:York,ed.A.JohnstonandM.Rogerson(Toronto,1979),449.

90.SybilRosenfeld,"DramaticCompaniesintheProvincesinthe16thandEarly17thCenturies,"TheatreNotebook8(1953):58;AndrewGurr,"TheLossofRecordsforTravellingCompaniesinStuartTimes,"RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama19.2(1994):11.

91.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Norwich,1540-1642,71.

92.Murray,EnglishDramaticCompanies,2:233.

93.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Norwich,1540-1642,113.A"not"inthisentryhasbeencanceled,butMurray,EnglishDramaticCompanies,2:338,retainsit,whichthesenseseemstorequire.

94.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Chester,ed.L.Clopper

(Toronto,1979),292-93.

95.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,1:276.

96.Rosenfeld,"DramaticCompanies,"57.

97.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,1:312.

98.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:267.

99.MSC2,pt.3(1931):310.

100.GervaseBabington,AveryfruitfulExpositionoftheCommaundementsbywayofQuestionsandAnsweres(London,1583),317-18.

101.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:340.

102.ThomasNash,NashesLentonStuffe(London,1599),A3.

103.MSC5(1960):21-22.

104.ThomasMiddleton,YourFiveGallants(London,[1608]),C2.

105.TheLettersofJohnChamberlain,ed.N.E.McClure(Philadelphia,1939),2:159.

106.TheDiaryofSamuelPepys,ed.RobertLathamandW.Matthews,11vols.(Berkeley,1970-83),1:61.

107.StephenOrgelandRoyStrong,eds.,InigoJones:TheTheatreoftheStuartCourt(London,1973),1:282.

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4AfternoonPerformancesattheOutdoorPlayhouses

1.PointedoutbyGeorgeR.Kernodle,"TheOpenStage:ElizabethanorExistentialist?"ShakespeareSurvey12(1959):1.BernardBeckerman,"UseandManagementoftheElizabethanStage,"inTheThirdGlobe,ed.C.WHodges,S.Schoenbaum,andL.Leone(Detroit,1981),163,arguesthat

actorslitbyartificiallight,whenplayingagainstacolorfulfaçadethatiseitherlitdirectlyorthatreceivesconsiderablespilllight,tendtogetlost....Incomparison,innaturallightthebackgroundcolorissofteranddoesnotinterferewithaclearperceptionoftheactor.

2.EdmondMalone,"AnHistoricalAccountoftheRiseandProgressoftheEnglishStage"(1790),rpt.inThePlaysandPoemsofWilliamShakespeare(ThirdVariorum),ed.JamesBoswell(London,1821),3:109.

3.QuotedinBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,2:694.

4.ThebestsummaryofperformancetimesisinGurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies,78-81.

5.C.W.Dugmore,"CanonicalHours,"inADictionaryofLiturgyandWorship,ed.J.Davies(NewYork,1972).GeneralbackgroundisinHortonDavies,WorshipandTheologyinEnglandfromCranmertoHooker(Princeton,1970),178,204,andM.E.Cornford,"EcclesiasticalHistory:1547-1563,"inTheVictoriaHistoryofLondon,ed.W.Page(London,1909),1:295.

6.DavidKnowles,TheMonasticOrderinEngland(Cambridge,1963),715.

7.CharlesPendrill,OldParishLifeinLondon(London,1937),36.

8.Cornford,"EcclesiasticalHistory,"1:295,318.From1582onward,lectureswerereadinSt.Margaret'sChurchinNewFishStreetaftereveningprayerfrom5to6P.M.onMondaysandafter1591onSundaysaswell.Presumably,theeveningprayerservicetherebeganat3or4P.M.

9.ReavleyGair,TheChildrenofPaul's(Cambridge,1982),53.

10.WalterH.Frere,ed.,VisitationArticlesandInjunctionsofthePeriodoftheReformation(London,1910),3:303.

11.RonaldBayne,"Religion,"inShakespeare'sEngland,ed.S.LeeandC.T.Onions(Oxford,1916),1:62;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,1:313.

12.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:268.

13.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:269.

14.SunsettimesaredrawnfromThomasBuckminster,AnAlmanackeandPrognostication,fortheyeereofChristesincarnationMD.XC.VIII(London,1598).ThesetimescheckcloselywithmodernfiguresinWhitaker'sAlmanac(London,1994),takingintoaccountthedifferencesbetweenold-andnew-stylecalendars.EnglanddidnotadoptthepresentGregoriancalendaruntil1752.Asaresult,theequinoxesandsolsticesbeforethatweretendaysearlierthanthedatesonwhichtheynowfall.SeeW.W.Greg,"OldStyle--NewStyle,"inJosephQuincyAdamsMemorialStudies,ed.J.McManawayetal.(Washington,1948),563-569.

Page246

15.Gurr,"TheLossofRecords,"11.

16.RichardDutton,MasteringtheRevels:TheRegulationandCensorshipofEnglishRenaissanceDrama(IowaCity,1991).ForrelationsamongthePrivyCouncil,theCorporationoftheCityofLondon,andtheactors,seeCarolChillingtonRutter'sintroductiontoDocumentsoftheRosePlayhouse(Manchester,1984),9-18,andChambers,TheElizabethanStage,1:269-307.

17.VirginiaC.Gildersleeve,GovernmentRegulationoftheElizabethanDrama(NewYork,1908),158.

18.MSC1,pt.1(1907[1908]):53.

19.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:369.

20.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:285.

21.MSC1,pt.1:54.

22.MSC1,pt.1:63-64.

23.RaphaelHolinshed,Chronicles,revisedbyJohnHooker(London,1577),3:Kkkkkk6v.

24.JohnStow,TheAnnalesofEngland(London,1592),Iiiiv.

25.MSC1,pt.2(1908):164.

26.Gildersleeve,GovernmentRegulation,169-70.Also,theplaguewaswidespreadin1583,perhapsforcingtheplayersoutsidecityregulation.

27.MSC1,pt.2:169-70.

28.MSC1,pt.2:172.

29.MSC1,pt.2:174.

30.MSC1,pt.2:187-88.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,1:314,confusesthedateandlocationoftheriot.

31.W.W.Greg,ed.,Henslowe'sDiary(London,1904-8),1:220,2:51.

32.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,19.

33.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,19.ThedatesgiveninHenslowe'sdiaryraiseseveralproblems;GregdistrustsmanySundaydates.Althoughafewaredemonstrablywrong,wecannotdisregardsuchimportantevidenceasthediarycontains.Forasummaryofthedifficulties,seeFoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,xxvi-xxviii.

34.Gildersleeve,GovernmentRegulation,181.

35.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:312-13.

36.SeeWickham,EarlyEnglishStages,2,pt.1:194;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:268;andMSC,2,pt.3:310.

37.MSC1,pt.1:74.

38.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,2,pt.2:95-101;seealsoT.S.Graves,TheCourtandtheLondonTheatres(1913;rpt.NewYork,1967),32.O.L.Brownstein,"ARecordofLondonInnPlayhousesfromc.1565-1590,"ShakespeareQuarterly22(1971):22,assumestheactorsoccupiedlargeroomsintheCrossKeysandBull,butChambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:527,doubtstheinnshadanyindoorroomslargeenoughforplays.

39.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Norwich,1540-1642,71,andseeDavidGalloway,

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"RecordsofEarlyEnglishDramaintheProvinces,"TheElizabethanTheatre7(1980):97-98.

40.Berry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse,16-17.BerrycautionsthattheBoar'sHeadinvolvedinthe1557accountmightpossiblybeadifferentinnfromtheoneconvertedtoamorepermanenttheaterin1597.

41.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:369.BecauserecordsofElizabethanfencingmatchesdonotincludetheCrossKeysortheBull,Brownstein,"ARecordofLondonInnPlayhouses,"23,suggeststhattheseinnsmayhavehadonlyindoorperformancevenues.

42.L[eslie]S[tephens],"Flecknoe,Richard,"DNB(1963-64).

43.Murray,EnglishDramaticCompanies,1:30;E.K.Chambers,WilliamShakespeare:AStudyofFactsandProblems(Oxford,1930),2:323;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:412,413,442;AndrewGurr,TheShakespeareanStage,3rded.(Cambridge,1992),42;Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,1:163,2:677,7:37,100.

44.Webster,TheWhiteDevil,A2;BenJonson,Poetaster(London,1602),F3V.

45.Brownstein,"ARecordofLondonInnPlayhouses,"21-22.

46.PrintedinThePlaysandPoemsofWilliamShakespeare,21:414.

47.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:543;ThomasPlatter,BeschreibungderReisen,ed.R.Keiser(Basel,1968),2:791.Laterinthediary,Platteromitsthe"etwann,"sayingthatplayswereactedeveryday"umb2uhrennachemittag"(792).

48.BecausePlatterwenttothetheaterdirectlyfromlunch,thefactthatittookagallantinSirJohnDavies'sEpigrammesandElegies(Middleborough,[1590]),D1,onehourtogofromtheplayhouseto

suppermayindicatemorethanjustaquicktripforPlatter.

49.SeeBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,4:875,6:33.

50.Malone,"AnHistoricalAccount,"inThePlaysandPoemsofWilliamShakespeare,3:144.

51.I[ohn]D[avies],EpigrammesandElegies,D1.

52.J.P.Collier,AnnalsoftheStage(1831;rpt.London,1879),3:180.

53.Histriomastix,orThePlayerWhipt(London,1610;fac.rpt.London,1912),B4V-Cl.

54.ThomasCranley,Amanda,orTheReformedWhore(London,1635),F3.

55.ThomasDekker,TheGulsHorne-booke(London,1609),D3V.

56.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,4:875.

57.Gurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies,79.

58.See,e.g.,T[homas?]G[offe?],TheCarelessShepherdess(London,1656),B4V.

59.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,86.

60.T.S.Graves,"NightScenesintheElizabethanTheatre,"EnglischeStudien47(1913):67.Gravesdoesnotmentionthatin1617,OrazioBusinorecordsthatatrickwasplayedonhiminthe"evening"ataplayhousethathasregularlybeenidentifiedastheFortune,althoughBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:151-52,showsthatthisisanunverifiednineteenth-centuryidentification.

61.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,88.

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62.Gurr,"TheLossofRecords,"2-18,showsthatbefore1603,Elizabeth's1559proclamationgenerallyallottedtouringcompaniesthelargestroomintown;after1603,whentheproclamationwasnotrenewed,provincialcitiesincreasinglydisallowedperformancesorrelegatedtheactorstolocalinns.

63.MarvinRosenberg,"PublicNightPerformancesinShakespeare'sTime,"TheatreNotebook8(1953):44-45.

64.MSC4(1956):60;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:320.

65.Gurr,"TheLossofRecords,"12-15.

66.AlbertCohn,ShakespeareinGermany(London,1865),pl.2.

67.AlfredHart,"TheTimeAllottedforRepresentationofElizabethanandJacobeanPlays,"ReviewofEnglishStudies8(1932):402.

68.DavidKlein,"TimeAllottedforanElizabethanPerformance,"ShakespeareQuarterly18(1967):434-38.

69.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:345.

70.Gurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies,82.

71.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,5:15.

72.H.A.Rennert,TheSpanishStageintheTimeofLopedeVega(1909;rpt.NewYork,1963),111.However,fineswereleviedagainstperformancesextendingpastdusk(which,formostoftheyear,islaterinMadridthaninLondon);seeE.WilsonandD.Moir,ALiteraryHistoryofSpain:TheGoldenAgeDrama(London,1971),34-35.

73.J.H.Brazell,LondonWeather,MeteorologicalOfficePublication783(London,1968),172.

74.SeeH.H.Lamb,TheChangingClimate(1966;rpt.London,1972),5-12;andBrazell,LondonWeather,appendix1.

75.C.WalterHodges,Shakespeare'sTheatre(London,1964),64.

76.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:136.

77.Dekker,TheGulsHorne-booke,E4V.Dekker'schapteronplayhousesisacompositedescriptionofbothpublicandprivateplayhouseswiththesceneshiftingvaguelybackandforth.Atthepointinquestion,Dekkerseemstobediscussingamphitheaters.

78.N.C.Bawcutt,ed.TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama:TheRecordsofSirHenryHerbert,MasteroftheRevels1623-73(Oxford,1996),166.

5IlluminationoftheOutdoorPlayhouses

1.RichardHosley,"ThePlayhouses,"inTheRevelsHistoryofDramainEnglish,ed.T.W.Craiketal.(London,1975),3:136-74.

2.JanetLeongard,"AnElizabethanLawsuit:JohnBrayne,hisCarpenter,andtheBuildingoftheRedLionTheatre,"ShakespeareQuarterly34(1983):309.

3.RichardHosley,"ThePlayhouseandtheStage,"inANewCompaniontoShakespeareStudies,ed.K.MuirandS.Schoenbaum(Cambridge,1971),30.

4.DetailsoftheRose'sremainsareconvenientlysummarizedbyJulianM.C.Bow-

Page249

sherandSimonBlatherwick,"TheStructureoftheRose,"inNewIssuesintheReconstructionofShakespeare'sTheatre,ed.F.Hildy(NewYork,1990),55-78.

5.Berry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse,139,164.

6.Orrell,TheHumanStage,81-87.ButAndrewGurr,"TheBareIsland,"ShakespeareSurvey47(1994):37,pointsoutthatrainwaterfallingoffaroofwhosegableendfacedtheyardwouldnotproducethevisibleerosionlineparalleltothefrontoftheRosestage.

7.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:183.

8.RichardHosley,"StageSuperstructuresoftheFirstGlobeandtheSwan,"inTheDevelopmentofShakespeare'sTheater,128-137.HosleyissupportedbyStuartE.Baker,"TurretsandTiringHousesontheElizabethanPublicStage,"TheatreNotebook49(1995):134-51,whoarguesthat"integrated"stagecovers(i.e.,withtherearoftheroofconnectedtothegalleriesandthefrontoftheroofsupportedbypillars)wouldbemechanicallyunstable.

9.RichardHosley,"AReconstructionoftheFortunePlayhouse,Part1,"TheElizabethanTheatre6(1978):1-20.

10.W.W.Greg,HenslowePapers(London,1907),26.

11.Hosley'sassumptionsalsoforcehimtopositanunmentionedthirddoorgivingaccesstothetiring-houseandlords'rooms,eventhoughThomasPlatterimpliesthatspectatorswhoultimatelyarrivedintheyard,galleries,andlords'roomsallinitiallyenteredatthesamedoor.

12.AlanYoung,"TheOrientationoftheElizabethanStage,"TheatreNotebook33(1979):80-85.

13.Vitruvius,TheTenBooksonArchitecture,138.

14.SeeWickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:37.

15.Dekker,TheGulsHorne-booke,E2V.

16.JohnOrrell,"BeyondtheRose:DesignProblemsfortheGlobeReconstruction,"inNewIssuesintheReconstructionofShakespeare'sTheatre,110.

17.C.WalterHodges,"ReconstructingtheRose,"inNewIssuesintheReconstructionofShakespeare'sTheatre,79-94.

18.GlynneWickham,"Heavens,'Machinery,andPillarsintheTheatreandOtherEarlyPlayhouses,"inTheFirstPublicPlayhouse,ed.H.Berry(Montreal,1979),1-15.

19.Berry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse,108,127.

20.BowsherandBlatherwick,"TheStructureoftheRose,"inNewIssuesintheReconstructionofShakespeare'sTheatre,71.

21.Berry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse,109,111.

22.Greg,HenslowePapers,5.

23.A.M.Nagler,Shakespeare'sStage,trans.R.Manheim(NewHaven,1958),24-25.

24.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:466-67.

25.C.WalterHodges,Shakespeare'sSecondGlobe:TheMissingMonument(London,1973),61-73.

26.Hodges,Shakespeare'sSecondGlobe,73-76.

Page250

27.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:273.

28.RichardHosley,''TheSecondGlobe,"TheatreNotebook29(1975):141-42.

29.Hodges,Shakespeare'sSecondGlobe,75;RichardSouthern,"OnReconstructingaPracticableElizabethanPlayhouse,"ShakespeareSurvey12(1959):30.Southern'sestimateofthepurposeofthesewindowsisconfirmedbythesimilarslotwindowsintheJonesplayhouse(seefig.29).

30.Greg,HenslowePapers,5.

31.Baker,"TurretsandTiringHouses,"143.

32.RichardH.Palmer,TheLightingArt(EnglewoodCliffs,1985),15.

33.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,6-7.JohnRonayne,"TotusMundusagitHistrionum,"inShakespeare'sGlobeRebuilt,ed.J.MulryneandM.Shewring(Cambridge,1997),122-43,arguesthatElizabethandecorativestyleimpliesbrightlypaintedplayhouseinteriors.

34.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,309-10.

35.EstimatesarebasedonfiguresderivedfromtheDepartmentofScientificandIndustrialResearchTechnicalPaperNo.17,SeasonalVariationsofDaylightIllumination(London,1935),3-7,andR.G.Hopkinson,ArchitecturalPhysics:Lighting(London,1963),50-88.

36.AWarningforFairWomen(London,1599;fac.rpt.London,1912),A3.ChamberscitesotherreferencestoblackhangingsinTheElizabethanStage,3:79.

37.ThefollowingdiscussionoftheperceptionoflightisbasedonC.A.PadghamandJ.E.Saunders,ThePerceptionofLightandColour

(NewYork,1975),37-60,andMatthewLuckieshandFrankMoss,TheScienceofSeeing(NewYork,1937).

38.IusephotographstakeninAugust1995,whennoartificiallightswereused;thestagecoverwastemporaryandlackedthegablenowinplace,whichfurtherreducesfranksunshineintheyard.

39.Thatis,sinceStanleyMcCandless'sinfluentialAMethodofLightingtheStage(NewYork,1932).

40.LuckieshandMoss,TheScienceofSeeing,335.

41.Forexample,BertoltBrecht,SchriftenzumTheater(Frankfurt,1957),260-61;AntoninArtaud,TheTheatreandItsDouble,trans.M.C.Richards(NewYork,1958),96;andJerzyGrotowski,TowardsaPoorTheatre(NewYork,1968),20,callfortheilluminationoftheentiretheaterlargelyontheauthorityofElizabethanstagepractice.

42.J.L.Styan,Shakespeare'sStagecraft(Cambridge,1967),42-44.

43.CyrilTourneur,TheAtheist'sTragedy(London,1611),I2V.

44.WilliamHaughton,EnglishmenforMyMoney(London,1616;fac.rpt.London,1912),G1-G1V.

45.Styan,Shakespeare'sStagecraft,42.

46.Mostpraiseforacting,forexample,wasbasedontruthtonature;seeDanielSeltzer,"TheActorsandStaging,"inANewCompaniontoShakespeareStudies,36,andGurr,TheShakespeareanStage,100.

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47.See"TheDialoguesofLeonediSomi,"qtd.inNicoll,TheDevelopmentoftheTheatre,275,andM.St.ClaireByrne,"StageLighting,"inTheOxfordCompaniontotheTheatre,567.DiSomialsocalledforsomeofthefirst"mood"lightingonrecord.Hepreferredbrilliantlightonthesceneuntil"thefirstunhappyincidentoccurred,"whenheextinguishedmostofthelightnearthestage(274).

48.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:543.Hart,"TimeAllotted,"410;T.S.Graves,"NotesonElizabethanTheatres,"StudiesinPhilology103(1916):112;WilliamPoelqtd.inRobertSpeaight,WilliamPoelandtheElizabethanRevival(London,1954),132;andLawrence,TheElizabethanPlayhouse,2:13,concurandproposethattorches,candles,orcressetswereusedoutdoors.MichaelHattaway,ElizabethanPopularTheatre(London,1982),56,isevenmoreemphatic:"Lightingwasnecessary,"hestates,"andmayhavebeenusedfortheatricaleffectsinthepublicplayhouses."

49.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,7:88.

50.MSC2,pt.2(1923):153-54.

51.SeeI.vonRoeder-BaumbachandH.G.Evers,VersieringenbijBlijdeInkomsten(Antwerp,1949).InSpainitself,largetorchesroutinelygraceddaytimeperformancesofoutdoorautos;seeNagler,ASourceBookinTheatricalHistory,67.

52.Kernodle,FromArttoTheatre,116-29;W.M.H.Hummelen,"TypesandMethodsoftheDutchRhetoricians'Theatre,"inTheThirdGlobe,164-80.

53.W.J.Lawrence,"NightPerformancesintheElizabethanTheatres,"EnglischeStudien48(1915):219.IquotefromCollier,Annals,1:144.

54.Greg,HenslowePapers,84.

55.Berry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse,173.Here,Mago's"cressettlights"refersnottothesturdyironutensilsbuttothewovenfralesplacedinthem.

56.Stow,SurveyofLondon,H6v.

57.SeeGurr,Playgoing,20.

58.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:106.

59.KeithBrown,"Morelight,morelight,"EssaysinCriticism34(1984):1-13.Inreply,AndrewGurr,"'Lights,Ho!'(I),"EssaysinCriticism34(1984):271-77,pointedoutBrown'slackofevidenceandsuggestedthatifpoorlightwasaproblem,thecompanies'responsewastomoveindoors;whileJohnOrrell,"'Lights,Ho!'(II),"EssaysinCriticism34(1984):278-82,agreedthatcressetswouldhavebeenregularlyrequiredinwinter.

60.LuckieshandMoss,TheScienceofSeeing,86,387-93.

61.LuckieshandMoss,TheScienceofSeeing,336.

62.PadghamandSaunders,ThePerceptionofLightandColour,41.

63.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages2,pt.1:194.

64.WilfredT.Jewkes,ActDivisioninElizabethanandJacobeanPlays(Hamden,Conn.,1958),100-101;RichardHosley,"WasThereaMusic-RoominShakespeare'sGlobe?"ShakespeareSurvey13(1960):117.

65.Lawrence,"NightPerformances,"228,citingEdmundHowe'sadditionstoJohnStow'sAnnalesofEngland(London,1631),Iiiiv.

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66.Wemustquestion,therefore,whetherRobertFludd'sTheatrumOrbisisapictureofthesecondGlobe,asFrancisYatesclaimsinTheTheatreoftheWorld.Fluddshowsdirectsunlightcoveringthebackwallandmostofthe"stage"floor,animpossibilityatthesecondGlobejudgingbyHollar'sviewofthehut.Forsimilarreasons,wemaydiscountI.A.Shapiro'salternatesuggestionin"RobertFludd'sStage-Illustration,"ShakespeareStudies2(1966):192-209,thatitportraystheBlackfriars.

6DaylightintheIndoorPlayhouses

1.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,2:694.

2.See,forexample,L.B.Wright,"TheBritainThatShakespeareKnew,"NationalGeographic125(1967):651,andIrwinSmith,Shakespeare'sBlackfriarsPlayhouse(NewYork,1964),259.

3.HaroldN.Hillebrand,TheChildActors(Urbana,Ill.,1926),123.

4.Gair,TheChildrenofPaul's,53.BecauseWestcottbequeathedtenshillingstothekeeperofthegate(presumablythegatestothechurchyard),Gairassumesthattheperformancessometimescontinuedafterdusk,whenthegateswerenormallyclosed(56),althougha1608sermonbythepuritandivineWilliamCrashawesuggeststhatplayswereextendedintheotherdirectionwhenhedescribingeveningprayersas"cutshortertomakeroome"forplays(166).

5.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:320.

6.JohnDay,TheIsleofGulls(London,1606;fac.rpt.London,1936),A3.

7.MSC1,pt.1:91-92.

8.In1602,Germantouristsweredelightedbyaone-hourconcertbeforeaChildrenoftheChapelplayatBlackfriars(Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:33).

9.JohnEarle,Microcosmographie(London,1628),E7v.

10.Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,182.Presumably,theKing'smenhadmovedfromtheGlobeby19and21October1633,thedatesofthecanceledperformances.

11.MildmaywenttoBlackfriarsbeforesupperon25April1632,25November1635,27October1638,and15May1640;"thisafterNoone"on28April1635;and"dined...&wentothefryersblacketoaplay"on3November1637(Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,2:677-78).

12.J.Q.Adams,ShakespeareanPlayhouses(Boston,1917),232-33;Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:34-36.Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,174-75,188,addstwoinstancesofthequeen'svisitstoBlackfriarsunknowntoAdamsandBentley.

13.J.Q.Adams,ed.,TheDramaticRecordsofSirHenryHerbert(NewHaven,1912),76-77.OccasionalafternoonrehearsalsatcourtalsonecessitatedaBlackfriarscancellation.On16March1632,forexample,theKing'smenwerepaidfor"therehersallofone[play]attheCockpittbywhichmeanestheylosttheirafternooneattheHouse"(MSC2,pt.3:360).

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14.Althoughthequeen'sattendanceatBlackfriarsin1636and1638isnotedinextantKing'smen'sbills,herpresenceisnotconfirmedbyHerbert'scorrespondingaccounts,afactnotmentionedbyAdamsorBentley.Novenuesarecitedfor1636,andBlackfriarsisspecificallyexcludedfromthe1638warrantthatassignsallplaysthatseasontoHamptonCourt,Richmond,andWhitehall;seethewarrantsinMSC2,pt.3:382and388-89.Gurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies,80,doubtsthatalltheseperformanceswereatnight.

15.T.S.Graves,"The'ActTime'inElizabethanTheatres,"StudiesinPhilology12(1915):110,andI.Smith,Shakespeare'sBlackfriarsPlayhouse,259,citereferencesto"night"invariousBlackfriarsplaysasproofofnighttimeperformances.

16.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:369.However,thereisarecordofonesurreptitiousnightperformanceatWhitefriarsbysixteen"apprentices";seeD.F.McKenzie'sintroductiontoTheHogHathLostHisPearl(London,1972),vi-vii.WhentheWhitefriarsleaseexpiredin1615,PhilipRosseter,thelutanist,fittedupahallintheBlackfriarsdistrict,towhichpuritanneighborsobjectedonthegroundsthatitwasa"greevousDisturbauncetotheDevineserviceofGod"(MSC4:60).

17.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,2:676-77.

18.G[offe?],TheCarelessShepherdess,B4v.Itisthoughtthepraeludiumwaswrittenforarevivalabout1638.

19.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:106.

20.ThisestimateofthenumberofcandlesisbasedonpricesinRogers,AHistoryofAgricultureandPrices,5:398-400,6:652.

21.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:97,100,104,112.Thereisalsoreasontobelievethattheoccupantsin1639,Queen

Henrietta'smen,didnotmakeregularsummertours;seeMurray,EnglishDramaticCompanies,1:269.

22.JohnAstington,"TheWitsIllustration,1662,"TheatreNotebook47(1993):122-40,arguesthattheillustrationisacollagedrawnfromvariousiconographicsources,someContinental,butnotbasedonaparticulartheater,howevermuchitmayreflecttheatricalpracticebeforethe1660s.

23.ThomasDekker,TheSevenDeadlieSinnsofLondon(London,1606),D2.

24.Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,199.

25.ThedescriptionofthehallatHamptonCourtisbasedontheRoyalCommissiononHistoricalMonuments,AnInventoryoftheHistoricalMonumentsinMiddlesex(London,1937),34-35,exceptthatIusethedimensionsinAlvinKernan,Shakespeare,theKing'sPlaywright(NewHaven,1995),209.Thepresentwindowglassdatesfromthenineteenthcentury.

26.ThisdescriptionoftheMiddleTemplehallisbasedontheRoyalCommissiononHistoricalMonuments,AnInventoryoftheHistoricalMonumentsinLondon(London,1929),4:148.G.P.V.Akrigg,in"TwelfthNightattheMiddleTemple,"ShakespeareQuarterly9(1958):422-24,hassuggestedthatFeste'sindicationofmorethanonebaywindowinMalvolio's"mad"sceneimpliesthatTwelfthNighthaditspremiereattheMiddleTempleratherthanattheTudorhallinWhitehallwithitssingleorielwindow.Idoubtthat

Page254

wecanbesopreciseinthematter;whenhewrotetheplay,ShakespearesurelyknewthatitwouldalsobeperformedattheGlobe,whichhadnobaywindows.

27.Adams,ShakespeareanPlayhouses,95.

28.I.Smith,Shakespeare'sBlackfriarsPlayhouse,11-15,98-100.

29.MSC2,pt.1(1913[1914]):61.

30.Hillebrand,TheChildActors,183.

31.Hosley,"ThePlayhouses,"3:202.

32.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:516.

33.ReproducedinAdams,ShakespeareanPlayhouses,313.

34.A.W.Clapham,"TheTopographyoftheCarmelitePrioryofLondon,"JournaloftheBritishArchologicalAssociation16(1910):15-16.

35.GeoffreyWebb,ArchitectureinBritain:TheMiddleAges(Harmondsworth,1956),65,212.

36.W.A.Hinnebusch,TheEarlyEnglishFriarsPreachers(Rome,1951),158-61.

37.FortheagreementbetweenEnglishandneoclassicalprecedentonsteeplyangledinteriorlight,seePerPalme,TheTriumphofPeace(Uppsala,1956),176-201.

38.ThomasFuller,TheHolyState(Cambridge,1642),Y4.TheonlydefinitetheatricalexceptiontoFuller'spreceptswastheTrinityHall,sporadicallyrentedbyactorsfrom1557to1568.Thishallwasonlythirty-fivebyfifteenfeet,withalarge,highwindowoppositethegallerybutnowindowsinthesidewalls.SeeC.T.Prouty,"AnEarlyElizabethanPlayhouse,"ShakespeareSurvey6(1953):64-75.

39.MSC10:19.

40.SeeD.F.Rowan's"TheCockpit-in-Court,"TheElizabethanTheatre1(1969):89-102;"ANeglectedJones/WebbTheatreProject,"TheElizabethanTheatre2(1970):60-73;and"TheEnglishPlayhouse:1595-1630,"RenaissanceDrama4(1971):37-51.

41.SeeJohnOrrell's"InigoJonesattheCockpit,"ShakespeareSurvey30(1977):157;TheTheatresofInigoJonesandJohnWebb(Cambridge,1985),39-77;andhisandAndrewGurr'sRebuildingShakespeare'sGlobe(London,1989),129-48.

42.Theverticalplacementofthegalleriesintheprivatetheatersisamatterofpureconjecture.MostinteresthasfocusedonthesecondBlackfriars.I.Smith,Shakespeare'sBlackfriarsPlayhouse,307,putsthegalleriesonthefloorofthehallwithnoneonthestage;D.F.Rowan,"TheTiring-HouseWallandtheGalleriesintheSecondBlackfriars,"TheatreNotebook26(1972):101-4,putsthemonthelevelofthestageallaroundthetheaterontheauthorityoftheJonesplayhousedrawings;RichardHosley,"AReconstructionoftheSecondBlackfriars,"TheElizabethanTheatre1(1969):74-78,compromisesandhasthegalleriestoeachsideofthestagerestonthestageplatformitselfwhilethegalleriesintheauditoriumrestonthefloorofthehall.BecauseOrrellpersuasivelyarguesthattheprivatetheaterauditoriumswereU-shapedandthattheirpitfloorsascendedinwedge-shapedsteps,gallerieswouldpresumablybepositionedatleastashighasthestage(TheHumanStage,193-203).

Page255

43.SeeC.W.Wallace,TheEvolutionoftheEnglishDrama,SchriftenderDeutschenShakespeare-Gesellschaft(Berlin,1912),4:175,andHillebrand,TheChildActors,183.

44.MSC2,pt.2:223andpassim.Nelson,EarlyCambridgeTheatres,52,56-58,suggeststhat"haircloths"weresometimesplacedoverwindowstoprotecttheirglasslights.

45.Orrell,TheTheatresofInigoJonesandJohnWebb,95-100.

46.R.A.Foakes,IllustrationsoftheEnglishStage:1580-1642(Stanford,1985),70-71,identifiesthewallfacingthepond(andtheviewer)inDanckert'spaintingascorrespondingtothestage-rightwallinWebb'splan.

47.Pre-RestorationOfficeofWorksaccountsfortheCockpit-in-CourtarecitedfromBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:272-73.

48.RestorationOfficeofWorkscitationsarefromEleanoreBoswell,TheRestorationCourtStage(1932;rpt.NewYork,1966),240-41.

49.JohnAstington,"TheWhitehallCockpit,"EnglishLiteraryRenaissance12(1982):312-13.

50.ReproducedinLondonCountyCouncil,SurveyofLondon,44vols.(London,1900-1994),14:pl.9.

51.Orrell,TheHumanStage,30-48.

52.Palme,TheTriumphofPeace,215.

53.Palme,TheTriumphofPeace,200-224.

54.SeeNathanielLloyd,AHistoryoftheEnglishHouse(NewYork,1931),117-19,327-32,forapictorialhistoryofEnglishwindows.

55.Palme,TheTriumphofPeace,207.

56.SeeHillebrand,TheChildActors,183.Terminologyisconfusing:shutterswereoftencalled"windows,"whilewoodenwindowframesinsertedinmasonrywereusuallycalled"casements";seeL.F.Salzman,BuildinginEnglandDownto1540(Oxford,1952),255-58.

57.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,4:529,5:1263-64.

58.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,8:407.Palme(TheTriumphofPeace,221)rehearsesalong,unconvincingchainofobscureassociationstoshowthat"slyding"means"sloping,"asinthetranslationofFenestrebastardeinRandleCotgrave'sDictionarie(London,1611):"aslopingwindow(asinsomeshops)yeeldingafalselight."Itaketheseslidingwindowstorefertoslidingwindowshuttersor,perhaps,totheslidingscenesthemselves,whichbytheRestorationwerecalledshutters.Similarly,"falseLights"mayrefertoboarded-upwindowpanes,butJonsonmaybeinveighingagainstartificiallightsnearthescenesortoawningsorcanopiesofsomekind,whichareequatedwithfalselightsinWomenBewareWomen(1653;rpt.Berkeley,1969),47.

59.W.J.Lawrence,"TheElizabethanNocturnal,"inPre-RestorationStageStudies(Cambridge,Mass.,1927),122-45.K.Brown,"Morelight,morelight,"1-13,correctlydismissesLawrence'stheories.

60.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:294.

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61.ThomasDekker,WorkeforArmorours(London,1609),B1-B1v.

62.MSC6(1961[1962]):47.

63.GregorioLeti,IlCardinalismodiSantaChiesa;orTheHistoryoftheCardinalsoftheRomanChurch(London,1670),91.

64.ThecalculationofdaylightindoorsisexplainedbyHopkinson,ArchitecturalPhysics,50-88.

65.Hopkinson,ArchitecturalPhysics,19.

7TheatricalLightingatCourt

1.CitedinOrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:284.

2.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,1:225.

3.MSC2,pt.3:354-55;Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,199.

4.Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,135-217.

5.Othermultipleperformanceswereon22February1596,6January1601,14February1602,20February1604,and6February1634;seethecourtcalendarsinChambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:appendixA,andBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,7:appendixC.

6.Kernan,Shakespeare,theKing'sPlaywright,xvii,assignsAMidsummerNight'sDreamtotheafternoon,butDudleyCarletonputsitatnight;seeChambers,WilliamShakespeare,2:329.

7.Orrell,TheHumanStage,107.

8.MSC10:xvii.

9.MSC10:36.

10.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,216,218.Feuilleratprintselevenaccountsandmiscellaneousrecordscovering1571to1588.JacobeanandCarolineaccountsareprintedinMSC13.Althoughtheauthenticityofthe1604-5and1611-12accountshasbeenquestioned,theyarenowgenerallyregardedasgenuine.

11.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,237,159,196;also295,353,and380.JacobeanandCarolineaccountsalsolistnumerousentriesforropesandrodstohangthebranches;seeMSC13:27,32,38,43,50.

12.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,159,237.

13.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,353,368.

14.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,309,327,338.

15.MSC13:50,57.

16.OrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:282.

17.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,274;MSC13:51.

18.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,203,327.

19.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,2,pt.2:213.

20.MSC13:10,11,127.

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21.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,159.Foruseabovethespectators,Sabbattini(Praticadifabricar,bk.1,chap.38,p.54)recommendschandeliersthatsupportonlythreecandles.

22.MSC13:10.

23.MSC13:50.

24.MSC13:83.

25.Orrell,TheHumanStage,109.

26.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,176,202.

27.MSC13:10.

28.MSC13:51.

29.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:286.

30.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,325.

31.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,237,228,202,216.

32.MortonPaterson,"TheStagecraftoftheRevelsOfficeduringtheReignofElizabeth,"inStudiesintheElizabethanTheatre,46,givesabriefaccountofcourtlightinginwhichthisinterpretationof"hats"playsthemajorpart.Hetakestheassociationofhatswithfunnelsandpipestoimplyaventilationsystemforlanterns;buttheusualelizabethantermforthetopofalanternwas"nozzle."In1560-61,forexample,TrinityCollege,Cambridge,purchaseda"greatenosellforthestagelanthorne."SeeNelson,EarlyCambridgeTheatres,112,whosuggeststhisnozzlewasasockettoholdacandle;butitmorelikelyreferstothefunnel-shapedlidofalargelanternwithmultiplecandles.

33.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,202,210,176;MSC13:50.

34.MSC13:98,122,58.

35.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,327.

36.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,176,202,237,327,353,300,368.

37.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,209,208,206.Themasquewascanceledbecauseofthe"tediousness"oftheplaythatnight.

38.MSC13:52,58,64,70,84,105,111,116,123,134,141.

39.OrgelandStrong,InigoJones,2:464.

40.MSC12(1983):45,63.

41.Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,187.

42.SeeScottMcMillin,"Jonson'sEarlyEntertainments,"RenaissanceDrama1(1968):155.

43.E.Boswell,TheRestorationCourtStage,92.

44.J.R.ElliotandJ.Buttrey,"TheRoyalPlaysatChristChurch1636:ANewDocument,"TheatreResearchInternational10(1985):104.

45.SeeE.Boswell,TheRestorationCourtStage95.

46.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,10:419;Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,5:1228;E.K.Chambers,AurelianTownshend'sPoemsandMasks(Oxford,1912),83.

47.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,7:186,314.

Page258

48.JohnNichols,TheProgresses...ofJamestheFirst(London,1828),2:742.

49.Serly,TheFirstBookeofArchitecture,bk.2,chap.3,fol.25.Serlio'streatiseappearedinParisin1545andinaDutchedition,fromwhichtheEnglishtranslationwasmade.

50.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,7:346.

51.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,7:155.

52.OrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:126-27.

53.AllardyceNicoll,StuartMasquesandtheRenaissanceStage(london,1938),129;C.F.Bell,"TheArtificialLightingoftheCourtStage,"inBenJonson,10:413-20.

54.Bell,"TheArtificialLightingoftheCourtStage,"10:420.

55.MSC13:114-15.

56.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,table2,l.36;Orrell,TheTheatresofInigoJonesandJohnWebb,24-25;Foakes,IllustrationsoftheEnglishStage,61.OfficeofWorksaccountssometimesmentionoil--inonecaseclearlyforplaysatSomersetHouse(MSC10:54)--butthisoilseemstobeintendedforlubrication.Somedescriptionsofcourtmasquesmentionburninglampsasproperties,forexample,forthe1561MasqueofWiseandFoolishVirgins(Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,1:159);Jonson'smasquesalsocallforoccasionalpropertylamps,buttheymaynotalwayshavebeenlit.

57.SeeE.Boswell,TheRestorationCourtStage,163,268.

58.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,table2.

59.FrancisBacon,TheEssaysorCovnsels,CivillandMorall:ofFrancisLo.Verdam(London,1639),224-25.

60.Nicoll,TheDevelopmentoftheTheatre,275.

61.Serly,TheFirstBookeofArchitecture,bk.2,chap.3,fol.26;DonaldMullin,"LightingontheEighteenth-CenturyLondonStage:AReconsideration,"TheatreNotebook34(1980):84.

62.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,6:314.

63.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,6:257-58.

64.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,6:171.

65.GeorgeChapman,TheMemorableMaske(London,1613),A2.

66.BruceAllsopp,ed.,InigoJonesonPalladio(NewcastleonTyne,1970),1:1.Asearlyas1514,BaldassarePeruzzihadalsoplacedhislights"didentrocheservonoallaprospettiva"--thatis,withinorinsidetheperspectivescene;seeGiorgioVasari,LeVitede'piúeccellentipittoriscultoriearchitettori(1550;rpt.Milan,1963),4:266.

67.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,6:425;Chambers,AurelianTownshend'sPoemsandMasks,83.

68.OrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:194.

69.Nicoll,StuartMasques,73.

70.W.A.Armstrong,"BenJonsonandJacobeanStagecraft,"inJacobeanTheatre,ed.J.R.BrownandB.Harris(1960;rpt.NewYork,1967),51;Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,8:405.

71.Thisless-abstractmovementoflightcoincideswithJones'sgrowinginterestinlargeperspectivescenes,describedwellbyOrrell,TheHumanStage,225-52.

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72.SeeKennethRichards,"ChangeableSceneryforPlaysontheCarolineStage,"TheatreNotebook23(1968):20;JohnFreehafer,"PerspectiveSceneryandtheCarolinePlayhouses,"TheatreNotebook27(1973):102-4;andT.J.King,"HannibalandScipio(1637):How'ThePlacesSometimesChanged,'"TheatreNotebook29(1975):20-22.

73.Orrell,TheTheatresofInigoJonesandJohnWebb,11-12.

8ArtificialLightintheIndoorPlayhouses

1.FrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher,ComediesandTragedies(London,1647),Bbbbbb3v.

2.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,8:370-71.

3.AnagreementbetweenSamuelDanielandtheQueen'sRevelschildrenspecifiesthecompanywillperformonly"SixeMonethesineuerieyeare"(Hillebrand,TheChildActors,335).

4.J.Issacs,ProductionandStage-ManagementattheBlackfriarsTheatre(London,1933),4.

5.ThomasMiddleton,MichaelmasTerm(London,1607),A3.

6.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,1:312.

7.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:282.

8.JohnMarston,WhatYouWill(London,1607),A2-A3.

9.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,4:629-30.Thetitlepageputsthepremierein1625,butthisdatewasapparentlyold-style,giventheplay'sallusionstoLentandthecoronationofCharlesI(27March1626).

10.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,6:280.

11.OrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:282.Stressingthatcandlesshouldbelitasquicklyaspossibletopreventthespectatorsfrombecomingrestless,Sabbattini(Praticadifabricar,bk.1,chap.41,p.56)alsorecommendedthatthecandlesnotbelituntiltheaudiencewasseatedandtheperformanceabouttobegin.

12.Theprovenanceoftheseplaysisunclear:theyarepre-RestorationinstylebutbeartracesofRestorationrevision.Thereisnorecordofthembeforetheirpublication,andadedicatoryepistletothepublisherintimatestheywereneverperformed.

13.FrancisLenton,TheYoungGallant'sWhirligig(London,1629),C4v.

14.GeorgeWither,Faire-Virtue(London,1622),F4v.

15.TheOverburianCharacters,ed.W.J.Paylor(Oxford,1936),60.

16.SeeHenryFitz-Geoffrey,"NotesfromBlackfriars"(1617),inwhichastagesitterseesarival"drop/outoftheTrying-house"(Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:44);andFrancisBeaumont'sTheKnightoftheBurningPestle(London,1613),B1v,actedatBlackfriarsaround1607,wherethecitizen'swifemustclimbupontothestagebecausetherearenostairsleadingupfromthepit.

17.W.A.Armstrong,TheElizabethanPrivateTheatres(London,1958),13.

18.OED,s.v."sconce"(sb.3):"Asmallfortorearthwork;esp.onebuilttodefendafort,pass,castle-gate,etc.,orerectedasacounterfort."

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19.EmmettL.Avery,TheLondonStage,1700-1729:ACriticalIntroduction(Carbondale,1968),xlviii.

20.SeeJ.J.Elson,ed.,TheWits,orSportuponSport(Ithaca,1932),426.

21.Astington,''TheWitsIllustration,1662,"122-40.

22.I.C.,TheTwoMerryMilkmaids,O1-O1v.

23.G[offe],TheCarelessShepherdess,citedinG.E.Bentley,TheSeventeenth-CenturyStage(Chicago,1968),33.

24.Sabbattini,Praticadifabricar,bk.1,chap.41,p.57,trans.inNagler,ASourceBookinTheatricalHistory,90.

25.Mullin,"LightingontheEighteenth-CenturyLondonStage,"74.

26.Forexample,Dublintheatersoftheeighteenthcenturywerelit"withtallowcandles,stuckintotincircleshangingfromthemiddleofthestage,whichwereeverynowandthensnuffedbysomeperformer"(CharlesB.Hogan,TheLondonStage,1776-1800:ACriticalIntroduction[Carbondale,1968],lxv).

27.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:105-6.Cunninghamdidnotsaywherehefoundthemanuscript,anditswhereaboutsareunknowntoday.

28."Tomyfriend,MasterJohnFletcher,uponhis'FaithfulShepherdess'"(c.1609),TheWorksofFrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher,ed.A.H.Bullen(London,1908),3:12.

29.TheDiaryofSamuelPepys,8:55.

30.Recentreconstructionsestimateitsoutsidedimensionsas50by112feet;seeDonaldC.Mullin,"TheTheatreRoyal,BridgesStreet:AConjecturalRestoration,"EducationalTheatreJournal19(1967):25-

28;andRichardLeacroft,TheDevelopmentoftheEnglishPlayhouse(Ithaca,1973),83.

31.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:88,92.

32.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:97,100,104,112.

33.Murray,EnglishDramaticCompanies,1:269;Gurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies,433-34.

34.MSC1,pts.4and5(1911):365.

35.Hillebrand,TheChildActors,224,althoughthechroniclerofOttoofHesse-Cassel'striptoLondonin1611saysthattheboysatWhitefriarsplayed"nurbeilichtern";Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:369.

36.PertinentOfficeofWorksaccountsfortheCockpit-in-CourtarefromMSC10:40-44;RevelsOfficeaccountsarefromMSC13:110,126,and133.

37.RestorationOfficeofWorkscitationsarefromE.Boswell,TheRestorationCourtStage,15-16,240-41.

38.Bergman,LightingintheTheatre,26.

39.Wither,Faire-Virtue,F4v.

40.JohnHeywood,AdialogueconteinyngthenomberineffectofalltheprouerbesIntheenglishetongue(London,1546),B2.

41.AndrewGurr,Shakespeare'sHats(Rome,1993).Hatsalsoservedthepracticalfunctionofinterceptingtallowandwaxdrippingfromoverhead,bothonstageandineverydayrooms.

Page261

42.SeePalmer,TheLightingArt,21,forthecalculationoftheeffectofglareonvisibility.

43.DenisDiderot,OeuvresComplètes(Paris,1980),10:435.

44.ThomasCampbell,LifeofMrsSiddons(London,1834),2:38.

45.Chambers,WilliamShakespeare,2:319-35,listsrecordedperformancesofthecompany.

46.Gurr,"PlayinginAmphitheatres,"47-62.

47.Sabbattini,Praticadifabricar,L3-L3v.

48.TheWorksofJohnDryden,ed.J.H.SmithandD.MacMillan(Berkeley,1962),8:103.TheearlieststagedirectioncallingfortheextinctionofplayhousecandlesisinShadwell's1674adaptationofTheTempest(MontagueSummers,RestorationTheatre[London,1934],191,194,275).

49.ThomasHeywood,2IronAge(London,1632),D4v;RichardBrome,AMadCoupleWellMatched(London,1653),F6v.Theprovenanceofbothplaysissomewhatcloudy.Brome'splaymightpossiblyhavebeenwrittenforSalisburyCourtayearorsoearlier.Heywood'splaywaslaterrevivedattheCockpitinDruryLane,afterwhichitwaspublished.Thus,itsstagedirectionmightpossiblyalsoreflecttheuseofpantomimeindoorstosuggestnight.SeeAlanC.Dessen,RecoveringShakespeare'sTheatricalVocabulary(Cambridge,1995),139ff.,forathoroughdiscussionof"asif"stagedirections,includingonesindicatingimagineddarkness.

50.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,5:445.Lawrence,Pre-RestorationStageStudies,229,listsahalf-dozenallusionstomistsandfogsindialogueandtwostagedirectionscallingfordampandmist,butnoneisidentifiedwithimaginarydarkness.

51.FrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher,TheMaid'sTragedy(London,1619),C1.ThetitlepagegivesBlackfriarsasthesiteofproduction,probablyinthe1610-11winterseason.Theplaywasalsoperformedatcourt,1612-13(Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:224).TheonlyknownproductionofCatilinewasatcourton9November1634.

52.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,5:445.

9PropertyLightsandSpecialEffects

1.W.J.Lawrence'sessays"LightandDarknessintheElizabethanTheatre,"inTheElizabethanPlayhouse,2:1-22,and"CharacteristicsofPlatformStageSpectacle,"inPre-RestorationStageStudies,251-76,recountthemajoreffectswithawealthofexamples.LeeMitchell,"Shakespeare'sLightingEffects,"SpeechMonographs15(1948):72-84,centersonthelightingeffectsandclassifiesthembychronographic,symbolic,ceremonial,andmetaphoricfunctions--categoriesthatIhaveslightlyalteredformyownpurposes.BrownellSalomon,"VisualandAuralSignsinthePerformedEnglishRenaissancePlay,''RenaissanceDrama5(1972):163-64,followsinMitchell'sfootstepswithasemiologicalviewofpropertylightsinnon-Shakespeareandrama.AlanC.Dessen,ElizabethanStageConventionsandModernInterpreters(Cambridge,1984),70-83,demonstratesthecomplexityoftransferringRenaissancelightingconventionstothemodernstage.

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2.Armstrong,TheElizabethanPrivateTheatres,12;andHenryChettle,TheTragedyofHoffman(London,1631),H.

3.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,207.

4.R.A.Foakes,"TragedyattheChildren'sTheatresafter1600,"TheElizabethanTheatre2(1970):52,seesanearlychildren'stheaterinfluenceintheplay.

5.Marston,WhatYouWill,H1v.

6.RobertArmin,TheHistoryoftheTwoMaidsofMore-clack(London,1609),A1v.Later,inawelcomingceremony,lordsandladiesparadeoverthestage"somanyasmaybe"(H2v).Suchindefiniteand"permissive"stagedirections(usuallywithoutlights)arecommonandassociatedwithauthorial,ratherthanplayhouse,intentions;seeW.W.Greg,TheShakespeareFirstFolio(Oxford,1955),135-38.

7.SimilarlyinJohnMarston'sAntonio'sRevenge(London,1602),afuneralprocessionincludes"twomournerswithtorches,twowithstreamers;Castilio&Forobosco,withtorches"(C3).

8.PeterArnott,GreekScenicConventionsintheFifthCenturyB.C.(London,1962),121,findsthatdarknesswasindicatedatthedaylitTheaterofDionysosinAthensbyaburninglampinIphigeneiainAulisandbychorusescarryinglightedtorchesintheRhesusandtheEkklesiazusae.HenotesthattheconventionwasreputedtobecommoninMiddleComedy.Asacorollarytothisconvention,astandardsightgaginancientcomedywassingeingfellowactors;thescholiastonLysistrata1218plausiblyconcludesthat"itisvulgartocomeonstagewithalampandburnsomebody."

9.Lawrence,TheElizabethanPlayhouse,1:6-7,2:2-3.

10.HarleyGranville-Parker,PrefacestoShakespeare(Princeton,

1946),1:472.

11.InRichardIII,inasimilarscenewithasoldierinatentdreamingofghosts,Richardnotesthat"[t]heLightsburneblew,"thatis,dim(F3642).Botheffectswouldbedifficulttoproduceattheoutdooramphitheaters.

12.Dessen,RecoveringShakespeare'sTheatricalVocabulary,166.

13.Dessen,RecoveringShakespeare'sTheatricalVocabulary,35.

14.TragedyofAlphonsus,EmperorofGermany(London,1654),B.Similarly,inMarston'sAntonio'sRevenge,Antoniofollowsthetapersdiscussedaboveinhisnightgownandnightcap.InassigningplaystoBlackfriarsandtheCockpitinDruryLane,IfollowT.J.Kingincitingplayswhosestagedirectionsprobablyreflectactualstagepracticethere;seeKing's"StagingofPlaysatthePhoenixinDruryLane,"TheatreNotebook19(1965):149-50,andhisreviewarticleofI.Smith'sShakespeare'sBlackfriarsPlayhouseinRenaissanceDrama9(1966):297-99.

15.AneyewitnessdescriptionofEnglishactorsinGermanyaround1626recountsthescenewithslightlydifferentemphasis.Realmoonshineisneverconsidered,butaredandyellowpapermoonandonemadeofrottenwoodthatglowsinthedarkare.Themechanicalsconcludethatthemost"natural"methodisalantern"hungonabutcher'sskewer,whichoneofuswillcarryandmovealongwithitalittleeveryquarterhour";seeErnestBrennecke,ShakespeareinGermany(Chicago,1964),65.

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16.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,319-20.

17.AllanHoladay,"Heywood'sTroiaBritannicaandtheAges,"JEGP14(1946):437.

18.[1]TroublesomeReignofJohn(1591;rpt.London,1911),G2v.

19.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:23.

20.ThomasWright,AHistoryofDomesticMannersandSentimentsinEnglandDuringtheMiddleAges(London,1862),454-55.

21.Kernodle,FromArttoTheatre,142.

22.Salter,MediaevalDramainChester,17.

23.HardinCraig,"TheLondonCordwainers'Pageant,"PMLA25(1917):606.

24.Chambers,TheMediaevalStage,2:399.

25.[GeorgePeele,]TheBattleofAlcazar(London,1594),F.InTwoElizabethanStageAbridgments(London,1922),117,W.W.GregarguedthatthetextofTheBattleofAlcazarwasacutversionfortheprovinces(whichmightwellhaveincludedindoorperformances),whilethe"plot,"whichdoesnotspecificallymentiontheblazingstar,reflectspracticeattheRose.However,DavidBradley,FromTexttoPerformanceintheElizabethanTheatre(Cambridge,1992),convincinglyshowsthatdifferencesbetweentheplotandtextwerenotcausedbydifferentperformancevenuesbutratherbytheprocessofpreparingtheplayforthestage.Still,anotherRoseplay,CaptainThomasStukeley(London,1605;fac.rpt.London,1911),K,performedaround1596,usesablazingstarinaverysimilardumbshow.

26.WilliamRowley,TheBirthofMerlin(London,1662),F4-F4v.

27.Jewkes,ActDivisioninElizabethanandJacobeanPlays,309.

28.JohnBate,TheMysteriesofNatureandArt(London,1635),P4v.

29.ThomasDekkerandJohnWebster,NorthwardHo!(London,1607;fac.rpt.London,1914),F3v-F4.

30.JohnMarston,Parasitaster,orTheFawn(London,1606),B.

31.Inga-StinaEwbank,"ANoteon'TheRevenger'sTragedy,'"NotesandQueries200(1955):98-99.

32.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:110.

33.SeealsoD.L.Frost,TheSchoolofShakespeare(Cambridge,1968),259-60.

34.ThomasGoffe,TheCourageousTurk(London,1632),H;andBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,4:506.

35.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:342-43;MadeleineDoran,ed.,IfYouKnowNotMe(1606;rpt.London,1934),1:xii-xv,2:xi,E2v.

36.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,1:109,2:695;andJohnFletcher,Rollo,DukeofNormandy;orTheBloodyBrother,ed.J.D.Jump(London,1636;fac.rpt.London,1948),67.

37.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,2:695.

38.W.W.Greg,ed.,DramaticDocumentsfromtheElizabethanPlayhouses(Oxford,1931),1:310.Gregdatesthemanuscripttoaround1600.

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39.Continentaleffectsweresometimesmoresophisticated.Fora1539play(andintermedii)inthegreatcourtyardoftheMedicipalaceatFlorence,forexample,AristotiledeSanGallocreatedasun,approximatelytwofeethigh,madeofacrystalballfilledwithwaterbehindwhichtwotorchesshone.Overthecourtyardwasstretchedanartificialskyofbluecloth,fromwhichalsohunglights.Thesunwascontrolledbyawinch(arganetto)thatdrewthesunalonganarc,sothatthesunrosetothezenithbythemiddleofthecomedyandsankinthewestbytheend.GiorgioVasariclaimedit"lookedlikeaveritablesun"(LeVitede'piúeccellentipittoriscultoriearchitettori,5:475).

40.SeeFilippoPigafetta'sfirst-handaccountinNagler,ASourceBookinTheatricalHistory,81-86.

41.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:455.

42.JohnFord,TheBrokenHeart(London,1633),D2.

43.ChristopherMarlowe,TheTragicalHistoryofDoctorFaustus(London,1616),H2.

44.JohnMelton,Astrologaster(London,1620),E4.

45.Dekker,WorkeforArmorours,F4.

46.Serly,TheFirstBookeofArchitecture,bk.2,chap.3,fol.26v.

47.AWarningforFairWomen,A2v.

48.ThePoemsofRichardLovelace,ed.C.Wilkinson(Oxford,1930),67.Theplayitselfhasnotsurvived.

49.L.B.Campbell,ScenesandMachines,64-65,157,describestheclassicalmethodofpaintinglightningonperiaktoi(whichcouldbespun)oronplanks(whichcouldbedroppedfromtheheavens)andaseventeenth-centuryItalianmethodofcuttingaboardlengthwiseina

zigzagpatternandthenplacingcandlesbehindwhiletheriftbetweenthetwosectionsoftheboardwasopenedandclosed.

50.RobertWilson,TheCobler'sProphecy(1594;rpt.London,1914),G1v-G2.Theprovenanceoftheplayisunclear;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:516,suggestsacourtlyvenue.

51.BeaumontandFletcher,ComediesandTragedies,Hhhh1.

52.R.C.Bald,BibliographicalStudiesintheBeaumontandFletcherFolio(London,1938),78;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:228.

53.ThomasMiddleton,AGameatChess(MSc.1624;fac.printingLondon,1990),fol.43b.InJamesShirley'sSt.PatrickforIreland(London,1640)--writtenfortheDublinstage--analtarisdiscovered,lightsandincenseprepared,anda"flamebehindetheAltar"ignites(C4v).

54.RobertFludd,Utriusquecosmimaiorisscilicetetminorismetaphysica,physicaatqvetechnicahistoria,TomusPrimus,TractatusSecundus:Denaturaesimiaseutechnicamacrocosmihistoria(Oppenheim,1618),477.Mytranslation.

55.ChristopherMarlowe,2Tamburlaine(London,1590),H2.

56.Fludd,Utriusque,477-78.

57.AlbertFeuillerat,ed.,DocumentsRelatingtotheRevelsatCourtintheTimeofKingEdwardVIandQueenMary(Louvain,1914),110.

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58.Sabbattini,Praticadifabricar,bk.2,chap.11,trans.inBarnardHewitt,TheRenaissanceStage(CoralGables,1958),111.

59.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,142.

60.Durand,"PalamonandArcyte,"514.

61.ThomasSackvilleandThomasNorton,Gorboduc(London,1565),C5.

62.NotethecostumedesignsforThomasCampion'sLords'Masque,1613.TheearlofSalisburypaidtwenty-twoshillings"forcutting42flamesandcoulleringethem"forhisheadpiece;seeOrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:242andpl.81(seealsoWilliamDavenant,TheTempleofLove,1635).

63.T.Lupton,AllforMoney(1578;rpt.London,1910),BijandEij.

64.FrancesTeague,Shakespeare'sSpeakingProperties(Lewisburg,1991),19-20,158-93.

10IlluminatingtheScene:TheDuchessofMalfiattheGlobeandBlackfriars

1.UnaEllis-Fermor,TheJacobeanDrama,4thed.,rev.(1961;rpt.NewYork,1964),275.

2.Styan,Shakespeare'sStagecraft,42-44.

3.JohnRussellBrown,ed.,TheDuchessofMalfi,byJohnWebster(London,1964),xxiii.

4.Allsubsequentcitationsarefromthe1612edition.

5.Allsubsequentcitationsarefromthe1623edition.

6.J.Brown,TheDuchessofMalfi,xxiii.

7.OntheabsurditiesresultingfromtoomuchillusionintheilluminationofShakespeareanrevivals,seeG.WilsonKnight,ShakespeareanProduction(Evanston,Ill.,1964),63-65.MartinWhite,RenaissanceDramainAction(London,1998),151,arguesthat,atBlackfriars,theaudiencewouldbeassurprisedastheDuchessisbythedeadman'shand,whileattheGlobe,theaudiencewouldexperiencethescenefromFerdinand'spointofview.

8.Thedateoftheoriginalproductioncanbefixedat1613or1614becausetheplayincorporatesmaterialnotpublisheduntillate1612andbecauseitscastlistincludesWilliamOstler,whodiedinDecember1614.InsuggestingthattheplaycouldworkaswellattheGlobeasatBlackfriars,IamawarethattheGlobefireon29June1613cutshortthefirstofthetwoGlobeseasonsinwhichtheplaycouldhavepremieredandperhapsdelayedthebeginningoftheseconduntilthenewtheaterwasfinished.SeeBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:182.

9.Weknowthattheplaywascut,butthemostfrequentlymentionedconstraint--earlysunsets--doesnotsupportatheorythattheplayhousewindowswerecovered.

10.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:511.MarionLomax,StageImagesandTraditions(Cambridge,1987),147,inaninsightfulcomparisonofTheWhiteDevilandTheDuchessofMalfi,concludesthatthereferencetoOstlerinthecastlistimpliesaDe-

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cember1614performanceofthelatterplay.Thisispossible,perhapsevenlikely,buttheDecemberdateprovidesonlyaterminusadquemforthepremiere.

11.IdonotincludeinthislistthelightthatAntoniobelievesheseesovertheDuchess'sgraveinact5,scene3.J.Brown(TheDuchessofMalfi,xxxv)takesthishallucinationtobeaspeciallightingeffectthatwouldhavetobe"cutforperformanceattheGlobe,"althoughhecanhardlybelievethedead-man's-handscenewasalsocutthere.Itisquestionablewhetherthereisanylightatall,butifonewererequiredIimagineatorchheldbytheDuchess'sghostwouldhavedoneaswellattheGlobeasatBlackfriars.Lomax(StageImagesandTraditions,146)drawsmyattentiontoArthurC.Kirsch'sview(JacobeanDramaticPerspectives[Charlottesville,1972],111)that"inthelastactsofTheDuchess,theartificialandthenaturalbecomeinterchangeable."

12.MSC13:108.

13.Dessen,ElizabethanStageConventions,78,discussesasimilareffectinMacbeth3.3.19,whereoneofBanquo'smurderersmistakenlyputsouthislight.

14.See,forexample,M.L.Wine,ed.,DramaoftheEnglishRenaissance(NewYork,1969),498;andE.M.Brennan,ed.,TheDuchessofMalfi,byJohnWebster,NewMermaided.(London,1964),114-15,who,disregardingthemanyscenesofpretendeddarknessinpublictheaterplays,believesBosola'smistakenkillingofAntonioinact5,scene4,wasduetotheweaklight"providedbycandlesorlanternswhichthespeakersheld."Ellis-Fermor,TheJacobeanDrama,43,remarksthatBosola'slastspeechcouldnotbespokeninanoutdoortheater"withthatalmostinaudiblefaintnesswhichtheimpliedmusicalnotationdemands."ShedoesnotinsistonaBlackfriarspremiere,but,inanycase,onedoubtsJohnLowinthrew

awaytheselinestoinaudibilityattheGlobe.

15.FrankKermode,ed.,TheTempest,[New]ArdenShakespeare(Cambridge,Mass.,1958),151-52.

16.AndrewGurr,"TheTempest'sTempestatBlackfriars,"ShakespeareSurvey41(1989):91-102,pointstothebreakbetweenacts4and5(Prosperoexitsandthenimmediatelyreenters)asconfirmingBlackfriarsprovenanceforTheTempest.

17.DekkerwishedTheWhiteDevila"FaireandFortunateDay"inadedicationtohisownplay,IfThisBeNotaGoodPlay(London,1612),A3v.

18.Forareasonableaccountofit,seeJ.R.Mulryne,"TheWhiteDevilandTheDuchessofMalfi,"Stratford-upon-AvonStudies1(1960),rpt.inJacobeanTheatre,223.CliffordLeech,"'ThreeTimesHoandaBraceofWidows':SomePlaysforthePrivateTheatre,"TheElizabethanTheatre3(1973):32,pointsoutthattheDuchesstranscendstheprejudiceagainstremarriageinprivatetheaterdrama.ThesympathetictreatmentofAntonio'sriseinfortunealsoseemsoutofcharacterforaplaywrittenexpresslyforaprivatetheater"coterie."

19.WilliamShakespeare,TheRapeofLucrece(London,1594;fac.rpt.London,1890),F.

20.FrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher,AKingandNoKing(London,1619),13v.

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21.H.T.Price,"TheFunctionofImageryinWebster,"PMLA20(1955),rpt.inElizabethanDrama,ed.R.J.Kaufmann(London,1961),225-49.

22.SeeAndrewGurr'sintroductiontotheRevelseditionofBeaumontandFletcher'sPhilaster,xxxv-xliv,forabalancedassessmentoftheinfluenceoftheBlackfriarsontheKing'smen'srepertoryandthisplay.

23.MSC13:10.

24.Orrell,TheTheatresofInigoJonesandJohnWebb,11.

25.GeoffreyTillotson,"OthelloandTheAlchemistatOxfordin1610,"TLS,20July1933,494.

26.Tillotson,"OthelloandTheAlchemistatOxford,"494.

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Index

A

acoustics,7

actbreaks,121,225

acting,1012,106,107,109,19195

Adams,J.Q.,12829,140

Admiral'smen,23,69,74,8081,8485,202,208,209,213

Alberti,LeonBattista,37

Albion'sTriumph(Townshend),16667

Alleyn,Edward,92,116

AllforMoney(Lupton),217

Alphonsus,EmperorofGermany,206

Alphonsus,KingofAragon(Greene),44,238n.8

altars,21416

amountoflight:

atamphitheaters,100103,1078,11920;

atcourt,134,163;

inhallplayhouses,120,15657,18892

Amsterdam(Netherlands),11416

AntonioandMellida(Marston),155,172

Antonio'sRevenge(Marston),206

AntonyandCleopatra(Shakespeare),109

Appia,Adolphe,4

ArdenofFeversham,15

Armstrong,W.A.,17374,180,2012

Artaud,Antonin,109

artificiallight:

inamphitheaters,11323;

inhalls(seeundercandles)

ArviragusandPhilicia(Carlell),159

ascents.Seedescents

Astington,John,151,181

AsYouLikeIt(Shakespeare),45,9394

Atheist'sTragedy,The(Tourneur),110

awnings,27,2930,37,38

B

Babington,Gervase,59

Bacon,Francis,170

Baker,Stuart,99

banquetinghouses:

artificiallightin,161,162,164,166,16874,177,179,231;

ceilingsin,3,15253;

windowsin,15960

BartholomewFair(Jonson),83

Bate,John,24,20910

BattleofAlcazar,The(Peele),209,211

beacons,2324

Beargarden(Elizabethan),27,72,212

Beargarden(Jacobean).SeeHopeplayhouse

Beaulieu(Hampshire),140

Beaumont,Francis,185

Beauty,Masqueof(Jonson),168

Beckerman,Bernard,49,245n.1

Beeston,Christopher,129,142

Bell,C.F.,16970,171

BelSavageinn,44

Bentley,G.E.,46,63,12829,142

Bereblock,John,52

Berry,Herbert,90,9697,116

Beverley(Humberside),42

Binche(Belgium),4647

BirthofMerlin,The(Rowley),20911

Blackfriarsplayhouse:

first,127,139,147,153;

second,57,27,45,49,80,81,97,125,12729,130,139,143,147,153,175,176,178,179,18587,196,200,206,210,214,22032

Blackness,Masqueof(Jonson),172

BloodyBanquet,The(T.D.),22

BloodyBrother,The.SeeRollo,DukeofNormandy

Boar'sHeadplayhouse,28,76,90,96,11617

Bonduca(Fletcher),214

Booth,Abram,88,96

branches(seealsochandeliers),17,51,16064,166,169,183,18788,192,231

Brayne,John,26

Brecht,Bertolt,109

BridgesStreettheater.SeeDruryLanetheater

brightness.Seeamountoflight

brightnessadaptation,1035,12021,18991

Bristol(Gloucestershire),57

BrokenHeart,The(Ford),212

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BronzeAge,The(T.Heywood),208

Brown,JohnRussell,220,222,225,227

Brown,Keith,11718

Brownstein,Oscar,27

Buckingham,GeorgeVilliers,1stdukeof,63

Burbage,James,26,93,97,127,139,161

Burbage,Richard,223,226

Busino,Orazio,159,162,179,224

BussyD'Ambois(Chapman),22

C

Calaistheater,45,51

CambridgeUniversity,23,5255,113,147,153

Campbell,L.B.,39

candles:

cost,1718,54,57,18384;

cotton,51,160;

atcourt,16063;

extinguishing,17,179,199;

guttering,1416;

athallplayhouses,12930,177200;

lighting,162,17879;

sises,166,169;

sizeof,18,184;

snuffing,1416,178,18283;

tallow,1418,160,167,18386,199;

wax,1415,17,160,165,166,167,16970,181,18386,188,199;

white,17,160;

wick,160;

wicksof,11,14;

yellow,18,167

candlesticks,15,17,51,54,16566

Canterbury(Kent),58

CaptainThomasStukeley,211

CarelessShepherdess,The(Goffe),129,182

Carew,Richard,31

CastleofPerseverance,The,3334,41,56

Catiline(Jonson),199200

Cavendish,George,23

ceilings(seealsoheavens),3,28,37,4546,98100,152,192

Chamberlain,John,63,80

Chamberlain'smen(seealsoKing'smen),75,97,127,161

Chambers,E.K.,63,78,83,113,140,159,208,210,214

chambersofrhetoric,11516

chandeliers(seealsobranches),17,51,54,130,161,18082

Changeling,The(MiddletonandRowley),180

Chapelchildren,127,139,161,216

CharlesI(kingofEngland),164

ChasteMaidinCheapside,A(Middleton),15

Chester(Cheshire),42,58,209

churchplays:

indoors,56;

inyards,28

classicallightingarrangements(seealsoneoclassicallightingarrangements;Vitruvius),2933,3839,111

Cobler'sProphecy,The(Wilson),214

Cockpit-in-Court,49,98,142,14752,153,156,159,174,18788,225

CockpitinDruryLane,98,125,129,142,174,199,202,2067,211,221

Coelum

*Britannicum(Carew),174

Coignet,Gillis,114

Collier,J.Payne,7879

coloredlight,2425,16871

comedy,102,110,197

ComedyofErrors,The(Shakespeare),12,197,227

comets.Seeunderproperties

concentrationoflight,24,17173

Congreve,William,180

Cook,AnnJennalie,5

Cornishrounds,3031

CorpusChristiplays,4243

Cotgrave,Randle,113

CourageousTurk,The(Goffe),21011

CourtSecret,The(Shirley),237n.11

Coventry(Warwickshire),21,42,43

cover,stage.Seeheavens

Craik,T.W.,56

cressets,2021,43,53,11322

CrossKeysinn,7576

Cunningham,Peter,183

Cupid'sRevenge(Fletcher),45

cupolas,41,9899,152

Curtainplayhouse,44,70,71,84,88

Cymbeline(Shakespeare),15,22,46,49,205

D

Danckert,Hendrik,14748,151

darkness(seealsotwilight;amountoflight):

imaginary,10912,199200,202,2047,219,222,22829;

prevalent,7273,11822,176,179,191,222,22426;

realized,112,154,171,197200

Davenant,William,20

DeCritz,John,187

DekkerThomas(seealsospecifictitles),79,84,94,130,132,15355,213,225,228

descents,41,4445,97,9899,152

Dessen,Alan,206

deWitt,Johannes,37,38,89,97,107,123

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Diderot,Denis,194

diSomi,Leone,112,171

DoctorFaustus(Marlowe),25,110,197,21213

Donne,John,155

DorsetGardentheater,18081

DoubtfulHeir,The(Shirley),7,210

Douce,Francis,21

douters,162

drippans,15,17,16364,181

DruryLanetheater:

first(BridgesStreet),156;

second,183,194

DuchessofMalfi,The(Webster),22,8384,110,112,22033

DutchCourtesan,The(Marston),154

Dutton,Richard,70

E

ElderBrother,The(Fletcher),206

ElizabethI(queenofEngland),69,126,139,216

Ellis-Fermor,Una,218

Elson,J.J.,181

EnglishmenforMyMoney(Haughton),110

EntertainmentoftheKing&QueenatTheobald's(Jonson),167,168

eveningprayer,6772,12527

EveryManinhisHumour(Jonson),112

Ewbank,Inga-Stina,210

Exeter(Devon),28

F

FairMaidoftheInn,The(Fletcher),206

FaithfulShepherdess,The(Fletcher),176,185

fencing,77

fireeffects,25,200,209,21317

firelight,56,62

fireworks,178,20913

flambeaux,20,167

Flanders,11415

Flecknoe,Richard,71,76

Flowers,Masqueof,168

Fludd,Robert,21416

Foakes,R.A.,andR.T.Rickert,7374

footcandle,defined,18

footlights,12,181,194

Forman,Simon,219

Fortuneplayhouse:

first,39,92,97,99,100,122,202,212,213;

second,66,92,129

FriarBaconandFriarBungay(Greene),13,197

Fuller,Thomas,141

G

Gädertz,Karl,4

Galloway,David,75

GameatChess,A(Middleton),80,214

GammerGurton'sNeedle,55

GentlemanUsher,The(Chapman),6263

Gerschow,Frederic,176

GismondofSalerne(Wilmot),242n.47

glare,94,101,11820,192,223

Globeplayhouse:

first,56,8,45,49,76,78,80,8992,97,100,122,214,219,22032;

second,2,7,49,66,80,85,90,92,9899,18687,196,210,211;

"new,"9,13,94,1028,120,157,204

Gloucester(Gloucestershire),57

GoldenAgeRestored,The(Jonson),173

Gorboduc(NortonandSackville),216

Granville-Barker,Harley,205

Graves,T.S.,80

Greenblatt,Stephen,2

Greene,Robert(seealsospecifictitles),13,44

Greenwich(Kent),44,4546,51,161,162,163

Greg,W.W.,73

Grotowski,Jerzy,109

Gurr,Andrew,45,45,69,80,83,119,191,196

H

HaddingtonMasque(Jonson),172

Hall,Edward,46

Hamlet(Shakespeare),16,97,109,204,223,227

HamptonCourt,13234,136,142,159,161,163,165,186,192,194,219

hangings,stage,102,175

Harbage,Alfred,56

Harrington,SirJohn,117

Harrison,William,37

Hart,Alfred,82

heavens,3,28,38,4042,44,4650,96100,152

hell,213

HenriettaMaria(queenofEngland),128

1HenryIV(Shakespeare),15,110

HenryV(Shakespeare),111

2HenryVI(Shakespeare),206

3HenryVI(Shakespeare),211

Henslowe,Philip,23,44,7374,78,8081,83,93,96,99,116,202

Herbert,Henry,128,159,167

Heywood,John,190

Page272

Heywood,Thomas(seealsospecifictitles),38,81,98

HistoriaHistrionica,66,125,211

Histriomastix,78

Hodges,C.Walter,84,92,95,9899

Hoffmann(Chettle),2012

Hollar,Wenceslaus,9092,99

Hopeplayhouse,27,78,80,83,92,98,224

Hosley,Richard,7,28,86,88,91,92,99,100,101,134,143,232

Hunsdon,HenryCarey,1stlord,75,77

huts,8892

Hythe(Kent),81

I

IfYouKnowNotMe,YouKnowNobody(T.Heywood),211

inns:

indoorvenues,59;

innyards,28

InternationalShakespeareGlobeCentre(seealsoGlobeplayhouse:''new"),9,142

2IronAge(T.Heywood),199,208

IsleofGulls,The(Day),127

J

Jeronimo,74

JohanJohan(J.Heywood),244n.85

Johnston,Alexandra,27,28

Jones,Inigo,1,8,24,39,118,142,14750,153,167,16874,217,231

Jonesplayhouse,14247,156,186,189

Jonson,Ben(seealsospecifictitles),12,8,20,3738,112,153,167,16874,176,200

JuliusCaesar(Shakespeare),13,78,108,205

K

Kermode,Frank,227

Kernodle,George,40,208

Killigrew,Thomas,18586

King,T.J.,56

KingandNoKing,A(BeaumontandFletcher),22930

KingJohn(Shakespeare),208

KingLear(Shakespeare),3,78,19,109,197

KingOedipus(Sophocles),212

King'sEntertainmentinPassingtohisCoronation(Jonson),113

King'smen(seealsoChamberlain'smen),5,6,98,117,127,128,132,155,159,182,186,196,200,213,214,227,232

King'sRevelschildren,129

Klein,David,8283

KnacktoKnowaKnave,A,7374

KnightofMalta,The(BeaumontandFletcher),206

Kohler,RichardC.,29

Kyd,Thomas,7

L

LadyElizabeth'smen,78,83,224

LadyofPleasure,The(Shirley),207

lamps(seealsounderproperties),1113,53,16870,180,181

Langley,Francis,93

lanterns(seealsocupolas),13,22,53

Lavin,J.A.,6

Lavoisier,Antoine-Laurent,16

Lawrence,W.J.,116,122,154,201,205

Lawrenson,T.E.,39

Leech,Clifford,6

Leicester'smen,69,161

lengthofperformance,8284

Lenton,Francis,179

lightningeffects,13,25,46,213,216

Lincoln(Lincolnshire),42

Lincoln'smen,161

links,1820,53,57,170

Lords,Masqueof(Campion),173

lords'rooms,94,106

Lovelace,Richard,213

Lovers'Progress(FletcherandMassinger),205

Love'sPilgrimage(Fletcher),206

LyonTerence,3537

M

Macbeth(Shakespeare),22,112,194,203,219,227,232,266n.13

MadCoupleWellMatched,A(Brome),199

MadWorld,MyMasters,A(Middleton),6264

Mago,John,11617

MaidintheMill,The(FletcherandRowley),206

Maid'sRevenge,The(Shirley),207

Maid'sTragedy,The(BeaumontandFletcher),200,204,205

Malcontent,The(Marston),6,16,20,6263,180

Malone,Edmond,6566,7879

MartyrdomofSaintApollonia,The(Fouquet),33,35,41

Page273

masques,60,10910,161,166,16874

MeasureforMeasure(Shakespeare),229

medievallightingarrangements,4043

Melton,John,213

MemorableMasque,The(Chapman),172

MerchantofVenice,The(Shakespeare),190

MerchantTaylors'children,161

MerryDevilofEdmonton,The,154

MichaelmasTerm(Middleton),177

MiddleTemple,134,143,14546,156,186

Middleton,Thomas(seealsospecifictitles),62,177,210

MidsummerNight'sDream,A(Shakespeare),110,112,154,15556,159,207,219,23233

Mildmay,Humphrey,128,129,211

Mitchell,Lee,201

Mitertavern,6263

moons.Seeunderproperties

movinglights,17374

MuchAdoaboutNothing(Shakespeare),206

N

Nagler,A.M.,97

Nash,Thomas,49,60

Nature(Medwall),244n.85

Nelson,Alan,23

neoclassicallightingarrangements(seealsoclassicallightingarrangements),33,3540

NewingtonButtsplayhouse,74,196

NewsfromtheNewWorld(Jonson),1

Nicoll,Allardyce,39,169,171

nocturnal,130,15455

Norden,John,8991

NorthwardHo!(DekkerandWebster),210

Norwich(Norfolk),42,56,58

N-Townplay,21

O

Oberon(Jonson),168

Ordish,T.F.,30

orientation:

ofamphitheaters,29,31,8695;

ofhallplayhouses,132,134

Orrell,John,27,29,37,45,9091,94,142,150,152,170,174

Othello(Shakespeare),4,8,109,112,2056,219,23032

Overbury,Thomas,18081

OxfordUniversity,5255,153,167,170,211,216,23132

P

Palladio,Andrea,173

Palme,Per,153

Parasitaster,orTheFawn(Marston),210

ParisGarden.SeeBeargarden(Elizabethan)

Pembroke'smen,58

Pepys,Samuel,63,156,185

Percy,William,68,126

Pericles(Shakespeare),45

Philaster(BeaumontandFletcher),230

Phoenixplayhouse.SeeCockpitinDruryLane

plates,16365,188

Platter,Thomas,7879,92,108

PleasureReconciledtoVirtue(Jonson),63,159,162

Poetaster(Jonson),76

Porter'sHallplayhouse,80,253n.16

Price,H.T.,229

PrideofLife,The,56

PrinceCharles's(I)men,155

PrinceCharles's(II)men,58

properties,stage,25,20117,22526,228;

candles,204,231;

indicatorsofcharacter,19;

indicatorsofmood,206;

indicatorsofplace,2056;

indicatorsoftime,2047,226;

lamps,13,113;

lanterns,22,207,208;

moons,38,49,207,208;

starsandcomets,20812,215;

suns38,49,208,21112;

tapers,13,2223,194,2056,214;

torches,20,24,202,206,223,226,228

Q

QueenAnne'smen,155,208,209

QueenHenriettaMaria'smen,186

QueenofCorinth,The(Fletcher),17576,205

Queens,Masqueof(Jonson),24,168,172

Queen'smen,44,7273

Queen'sRevelschildren,129,155,176

R

RapeofLucrece,The(Shakespeare),229

RedBullplayhouse,38,49,66,69,76,84,92,9798,129,199,209,210,220,227

rederijkkamers.Seechambersofrhetoric

RedLioninn(Norwich),58,76

RedLionplayhouse,26,50,88,96

refectories,14041

reflectionoflight,100,192

RevelsOffice,17,20,24,44,51,158,16066,180,216,231

Page274

Revenger'sTragedy,The(Middleton?),21011

Reynolds,G.F.,218

Riccoboni,MarieJeanne,194

Richard,DukeofYork,TheTrueTragedyof(3HenryVI)(Shakespeare),211

RichardIII(Shakespeare),262n.11

Richmond(Surrey),161

RivalQueens,The(Dryden),199

Rollo,DukeofNormandy(Fletcher),159,211

RomeoandJuliet(Shakespeare),23,62,82,190,226

Rosenberg,Marvin,81

Rosenfeld,Sybil,57

Roseplayhouse,2,9,38,44,49,7375,80,84,8990,9496,100,110,210,212

Rosseter'sBlackfriarsplayhouse.SeePorter'sHallplayhouse

Rowan,D.F.,142

rushes,18,116

S

Sabbattini,Nicola,1112,170,18283,19798,216

SadShepherd,The(Jonson),199200

safety,20,119,122,182,216

SalisburyCourtplayhouse,117,120,125,12930,18387

Salter,F.M.,42

Scholars,The(Lovelace),213

sconces.Seewallbrackets

seasons,72,8688,101,11617,130,156,158,183,186,22021

Serlio,Sabastiano,24,37,16871,213

Shakespeare,William(seealsospecifictitles),5,13,25,97,109,111,206,207,217,219,226

Shirley,James(seealsospecifictitles),7

shutteredwindows,3,55,15356,224

Siddons,Sarah,194

Sidney,SirPhilip,112

SilverAge,The(T.Heywood),46

Sisson,C.J.,116

Smith,Irwin,139

smoke,1516,19,46,21214

snuffers,162

Somerset,161

Southern,Richard,28,33,56,99

Spanishtheater,25,83,94

SpanishTragedy,The(Kyd),19

StapleofNews,The(Jonson),178

stars.Seeunderproperties

Stow,John,1213

St.PatrickforIreland(Shirley),264n.53

St.Paul'splayhouse,50,62,68,12627,130,139,153,177,178,202,206,210

Strange'smen,7475

Streete,Peter,97

streetpageants,4042

Styan,J.L.,10911,219

suns.Seeunderproperties

sunset(seealsotwilight),6973,108,120,177,218,224

Sussex'smen,161

Sutterton(Lincolnshire),59

Swanplayhouse(seealsodeWitt,Johannes;vanBuchel,Aernout),4,38,46,48,8688,89,97,101,107,123,134,138,146

T

Tamburlaine(Marlowe),25

tapers(seealsounderproperties),2223,175

Tarleton,Richard,158

Taylor,Joseph,128

TeatroOlimpico,171,173,212

TempeRestored(Townshend),171,173,174

Tempest,The(Shakespeare),163,227

TempleofLove,The(Davenant),174

TérencedesDucs,Le,3233

Tethys'Festival(Daniel),173,177

Theaterplayhouse,26,44,50,70,71,75,88,96

Theobalds,EntertainmentoftheKing&Queenat(Jonson),167,168

Thompson,Benjamin,16

Thorney-Abbey,179

ThreeSistersofMantua,The,44

timeofperformance(seealsolengthofperformance):

atamphitheaters,6684,120,224;

atcourt,15860;

athallplayhouses,12529,132,194;

atinns,5960;

intheprovinces,58

Timon,211

tiremen,178,18283,199,225

'TisPityShe'saWhore(Ford),229

TitusAndonicus(Shakespeare),223

torches(seealsounderproperties),13,1821,43,52,57,60,116,117,166,167,169,170,182,204

tournaments,94

Page275

Tourneur,Cyril,210

townhalls,57

tragedy,102,110,130,132,15455,17576,197

Trechsel,Johannes,3537

TriumphofPeace,The(Shirley),16667

TroublesomeReignofJohn,The,208

Tudorhalls,4344,5657,13242

TwelfthNight(Shakespeare),134,227

twilight(seealsosunset),7283,108,123,19192

TwoMaidsofMore-Clack,The(Armin),202

TwoMerryMilkmaids,The(I.C.),182,237n.11

TwoNobleKinsmen,The(FletcherandShakespeare),214

U

Unton,Henry,6062,177

V

vanBuchel,Aernout,48,123

Verulamium(Hertfordshire),30

Visscher,J.C.,89,115

Vitruvius,26,31,35,37,39,93,141

W

Wakefield(WestYorkshire),43

wallbrackets,17,164,169,180,183,188

WarningforFairWomen,A,102,213

Warwick'smen,44,161

weather,27,8485,94,1012,104,121

Weather,ThePlayofthe(J.Heywood),57

Webb,Geoffrey,140

Webb,John,142,150,153

Webster,John(seealsospecifictitles),6,76,22032

Wedding,The(Shirley),207

Westcott,Sebastian,126

WestwardHo!(DekkerandWebster),18

WhatYouWill(Marston),178,202

WhiteDevil,The(Webster),19,23,76,22021,22728

Whitefriarsplayhouse,129,130,140,153,18687,213

Whitehall,3,78,128,159,16064,16874,177,179,186,187

Wickham,Glynne,27,30,42,53,75,76,96,140

Widow'sTears,The(Chapman),45

windows(seealsoshutteredwindows):

inamphitheaters,99;

inbanquetinghouses,60,160,207;

inhallplayhouses,13057,160

Windsor(Berkshire),161

Winter'sTale,The(Shakespeare),163

Wither,George,180,190

Wits,orSportuponSport,The,13031,181,184

WittyFairOne,The(Shirley),207

WomenBewareWomen(Middleton),204

Wotton,SirHenry,141

Wright,Thomas,208

Wymondham(Norfolk),21

Y

Yarmouth(Norfolk),209

Yates,FrancisA.,29,37

York(NorthYorkshire),41,42,43,57,58

Young,Alan,93

YourFiveGallants(Middleton),63