STUDIO AIRLIM BINXIU ANGELINE, 5964622014, SEMESTER 2, TUTORIAL GROUP 3BRADLEY ELIAS

Table of Contents

PART A: CONCEPTUALISATION

INTRODUCTION

A.1 DESIGN FUTURING

A.2 DESIGN COMPUTATION

A.3 COMPOSITION/GENERATION

A.4 CONCLUSION

A.5 LEARNING OUTCOMES

A.6 APPENDIX - ALGORITHMIC SKETCHES

REFERENCES

4 CONCEPTUALISATION

biography

I am Lim Binxiu Angeline, a third year architecture student from the University of Melbourne. I spent most of my life in Singapore and I came to Melbourne two years ago to study architecture. It is truly a blessing to be studying architecture in this city rich in history and culture. During my leisure time, I love wandering around the city to admire the streetscape and the historical buildings. At the same time, I think that Melbourne is also doing well in utilising modern technology and construction methods such as prefabrication, renewable energy and passive design strategies.

introduction

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Having spent two years in this architecture programme has really widened my perspective and understanding of architecture. Architecture isn’t only about buildings - their aesthetic, function and performance. It encompasses broader aspects such as understanding human needs, societal conditions, user experience, context, building technology as well as environmental concerns. I love architecture because of this complexity and the infinite possibilities that can be achieved from one brief itself. Furthermore, the design process is never a straightforward one and it is really rewarding to keep challenging myself by exploring new compositions, techniques and methods.

Apart from the theory, I managed to pick up some technical skills through my previous design studios and work experience. In Virtual Environments, I was introduced to Rhinoceros where I had my first experience with digital modelling. I used the basic modelling tools and the plug in panelling tools to create my design. I also used Grasshopper to create tabs for fabricating our lantern. In visualising environments, I managed to learn some Photoshop and Indesign skills which would help me greatly in my presentations. Lastly, I was luckily enough to work in an interior design firm in Singapore where I played around with SketchUp, picked up some basic rendering skills and did working drawings on AutoCad.

architecture and my digital experience

Fig. 1 Studio Earth project model, Author’s own, 2014 (top)

Fig. 2 Studio Earth project plans and sections, Author’s own, 2014 (above)

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digital architecture

I feel that digital architecture is breaking through the realms of paper architecture and has great potential in the designing field. Digital architecture enables complex geometries to be created while factoring in material constraints as can be seen in the Beijing National Stadium by Herzog and de Meuron, 2008. We can also input parameters and algorithms to generate a design. I really admire Bernard Tschumi’s, Parc de la Villette which relies heavily on computation to organise the points, lines and surfaces of structures that are scattered across the park. This cannot be achieved by traditional methods, hence, digital softwares really open up possibilities in architecture. Last but not the least, I feel that digital softwares like Building Information Modelling (BIM) technology is convenient in the construction processes as it provides 3D visualisation while containing layers of information that can understood and reviewed by builders, engineers and architects.

Fig. 3 Beijing Olympic Stadium, Herzog and de Meuron, Beijing, 2008 (top)

Fig. 4 Parc de la Vilette, Bernard Tschumi, Paris, 1987 (above)

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a.1 design futuring

ginger and fred, frank gehry, prague, 1996.

This building was designed by Frank Gehry in 1996 to recreate the streetscape in Prague after the US bombing in 1945. Based on the analogy of a dancing couple, Gehry designed Ginger and Fred, a twisted glass tower joining an apartment block with wavy effect and unaligned windows.1

His intention was to recreate the effects of destruction through the irregularly shaped building with skewed angles, which falls under the category of Deconstructivism.1 Here, Gehry challenges the notions of previous architectural styles be it classical or modern that is made up of well-defined elements and can be easily read and understood as a whole building.

This gesture challenges us to reconsider what we take for granted in buildings - stability, rigidity, fixed geometries and the uniform repetition of elements. In most buildings that we see and inhabit in our daily lives, we do not stop to question them because they fit into the our constructed ideals of a building. For instance, we would expect buildings to have straight walls joined at distinct corners, regular arrangement of windows and be in a stable form. Anything that falls largely within this description would be seen as just another building. It can be said that stereotypes of what an ordinary building should look like is largely informed by our experiences with buildings, reading books and through the internet.

This is supported by Schumacher who argues that new theories are a reconstruction of existing architectural autopoiesis.2 We need an empirical base of knowledge to test our ideas against and propose changes that challenges existing norms and expectations. This would lead to the expansion of architectural discourse resulting in progress in architecture.

Hence, we need a great knowledge of architecture in the past and an understanding of social conditions of the present to design for the future. Perhaps, the typical building (a solid cuboid with regular arrangement of rooms) was constructed due to it being the most efficient in terms of materials and space. And now, due to the improvements in technology, we are able to handle complex geometries and fabricate irregular components which lead to greater capacities and possibilities in the field of architecture.

“Theory is no reflection of the given order of the world. Rather, it is a designed apparatus to give order to the phenomena we experience.” 2

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Fig. 5 Ginger and Fred, Frank Gehry, 1996

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The mindmap above shows the relationships between theory, society and technology on architecture. It can be argued that architecture is not an autopoietic system as it is influenced by external factors such as social conditions and technological advancements. Architects are constantly trying to reconcile their ideas according to the current context and theories are changing to ensure that architecture remains relevant. This is a continunal process and experiments, built projects, publications all feeds back and expands the existing architectural discourse.

* Note: Pink labels represents architecture in general and the black labels relate to the specific example of the Ginger and Fred building by Frank Gehry.

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nanyang technological university art, design and media building, cpg consultants, singapore, 2006.

The Art, Design and Media Building was designed as a learning space for university students. It is made up of two sloping curves with green roofs wrapping around each other, giving it an elegant form.

The rationale for the green roof may be influenced by the ideals of Le Corbusier. CPG Consultants wanted to create a green roof to return the green space that was originally there back to the environment, which was what Le Corbusier advocated in his book the Five Points of Architecture, 1926. 3 Hence, we should acknowledge that theories of the past are still relevant today and they can help to shape our design while taking the current context into consideration.

Apart from restoring nature back to its place, the green roof also serves an environmental role. As Singapore is in the tropics, the cooling demands of a building is very high. With the green roof and an external water feature, it significantly helps to cool the building down and reduces the energy consumption of the building. 3

What is so special about this green roof is that it occupies the whole roof and is sinuous with the architecture of the building. Traditional roof gardens are usually located at the highest point of the building and are not directly accessible from the ground level. They are not visible to people walking on the street level and are usually composed of potted plants with little relationship to the architecture. Hence, I feel that this building is a significant breakthrough in terms of creating a large scale green roof that is inviting to the public and encourages people to use and interact with the roof. Another project that is inspired by this building is the Marina Barrage, which is a dam with a green roof. The dam is designed to keep the seawater out and it has a green roof for families to enjoy recreational activities such as kite-flying and picnicking. 4

The combination of architecture with landscape architecture and reaping the benefits of both is a great step towards design futuring. In Design Futuring, Fry argues that, “Nature alone cannot sustain us... We have become too dependent upon the artificial worlds that we have designed, fabricated and occupied.” 5 He makes a very valid view that it is inevitable for us to stop building but what we can do now is to encourage sustainable design and change our attitudes and the way we design to secure a greater future.

“Nature alone cannot sustain us... We have become too dependent upon the artificial worlds that we have designed, fabricated and occupied.” 5

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Fig. 6 Nanyang Technological University Art, Media and Design Building, CPG Consultants, Singapore, 2006 (top)

Fig. 7 Marina Barrage, Singapore, 2008 (bottom)

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a.2 design computation

Architectural design has evolved from representation using the pen and paper to 3D modelling in the digital realm over the years. In today’s practice, it is undeniable that computers are necessary tools for architectural design and communication.

The following paragraphs describe how computing and computers affect four aspects of architecture - problem analysis, form generation, performance-based design and communication.6 In addition, references will be made to two case studies in particular, the Al Bahr Towers, in Abu Dhabi by Aedas and the ICD / ITKE Research Pavilion, by ITKE University of Stuttgart in Germany.

1. problem analysis

Computers play a great role in changing the way we conduct background research and analysis. It is not surprising for architects to be using computer programmes such as Building Information Modelling (BIM) with sun path diagrams to ascertain the ideal orientation of the building and its facade treatment. This is a more efficient way of analysing building forms, orientation and seasons as values can be easily manipulated to provide a detailed and comprehensive study of how external conditions will affect the building throughout the year. This graphic form of analysis is advantageous over traditional methods of calculations as computers are highly efficient in organising and processing data and transforming them into graphic representation that can be easily understood. In addition, we can obtain resources from the huge database available online for instance soil information, aerial photographs, historical background which would not be obtainable through a typical site visit. These information can be layered to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the site.

Fig.8 Studio 2 Relational Architecture, 2006-2007 (left)

Fig.9 Building Information Modelling Sun path diagram, Autodesk (top)

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2. form generation

“Parametric design is the new form of the logic of digital design thinking.” 7

By changing algorithms and through scripting, we are able to control and influence the form generation, the performance as well as the materiality and fabrication of the design.

For example, The ICD / ITKE Research Pavilion 2011, by ITKE University of Stuttgart, Germany analyses the principles behind a sea urchin’s plate skeleton to develop the structure of the pavilion. 8 Computation has enabled more complex forms and geometries to be conceived that cannot be easily expressed through traditional sections and plans. Modelling in the 3D world provides greater opportunities for the architect and it is a quick way of visualising and communicating a design. Furthermore, the geometry can be broken up into parts by using grids and panelling tools and depending on the choice of material and the aesthetics. These parts can then be sent for fabrication and be pieced together to create the overall form.

This streamlines the whole construction process as parts are already fabricated according to dimensions and specifications and only assemblage is required on site. Furthermore, this helps to reduce material wastage and also leaves less room for calculation and production error.

Fig.10 and Fig 11. ICD/ITKE Research Pavilion, 2011, ITKE University of Stuttgart (above and below)

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3. performance-based design

Computers can be programmed to control building operations to maximise efficiency. In Abu Dhabi, the facade of Al Bahr Towers are linked to the building management system which affects its response to external climatic conditions. The triangle panels of the facade are parametrically designed with the ability to increase or decrease in size throughout the year to minimise heat and glare. This decreases the energy demands on the building which makes it more sustainable. 9

Despite being so highly reliant on digital design technologies, the Al Bahr Towers is actually inspired by the humble ‘mashrabiya’, a traditional Islamic shading device made of carved woodwork. 9 Hence, making a point that digital architecture can harmonise with culture and traditional architecture to maintain its relevance within its social and environmental context.

4. communication

Lastly, computer programmes can be used for communication to the client and to builders of a project. Renders of 3D models give clients a perspective view of the space and it is easy to change the angle, orientation, materials in our renders as compared to a traditional hand-drawn perspective. Furthermore, construction drawings on AutoCAD drawings facilitate communication between architects and engineers as they can be easily transferred and edited.

“Digital linkage of form generation and performative form finding that is the significance of digital deisgn informed by performance.” 6

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Fig.12 Al Bahar Towers, Abu Dhabi, Aedas, 2008-2014 (above)

Fig. 13-14 Al Bahar Towers facade Abu Dhabi, Aedas, 2008-2014 (bottom left)

Fig. 15 Mashrabiya (bottom right)

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a.3 composition/generation

from composition

Architecture has once again managed to break through its formal capacities, moving away from orthogonal and linear surfaces to more complex curvilinear surfaces, non-Euclidean geometries and folding in architecture. This success is made possible through 3D modelling software programmes, such as Non-Uniform B-Spline (NURBS) which enables the calculation and representation of geometries that were unconceivable through traditional methods.10 Hence, opening the realm of possibilities of architecture in terms of formal composition.

Composition in digital architecture means creating a preconceived design by traditional means such as sketching and physical modelling and only using computation for a more precise representation and fabrication. An example of composition is the Walt Disney Concert Hall by Frank Gehry - its form was first designed through physical models and sketches before being transferred into the digital realm. These sketch models were accurately represented digitally and modified based on the material properties and calculations.10 After all structural issues and fabrication methods were resolved through testing and prototyping, construction can then proceed. Hence, in composition, digital tools are only used to aid in the representation and construction and form is still determined by the architect through traditional means.

to generation

In recent years, digital architecture has progressed from compositional to generative design. This shift is a result of algorithmic design thinking and parametric modelling.

“Algorithm describes how the function is computed, rather than merely what the function is.”11

Algorithms are fixed rules which can be applied to a set of objects.11 For instance, if we want to draw a circle in Rhino or Grasshopper, the specification of the radius, a centre point and the circumference is the algorithm. There are also other ways to achieve the circle, hence different algorithms may be applied.

Parametric modelling involves a relationship between objects and parts.10 Instead of considering fixed values or functions, it studies the relationships between objects and changes in one component will have flow-on effects on other parts.

Algorithms and parametric modelling are digital tools that can be used in generative design. Generative design is form finding process instead of a form making.10 In generative design, the algorithm is the focus and the form is a result of combining external forces with internal (structural/material) considerations.

Fig.16 Walt Disney Concert Hall sketch, Frank Gehry (left)

Fig. 17 Walt Disney Concert Hall, Frank Gehry, Los Angeles, 2003 (right)

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generative design - the good

performance-based design

Generative design has enabled us to maximise efficiency in our buildings and to create more sustainable buildings.12

This is achieved by using computers to process climatic data, plot sun path diagrams and calculations before the design stage. After which, based on the data, the form will be generated in response to these external conditions to ensure that the building is performing optimally and is responding well to the environment.

This method is better than compositional design whose form may not be directly responsive to the site conditions because it is based on speculation rather than a comprehensive calculation. Hence, any additional measures to make the building more sustainable may be less efficient than the former.

Fig.18 Port Authority Bus Terminal, Greg Lynn, New York

architecture representing dynamic stimulation

Dynamic stimulation signifies a process such as gravitational forces, collision and obstacles.10 They cannot be quantified but their effects can be seen through the way the parts behave in relation to one another. Such conditions can be stimulated by point attractors and creation of fields. In this case, the site forces are translated into dynamic stimulation which affects the form of the building. An example would be the Port Authority Bus Terminal in New York, by Greg Lynn. Particle systems are utilised to visualise gradient of fields that represent circulation of people and transportation on site.10

Hence, generative design allows us to map out elements, understand their patterns in terms of particles and then create a form that best reflects this behaviour.

“Generative design is form finding process instead of a form making.” 10

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generative design - the bad

1. lack of originality

As architects are using the similar programmes and digital tools around the world, it is highly likely that designers may be using the same few panellising tools, resulting in similar looking buildings all over the world. Panelling tools and standardised algorithms may be conveniently used in design projects for its ease in fabrication. This over reliance on technology stifles the architect’s creativity as he will be more inclined to reuse these trial and tested templates instead of searching for new inspiration and ideas from nature or architecture theory. For example, the Voronoi tool is a popular choice among designers and architects as can be seen in the Times Eureka Pavilion, by Nex Architecture and a couple of furniture design projects. It will be worrying when designers solely rely on these tools instead of their imagination and skills.

2. fabrication and materiality

Digital architectural design and production bridges the gap between architect and the builder as the architect is more involved in the fabrication process. However this process may decrease the architect’s understanding of materials as everything is CNC milled or laser cut and the architect does not interact with the materials directly. For example, in the Times Eureka Pavilion, pieces are being cut out by the CNC miller with labels and all that is left is the assembly. Hence, the architect will miss out on design opportunities that can only be obtained through tactile act of handling the materials. In addition, digital fabrication is limited to certain materials and techniques. This results in the dying of craft trades such as wood and stone carving and a loss of place-specific materials and skills that reflects a country’s culture and history.

Fig.19 Times Eureka Pavilion, Nex Architecture, London, 2011 (left)

Fig. 20 Voronoi shelves, Hopf Nordin (right)

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a.4 conclusion

In conclusion, Part A discusses how computation has become more prevalent and has changed the way the way we think and design in architecture. Computation enables the architect to stimulate forces and mimic nature to generate interesting forms. In addition, constraints can be factored into the design through algorithms which would influence the form. Thinking algorithmically shifts the focus of architecture from form to studying relationships between parts and objects. Parameters can be modified based on constraints (materials, site, construction) to create a resultant design specific to the conditions and situations. One of the advantages of parametric modelling is that one can view and edit one parameter and the entire design will be automatically updated because it works as an explicit history. This makes it convenient for changes to be made to the design. Once the form has been decided upon, these geometries can be broken down into components that can be fabricated, bringing the architect closer to a master mason once again.

the way forward

In the LAGI project, I hope to create spaces where people can interact with the installation as opposed to it being a static structure. When approached by a visitor, the structure can have a response and this could vary with the addition of more people as seen in the Deep Walls project by Scott Snibbe. This positive response generated by the actions of people can contribute to the artwork. I hope this idea will promote interaction among people and drive the message of a collective effort towards sustainability.

As Copenhagen experiences 17 hours of daylight in summer but only 7 hours in winter, it would be useful to analyse how the parameters of the design can be tweaked in summer and in winter to respond to these changes. For instance, in winter, the size and number of the solar panels can be increased to match up with the amount of solar output it can produce in summer.

Based on my research, the solar technologies that I found interesting are solar pond, thin film photovoltaics and thermal concentrated panels. The solar pond allows electricity to be generated based on the difference in salinity and temperatures of water. It would be a stimulating project to explore how huge quantities of water can be stored and linked to the surrounding river. Moreover, it would be exciting to think about how people can move across and interact with the water. Secondly, the thin film photovoltaic cells are flexible to work with as they are translucent and can be rolled onto any surface. This gives me greater freedom to explore structure and digital tools without being restricted by the solar generation technology. Lastly, I can explore the use of regular grids and fixed patterns over a surface for the thermal concentrated panels as the dimensions of these plates are rather standardised. 13

Fig.21 Deep Walls, Scott Snibbe,2003

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a.5 learning outcomes

I feel that my understanding of architectural computing has widened through the readings in theory as well as the practical experience of using Grasshopper. I am now more compelled to find out more on buildings that utilise digital tools, from their form generation to the considerations in the construction process. In the past, my knowledge of digital architecture was limited to using software programmes to create panels for fabricating a complex geometry. Little did I know that we could come up with a list of factors and input this data to generate a site specific form. This moves away from composition to computation in architecture and the form is no longer the main importance of the design. I really appreciate using algorithmic thinking in our design as it brings in more logic into design and allows to understand relationships between parameters and how to manipulate them. Furthermore, I also learnt to consider fabrication as part of our design process, for instance creating joints for manufacture.

introducing digital computation into studio earth project

In my Studio Earth Project, the walls of my building are created by infilling stones into the spacing between stud frames. The positions and size of the openings are determined by the use of space. For example, larger openings are created for a communal space and smaller openings are used for dark and secret spaces.

The design could be improved by placing point attractors at areas that I want to be the brightest and relating them to the size of the openings. This allows for a more systematic and logical conclusion for aperture sizes. The form of the panelling in this design could be further enhanced by using Grasshopper to model grids and cells as opposed to having perpendicular lines. Building the model would also be less laborious and time-consuming as the model can be unrolled and pieces be laser cut and assembled together.

Fig.22- 23 Studio Earth project model, Author’s own, 2014

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a.6 appendix: algorithmic sketches

week 1: triangulation algorithms

I transferred an extruded curve from Rhino into Grasshopper and used populate geometry command to create random points on this surface. Then the 3D voronoi tool was then used to break up this geometry into smaller pieces. Instead of deleteing some fragments as shown in the tutorial, I decided to keep them and shift them out. They can be used as seats or landscaping elements that relates to the overall structure. What is left behind is a voronoi facade with openings and a curved wall which can be used as structural support.

week 2: curve menu

This is an adaptation of the arc tutorial whereby points along two curves are joint to form an arc. Instead of using an arc, I experimented with Bezier Span tool which allows me to create an S-shaped spline. I think this can be a canopy for people to travel underneath and solar panels can be arranged on the top of the surface as the grid is facing one direction. It would be an interesting experience for people to be able to view the solar panels from below and I can explore with various paneling effects on the roof.

22 CONCEPTUALISATION

week 2: curve divisions and cross reference

The following two algorithmic sketches show my explorations with the cross refereence tool. Cross reference allows us to connect one point from parameter A to all the points in parameter B. I am intrigued by how this tool allows more complex patterns to be formed based on simple rules. I really like the resultant pattern formed by the overlapping lines.

The points of intersections between the lines can also be determined using the curve intersect tool to create a unique grid of points. In virtual environments, I made my analytical drawing by using a protractor to create a grid and then joining up lines to form a pattern between the points. Looking back, I think this process is rather time-consuming, less accurate and difficult to modify. Grids had to be redrawn to achieve multiple iterations and development. Through the use of computation, parameters like number of division points, lengths of lines/arcs can be manipulated easily to change the pattern. Hence, moving designing towards relationships between parameters rather than a static creation.

These line works can also be useful in creating tensile structures whereby forces can be calculated and loads be distributed evenly to various points of the support.

Fig. 24 Analytical drawing for virtual environments, Author’s own, 2013

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week 3: gridshell

This last algorithmic sketch is based on the gridshell tutorial whereby three circles are divided into points and arcs are being formed by joining a point in each circle together. I think this technique is suitable for weaving elements together. In doing so, one must understand the bending properties of materials well and consider the joinings between pieces.

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sources

1. Josef Pesch, Frank Gehry’s “Ginger and Fred” in Prague, (Kunst & Kultur 4.5 (Juni/Juli/August 1997): pp. 14-17.) <http://lava.ds.arch.tue.nl/gallery/praha/tgehryen.html> [accessed 4 August 2014].

2. Schumacher, Introduction: Architecture as Autopoietic System, A New Framework for Architecture, 2011, 1-28, p. 5.

3. Aric Chen, ‘Case Study: Nanyang Technological University’, Green Souce - The Magazine of Sustainable Design, May 2009, <http://greensource.construction.com/projects/2009/05_Nanyang-Technological-University.asp> [Accessed on 5 August 2014].

4. PUB Singapore’s National Water Agency, <http://www.pub.gov.sg/Marina/Pages/3-in-1-benefits.aspx#la> [Accessed on 5 August 2014].

5. Tony Fry, ‘Introduction’, Design Futuring, Sustainability, Ethics and New Practice (2009), 1-16, p.3.

6. Kalay, Yehuda E. (2004). Architecture’s New Media: Principles, Theories, and Methods of Computer-Aided Design (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), pp. 5-25

7. Issa, Rajaa ‘Essential Mathematics for Computational Design’, Second Edition, Robert McNeel and associates, pp 1 - 42

8. Shinpuru, ‘Parametric Wood Architecture, Germany’, (Real WoWz, 2012) <http://www.realwowz.net/2013/03/parametric-wood-architecture-germany.html> [accessed on 12 August 2014]

9. Karen Cliento, ‘Al Bahar Towers Responsive Facade/Aedas’, (archdaily, 2008-2014) <http://www.archdaily.com/270592/al-bahar-towers-responsive-facade-aedas/> [accessed on 12 August 2014]

10. Kolarevic, Branko, Architecture in the Digital Age: Design and Manufacturing (New York; London: Spon Press, 2003) [accessed on 15 August 2014]

11. Definition of ‘Algorithm’ in Wilson, Robert A. and Frank C. Keil, eds (1999). The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences (London: MIT Press), pp. 11, 12 [accessed on 15 August 2014]

12. Peters, Brady. (2013) ‘Computation Works: The Building of Algorithmic Thought’, Architectural Design, 83, 2, pp. 08-15 [accessed on 15 August 2014]

13. Ferry, Robert & Elizabeth Monoian, ‘A Field Guide to Renewable Energy Technologies’’, Land Art Generator Initiative, Copenhagen, 2014. pp 1 - 71

references

CONCEPTUALISATION 25

references

images

Figure 1, 22-23: Author’s own, 2014, ‘Studio Earth project model’

Figure 2: Author’s own, 2014, ‘Studio Earth project plans and sections’

Figure 3: Graemeeyre.Info, 2009, ‘Beijing Olympics’, <http://graemeeyre.info/?p=137> [accessed 6 August 2014]

Figure 4: csparkman, 2011, Design Research Seminar, ‘Tschumi’s Villette’, <http://drscsparkman.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/lavillette.jpg> [accessed 6 August 2014]

Figure 5: Michelle Potter, 2009, ‘Fred and Ginger – by day’,http://michellepotter.org/news/fred-and-ginger-in-prague/attachment/fred-and-ginger-2 [accessed on 6 August 2014]

Figure 6: Carla D’Errico, 2010, ‘Top Green Roof Designs’, http://buildipedia.com/aec-pros/design-news/top-green-roof-designs?print=1&tmpl=component [accessed on 6 August 2014]

Figure 7: M Clara Wresti, 2013, ‘Singapore Marina Barrage’, <http://travelerguidance.blogspot.com.au/2013/01/singapore-marina-barrage.html> [accessed on 6 August 2014]

Figure 8: ‘Studio 2, Relational Architecture’, (Shelffield MArch Studio 2 - 2006/2007) <http://studiotwo.wordpress.com/category/process-work/> [accessed on 12 August 2014]

Figure 9: Autodesk, ‘Ecotect: Shading Masks and Calculations’, (Autodesk, Autodesk Sustainability Workshop, 2011) <http://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/ecotect-shading-masks-calculations> [accessed on 12 August 2014]

Figure 10-11: Shinpuru, ‘Parametric Wood Architecture, Germany’, (Real WoWz, 2012) <http://www.realwowz.net/2013/03/parametric-wood-architecture-germany.html> [accessed on 12 August 2014]

Figure 12-14: Karen Cliento, ‘Al Bahar Towers Responsive Facade/Aedas’, (archdaily, 2008-2014) <http://www.archdaily.com/270592/al-bahar-towers-responsive-facade-aedas/> [accessed on 12 August 2014]

Figure 15: Maryam M., ‘Arabesque/Marshrabiya’, (Pinterest) <http://media-cache-ec0.pinimg.com/236x/55/7d/c1/557dc151326d65252685aaa1a5a2ca45.jpg> [accessed on 12 August 2014]

Figure 16: Learning from Frank Gehry... Chapter 1, His design tools (Someone has built it before, 2011)http://archidialog.com/2011/10/24/learning-from-frank-gehry-chapter-1-his-design-tools/

Figure 17: Wikipedia, Walt Disney Concert Hall, (Wikipedia, 2014) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_Concert_Hall [accessed on 15 August 2014]

Figure 18: Triple Bridge Gateway to 9th Avenue, (Basilisk) http://www.basilisk.com/P/portauthority_561.html [accessed on 15 August 2014]

Figure 19: Michal Piasecki, NEX Architecture: Times Eureka Pavilion, (Michal Piasecki, 2011) http://michalpiasecki.com/2011/05/16/nex-architecture-times-eureka-pavilion/ [accessed on 15 August 2014]

Figure 20: We create Berlin Interview: Nopf, Nordin, (minimum blog,2013) http://www.minimumblog.com/author/admin/page/4/ [accessed on 15 August 2014]

Figure 21 Brandon Brauer, ‘Art/React - Interactivity in recent art installation’, (Art 245: Screenings, 2011) http://lawrencenewmedia.blogspot.com.au/2011/05/act-react-interactivity-in-recent.html

Figure 24: Author’s own, 2013, Virtual environments analytical drawing

references