Kertas kerja ini menerangkan dan mengutarakan ciri-cili program pendidikan dewasa yang dilaksanakan olehBahagian Teknologi Makanan, Institut Pembangunan dan Penyelidikan Pertanian Malaysia (MARDI) dalamusaha mempromosikan industri makanan di Malaysia. Secara khususnya, perbincangan memfokuskan kepadausaha yang dibuat oleh bahagian tersebut untuk mengintegrasikan aktiviti penyelidikan dengan programpengembangan.
Kertas kerja ini adalah berasaskan kepada satu kajian kes yang dibuat ke atas program tersebut. Data kajiantelah dikutip melalui temu bual secara mendalam, pemerhatian penyertaan dan analisis kandungan data yangtelah didokumentasikan. Program ini merangkumi tiga komponen asas iaitu mencipta teknologi yang sesuaidengan industri kecil makanan, menghubungkait antara inovasi dan pengguna dan membimbing pembelajaruntuk memastikan perusahan yang dijalankan itu berjaya dan dapat dikekalkan. Penelitian ke atas programmenunjukkan ianya telah mengintegrasikan penyelidikan dan pengembangan seperti yang disarankan olehBennet (1989) dalam Model Kesalingbergantungannya. Kekuatan dan kelemahan pendekatan tersebutjugadibincangkan dalam kertas kerja.
ABSTRACT
This paper describes and highlights features of an adult education programme implemented by the FoodTechnology Division of the Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI) to promotethe food industry in Malaysia. A study on the programme was carried out using in depth interviews, participantobservation and content analysis of documented data. The programme encompasses three basic componentsgenerating technology appropriate for small food industries, interfacing between innovators and consumers,and coaching learners to ensure the enterprise becomes successful and sustainable.
The discussions focus on the efforts by the division to integrate its research and extension activities.Examination of the programme reveals that it integrates research and extension as suggested by Bennetts(1989) interdependency model. Strengths and weaknesses of this approach are discussed in the paper.
INTRODUCTION
The food processing industry is gaining groundas an important manufacturing sector in Malaysia.In 1994, the industry provided 8,684 newemployment opportunities and generated a grossrevenue of RM4 394 543 000 (Department ofStatistics 1994). Malaysia's food industry isdominated by small food establishments whichmake up more than 73% of total foodmanufacturing enterprises. Small foodestablishments are those enterprises which have
paid-Up capital of less than RM250,000 and fewerthan 25 paid employees (Hussin and Adinan1988). Generally, there establishments are locatedwhere the raw material is available. For example,if the products are fish crackers, shrimp paste,or fish sauce the establishments are normallyfound along the coastal areas. On the otherhand, if the products are rice vermicelli, ricenoodles or tapioca crackers, the industry is foundin the rural areas and small town centres if themanufacturing process depends heavily on
Mazanah Muhamad, Raja Ahmad Tajudin Shah and Azimi Harnzah
imported materials, such as the production ofsoya sauce, bean curd or lipo-protein from soyabean milk, such establishments are located inthe urban and suburban centres. Due to thesevariant locations together with relatedlimitations, the small-scale food processingindustry suffers a number of setbacks whichcall for technical management, financial, andmarket attention.
Sub-standard products, short-lived products,poor product appeal, low grade processingpremises, low production efficiency, and storageof raw materials are examples of problemsidentified in the small food industry (Hussinand Adinan 1988). These problems are directlyrelated to the knowledge, attitude and skills ofthe entrepreneurs themselves. Investigations inthis area indicate that more than 90% of thesmall-scale food processors are notknowledgeable about the basic aspects of foodscience and technology. Their practices arebased, to a large extent, on trial-and-error andpassed-down knowledge (Hussin and Hussein1988) .
Both the New National Development Planand the Sixth Malaysian Plan include specificstatements to promote the growth of small-scaleentrepreneurs towards innovation and creativeproduction.
Research and Extension Malaysia
Research and extension activities in Malaysia aredivorced from each other. A number of agenciesare responsible for extension while another setof agencies is responsible for research. Extensionactivities are carried out by multiple agencieswhich are organized according to commodity orcommodity groups. For example, theAgricultural Department in each state isresponsible for extension activities concerningall crops except rubber, oil palm, tobacco, andpineapple. The Veterinary Department carriesout extension work on livestock and the FisheriesDepartment is responsible for extension activitieson both freshwater and marine fish. All agenciesmentioned are under the Ministry of Agriculture.The number of extension agencies operating ineach district depends on the type of crops grownand other agricultural activities in the area butresearch is not found in any of these agenciesmentioned. Research on the various commoditiesin the Malaysian agricultural sector is theresponsibility of yet another set of agencies which
do not have any direct linkages with farmers.Research findings are disseminated to otheragencies mainly through publications and inservice training. MARDI, for example,disseminates research findings to farmers throughthe Agriculture Department and the VeterinaryDepartment. Thus the research and the extensionfunctions are carried out by separate agencies.Having multiple agencies doing agriculturalresearch and yet another set of agenciestranslating and disseminating the researchfindings to farmers certainly complicates mattersfor all those involved. Co-ordination betweenresearch and extension agencies is theresponsibility of special units and committees.The effectiveness of the linkages under thissystem is described to be "mixed". Part of theproblem, note Hashim and Fatt, is that "... eachagency tends to jealously guard itsresponsibilities and tends to view attempts atcooperation and coordination as encroachmentinto the sanctity of its respective empires"(Hashim and Fatt 1984)
The Food Technology Division of MARDI,the subject of this study, is the exception in theMalaysian research-extension scenario describedearlier as it carries out both research andextension activities and has linkages with theother sub-systems in the food industry whichmakes it exemplary.
The Ideal Research-Extension-User Linkages
This inquiry uses an "ideal" research-extensionuser linkage as its conceptual framework. Addedto this model is the view that the actors in eachof the sub-systems have multiple roles in theknowledge creation-diffusion-utilization process.This framework guides the data collecting phaseas well the analysis phase. Bennett (1989).presents three categories of conceptual modelsthat describe the linkages between the research,extension, and user sub-systems in co-operativeextension. The three categories are researchtransfer models; adult education models; andinterdependency models. The research-transfermodels view researchers' activities as the startingpoint. Extension's activities begin only afterthere is an output from research. If the outputis considered inappropriate, then Extension willconduct development and adaptive research tomake the output more suitable to users. Bennettsays that Extension's role in identifying andtranslating users' needs to researchers is regarded
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as secondary in these types of models. Amongmodels cited by Bennett that fit the researchtransfer category are those by Feller et at. (1984)and Havelock (1969).
The adult education models (Bennett 1989)start with an assessment of needs (individuals,community, and societal level) by Extension.The availability of research outputs and otherconsiderations are taken into account duringthe needs assessment. These models emphasizethe role of educating the user over the transferof technology or information. Models by Boone(1985) and Warner and Christenson (1984) areexamples of adult education models given byBennett.
The interdependency models (Bennett1989) start with networking between the research,extension, and user sub-systems. In most aspects,this model is similar to the adult educationmodel except that relationships, roles, andactions of both research and extension areconsidered concurrently and given equalemphasis and importance. These are also seento be continuously influencing each other.Models by Beal (1982) and Bennett (1988) areexamples of interdependency models. Thenetworking role is central in the interdependencymodel. Below is Bennett's description ofnetworking:
Networking is entering into, building,maintaining and relying upon linkages toassess needs, acquire resources anddischarge responsibilities. Networking,helps to achieve communication, awareness,influence, coordination and cooperationamong individuals, groups andorganizations (Bennett, 1989).
For this inquiry the interdependency modelis chosen as having the "ideal" research-extensionuser linkages and relationships. The view byCompton (1989) describes the research-extensionrelationship. Compton (1989) states, "Thegeneration, creation, or discovery (research) ofknowledge must be paired with a concern for itsdissemination, diffusion, and use (extension)."However, several perspectives need to be stressedhere. The main role of the scientists asknowledge producers, subject-matter specialistsas knowledge translators, extension agents asknowledge disseminators, and rural publicifarmers as knowledge users needs to be
supplemented by a view that each category ofactors has multiple roles. For example, scientistsneed to be viewed also as knowledge users andknowledge disseminators, while farmers/usersmay also perform the role of knowledgeproducers and knowledge disseminators.
Thus the study attempts to reveal the rolesof the actors within the research-extension-usersystem in the Food Technology Division ofMARDI and identifY the strengths and limitationsof the system.
METHODOLOGY
This paper is based on information from threesources, MARDI personnel, food industryentrepreneurs, and documents. In-depth,unstructured interviews were carried out withselected MARDI officers involved in planningand implementing the research and extensionprogrammes and with entrepreneurs involved inthe programmes. Informants were selectedpurposively based on their involvement and theirability to provide insights into the objective andnature of the programmes. Guided by theresearch question, six officers and fourentrepreneurs were interviewed for a total of 23hours. The in terviews were recorded in theform of field notes. Data from interviews weresupplemented by documents provided by theinformants, including reports and papers relatedto the programmes carried out by the FoodTechnology Division. In addition, observationswere also made during visits to the MARDIoffices and during a visit to a food processingfactory. At l'vlARDI, training on food processing,client consultation process and research facilitiesobserved. Visit to the food processing factoryprovided first-hand information on the operationof the factory and the processing work. Fromdata obtained, descriptions of the programmeswere made and the draft of the report was givento MARDI officials for validation.
The Programme
Historical PerspectiveAs stated earlier, research and extension activitiesare generally divorced from one another inMalaysia. The MARDI Act stipulates that MARDIshall cany out only research in agriculture andthat research findings be made available to theextension agencies for the purpose ofdissemination to, and application by, the target
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groups. In line with the act, the FoodTechnology Division of MARDI (formerly knownas Agriculture Product Utilization Division) onlyconducted research in the utilization ofagriculture produce until 1981. The researchfindings were documented into reports andpublications but no formal extension activitieswere carried out.
However, since 1970, ad hoc training andadvisory services were provided to those whorequested them (Adinan and Hussain 1984).Due to increasing demand for advisory services,a direct communication channel with small foodoperators was established in 1982 with thecreation of the "development" branch tocomplement the research branch of the FoodTechnology Division. The development branchcarries out the following programmes (MARDI,1993a) :
1. Food Information Development2. Food Project Development3. Food Industrial Development4. Food Extension Services5. Training for the Food Industry6. Food Quality Conu"ol Services
All six programmes form linkages throughwhich reseal"ch findings are communicated toconsumers. This paper focuses on four of theseprogrammes: Food Extension Services, FoodInformation Development, and Training for theFood Industry.
Food Extension Services
The objective of this programme is to provideadvisory services to the local food industrytowards upgrading of production technology andproduct quality (MARDI 1992). The servicesinclude regular visits (every 3 months) by MARDIofficers to selected small food industries. Duringthose visits advice is given on processing-relatedproblems such as processing technology, qualitycontrol, machinery layout, productdiversification, packaging and labelling, foodregulation, hygiene, and sanitation. Services areprovided for those entrepreneurs who seekMARDI's advice and who receive some financialassistance from government or semigovernmental agencies. This includes foodprocessing establishments that receive financialassistance under the World Bank Special Project.Most of the advisory services in food processing
are provided by MARDI alone. However, in caseswhere the en trepreneurs receive financialassistance from other agencies, MARDIcollaborates with those agencies in providingthe advisory services.
Beside providing advice on a scheduled basisfor the entrepreneurs at their production sites,MARDI also responds to inquiries made by bothexisting and potential entrepreneurs throughtelephone, letters, and personal visits to theresearch stations. In order to reach a wideraudience, particularly potential entrepreneurs,MARDI often organizes and participates inexhibitions related to the food industry.
Food Information DevelopmentThe maJor output of this programme includesnewsletters, flyers, pamphlets, and booklets onvarious aspects of food technology. These aredisseminated to both potential and existingentrepreneurs. To date more than 80 differentpublications on completely packagedtechnologies have been made available to clients.
Training for the Food IndustryVarious courses are developed and offered topotential and existing entrepreneurs in the foodindustry and also to personnel from extensionagencies. The main objective of the programmeis to introduce to participants the newtechnologies in food processing and qualitycontrol (MARDI, 1993b). The courses areprovided in two forms - scheduled andunscheduled.
1. Scheduled CoursesScheduled courses are categorized into eitherbasic or advanced courses (Wan Rahimah 1986).In basic courses, participants are given a completetechnology package on the processing of a certainproduct. This includes processing principles,method of processing, quality control ofingredients, process and product, packagingand presentation, cleanliness and sanitation, costof production and good manufacturing practices.Advanced courses are designed by discipline orcertain processing aspects such as quality control,packaging, and sanitation. The participants fora particular course are normally limited to thosewho want to learn more on certain aspects ofthe industry. Some of the advanced courses arecarried out in collaboration with agencies thatrequest them for their staff or clients. Certain
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advanced courses involve international agencieslike Japanese External Trade Organization(JETRO) and United States Food and DrugsAdministration (USFDA).
Courses are planned in advance based onprojected demand of the clientele. Courseschedules are communicated to the publicthrough newspapers, radio, booklets and onindividual basis through extension agencies.Usually application surpass available seats. Allthose above 18 years old are eligible for a course.These courses are self-financed through chargesmade on the participants. These certificates areviewed favourably by financial institutions forloan approvals.
Courses are conducted by researchers fromvarious specializations. A course usually involvesboth the theoretical and practical aspects of aprocess. Participants listen to lectures, observedemonstrations and carry out activities inlaboratories.
2. Unscheduled CoursesAs the name implies, these courses are conductedfrom time to time to meet the clientele's request.They normally deal with subjects not listed inthe scheduled courses such as post-harvesthandling of fruits, food canning and marketing.They also serve as an introduction to potentialentrepreneurs who have not yet decided on thetype of industry they would like to operate.Mter completing this course, participants areencouraged to attend the scheduled course oftheir choice.
Food Industrial DevelopmentA number of projects are carried out under thisprogramme, including research-oriented projectsand projects designed to improve selected foodindustries. An example of the latter is the"adoption scheme" which deals with small- andmedium-scale food industries. The objective ofthe scheme is to produce successfulentrepreneurs who are able to operate efficientlyand produce products of consistently highquality. This service is provided throughcomprehensive and intensive guidance onappropriate and efficient production technology,analytical facilities, quality control system,packaging and marketing of products, andbusiness management.Generally, this scheme involves three phaseswhich last for approximately three years. Phase
one seeks to assist the entrepreneur in solvinghis immediate, maJor problem. It starts withensuring that the client meets the specifiedcriteria:
I. Has a registered factory;11. Is currently engaged in food production;
Ill. Has problems with marketing strategy;IV. Has some technical problems.
Then it proceeds with identification of majorproblems faced by the entrepreneur. Based onthe problems identified, the entrepreneur isgiven appropriate recommendations andtraining. His current products are analysed andrecommendation on specific productspecifications and requirements will be given.To improve his productivity, proper plant layoutand machinery are suggested. Advice onfinancing opportunities and marketing strategiesare also given.
The strategy in phase two is to improve theproduct and plan for diversification. This isachieved through introduction of new productformulation, equipment, more conducive andhygienic working areas and liaising with machinesupplier and financial institutions.
With the utilization of new machinery andthe adoption of recommended processingpractices, the third phase proceeds with the aimof helping the entrepreneur to enlarge hisbusiness into becoming a medium-scaleenterprise through production of new products.The entrepreneur is also advised on foodregulations and other requirements of thesuccessful food industries.
The adoption scheme is carried out throughinvolvement of a team of researchers fromdifferent areas of specialization. Matters relatedto machinery and the processing line are underthe jurisdiction of the engineer. He assigns thelayout and equipment and co-ordinates withmachine supplier to ensure that the machinesmeet the specific industry requirements. Thefood technologist makes recommendations onfood formulation, sanitation and quality control.The economist ensures that the recommendations are not only technically feasible but alsoeconomically viable. The whole team participatesfrom preparation ofthe research proposal (whichis also used for loan applications) to locatingmarkets for the product. This is carried outthrough consultation and regular (at least once
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a month) VISIts to the industry. Most of theadvice and training take place at the factorywhich also serves as a site where trials on actualapplication of recommended machinery andprocesses are carried out. AB such, the adoptionscheme serves as a 'learning laboratory' for bothresearchers and clients.
The Research ProgrammeThe Food Technology Division conducts bothapplied and "fundamental" research. The areasof applied research are food handling, storage,processing, packaging, engineering, and foodmarketing while the fundamental research areasare food science and food safety (MARDI 1990).Identification of research problems may comefrom three sources. One source is the directionsand guidelines formulated at the national levelby various ministries. The second source is thedemands from related industries or sectors. Thethird source is the personal and professionalinterests of MARDI personnel.
Researchers at the Food Technology Divisionwho are operating in the "researcher" modeusually devote about 80% of his/her time toresearch and the remaining 20% to developmentwork. This may include extension and trainingactivities as well as being "on call" for troubleshooting activities.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The Food Technology Division of MARDIintegrates research and extension in a mannerthat resembles the interdependency modeldiscussed earlier. Research officers of thedivision form extensive linkages with foodindustry entrepreneurs (including potentialentrepreneurs), suppliers of raw materials andmachines, loan agencies, and others related tothe food industry. The collaboration betweenthese groups occurs at all phases of the researchdevelopment process.
In the Food Technology Division, not onlyare the two functions integrated, but the researchofficers are actually performing the role ofresearchers, subject-matter specialists, andextension agents. AB stated earlier, the officersin the research branch of the division can1' out80% research activities and 20% development/extension activities while the research andextension work load is reversed for the researchofficers in the development branch. Thismultiple role enables officers to keep abreast of
research as well as extension issues and problemsin both the laboratory and in the industry.Related to the multiple role is the team approach,with the team of researchers that includes foodscien tists, engineers and economists and theircollaboration with extended agencies.
A brief description of an actual project mayillustrate the point mentioned above. A teamconsisting of food scientists, engineers, and aneconomist worked with producers of a traditionalsnack and with officers of a state developmentagency to set up a commercial production ofthe traditional snack. Food scientists workedwith the local snack producers to adapt theformulation for commercial production.Engineers helped with the factory layout anddesign of machines. Local machine fabricatorsparticipated to produce and install a prototypemachine at the factory site. Studies were madeon processing, mechanization, and economicaspects. The outcome was a total, comprehensivetechnological package for the commercialproduction of the traditional snack.Improvements over the traditional method wereshorter processing time, longer shelf-life, betterpackaging, improved product quality, efficientand hygienic production-site, and highereconomic potential.
Participation by the various groups like theone described above helps establish the linkagesand interdependent relationships described. Byworking together at the production site thevarious groups were able to see beyond theconfines of the group's area of specialization.The on-site research by the MARDI officersenables them to see problems in the "real world".It also allows them to evaluate the effectivenessand impact of the package technology in "realworld" settings. Where possible, immediatecorrections and refinements can be made; theproblem would be investigated at the most basiclevel.
Another strength of the Food TechnologyDivision is that the programmes are targeted atspecific groups. The stratification of the clienteleis taken into considered. The clientele groupsare categorized according to the nature of theenterprise, the size of the operation, and thedevelopment stage of the enterprise. Forexample, budding entrepreneurs are given more"basic" training to help them get established.The established entrepreneurs, on the otherhand, are given coaching at their own production
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sites. The differing needs between small-scale,medium-scale, and large-scale operators are alsotaken into account. For example, separatetraining programmes are designed for each ofthe three size categories.
Certain suggestions however can still bemade to improve the research-extension systemin the Food Technology Division. The numberof officers with the expertise and experience toeffectively carry out both the research andextension functions is relatively low. vVhile they.have demonstrated their ability to carry out bothfunctions, this capability is developed throughyears of experience. The acquisition of thiscapability can be speeded up in two ways. Oneis to include an adult education discipline in amore systematic manner.
The advantages of having direct linkagesbetween researchers and other groups in thefood industry were discussed earlier. This setup, however, limits the number of clientele thatcan be reached. To overcome this situation,front-line workers are needed to concentrate onthe proven technological packages and in areaswhere there are relatively few problems. Thiswill ease up some of the demands currentlyfaced by the researchers without affecting thelinkages.
This study has demonstrated some actualpractices that serve to highlight certain facetsof the interdependency model of researchextension-user linkages. By viewing the researchextension-user system through the lenses ofthis model, more meaningful participation bymembers from all sub-systems at every phase ofthe research process can be made. Within thiscontext, the research process is seen as theknowledge creation-diffusion-utilization process.
ACKNO~EDGEMENTS
The authors are indebted to MARDI personneland food industry entrepreneurs for theircontribution and co-operation in the inquil)'.
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