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Limb Anatomy
Azami PHD
Definitions
• Anatomy- From Greek “to cut open”– Study of the structure of the body, either
regionally or systematically
• Physiology – branch of biological science dealing with the function of organs and organ systems
History of Anatomy
• Probably began with early examinations of sacrifice victims.
• First documented by Egyptians ~1600 BC
• Egyptian anatomical papyrus showed organs (including blood vessels)
Hippocrates (~370 BC)
• Greek physician who studied anatomy
• “Father of Anatomy”• Hippocratic oath taken
by doctors at graduation
Galen
• 2nd Century AD
• Compiled anatomical studies of earlier writers
• Also performed vivisection on animals
Medicine during Medieval Times (5th -15th )
• When Rome fell, little was done to advance the studies.
• Cadavers were no longer used
• Avicenna ( سینا پورسینایا ابن )
16th Century Contributions
• Began to compile extensive drawings of dissections of executed cadavers
17th and 18th centuries• Few dissections were allowed
• Only certain scientists were allowed to perform them
• Doctors literally traveled from dissection to dissection
19th Century • Began studying
developmental anatomy• England became the center
of anatomical research• Anatomy Act of 1832
provided adequate supply of corpses
• Gray’s Anatomy first published 1858 (for traveling doctors)
Modern Anatomy
• CAT scans, X-rays, Genetic tests, MRI
Anatomy definition
• A branch of morphology which deals with the structure of organisms.
• Study of the structures of the body and their relationship to one another.
• This is generally divided into:– Gross anatomy (that which can be seen with the naked eye)– Histology (miscroscopic anatomy & internal structure of cells)– Embryology (the developing organism within the uterus)
Gross Anatomy
• Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by organ system
• Regional – all structures in one part of the body (such as the abdomen or leg)
• Surface – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin
Organ systems - 1
• Integument (skin)• Skeleton• Muscles• Nervous system– Central (brain and spinal cord)– Peripheral (the peripheral nerves)
• Endocrine (glands)
Organ systems - 2
• Cardiovascular (heart, arteries and veins)• Lymphatic (lymph vessels and nodes)• Respiratory• Digestive• Urinary• Reproductive (male/female)
Anatomical terminology
• This generally relates to:– Names of the organ systems or regions– Names of body organs or their parts– Anatomical planes– Anatomical locations
Anatomical planes
Anatomical Planes• Saggital – divides the body into right and left
parts• Coronal or frontal– divides the body into
anterior and posterior parts• Horizontal or transverse (cross section) –
divides the body into superior and inferior parts
Anatomical planes - 1
• Median or mid-saggital plane
• Passing from front to back in the long axis of the body IN the midline.
Anatomical planes - 2
• Saggital:Saggital – divides the body into right and left parts
Saggital plane
Anatomical planes - 3
• Coronal or frontal:divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
Coronal Plane
Anatomical planes - 4
• Horizontal or transverse (cross section) :divides the body into superior and inferior parts
Horizontal Plane
Body Planes
2
1
3
Anatomical positions - 1
• 1. Cranial toward the head • 2. Caudal - toward the feet• 3. Medial - toward the middle• 4. Lateral - toward/from the side• 5. Proximal - toward the attachment of a limb• 6. Distal - toward the finger/toes• 7. Superior - above• 8. Inferior - below
Anatomical positions - 2
Anatomical movements - 1
• 1. External rotation• 2. Internal rotation• 3. Supination• 4. Pronation• 5. Eversion• 6. Inversion• 7. Adduction• 8. Abduction
Anatomical movements - 2Flexion/Extension
Other anatomical terms
• Volar(relating to the palm of hand)• Plantar (the sole of the foot)• Superficial (towards the surface)• Deep (towards the centre)
MovementsFlexion• Bending a joint or decreasing the
angle between two bones
Extension• Straightening a joint or increasing
the angle between two bones
Hyperextension• Excessive extension of the parts at a
joint beyond anatomical position.
Movements
MovementsAdduction• Moving a body part towards
the midline of the body
Abduction• Moving a body part away
from the midline of the body
Prone• Lying face down
Pronation
Supine• Lying face up
Supination
Movements
Retraction• Moving a part backward
Protraction• Moving a part forward
Movements
Movements
Rotation• Turning on a single axis
Circumduction• Tri-planar, circular motion at
the hip or shoulder
Internal rotation• Rotation of the hip or
shoulder toward the midline
External rotation• Rotation of the hip or
shoulder away from the midline
MovementsLateral Flexion• Side-bending left or
right
Visualising Anatoomy
• Cadaver• Atlas• Models• Plastination• 3D Model
Visualising the living subject
• There are a number of ways of visualising the anatomy of a living subject:– Surface anatomy– Medical imaging– Using scopes– Surgery
Radiological terminology -1
• Imaging techniques:– X-ray– computed axial tomography (CAT) CT scan – Ultrasound scans (Sonography)– Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Radiological terminology - 2
• X-rays depend on the difference in absorption of x-rays by various tissues.
– Radiopaque means a lot of x-ray energy is absorbed (causing the fils to be WHITE)
Like: bone, teeth, metal implants
– Radiolucent means little energy is absorbed (causing the film to be BLACK)
Like: air, fat
Radiological terminology - 3
• Plain film– X-ray without the use of artificial contrast.
• Contrast film– X-ray where radiopaque contrast has been
introduced into a cavity, space or vessel.• Examples:
– Angiogram (x-ray of arteries, e.g. of the heart)– Venogram (x-ray of veins, e.g. of the legs)– Barium meal (x-ray of the upper digestive tract)– Myelogram (x-ray of the spinal cord and spinal nerves)
QUIZ
1. Hip __________________________2. Hip __________________________3. Hip __________________________
Knee ________________________ Ankle ________________________
4. Wrist _________________________ (a) __________________________ (b) __________________________
5. Hip __________________________ Knee ________________________ Ankle ________________________
6. Forearm (a) ___________________ Forearm (b) ___________________
7. Shoulder ______________________8. Shoulder ______________________9. Jaw __________________________10. Shoulder ______________________
1. Hip _Abduction_________________2. Hip _Adduction_________________3. Hip _Flexion___________________
Knee _Extension________________
4. Wrist _Extension________________ (a) _Hyperextension_____________ (b) _Flexion____________________
5. Hip _Flexion___________________ Knee _Flexion__________________ Ankle ______________
6. Forearm (a) _Supination__________ Forearm (b) _Pronation__________
7. Shoulder _Circumduction_________8. Shoulder _Elevation_____________9. Jaw _Protraction________________10. Shoulder _Rotation______________
Range of Motion
End