Literacy and ESOL

Literacy and ESOL: shared and distinctive knowledge, understanding and professional practice

January 2009

Companion guide to the Application of theProfessional Standards for Teachers of English(Literacy and ESOL) in the Lifelong LearningSector (June 2007)For use by awarding institutions, teacher educators, teachers and trainee teachers

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Introduction 3Understandings of Literacy and ESOL teaching contexts 3

Professional development of Literacy and ESOL teachers 4

Section 1 6Structure of the Guidance

Section 2 9Context Guidance: Learning and Teaching Elements B1.En – B13.En 9 - 30

Section 3 31Context Guidance: Specialist Learning and Teaching Elements C1.En – C22.En 31 - 62

Acknowledgements 63

Contents


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Introduction


This guidance has been produced to support theprofessional development of teachers of literacy andEnglish as a second or other language (ESOL) in thefurther education (FE) sector in England. It providesteacher educators, teacher trainees and teachers witha detailed discussion of the similarities and differencesbetween the two disciplines. This will be useful in thedesign of appropriate pre-service training, in-servicetraining and continuing professional development. Theaccompanying resources will support programmedelivery and be of use to teachers engaged inprofessional development.

The guidance complements the earlier LifelongLearning UK application guide for teachers ofliteracy and ESOL1, which details the shared aspectsof knowledge, understanding and professionalpractice required of these teachers. This guidanceseeks to explore this shared body of knowledge,understanding and professional practice in moredetail, and highlight some of the distinctive featuresof literacy and ESOL contexts.

The guidance has a range of uses; some of whichare discussed below. It is also hoped that it willprovide a stimulus for further discussion by all thosewho are involved in the professional developmentof literacy and ESOL teachers.

Understandings of literacy and ESOLteaching contextsThis guidance acknowledges that literacy and ESOLteachers work in a wide variety of situations. Althoughthe two disciplines have separate traditions bothacademically and in practice, there have always beenareas where they have come together. This is oftendriven by the needs of a particular learner or learnergroup that a teacher is working with. Recent researchby the National Research and Development Centrefor adult literacy and numeracy (NRDC)2 questionedcurrent approaches to the organisation of learning

provision. It considered the practice of placement in literacy and ESOL groups and also the nature oflearning groups and their associated learning needs.

The study found that the boundary between ESOLand literacy is not clear-cut, and that the range oflearning needs encompassed by the two subject areasis more complex than a rigid distinction can allow for3.

The issues raised by this research are central to thepractice of literacy and ESOL teachers today. Whilemany of these issues are beyond the scope of thisguidance, the research findings that relate to thecontexts within which teachers work are central tothe discussion of those similarities and differences.

It is more important than ever to acknowledge thatthe teaching of literacy is not solely concerned withmeeting the needs of monolingual speakers of English.Although in some parts of the UK literacy classes stillcater for ‘traditional’ literacy learners, in other areasclasses contain more bilingual learners than they domonolingual speakers. Similarly, some ESOL learnerswho have reading and writing difficulties very similarto those encountered in a ‘traditional’ literacy class.Both situations demand a degree of flexibility andresponsiveness from the teacher that is extremelycomplex. We acknowledge that this is difficult tocapture in a guidance document of this nature.

Although an understanding of developing contexts forteaching and learning must inform the professionaldevelopment of teachers, this guidance does notexplore changes in the contexts themselves orconsider the part played by policy and practice. Nordoes it discuss the views of teachers, trainee teachersand teacher educators about these changes.

1Application of the Professional Standards for Teachers of English (Literacy and ESOL), Lifelong Learning UK (2007)2Simpson, J, Cooke, M, Baynham, M (2008) The right course? NRDC 3See page 4

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Professional development of literacy and ESOL teachersThis guidance is intended to inform the professionaldevelopment of literacy and ESOL teachers. TheLifelong Learning UK application guide for teachersof literacy and ESOL4 details the shared knowledge,understanding and professional practice required of these teachers. This document can be used toinform professional development opportunities,whether accredited or unaccredited and whetherfor initial training or continuing professionaldevelopment. Although the content of theapplication guide is shared for literacy and ESOL, it was always recognised that this would becontextualised for either discipline at the level ofthe professional development programme. Thisguidance has been developed to support theprocess of contextualisation.

This guidance considers the shared content of thestandards document and provides further detail ofknowledge, understanding and professional practicein context. In doing this it identifies, at this furtherlevel of detail, where the content continues to becommon to both literacy and ESOL contexts andwhere the content is different for each context. Itshould in no way be perceived as additional contentto be included in professional developmentprogrammes.

An important consideration for those designing andproviding accredited teacher education programmesin either subject specialism is the amount of contentwhich can realistically be covered within the creditvalue of the qualification. They will understand thatmany of the concepts in this document aredemanding, and although introduced in the initialstages of training, teachers will need opportunitiesto consider them throughout their career.

The practical applications of the guidance arenumerous, but some potential benefits are outlinedand illustrated below.

For teacher educators the guidance may help to identify:

• Where the underpinning knowledge is sharedand applied in similar ways by literacy and ESOL teachers.

For example, an understanding of the spellingpatterns of the English language might be used insimilar ways by both literacy and ESOL teachers.This could be used to help develop strategies forsupporting learners, although the cause of thespelling error might be different depending onwhether the learner is bilingual or a native speaker.

• Where the underpinning knowledge is sharedbut applied differently by literacy and ESOLteachers.

For example, an understanding of the phonologyof English would be used by literacy teachersmostly with regard to sound-symbol relationshipsin written language. An ESOL teacher wouldadditionally use this knowledge to work withlearners on their pronunciation of individualsounds and their understanding of spoken English.


4Application of the Professional Standards for Teachers of English (Literacy and ESOL), Lifelong Learning UK (2007)

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• A characteristic of professional practice in onediscipline that would benefit practitioners of the other discipline.

In the example above, the implication is thatliteracy teachers do not generally help learnerswith their pronunciation of individual sounds.However, research has shown that some bilinguallearners in literacy classes can have difficultymaking themselves understood in spoken English.5

In this case, it may be appropriate for literacyteachers to employ some of the approachestraditionally associated with ESOL teaching inorder to meet their learners’ needs.

Another example relates to ESOL teachersworking with learners who have low levels ofliteracy. Clearly they will benefit greatly frombecoming familiar with some of the approachesthat are already familiar to literacy teachers,although in many cases they will need to beadapted to meet the specific needs of bilinguallearners.

• A characteristic of professional practice in onediscipline that is less applicable to practitioners of the other discipline.

For example, some whole class aspects of ESOLpractice, such as oral drilling techniques used toreinforce grammatical and lexical accuracy, mightbe inappropriate for literacy teachers, even wherebilingual learners are present in their groups.

Conversely, the emphasis on individual learningpathways and classroom tasks prevalent in manyadult literacy classrooms is often less appropriate for ESOL classrooms, where “talk is work” 5 andpair, group and whole class activities are morecommon.

For teachers and trainee teachers theguidance may help to identify:

• Ways in which they might be able to respondbetter to the individual needs of learners withintheir cohorts.

• Where they have gaps in their existingknowledge, understanding or professionalpractice in one discipline, which could be filledby professional development activities relating to the other discipline.

• Resources which might support them in theirprofessional development.


5Baynham et al (2007) Effective Teaching and learning: ESOL NRDC

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The guidance supplements the Application of theProfessional Standards for teachers of English (Literacyand ESOL) in the Lifelong Learning Sector. Theapplication guide consists of a series of statementsrelating to each of the six “Domains” (A-F) of thenew professional standards for teachers and trainersin the lifelong learning sector.6 These statements arereferred to as elements. Each element is expandedin a series of bullet points, referred to as the extent.

In developing this companion guide it was decidedthat Domains B and C of the application guide wouldbe the most appropriate focus for an expandeddiscussion on shared and distinctive features ofliteracy and ESOL knowledge and practice. Thesedomains relate most directly to the content and focusof subject specific teacher education programmes forliteracy and ESOL teachers.

While it would be desirable to integrate theseaspects of teacher behaviour and cognition into a holistic discussion, the existing structure of theapplication guide (which deals separately with thesetwo issues) was retained for ease of use.

The following information about the content ofDomains B and C is taken from the application guide:

In developing an application of the professional standardsfor subject specific qualifications the need for Domains Band C initially seemed unnecessary as all learning andteaching would be considered from a subject specificperspective on these programmes. However, during thewriting process it was found that this approach wouldlimit the extent statements. Therefore, Domain B detailsspecialist learning and teaching underpinned by theappropriate knowledge and understanding. Domain Cdetails the specialist knowledge and understanding andhow it is applied to practice.7

Essentially, Domain B (Learning and Teaching)considers what literacy and ESOL teachers do in the classroom, while Domain C (subject specialistlearning and teaching) considers what literacy andESOL teachers know. However, these distinctionsare not entirely clear-cut within the applicationguide itself, and this blurring of knowledge andpractice has been carried over into the discussion in this guidance, as well as into the selection ofresources suggested to support each element.

In order to facilitate the integration of these twoaspects of teacher behaviour and cognition intoholistic teacher education programmes, eachelement in Domain B is signposted to relatedelements in Domain C, and vice versa.

Guidance on Literacy and ESOL contextsAs stated above, this document takes as a startingpoint the elements of knowledge, understandingand professional practice contained within DomainsB and C of the Application of the ProfessionalStandards for teachers of English (Literacy and ESOL)in the Lifelong Learning Sector. Guidance developedin response to Domain B of the application guide isdetailed in Section 2, and guidance relating toDomain C is detailed in Section 3. The elementsfrom both Domains are reprinted for ease of use.

However, coding from the application guide, whichrefers to the knowledge and practice statements inthe professional standards, has been removed toimprove readability.

1 Section 1 Structure of the guidance

6Lifelong Learning UK, 20077Application of the Professional Standards for Teachers of English (Literacy and ESOL), Lifelong Learning UK (2007)

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Below is an example of how the information for each element is presented throughout this document.Elements are taken from the Application of the Professional Standards for Teachers of English (Literacy and ESOL)Lifelong Learning UK 2007).

Element reference, e.g. Element B4.EnTitle of the element, e.g. Use knowledge of language systems to develop learners’ awareness of how language works

Element extent:

• the element is expanded in a series of bullets

Reference is included to any elements from another Domain which details any related areas of knowledge and understanding

e.g. Knowledge and understanding relating to this element is detailed in C6.En, C7.En, C8.En

ExplanationThe explanation provides a summary of the element.

DiscussionThe discussion highlights those aspects of knowledge, understanding or professional practice which mayrepresent common ground for literacy and ESOL teachers, and those which may require a difference inemphasis. In some cases, teachers from one discipline or the other may require a deeper level of understandingof a particular element, or may need to consider additional factors. As a result, there are rarely an equivalentnumber of statements for literacy as for ESOL, or vice versa.

Resources and Links A selection of useful resources relating to the element is provided for further reference.

Both literacy and ESOL

Resources relating to both literacy and ESOL are listed here.

Literacy ESOL

Resources relating to literacy are listed here.

NB: links to all websites were correct at the time of going to print.

Resources relating to ESOL are listed here.

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Element B1.EnUse learning activities and resources which relate to learners’ life goals, their uses of language and literacy and equip learners to use their language and literacy skills to effect desired change.

Literacy and ESOL teachers:

• Support the development of spoken and written language in authentic and relevant contexts.

• Use approaches which validate and make use of learners’ existing uses of language(s) and literacy.

• Use approaches which:- promote autonomy and collaboration in literacy and language learning- make curriculum and methodology explicit and negotiable.

• Use approaches which help learners to:- use their developing knowledge of language and literacy to effect desired change- provide access to powerful literacies and prestigious forms - develop critical awareness and enable learners to make informed choices.

Knowledge and understanding relating to this element is detailed in C1.En

ExplanationThis element highlights the importance of situating literacy and language teaching and learning withinlearners’ contexts and the societies and networks they participate in or aspire to access.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers use tasks and activities which raise learners’ explicit awareness of differentvarieties of English and their development, as well as differences between varieties at text, sentence andword level. Learners also need to understand that there are differences between spoken and written formsof all varieties of English. Explicit discussion relating to language and identity will draw on interaction betweenlearners from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds, encouraging learners to value and benefit fromdiversity, and will address issues related to citizenship sensitively and at an appropriate language level.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers may set up and manage discussion, reading and writing activities aboutliteracies, language change, language variety and power relations in order to encourage recognition ofdominant literacies / Standard English if appropriate. They also encourage a questioning of that dominanceand an appreciation of the grammatical and lexical make up of different varieties of English.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers choose activities and resources which provide opportunities for learnersto express creativity, emotions and opinions at all language levels, and this may be facilitated by the use ofresources chosen by the learners themselves.

Literacy teachers encourage learners to bring in their own authentic resources for use in the classroom,recognising and valuing a range of varieties and styles of written language. This use of authentic materialsexplicitly validates learners’ existing use of languages and language varieties in a range of contexts.

2 Section 2 Context Guidance: Learning and Teaching

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Element B1.En (continued)Literacy teachers use approaches which validate learners’ spoken language even if learners themselves maynot value it and may perceive their difficulties with reading and writing to stem from the fact that they donot ‘speak properly’.

While it is important for ESOL learners to have an explicit awareness of the existence of different varietiesof English, ESOL teachers also need to make informed choices about the most appropriate languagevarieties to teach in the classroom. They recognise that all varieties have value in their own context, buttake into account the fact that ESOL learners need appropriate models to work with, according to theirimmediate needs and future goals. Reading and writing in standard and prestigious varieties of English maybe particularly challenging for ESOL learners, but awareness of different varieties may contribute to theirability to understand spoken English in the social groups they participate in outside the classroom.

Authentic resources are also important in the ESOL context, in particular to enable ESOL learners to uselanguage effectively to participate in the communities and systems within which they live.

Resources and Links Both literacy and ESOL

Maybin, J (1993) Language and Literacy in Social Practice Open University Press Holmes, J (1992) An Introduction to Sociolinguistics Longman Barton et al (2006) Linking Learning and Everyday life: a Social Perspective on Adult ILEALanguage, Literacy and Numeracy classes NRDC Fairclough, Norman (1992) Critical Language Awareness, Longman: Harlow, Essex.Barton, D et al (2008) Literacy, Lives and Learning RoutledgeFairclough, N (2001) Language and Power LongmanAfro-Caribbean Language and Literacy Project in Further and Adult Education (1990) Language and Power: Language Materials for Students in the Multilingual and Multiethnic ClassroomHarcourt Brace Jovanovich Lippi-Green, R (1997) English with an Accent RoutledgeMcNeil, B (2008) Working with Young Adults NIACEBlackledge, A (2005) Discourse and Power in a Multilingual World John Benjamins publishing company

Literacy ESOL

Freire, Paulo (1996) Pedagogy of the Oppressed Penguin Crowther, J, Hamilton, M and Tett, L (eds) (2001) Powerful Literacies Leicester:NIACEBaynham, M (l995) Literacy Practices LongmanAppleby, Y and Barton, D (2008) Responding to People’s Lives NIACEFowler, E and Mace, J (2005) Outside the Classroom: Researching Literacy with Adult Learners NIACE

Breaking the Language Barrier(2001) DfES Pitt, K (2005) Debates in ESOL Teaching andLearning Routledge Cardiff, P, Newman, K, Pearce, E Reflect for ESOLActionaid

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Element B2.EnUse approaches to teaching language and literacy which take into account the range oflearner backgrounds, histories, learning goals and preferences and cognitive styles.


• Use a range of strategies to differentiate learning and teaching according to learners’ different skillsand previous experiences of literacy and language learning.

• Use a range of specialist methods and techniques to support learners from a range of linguistic backgrounds.

• Use a range of approaches and classroom management techniques to differentiate learning andteaching according to learners’ strengths and shared experiences.

• Use approaches which foster collaborative learning, while being aware that learners may not haveused these approaches before.

Knowledge and understanding relating to this element is detailed in C2.En, C22.En, C23.En

ExplanationThis element underlines the importance of taking account of a range of personal and social factors inliteracy and language learning and teaching.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers need to choose activities and resources sensitively, recognising thepotential for particular topics and themes to cause distress to some learners who have had negativeexperiences of education or who have experienced trauma in the past.

Some particular concerns for ESOL teachers include the challenge of adapting approaches to take accountof the educational diversity of ESOL groups; from non-literate and under-educated to highly literate andsuccessful. This may include addressing ESOL learners’ different understandings of the role of the teacherbecause of their different cultural expectations and experiences.

Where learners have a low level of English, ESOL teachers may consider using bilingual approaches andmaterials (or peer language support in multilingual classes) where possible and desirable. These approachesmight include the use of translation techniques and working with bilingual teaching assistants to support thedevelopment of literacy in learners’ other language(s) before doing so in English.

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Element B2.En (continued)


Appleby, Y (2008) Developing Adult Teaching and Learning: Practitioner Guides – Bridges intoLearning for Adults Who Find Provision Hard to Reach NIACEBarton et al (2006) Linking learning and Everyday Life: a Social Perspective on Adult Language,Literacy and Numeracy classes NRDC

Literacy ESOL

Barton, D, Hamilton, M and Ivanic, R (eds.) (2000) Situated Literacies RoutledgePapen, U (2005) Adult Literacy as Social Practice RoutledgeViens, J (2004) Multiple Intelligences and Adult Literacy Teacher’s College press

ESOL Pathfinder – Learner Voices (QIA)Differentiation in ESOL Teaching (video) LLU+Pitt, K (2005) Debates in ESOL Teaching andLearning RoutledgeHarris, R and Savitsky, F (1998) My Personal LanguageHistory LLU+Baynham, M et al (2007) Effective Teaching andLearning: ESOL NRDC

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Element B3.EnApply suitable approaches to working with learners affected by dyslexia and other cognitive,physical or sensory abilities or disabilities.


• Take account of the impact of different cognitive, physical and sensory abilities and disabilities on literacy and language learning.

• Use a range of language and literacy teaching approaches and multi-sensory activities and resourceswhich build on learners’ strengths.

• Enable learners to make use of specialist resources and low and high assistive technology for language and literacy learning, where necessary.

Knowledge and understanding related to this element is detailed in C5.En

ExplanationThis element examines the specific challenges of a range of learning difficulties and disabilities for literacyand language learning and teaching.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers may need to work with specialists in specific and global learningdifficulties to develop appropriate whole group teaching approaches which are inclusive of those withparticular learning difficulties and to identify appropriate individual approaches for particular learners.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers may need to adapt screening tools for use with bilingual learners;recognising the difficulty in diagnosing dyslexia and other specific learning difficulties in learners with a lowlevel of English and/or literacy. In addition, both literacy and ESOL teachers need to use approaches whichtake account of differing cultural views and perspectives on disability.

ESOL teachers should be aware that, although mental health difficulties are not an inevitable consequenceof trauma, some asylum seekers and refugees do experience such difficulties, and few such learners arelikely to have declared a mental health difficulty or be receiving medical or psychiatric treatment.

In some cases it may be appropriate for ESOL teachers to access specialist support in the learner’s home language.

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It’s Not as Simple as You Think: Cultural Viewpoints around Disability QIAAccess for All DfES A Framework for Understanding Dyslexia DfESReflect, Issue 8 (Special Report on Learners with Learning Difficulties) NRDCDevelopmental Dyslexia in Adults – a Research Review NRDCKrupska, M and Klein, C (1996) Demysitfying Dyslexia LLU+Herrington, M and Kendall, A (ed) (2005) Insights from Research and Practice NIACE (Sections B3 and B4 Dyslexia and Disability)

Links:Understanding Dyslexia http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=1652Abilitynet http://www.abilitynet.org.uk/

Literacy ESOL

Brooks, G (2003) Literacy and Numeracy for Adults with Learning Disabilities NRDC

ESOL Access for All DfES 2006Sunderland, H et al (1997) Dyslexia and the Bilingual Learner LLU+

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Element B4.EnUse knowledge of language systems to develop learners’ awareness of how language works.


• Use appropriate techniques and terminology to help learners develop their understanding of how oral and written language works.

• Use approaches which help learners recognise the diverse and changing nature of language andliteracy e.g. Standard English and varieties.

• Use approaches which enable learners to recognise language varieties in different contexts.


ExplanationThis element relates to the role of explicit teaching about language in literacy and language learning and teaching.

DiscussionIn order to help learners understand how language works, both literacy and ESOL teachers may teachlearners about the basic history and development of the English language, including; the power relationsbehind the dominance of Standard English, the way different dialects/varieties develop, the constantlychanging nature of language as evident, for example, in the development of spelling patterns in English.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers may also explore different uses of language for different purposes anddiscuss what makes them effective (or not), using spoken and written texts, and learners’ developing graspof linguistic terms to examine the similarities and differences between a range of varieties, at a levelappropriate to the learner.

Literacy teachers help learners to analyse communication in English at discourse, sentence and phrase level in order to draw on their implicit knowledge and use it in explicit ways.

In contrast, ESOL teachers, while recognising the need for explicit knowledge of grammar in equippinglearners to work independently, need to make informed choices about when to introduce linguisticterminology, taking into account learners’ existing awareness of grammar. At lower language levels, suchterminology in English may be less useful, or could be introduced using bilingual approaches.

ESOL teachers may provide activities which will develop the learners’ ability to make comparisonsbetween the language system of their own language and English, by highlighting areas where languages are likely to differ (tense system, lexical choice, use of articles etc).

A particular challenge for ESOL teachers is that of choosing appropriate grammatical structures to teachaccording to the stage in the learners’ development, designing tasks and contexts which provideopportunities for learners to internalize and practise new grammatical structures.

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Carter, R et al edited by Beard, A (2008) Working with Texts RoutledgeThornbury, S (1997) About Language CUPCrystal, D (2004) Rediscover Grammar LongmanGraddol, D Describing Language OUPFairclough, N (1992) Critical Language Awareness Pearson LongmanCrystal, D (1997) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language CUPCameron, D (2001) Working with Spoken Discourse SageArndt, V, Harvey, P and Nuttall, J (2000) Alive to Language CUP

Links:Grammatical Knowledge for teachershttp://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary/profdev/literacy/571599/

Literacy ESOL

Hamilton, M and Hillier, Y (2006) Changing Faces of Adult Literacy, Language and Numeracy: A Critical History Trentham Books

Crystal, D (2001) Language and the Internet CUP

Beard, A (2004) Language Change Routledge

Crystal, D (2003) English as a global language CUP

Graddol, D et al (1996) English, History, Diversity and Change Open University Press

Parrott, M (2000) Grammar for English Language Teachers CUP

Lightbown, P and Spada, N (2006) How Languages are Learned OUP

Thornbury, S (1999) How to Teach GrammarLongman

Links:The teaching knowledge wikihttp://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-wiki/teaching-knowledge-wiki

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Element B5.EnUse knowledge of language systems to work systematically and holistically with learners in developing their use of language.


• Analyse language for learning and teaching purposes.

• Use appropriate terminology relating to discourse, grammar, lexis and phonology.

• Integrate the development of listening, reading, speaking and writing skills at text, sentence and word level.

• Use approaches which enable learners to understand the importance of purpose, audience and social context.

• Use approaches which foster creativity and self-expression and enable learners to use language in relevant contexts.

• Use approaches which enable learners to make informed choices about their own language and literacy use.

• Use approaches which enable learners to understand how language and literacy use relates to socialstructures, power and identity.

Knowledge and understanding relating to this element is detailed in C6.En, C7.En, C8.En, C9.En

ExplanationThis element relates to approaches to literacy and language learning and teaching which are integrated andholistic, with the teacher’s own knowledge of language systems and language use underpinning their workwith learners.

DiscussionFor both literacy and ESOL teachers, approaches to the teaching of grammar may include deductive andinductive activities.

The focus for literacy teachers, whose principal concern is to build on existing language use, may differ fromthat of ESOL teachers, whose role is both to enable ongoing development and to introduce new language.

Literacy teachers help learners to recognise significant differences between the lexis and grammar of StandardEnglish and their own varieties, and use strategies which equip literacy learners to make lexical and grammaticalchoices appropriate to genre and register. They also raise related issues about how language is used and viewedin society, and the relevance of appropriate language choice to the achievement of their wider goals.

ESOL teachers also seek to equip ESOL learners to make lexical and grammatical choices appropriate tomode, formality, register and genre and with appropriate connotations. In addition, they use their ownknowledge of language to make word meanings and grammatical forms accessible to learners. This will ofteninvolve using semantic relationships, context questions and description to ensure precise understanding ofnew lexical items, grammatical structures and text-types, especially where there may be no equivalence inthe learner’s other language(s).


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Resources and LinksBoth literacy and ESOL

Beard, A (Ed) (2008) Working with Texts RoutledgeThornbury, S (1997) About Language CUPCrystal, D (2004) Rediscover Grammar LongmanGraddol, D Describing Language OUP Cook, G (1989) Discourse OUPArndt, V, Harvey, P and Nuttall, J (2000) Alive to Language CUPCrystal, D (1997) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language CUP

Links:Grammatical Knowledge for teachershttp://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary/profdev/literacy/571599/

Literacy ESOL

Fairclough, N (1992) Critical Language Awareness Pearson Longman

Nunes, T and Bryant, P (2006) Improving Literacy by Teaching Morphemes Routledge


Parrott, M (2000) Grammar for English LanguageTeachers CUP

Schmitt, N (2000) Vocabulary in Language Teaching CUP

Lewis, M (1993) The Lexical Approach LTP

Schellekens, P (2007) The Oxford ESOL Handbook OUP


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Element B6.EnEnable learners to develop critical listening skills within authentic communicative situations.


• Use a range of approaches and resources to help learners develop critical listening skills in a range ofauthentic contexts, for different purposes and appropriate to their interests, contexts and goals.

• Enable learners to improve their ability to understand, interpret and respond to spoken texts.

• Enable learners to develop listening strategies which build on their existing skills in English and theirknowledge of other languages.

• Enable learners to deal with potential linguistic, cultural and other challenges to understanding andinterpreting spoken texts.

• Use a range of approaches to listening development based on research.


ExplanationThis element relates to approaches used to develop listening skills which are specific to literacy andlanguage learning and teaching.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers help learners to recognise ways in which their own listening skills mightbe improved and set up activities to help learners to develop strategies to improve their ability to listenactively to others. It is important to encourage both literacy and ESOL learners to expand the range ofcontexts in which they listen and read.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers use appropriate strategies to activate or challenge existing schemas andencourage learners to make use of background knowledge when listening.

Literacy teachers use a range of activities to highlight the importance of the development of speaking andlistening skills, where appropriate, to learners who have self-identified issues with reading and writing. This mightinclude raising awareness of listening practices such as those required for study or critical television viewing.

Literacy teachers use discussion activities to explicitly develop speaking and listening (understanding,interpreting and responding) skills and enable learners to recognise a range of different registers fordifferent contexts, building from learners’ existing strengths.

ESOL teachers, while using discussion activities for similar purposes, also set up opportunities for learnersto develop and extend their ability to comprehend spoken English, including (where learners have a lowerlevel of English) the ability to discern individual words in the stream of speech. ESOL teachers also facilitateexposure to a range of typical accents and spoken text types. This may involve the use of recordeddialogues, discussions and other media.

ESOL teachers use a range of strategies to help learners deal with the challenges for comprehension thatthe features of connected speech may present, such as sentence stress, weak forms, assimilation, elisionand dialect/accent.


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Carter, R and McCarthy, M (2002) Exploring Spoken English Cambridge University PressWardhaugh, R (1985) How Conversation Works Oxford, BlackwellCameron, D (2001) Working with Spoken Discourse Sage

Literacy ESOL

Hay, A and Lobley, G (2008) Talk, Work and Employability NIACE

Shaw, A (2003) Audio Resources for AdultsLiteracy Today Issue 37 (National Literacy Trust – www.literacytrust.org.uk)


Anderson, A and Lynch, T (1998) Listening OUP

Bygate, M (1987) Speaking OUP


Cooke, M and Simpson, J (2008) ESOL, A CriticalGuide OUP

DfES (2004) ESOL Exemplars for Speaking andListening, Reading, Writing DfES publications

Simpson, J and White (2008) Teaching and LearningListening in ESOL Classes: “The Rock we Build the House on” in Language Issues 19/2

Carrier, K (1999) “The Social Environment ofSecond Language Listening: Does Status Play aRole in Comprehension?” Modern Language Journal83: 65-79

Baynham, M et al (2007) Effective Teaching andLearning: ESOL NRDC

Links:Listening – Top-down and bottom uphttp://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/listening-top-down-bottom

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Element B7.EnEnable learners to develop critical reading skills within authentic communicative situations.


• Use a range of approaches and resources to help learners develop critical reading skills in a range of authentic contexts, for different purposes and appropriate to their interests, contexts and goals

• Enable learners to improve their ability to understand, interpret and respond to written texts.

• Enable learners to develop reading strategies which build on their existing knowledge and skills inEnglish and other languages.

• Use approaches which enable learners to deal with potential linguistic, cultural and other challenges to understanding and interpreting written texts.

• Use a range of approaches to reading development based on research and theory.

Knowledge and understanding relating to this element is detailed in C10.En, C11.En, C12.En, C18.En, C21.En

ExplanationThis element relates to approaches used to develop reading skills which are specific to literacy and languagelearning and teaching.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers use appropriate strategies to activate or challenge existing schemas andencourage learners to make use of background knowledge when reading.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers elicit learners’ ideas about why people read and how people read and teachcritical reading skills by encouraging them to ask and answer questions concerning: the reason something hasbeen written, who it has been written for, who it has been written by, its context and whether it is effective inachieving its purpose. This will also develop learners’ abilities to identify text types, including multi-modal texttypes such as websites, magazines, advertising, and so on.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers help learners to develop the ability to select a text to read for aparticular purpose along with an appropriate reading strategy for that purpose.

With less skilled readers, literacy teachers use specialist strategies to help develop early reading skills for adultlearners who have had difficulty in learning to read, which will include activities to aid decoding such as developingphoneme awareness and word analysis skills such as phoneme blending, segmentation and manipulation.

Similarly, ESOL teachers may need to adapt strategies for teaching basic reading skills to make themappropriate to ESOL learners, and help learners who are familiar with different scripts realise that they cantransfer some of their existing reading skills to interpreting the new script. They may also need to employ a range of strategies to support and develop reading skills for learners not literate in their own language.

ESOL teachers need to help learners develop strategies for understanding new lexis from context in awritten text.


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Sousa, D (2004) How the Brain Learns to Read Corwin PressEffective Teaching and Learning – Reading NRDC Effective Practice GuideWallace, C (1992) Reading OUPBurton, M (2007) Reading. Developing Adult Teaching and Learning: Practitioner Guides NIACE

Literacy ESOL

Besser et al (2004) Adult Literacy Learners’ Difficulties in Reading – an Exploratory Study NRDC

Moss, W (2005) Theories on the Teaching of Reading to Adults – Some Notes RAPAL (Research and Practice in Adult Literacy). Bulletin Issue No. 56. Spring 2005.

Barton, D, Hamilton, H and Ivanic, R (eds) (2000) Situated Literacies: Reading and Writing in Context Routledge

Street, B (1984) Literacy in Theory and Practice Cambridge University Press

Basic Skills Agency (1989) Making Reading Easier London: BSA

Links:Townsend, J (2005) Making the vital LinksLiteracy Today Issue 43 (National Literacy Trust – www.literacytrust.org.uk)

McShane, S (2005) Applying Research in Reading Instruction for Adultshttp://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/applyingresearch.pdf


Spiegel, M and Sunderland, H (2006) Teaching BasicLiteracy to ESOL Learners LLU+

Kern, R (2000) Literacy and Language Teaching OUP




Wallace, C (2006) “The Text, Dead or Alive?”Expanding Textual Repertoires in the Adult ESOLClassroom Linguistics and Education 17/1, 74-90

Wallace, C (2003) Critical Reading in LanguageEducation Palgrave

Links:Theories of Readinghttp://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/theories-reading

Interacting with Textshttp://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/interacting-with-texts-directed-activities-related-texts-darts

ESOL Literacy Resource Packhttp://www.esolliteracy.co.uk/

22

Element B8.EnEnable learners to develop spoken English within authentic communicative situations.


• Use approaches, texts and materials to help learners develop their ability to communicate effectivelywith a range of audiences for different purposes at text (discourse), sentence and word level appropriateto their interests, contexts and goals.

• Enable learners to develop strategies which build on their existing knowledge and skills in English and other languages.

• Use approaches which enable learners to deal with linguistic, cultural and other challenges toexpressing themselves orally.

• Use a range of approaches to development of spoken English based on research and theory.

Knowledge and understanding relating to this element is detailed in C6.En, C7.En, C10.En, C19.En, C21.En

ExplanationThis element relates to approaches used to develop speaking skills which are specific to literacy andlanguage learning and teaching.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers use awareness raising activities to help learners understand that turntaking and conversation maintenance strategies differ from person to person and from culture to culture.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers manage class discussions and interactions where turn taking and effectiveconversation maintenance strategies are explicitly modelled and practised.

In speaking and listening activities, both literacy and ESOL teachers build on learners’ existing skills andconfidences in varieties of English and/or other languages in a range of domains, with the aim of enablinglearners to use different registers for different purposes and contexts. In particular, literacy and ESOLlearners need to develop the skills required to participate in institutional encounters where they may havelittle power or be unclear about what is required of them.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers use activities which are designed to help learners to develop theconfidence to engage in the spoken discourse of education, and other institutional interactions such as jobinterviews and medical consultations.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers use activities which encourage self expression in spoken English.

ESOL teachers aim to encourage a balance between accuracy and fluency in spoken English and recognisethat a significant aspect of the development of spoken English for ESOL learners relates to the role thatpronunciation plays in effective communication. ESOL teachers use a range of strategies to help learnersrecognise and reproduce key intonation patterns and the meanings they signal, and to use appropriatesentence stress and rhythm. A variety of drilling techniques and communicative practice activities can beused to help learners to recognise and use natural connected speech patterns.

ESOL teachers use a range of correction strategies sensitively to draw learners’ attention to errors in theirspoken English, encouraging self awareness and self correction wherever possible.


23



Carter, R and McCarthy, M (2002) Exploring Spoken English Cambridge University PressCameron, D (2001) Working with Spoken Discourse SageRoberts, C, Davies, E and Jupp, T (1992) Language and Discrimination: a Study of Communicationin Multi-ethnic Workplaces LongmanRoberts, C (2007a) Successful Selection: Fair Interviewing in a Diverse Society (DVD) Departmentfor Work and PensionsRoberts, C (2007b) F.A.Q.s: Frequently Asked Questions and Frequently Found Answers (DVD)Department for Work and Pensions

Literacy ESOL

Cornbleet, S and Carter, N (2001) The Language of Speech and Writing Routledge






Roberts, C and Campbell, S (2006) Talk on TrialDepartment for work and pensions

Roberts, C and Cooke, M (2007) Developing adultTeaching and Learning: Practitioner Guides ESOLNIACE/NRDC

Underhill, A (2005) Sound Foundations Macmillan

Taylor, L (1993) Pronunciation in action Prentice Hall

Laroy, C (1995) Pronunciation CUP

Links:Innovations in Teaching: Let’s Get Talkinghttp://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/podcasts/innovations

Carter, R The “S” in ESOLhttp://www.nrdc.org.uk/content.asp?CategoryID=436&ArticleID=344

24

Element B9.EnEnable learners to develop written English within authentic communicative situations.

Literacy and ESOL teachers:• Use approaches, texts and materials to help learners develop their ability to communicate effectively

in writing with a range of audiences for different purposes at text (discourse), sentence and word(lexis) level appropriate to their interests, contexts and goals.

• Enable learners to develop strategies which build on their existing knowledge and skills in English and other languages.

• Use approaches which enable learners to deal with linguistic, cultural and other challenges to writing in a variety of contexts.

• Use a range of approaches to writing development based on research and theory.Knowledge and understanding relating to this element is detailed in C6.En, C7.En, C11.En, C12.En, C21.En

ExplanationThis element relates to approaches used to develop writing skills which are specific to literacy and languagelearning and teaching.

Many approaches to the teaching of writing for literacy and ESOL teachers are similar.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers set up discussions with learners about what people write, when, why forwhom, etc, in order to develop student-led critical thinking about text types, communicative competenceand issues of audience/domain, in line with learners’ needs and contexts for writing outside the classroom.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers use approaches which develop text level writing skills, coherence andcohesion, including using paragraphing and other text organisation devices, word level writing skills such asspelling, handwriting and keyboard skills as appropriate to learner needs and desires, and sentence levelwriting skills, including working on how to identify where one sentence ends and another begins and usingthis knowledge to punctuate effectively.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers aim to develop learners’ abilities to select what type of text they want towrite, and to write according to criteria for successful writing that they have devised or agreed themselves.This ensures that learners are able to transfer their written skills from the classroom to authentic contextsin their own lives.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers use a wide range of strategies to help learners to recognise those spellingpatterns which exist in English and to develop their ability to spell accurately.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers make use of a range of approaches to help learners who have difficultywith handwriting to develop an automatic, fluent script (cursive where appropriate).

Both literacy and ESOL teachers understand the role of punctuation in written texts, and are aware thatpunctuation conventions vary from language to language.


25

Element B9.En (continued)Both literacy and ESOL teachers use a range of correction strategies and feedback sensitively to draw learners’attention to errors in their written English, encouraging self-awareness and self-correction wherever possible.

Literacy teachers may use literacy learners’ own speech to make comparisons between spoken andwritten forms, both standard and non-standard.

Literacy teachers may encourage writing in non-standard varieties of English where this is appropriate to learners’ goals.

ESOL teachers make use of a range of strategies to enable those learners whose other language/s havenon-Roman scripts to master handwriting in English.


Grief, S and Chatterton, J (2007) Writing (Practitioner Guide) NIACE Spiegel M and Sunderland H (1999) Writing Works: Using a Genre Approach in Literacy and ESOL Teaching London Language and Literacy UnitClark, R and Ivanic, R (1997) The Politics of Writing RoutledgeCope, B and Kalantzis, M (eds) (1993) The Powers of Literacy, a Genre Approach to TeachingWriting Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press

Literacy ESOL

Barton, D, Hamilton, H and Ivanic, R (eds) (2000) Situated Literacies: Theorizing Reading and Writing in Context Routledge


Kelly, S et al (2204) Teaching and learning Writing – a review of research and practice NRDC

Mace, J (2002) The Give and Take of Writing: Scribes, Literacy and Everyday Life Leicester: NIACE

Department for Education and Skills (2001) Yesterday I Never Stopped WritingLondon: DfES

O’Rourke, R (2005) Creative writing – Education, Culture and Community NIACE

Clark, R and Ivanic, R (1997) The Politics of Writing Routledge


Tribble, C (1996) Writing OUP

Spiegel, M and Sunderland, H (2006) Teaching BasicLiteracy to ESOL Learners LLU+



DfES (2004) ESOL Exemplars for speaking andListening, Reading, Writing DfES publications

Links:Writing in a second languagehttp://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/2175

Learning second language writing systemshttp://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/2662

ESOL Literacy Resource Packhttp://www.esolliteracy.co.uk/

26

Element B10.EnUnderstand English as both a learning goal and a medium of learning.


• Analyse language as a medium of learning and a learning goal

• Use meta-language selectively and appropriately with their learners.

• Support learners in their use of meta-language for the development of conceptual understanding of language and literacy.

Knowledge and understanding relating to this element is detailed in C22.En, C23.En

ExplanationThis element recognises the distinctive nature of literacy and language learning and teaching, in which thelanguage of instruction is also the “subject” being taught

DiscussionLiteracy teachers need to ensure that instructions given to learners in writing are appropriate to thelearners’ literacy level and knowledge of meta-language.

ESOL teachers often deal with multilingual groups of learners, with no one shared common language. In mostcases the teacher may have no recourse to translation in order to explain and exemplify, and will need to use arange of alternative strategies to overcome this. In addition to this, ESOL teachers need to control their ownuse of language so that instructions for tasks and activities are consistent with the learners’ level of English.


Resources and Links ESOL

Willis, J (1982) Teaching English through English Longman

Links:OpenLearn (Open University online unit) Language as a Medium for Teaching and Learninghttp://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=3040

27

Element B11.EnFacilitate learner-teacher and learner-learner interaction to support language and literacy learning.


• Demonstrate awareness of the place of interaction in language and literacy development.

• Ensure that the spoken and written language they use is accessible to learners

Knowledge and understanding relating to this element is detailed in C12.En, C14.En

ExplanationThis element emphasises the importance of interactive approaches in literacy and language learning and teaching.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers arrange, encourage and facilitate discussion activities to support thedevelopment of reading and writing skills, as well as to develop speaking and listening skills. This includespair and group work activities both as a basis for the completion of communicative tasks and to provideopportunities for team work and learning from each other.

ESOL teachers recognise the fundamental importance of participatory approaches in the ESOL classroombecause “talk” is both the main medium of learning, and at the same time what is being learnt.

When ESOL teachers encourage learners to work with others, they recognise that comprehensiondifficulties may sometimes arise between learners who have different home languages.

ESOL teachers recognise the importance of equipping learners with a range of phrases and expressionswhich will help those with a low level of English to ask questions of the teacher, and adapt learner feedbackactivities such as questionnaires so that the language level is appropriate to the learners involved.


28



Links:Sflip (2006) Using Interactive approaches in teaching literacy, language and numeracy QIAhttp://www.cfbt.com/sflip2008/resources/cpdresources06-07.aspx#E13

Gold dust: Using group workhttp://excellence.qia.org.uk/GoldDust/groupwork/groupwork.html

Gold dust: Active Learninghttp://excellence.qia.org.uk/GoldDust/activelearning/activelearning.html

QIA Effective Teaching and Learning Programmehttp://teachingandlearning.qia.org.uk/tlp/pedagogy/quickstartguide/index.html

Literacy ESOL

Jacobsen, E et al (2003) Creating authentic materials and activities for the adult literacy classroom NCSALL (US) available to download from:http://www.ncsall.net/fileadmin/resources/teach/jacobson.pdf

Auerbach, E (1996) From the Community to the Community: A Guidebook for Participatory Literacy trainingLaurence Erlbaum

Links:REFLECT approach to teaching literacyhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/ReferenceMaterials/GlossaryOfLiteracyTerms/WhatIsREFLECT.htm


Cooke, M and Roberts, C ESOL - Developing AdultTeaching and Learning: Practitioner GuidesNRDC/NIACE

Cardiff, P, Newman, K, Pearce, E Reflect for ESOLActionaid


Cook, M and Simpson, J (2008) ESOL, a Critical Guide OUP

Hedge, T (2000) Teaching and Learning in thelanguage classroom OUP

Links:Pair and group-workhttp://www.onestopenglish.com/section.asp?catid=59438&docid=146454

29

Element B12.EnProvide language and literacy support for individuals and groups in the context of other learning.


• Develop language and literacy skills in the context of other curriculum areas.

• Support individual learners in developing their language and literacy skills in the context of othercurriculum areas.

• Work with classroom assistants, interpreters, volunteers and others to support language and literacylearning in a range of contexts.

• Analyse the language and literacy content of other curriculum areas to support planning of learningand teaching.

• Communicate effectively with relevant staff in other curriculum areas using appropriate lay orspecialist language.

• Participate in mentoring or coaching arrangements to support embedded learning and teaching.

ExplanationThis element takes account of the role of literacy and language teachers in supporting learning in othercurriculum areas.

The element largely applies similarly to both literacy and ESOL contexts and does not require further discussion.



Casey, H et al (2006) You Wouldn’t Expect a Maths Teacher to Teach Plastering NRDCRoberts, C et al (2006) Embedded Teaching and Learning of Adult Literacy, Numeracy and ESOL NRDCSkills for life Quality Initiative (2006) Embedded Teaching and Learning booklet NRDCEldred, J (2005) Developing Embedded Literacy, Language and Numeracy: SupportingAchievement NIACE

30

Element B13.EnUse specialist knowledge and awareness of learner needs and goals to select, develop anduse appropriate resources for literacy and ESOL learning, including ICT where appropriate.


• Design, adapt or select resources from an appropriate range that develop conceptual understandingand enable practice of literacy and ESOL skills.

• Use ICT to create resources for literacy and ESOL, recognising the issues related to communicatingabout language through ICT.

• Select and use appropriate specialist equipment and realia for literacy and ESOL learning and teaching.

• Adapt the linguistic content of teaching and learning resources as appropriate for particular groups orindividuals, for example, by simplification, extension or re-organisation.

• Use ICT and elearning resources that link appropriately to literacy and language learning outcomesand promote learner engagement with tasks and activities.

ExplanationThis element emphasises the importance of specialist resources in literacy and language teaching and learning.

The element largely applies similarly to both literacy and ESOL contexts and does not require further discussion.


Resources and Links Both literacy and ESOLLearning for Living: Creating Learning Materials (Levels 3 and 4) Skills for Life Publications (DIUS)Nance, B et al (2007) Using ICT NIACE

Literacy ESOLKress, G (2003) Literacy in the New Media Age RoutledgeLSN: (2006) Interactive Digital Television for Literacy and Numeracy learning LSNLinks:Guide to online Literacy resourceshttp://www.skillsworkshop.org/brookes/brookes.htm

Moss, M and Southwood, S (2006) E-Learning forTeaching ESOL NIACE

31

Element C1.EnAnalyse learners’ uses of language and literacy.

Literacy and ESOL teachers know and understand:• Spoken and written language use is determined by social, cultural and linguistic factors. • How the context in which language is used affects the choices made by the speaker/writer and

the expectations of the listener/reader. • Learners aspire to use a range of language and literacy practices, both powerful and vernacular,

in English and/or other languages.Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B1.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of the significance of context in language use andliteracy practices.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers recognise the diversity of learners’ existing uses of spoken and written English and understand that learners’ literacy practices often involve interchanging between a range of varietiesof English in a way that is purposeful and embedded in wider social goals. They are aware of the potentialimportance for many learners in acquiring dominant literacy practices in order to make significant life choices.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers are aware of the dynamic and changing nature of both spoken andwritten English within specific social practices.

ESOL teachers understand the range of linguistic factors which may affect language use among ESOLlearners (in particular the influence of first and other languages and level of English). They recognise theinfluence of language and literacy practices and social norms from other cultures on the language use ofESOL learners. They also understand that ESOL learners’ sensitivity to variation in language use forreceptive purposes may be limited by their level of English.

ESOL teachers recognise that ESOL learners’ ability to select language for productive use that isappropriate to context is influenced by a combination of their language level and experience of socialnetworks, including their participation in asymmetric interactions with native speakers.

Breaking the Language Barrier (2001) DfES Pitt, K (2005) Debates in ESOL Teaching andLearning Routledge Cooke, M and Simpson, J (2008) ESOL, A CriticalGuide OUP

Section 3 Context Guidance: Specialist Learning and Teaching 3

Resources and Links Both literacy and ESOLMaybin, J (1993) Language and Literacy in Social Practice OUP Holmes, J (1992) An Introduction to Sociolinguistics Longman Barton et al (2006) Linking Learning and Everyday life: a Social Perspective on Adult Language,Literacy and Numeracy classes NRDC Fairclough, Norman (1992) Critical Language Awareness, Longman: Harlow, Essex.Barton, D et al (2008) Literacy, Lives and Learning Routledge

Literacy ESOLFreire, Paulo (1996) Pedagogy of the Oppressed Penguin Crowther, J, Hamilton, M and Tett, L (eds) (2001) Powerful Literacies Leicester: NIACEPapen, U (2005) Adult Literacy as Social Practice RoutledgeBaynham, M (l995) Literacy Practices Longman

32

Element C2.EnUnderstand the relationship between language and social, cultural, political and religious identity.

Literacy and ESOL teachers know and understand:• The close relationship between individuals and the forms of language they use. • Spoken and written language usage reflects social and cultural relationships.• Speakers and writers choose varieties, registers and styles according to a range of social and cultural factors. Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B2.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of how language emerges from and impacts onpersonal, social and cultural practices.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers recognise that learners’ idiolects or uses of language are a product of thesocial, cultural, political and religious influences on their life and that language plays a significant role in theexpression of identity.

Literacy teachers understand that extending the range of varieties, registers and styles that literacy learnerscan use is likely to impact on their position and identity within both their existing social, cultural and widernetworks. They also understand the extent to which effective speakers and writers make conscious andunconscious decisions about the variety, register and style they choose.

ESOL teachers acknowledge that an important part of an ESOL learner’s identity is their existing bank ofknowledge, culture and experience associated with their other language(s). They recognise that the socialnetworks in which ESOL learners participate are complex, including speakers from both other languagecommunities and speakers of English. They also understand that conventions for language use may differ in and between countries, cultures and language communities.


Resources and Links Both literacy and ESOLMaybin, J (1993) Language and Literacy in Social Practice OUP Holmes, J (1992) An Introduction to Sociolinguistics Longman Barton et al (2006) Linking Learning and Everyday Life: A Social Perspective on Adult Language,Literacy and Numeracy Classes NRDC Fairclough, Norman (1992) Critical Language Awareness, Longman: Harlow, Essex.Barton, D et al (2008) Literacy, Lives and Learning RoutledgeBlommaert, J (2005) Discourse CUP (Chapter 8 - Identity)

Literacy ESOLFreire, Paulo (1996) Pedagogy of the Oppressed Penguin

Schwab, I (1994) “Literacy, Language Variety and Identity” in Hamilton, M, Barton, D and Ivanic, R Worlds of Literacy Multilingual Matters

Lightbown, P and Spada, N (2006) How Languages are Learned OUPPitt, K (2005) Debates in ESOL Teaching andLearning Routledge Cooke, M and Simpson, J ESOL, A Critical Guide OUP

33

Element C3.EnUnderstand the role language plays in the formation, maintenance and transformation of power relations.

Literacy and ESOL teachers know and understand:• Current hierarchies and inequalities in language and literacy use and their role in reflecting and

maintaining existing social relations. • The provisional nature of hierarchies in language and literacy and the potential for change by all

language users. • How to plan, use and evaluate strategies for learning and teaching based on an understanding

of the relationship between language and power. Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in Elements B1.En and B2.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of the relationship between language and power.

The element largely applies similarly to both literacy and ESOL contexts.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers know that literacy and ESOL learners may, for multiple reasons (including thehegemony of Standard English, and “English only” policies), have experienced discrimination, and that they mayneed to recognise the significance that their own language use has in maintaining or transforming social relations.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers understand the role of language in creating barriers or enabling accessand empowerment. They recognise the importance of language as a factor in enabling learners to functionas members of a range of communities, integrating or working to transform them.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers understand that the migration process often results in a loss of culturaland social capital (leading to a reduction in status, or difficulty in obtaining employment appropriate toqualifications and prior experience). While the acquisition of language skills in English may contribute toovercoming this, it cannot wholly solve the problem.



Fairclough, N (2001) Language and Power Longman

Afro-Caribbean Language and Literacy Project in Further and Adult Education (1990) Language and Power: Language Materials for Students in the Multilingual and Multiethnic ClassroomHarcourt Brace Jovanovich

Literacy ESOL

Crowther, J, Hamilton, M and Tett, L (eds) (2001) Powerful Literacies Leicester: NIACE

Breaking the Language Barrier (2001) DfES

Pitt, K (2005) Debates in ESOL Teaching andLearning Routledge


34

Element C4.EnUnderstand how language varies and changes and how this influences language and literacy use.

Literacy and ESOL teachers know and understand:

• That languages are dynamic and constantly evolving and how English has changed and continues to change.

• There are many varieties and dialects of English, both international and intra-national each with its own spoken and often written form.

• The cultural hegemony of English, its impact as a global language and its use for technology, media, commerce, science and other fields.

• The changing nature of literacy and texts, including the move from page to screen and thedevelopment of multimedia texts.

Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in Elements B1.En and B2.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of language variety and change.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers understand that English is a dynamic and constantly changing languageand that changes in language, texts and conventions impact on language use.

Literacy teachers understand that literacy learners may not value their own variety of English or understandthat it is systematic, and perceive their difficulties with reading and writing to stem from the fact that they donot ‘speak properly’.

ESOL teachers understand that ESOL learners may have difficulty distinguishing between forms which arefeatures of particular accents and dialects and varieties of English and those which are features of StandardEnglish. They also recognise that ESOL learners may hold a range of attitudes to English, depending on theirexperience of it as a global language.


35


Element C4.En (continued)


Beard, A (2004) Language Change RoutledgeCrystal, D (2005) The Stories of English PenguinElmes, S (2005) Talking for Britain PenguinKirkpatrick, A (2007) World Englishes CUP

Links:BBC Voiceshttp://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/BBC History: ages of Englishhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/launch_tl_ages_english.shtmlBritish Library: Changing Languagehttp://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/changlang/language.htmlOpenLearn (Open University online unit) Exploring the English languagehttp://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=3661

Literacy ESOL

Crystal, D (2003) English as a Global Language CUP

Harris, R (1995) “Disappearing Language, Fragments and Fractures between Speech and Writing” in Mace, J (ed) Literacy, Language and Community Publishing Multilingual Matters

Schwab, I (1994) “Literacy, language Variety and Identity” in Hamilton, M, Barton, D and Ivanic, R Worlds of Literacy Multilingual Matters

Kress, G (2003) Literacy in the New Media Age Routledge

Pennycook, A (1994) The cultural Politics of Englishas an International Language Longman

Holliday, A (2005) The Struggle to Teach English asan International Language OUP

Links:Graddol, D (2006) English Next British Councilhttp://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-english-next.pdf

36

Element C5.EnUnderstand the social, cognitive and affective factors which may influence language andliteracy learning.


• How social, cultural, economic, linguistic and personal factors influence literacy and language learning.

• The impact of cognitive factors on language and literacy development

• The impact of affective factors on literacy and language development; how to address these in teaching.

• How to enhance creativity, pleasure, autonomy and empowerment through the development oflanguage and literacy.

Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B1.En, B2.En and B3.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of literacy and language learning in particular (ratherthan literacy and language use in general), and highlights the influence of social, cognitive and affective factorson literacy/language learning processes.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers understand the impact of learners’ social and cultural histories andcurrent situations on learning, including their educational background and social barriers such as lack of affordable childcare.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers recognise and understand the effects of specific learning difficulties on literacy and language development.

Literacy learners may have experienced failure or perceive themselves as having failed to learn, theconsequence of which may be low self esteem and/or anxiety.

ESOL learners’ educational histories may well be significantly different from the educational system inwhich they now find themselves. ESOL teachers also appreciate the impact of trauma and anxiety onlearning and how this may apply to some ESOL learners. However, ESOL teachers need to understand thechallenges associated with recognising and addressing cognitive and affective factors influencing languagelearning in ESOL learners with a low level of English.

ESOL teachers understand the challenges associated with diagnosing and working with dyslexia and otherspecific learning difficulties in ESOL learners at lower levels.


37




Barton et al (2006) Linking Learning and Everyday life: a Social Perspective on Adult Language,Literacy and Numeracy classes NRDC Appleby, Y (2008) Developing Adult Teaching and Learning: Practitioner Guides – Bridges intoLearning for Adults who Find Provision Hard to Reach NIACEAppleby, Y and Barton, D (2008) Responding to People’s Lives NIACEHorsman, J (2000) Too Scared to Learn: Women, Violence and Education Lawrence Erlbaum

Literacy ESOL

Barton, D et al (2008) Literacy, Lives and Learning Routledge

Barton, D, Hamilton, M and Ivanic, R (eds.) (2000) Situated Literacies Routledge

Viens, J (2004) Multiple Intelligences and Adult Literacy Teacher’s College press

Lightbown, P and Spada, N (2006) How Languages are Learned OUP

Brown, H,D (2007) Principles of language Teachingand Learning Pearson Longman

Pitt, K (2005) Debates in ESOL Teaching andLearning Routledge

ESOL Pathfinder – Learner Voices (QIA)

38

Element C6.EnUnderstand the different ways in which language can be described and analysed.

Literacy and ESOL teachers know and understand:• How language can be described in a range of ways relating to semantic, morphological, grammatical,

written or spoken features and so on.• How features of language are related and interdependent. • How different languages and varieties of English are described in different ways. Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B4.En, B5.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of approaches to describing language.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers recognise a range of descriptive and prescriptive approaches to languagedescription and analysis and understand the importance of using knowledge of language features in analysinglearners’ uses of language.

Literacy teachers’ practice is informed, in particular, by those approaches to language analysis whichcontrast features of different varieties of English.

ESOL teachers’ practice is informed, in particular, by an understanding of some key ways in whichlanguages differ (grammatical systems, organisation of lexis, phonological differences and so on).


Resources and Links Both literacy and ESOLBeard, A (Ed) (2008) Working with texts RoutledgeThornbury, S (1997) About language CUPGraddol, D Describing Language OUPCrystal, D (1997) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language CUPBurns, A and Coffin, C (eds) (2001) Analysing English in a Global Context: a Reader Routledge

Links:OpenLearn (Open University online unit) English grammar in contexthttp://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?name=E303_1

Literacy ESOLFairclough, N (1992) Critical Language Awareness Pearson Longman

Crystal, D (1997) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language CUP

Cook, G (2003) Applied Linguistics OUP


39

Element C7.EnAnalyse communication at discourse/text level.


• Ways in which genre, register and style are related to the context, purpose, audience and mode of spoken and written text.

• Devices that make a text cohesive and coherent.

• Key aspects of pragmatics: the study of intended speaker or writer meaning

• The significant differences between spoken and written discourse.

• How to enable literacy and ESOL learners to use language, format and conventions appropriate to genre and context.

• How to enable learners to recognise and use the organizational, grammatical, lexical and phonologicalor punctuation features which make discourse effective.

• How to enable learners to use interpersonal and non-linguistic features in spoken discourse.

• How to use written and spoken texts which have relevance to learners.

Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B4.En, B5.En, B8.En, B9.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of how spoken and written texts can be analysed.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers recognise key features of genre, style and register within spoken orwritten texts in English, in order to help literacy and ESOL learners to produce texts which are appropriateto specific genres. They can also analyse the spoken and written discourse of literacy and ESOL learnersboth in terms of strengths and areas for development.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers recognise that pragmatic competence is an important element of theability to communicate effectively within a given culture or situation, and are aware of the need to take thisinto account in their teaching. They recognise that models used for teaching pragmatics and genre inpublished resources are often idealised and invented, and that practitioners should consider the use of realdata where it is available.

Literacy teachers recognise the need to take particular account of the learner’s spoken discourse withreference to the impact this has on their written discourse. They also recognise that while many literacylearners engage in sophisticated spoken discourse in personal/social domains, some may not be confident in the spoken discourse of the learning institution.

ESOL teachers realise that texts in the same genre from different cultures do not always share the samedistinguishing features as those in English. They recognise that ESOL learners often engage in sophisticatedspoken discourse in their other language(s), even though they may not be confident about doing so in English.


40



Beard, A (Ed) (2008) Working with Texts RoutledgeGraddol, D Describing Language OUPCook, G (1989) Discourse OUPHalliday, M and Hasan, R Cohesion in English Pearson EducationYule, G Pragmatics OUPGrundy, P (2000) Doing Pragmatics Edward ArnoldCameron, D (2001) Working with Spoken Discourse Sage

Literacy ESOL




Celce-Murcia, M and Olshtain, E (2001) Discourse and Context in Language Teaching CUP

McCarthy, M (1991) Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers CUP

41

Element C8.EnAnalyse communication at sentence and phrase level.


• Principles, rules and conventions relating to the syntax of English.

• Different ways of describing grammar, for example, prescriptive or descriptive grammar.

• Grammatical features of spoken language.

• Grammatical features of written language, including sentence types, clause and phrase types, tenses,punctuation and others.

• The relationship between syntax and semantics at sentence and phrase level.

• How to compare written and spoken forms.

Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B4.En, B5.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of the grammar of spoken and written English.

DiscussionThe practice of both literacy and ESOL teachers is informed by their understanding of the grammar ofspoken and written English.

Literacy teachers recognise that all literacy learners have implicit knowledge of the grammar of spoken andwritten English, possibly of a range of varieties.

ESOL teachers, however, recognise that ESOL learners do not have implicit knowledge of English syntax,but that their implicit and/or explicit knowledge of the grammar of their other language(s), and theirrecognition of significant differences between this and the grammar of English can benefit their learning.


42



Beard, A (Ed) (2008) Working with texts RoutledgeThornbury, S (1997) About language CUPCrystal, D (2004) Rediscover Grammar LongmanGraddol, D Describing Language OUPCarter, R and McCarthy, M (2006) The Cambridge Grammar of English CUPCornbleet, S and Carter, N (2001) The Language of Speech and Writing Routledge

Links:Grammatical Knowledge for teachershttp://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary/profdev/literacy/571599/OpenLearn (Open University online unit) English grammar in contexthttp://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?name=E303_1

Literacy ESOL


QCA (2004) Introducing the Grammar of Talk London: QCA


Parrott, M (2000) Grammar for English LanguageTeachers CUP

Thornbury, S (2005) Uncovering Grammar Macmillan

Batstone, R (1994) Grammar OUP

O’Keefe, A et al (2007) From Corpus to Classroom:Language Use and Language Teaching CUP


43

Element C9.EnAnalyse communication at word level.


• How to select lexis based on register and stylistic constraints, collocation, purpose and context.

• Semantic relationships in communication.

• Chunking and lexical phrases in the acquisition and storage of language, especially spoken language.

• The morphology of English in word-building.

• The spelling system of English.

Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B5.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of the way that words are formed and used toconvey meaning in English.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers understand that the choice of words suited to speech or writing, aparticular register, or degree of formality, is often a key to successful communication. They also understandhow meaning is constructed through lexis and the processes which take place when new words are addedto the mental lexicon.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers understand the complex relationship between sounds and symbols (phonemesand graphemes) in the English spelling system, its complex historical roots and why spelling could appear to beillogical and difficult to grasp. They understand how an awareness of the more common spelling patterns ofEnglish can help literacy and ESOL learners to understand some patterns are more probable than others.

Literacy teachers can identify when a literacy learner’s vocabulary could be developed to enhance theircommunicative effectiveness in different domains, situations and for different audiences, and understand strategiesto extend the learner’s selection and comprehension of lexical items for different contexts and purposes.

Literacy teachers understand how morphology can be used to develop literacy learners’ reading, writingand spelling skills.

ESOL teachers know how to apply their knowledge of morphology, and awareness of similarities anddifferences with the function of morphology in other language families, to the planning and teaching ofgrammar and affixation in English.

ESOL teachers understand principles for selecting new lexical items to teach, such as relevance, frequencyand appropriate level of difficulty. In addition, they know how to use context and a wide range of groupingstrategies to help learners understand and remember lexical items for receptive and productive use. Theyare aware that exact equivalence between lexical items in English and other languages is rare, that anequivalent may not exist in the learner’s other language/s, and that this can cause confusion.

ESOL teachers understand the challenge that English spelling presents to ESOL learners from differing languagebackgrounds including those languages which have a closer sound-symbol relationship than in English.


44



Aitchison, J (2003) Words in the Mind BlackwellCrystal, D (2003) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. CambridgeLeech, G (1981) Semantics – the Study of Meaning PenguinTemple, Michael (1995) Basic Spelling John MurrayKlein, C and Millar, R Unscrambling Spelling Hodder and Stoughton

Links:The Bank of English corpushttp://www.collins.co.uk/Corpus/CorpusSearch.aspx

Literacy ESOL

Nunes, T and Bryant, P (2006) Improving Literacy by Teaching Morphemes Routledge

Links:Morphological Awareness improves Spelling and Vocabularyhttp://www.literacytrust.org.uk/pubs/nunes2.html

McWilliam, N (1998) What’s in a Word: Vocabulary Development in Multilingual classrooms Trentham


Bolitho, R and Tomlinson, B (2005) Discover EnglishMacmillan

Nation, I (2004) Learning Vocabulary in AnotherLanguage CUP

Coady, J and Huckin, T Second language VocabularyAcquisition CUP

45

Element C10.EnAnalyse the phonological features of language.


• The role of stress, rhythm and intonation in conveying meaning.

• The sounds of English and the role of place, manner of articulation and voice.

• The influence of the learner’s other language(s) and dialect(s) in all aspects of English pronunciation.

• Phonology in reading and writing.

Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B6.En, B7.En, B8.En

ExplanationThis element relates to the way that sounds, stress and intonation are used to convey meaning in English.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers understand how individual sounds are produced, and the relevance ofthis to their practice.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers understand how the phonemes of the English language relate to itsgraphology (writing system).

Literacy teachers understand the debate about the role of phonics in teaching people to read and write,and realize that literacy learners may have a range of perceptions around the use of phonics, or have neverhad the sound/symbol interrelationship explained to them.

ESOL teachers understand the benefits and limitations of using a phonics approach with ESOL learners,taking into account their varying perceptions of, and ability to reproduce English sounds.

ESOL teachers understand how the relationship between sentence stress and rhythm in English differsfrom other languages, and recognise the effect that features of connected speech such as sentence stress,weak forms, assimilation, elision and dialect/accent may have on comprehension for ESOL learners. Theyknow the importance of syllable stress and weak forms in word recognition and production.

ESOL teachers understand that the role of intonation for such purposes as conveying attitude, highlightingnew information and managing turn-taking is an important aspect of successful communication in English.

ESOL teachers understand the concept of comfortable intelligibility as a goal for ESOL learners.


46



Underhill, A (2005) Sound Foundations Macmillan

Literacy ESOL

Sticht, T Synthetic Phonics and the shift from Oracy toLiteracy – Lessons from Adult Literacy Research downloadable from:http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/database/primary/phonicsSticht.html

Links:The Problem with Phonics (PPT)http://www.talent.ac.uk/dtrainingsearch_details.asp?DocumentID=2267

National Literacy Trust – Phonicshttp://www.literacytrust.org.uk/Database/Primary/phonics.html


Thornbury, S (1997) About language CUP

Pennington, M (1996) Phonology in English languageteaching Pearson Education

Links:Interactive Phonemic Charthttp://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/try/resources/pronunciation/phonemic-chart

47

Element C11 .EnKnow current theories and principles of literacy learning and development.


• Theories and principles of literacy learning and development.


ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of how children and adults learn to read and writeand how speaking and listening skills are developed.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers understand cognitive, critical and social practice theories of learning toread and write, speak and listen, and can relate them to adult literacy and language learners.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers know that practices relating to the teaching of reading and writing varyfrom culture to culture and that bilingual learners, and English speakers from different educational systemsmay have been taught to read using approaches which differ from those current in the UK.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers recognise that specialist knowledge of literacy learning and developmentis required in order to teach beginner readers and writers, whether monolingual or bi-multilingual.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers understand theories relating to the use of synthetic and analytic phonics in teaching adults to read.

Literacy teachers understand the relationship between the development of speaking and listening skills and learning to read and write as an adult.

ESOL teachers can recognise the implications of current theories and principles of literacy development for bi-lingual adults learning English. They are aware of the continuum which may present itself in the classroom,in that some ESOL learners are not literate in any language, some are literate in some but not all theirlanguages, and some are highly literate.

ESOL teachers recognise that where learners are literate in other languages they may have skills whichmake it easier for them to acquire literacy in English.


48




Sousa, D (2004) How the brain learns to read Corwin Press

Rivera, K and Huerta-Macias, A (eds) (2007) Adult Biliteracy: Sociocultural and Programmatic Responses Routledge

Literacy ESOL

Abadzi, Helen (1994) What We Know About Acquisition of Adult Literacy: is There Hope? The World Bank

Brooks, G et al (2001) Progress in adult Literacy: Do learners Learn? BSA


Moss, W (2005) Theories on the Teaching of Reading to Adults – Some NotesRAPAL (Research and Practice in Adult Literacy) Bulletin Issue No. 56. Spring 2005.

Sassoon, R (1995) The Acquisition of a SecondWriting System Oxford: Intellect


Pitt, K (2005) Debates in ESOL Teaching and Learning Routledge

Links:Writing in a second languagehttp://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/2175

Learning second language writing systemshttp://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/2662

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Element C12.EnKnow a range of teaching and learning approaches associated with theories and principlesof literacy development.


• How to draw on theories and principles of literacy learning and development for teaching andassessment of literacy learners.


ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of recognised approaches and methods in teachingreading and writing, and the literacy acquisition theories underlying them.

Specific examples of pedagogy related to the development of reading and writing skills for literacy andESOL learners are detailed in Domain B of the application guide.


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Element C13.EnKnow current theories and principles relating to language acquisition and bilingualism.


• Theories and principles of language acquisition.

• Theories and principles of bilingualism and multilingualism.

• Theories and principles of child language acquisition and development, including visual-spatiallanguages (sign languages), and how these must be adjusted for use with adults.

Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B2.En, B5.En, B7.En, B8.En, B9.En, B10.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding about how languages are acquired and learnt.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers understand a range of significant theories relating to first and secondlanguage acquisition and learning, (including behaviourist, innatist, interactionist, and cognitive approaches)and how these theories relate to the experience of adult literacy and ESOL learners.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers understand issues relating to bilingualism, multilingualism and the role of bilingual learners’ first and other languages in the acquisition and learning of English.

Literacy teachers understand the relationship between a range of relevant first language acquisition theoriesconcerned principally with speaking and listening, and the development of reading and writing skills.

Literacy teachers appreciate the role of interlanguage in bilingual learners’ language use.

ESOL teachers understand how to apply concepts of interlanguage, hypothesis formation and error analysis to the analysis of ESOL learners’ spoken and written language.



Stilwell Peccei, J Child Language RoutledgeLightbown, P and Spada, N (2006) How Languages are Learned OUPBrown, H,D (2007) Principles of Language Teaching and Learning Pearson LongmanMitchell, R and Myles, F (2004) Second Language Learning Theories Hodder ArnoldBaker, C (2006) Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism Multilingual MattersBarton, D and Tusting, K (2005) Models of Adult learning, a Literature Review NRDC/NIACEHinkel, E (2005) Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning LaurenceErlbaum Associates

51

Element C14.EnKnow a range of teaching and learning approaches associated with theories and principlesof language acquisition and bilingualism.

Literacy and ESOL teachers know and understand:• How to draw on theories and principles of language acquisition and bilingualism for teaching and

assessment of language learners.Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B2.En, B5.En, B7.En, B8.En, B9.En, B10.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of recognised approaches and methods in teachingliteracy and ESOL, and their links to first and second language acquisition theories

DiscussionLiteracy teachers can recognise the relevance of some significant first language acquisition theories to thepractice of literacy teaching, and their understanding of second language acquisition theories and languagesocialisation theories informs their approach to teaching bilingual learners in their classes.

ESOL teachers can relate a wide range of language teaching and learning approaches to the theories andprinciples of second language acquisition and bilingualism which underpin them, and can evaluate theories of second language acquisition and second language teaching pedagogy in order to make informed choicesabout the methodologies they use with learners.


Resources and Links Both literacy and ESOLIvanic, R and Ming-I, L (2005) Understanding the Relationships between Learning and Teaching: an Analysis of the Contribution of Applied Linguistics NRDCBarton, D and Tusting, K (2005) Models of Adult learning, a Literature Review NRDC/NIACEHerrrington, M and Kendall, A eds (2005) Insights from Research and Practice – a Handbook for Teachers NIACEKramsch, C ed (2002) Language Acquisition and Language Socialization. Ecological Perspectives. ContinuumBrown, H,D (2007) Principles of Language Teaching and Learning Pearson Longman

Literacy ESOLStreet, B (1984) Literacy in Theory and Practice Cambridge University PressPahl, K and Rowsell, J (2005) Literacy and Education: The New Literacy Studies in the Classroom Paul Chapman

Richards, J and Rogers, T (2001) Approaches andMethods in Language Teaching (Second Edition) CUPHarmer, J (2001) The Practice of English LanguageTeaching LongmanHedge, T (2000) Teaching and Learning in theLanguage Classroom OUPBarton, D and Pitt, K (2003) Adult ESOL Pedagogy: a Review of Research, an Annotated Bibliographyand Recommendations for Future Research NRDCHinkel, E (2005) Handbook of Research in SecondLanguage Teaching and Learning Laurence ErlbaumAssociates

Element C15.EnUnderstand the interdependence of the four skills of listening, reading, speaking and writing.


• There are different theoretical models of reading, writing, speaking and listening which underpindifferent teaching and learning approaches.

• The multimodal nature of new media.

• How the introduction of new media has influenced the processes of reading and writing and speaking and listening.

• The relevance of the concept of genre to spoken and written language.

• The concept of pragmatic competence

Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B5.En,B6.En, B7.En, B8.En, B9.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding about how the skills of reading, writing, speaking and listening interact with each other

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers understand that in real life the language skills of reading, writing, speakingand listening do not occur in isolation, that often the use of one skill leads on naturally from another andthat several skills might be involved simultaneously in a literacy event.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers understand the concept of “visual literacy” and that successfully accessingtext-types such as web-sites, advertisements, magazines and so on depends on more than just the ability toread the words on the page.

52



Goodman, S and Graddol, D Redesigning English: New texts, New identities RoutledgeCope, B and Kalantzis Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures Routledge

Links:OpenLearn (Open University online unit) Word and imagehttp://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=2751&topic=all

Literacy ESOL


Stein, P (2000) Rethinking resources – MultimodalPedagogies in the ESL Classroom TESOL Quarterly,Vol. 34, No. 2 (Summer, 2000), pp. 333-336

53


Element C16.EnUnderstand the implications of the interdependence of the four skills for planning, teaching and assessment.


• How to apply their understanding of the interdependence of the four skills to planning, teaching, and assessment.

• How to assist learners to recognise the multimodal nature of new media.

• How to assist learners to develop and use new media for reading and writing.

Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B5.En, B6.En, B7.En, B8.En, B9.En

ExplanationThis element relates to practical applications of understanding the way in which the skills of reading, writing,speaking and listening interact with each other.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers understand the importance of using learners’ familiarity and experiencewith multimodal texts, including textual, visual and auditory modes, as accessing these texts can often entailthe use of more than one of the four skills.

ESOL teachers understand the interdependence of the four skills when carrying out initial and diagnosticassessment of ESOL learners to determine their language level, recognising the particularly “spiky” profilesof many ESOL learners. ESOL teachers also need to take into account the fact that skills learners alreadyhave in other languages may be transferable to English.


Goodman, S and Graddol, D Redesigning English: New texts, New identities RoutledgeCope, B and Kalantzis, Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures RoutledgeGower, R et al (1995) Teaching Practice Handbook Heinemann (Chapter 5 - Developing Skills and Strategies)

Literacy ESOL


Stein, P (2000) Rethinking resources – MultimodalPedagogies in the ESL Classroom TESOL Quarterly,Vol. 34, No. 2 (Summer, 2000), pp. 333-336

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Element C17.EnAnalyse the processes involved in listening.

Literacy and ESOL teachers know and understand:• Cognitive processing of spoken texts. • Socio-cultural factors in understanding and interpreting spoken texts. • How approaches to listening vary according to context and purpose. • The sub-skills of listening. • Factors that enhance or inhibit understanding and interpretation of spoken texts. Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B6.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding about listening skills and practices.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers need to take account of the range of listening purposes and situationsthat literacy and ESOL learners will experience outside the classroom, and understand the importance ofbackground knowledge (schema) in listening comprehension.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers understand the impact that auditory processing difficulties may have on aliteracy learner’s listening skills (e.g. speed of information processing, processing of sequential instructions,literal interpretation of the message).

ESOL teachers understand bottom-up and top-down processes in listening and their interdependence in achievingcomprehension of spoken English, in particular, recognising the importance of phonology in listening comprehension.

ESOL teachers recognise the role of comprehensible input in language acquisition and learning.

ESOL teachers recognise that affective and other factors (regional or local accents, lack of contextual clues,speed of delivery and so on) can inhibit listening comprehension for ESOL learners.

ESOL teachers recognise that bilingual learners are often interacting in assymetrical encounters, and thisaffects their ability to listen, comprehend and be heard.



Carter, R and McCarthy, M (2002) Exploring Spoken English Cambridge University PressWardhaugh, R (1985) How conversation works, Oxford, Blackwell

Literacy ESOL

Hay, A and Lobley, G (2008) Talk, Work and employability NIACE

Anderson, A and Lynch, T (1998) Listening OUP

Links:Listening – Top-down and bottom uphttp://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/listening-top-down-bottom

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Element C18.EnAnalyse the processes involved in reading.


• Cognitive processing of written texts.

• Socio-cultural factors in understanding and interpreting written texts.

• How the approaches to reading vary according to context and purpose.

• The sub-skills of reading.

• Factors that can enhance or inhibit understanding and interpretation of written texts.


ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of reading skills and practices.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers understand that fluent readers select different approaches to reading,according to the purpose of each text and therefore recognise the importance of developing this awarenessand ability in literacy and ESOL learners by exposing them to a growing range of text types.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers understand a range of features which help all readers to access texts(world knowledge, sociocultural knowledge, topic knowledge, knowledge of genre, syntactic knowledge,morphological knowledge), as well as recognising the role of layout and typographical features in readingcomprehension.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers recognise that the extension of bilingual learners’ vocabulary inEnglish is linked to improved literacy.

Literacy teachers are able to identify auditory and visual processing difficulties in literacy learners whichmay impede or inhibit the development of reading skills.

Literacy teachers understand the different cognitive processes required for receptive and reflective reading(e.g. the difference between ‘learning to read’ and ‘reading to learn’) and that many literacy learners needassistance in learning how to read a text reflectively.

Literacy teachers recognise that many learners do not feel that they ‘read’ at home and therefore understandthe importance of exploring learners’ attitudes towards reading and their reading practices in their everyday lives.

ESOL teachers recognise that the home literacy practices of ESOL learners may include very little exposureto texts in English, even if the learner is very “well-read”.

ESOL teachers understand that the types of knowledge that all readers use to help them to access textsmay also hinder ESOL learners (for example, a lack of understanding of English morphology may lead to adifficulty in comprehending a text, sociocultural knowledge originating in a different culture may impedeaccess to the underlying meaning of a text).

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Sousa, D (2004) How the Brain Learns to Read Corwin Press

Literacy ESOL

Besser et al (2004) Adult Literacy Learners’ Difficulties in reading – an Exploratory Study NRDC




Koda, K (2005) Insights into second languageReading CUP

Wallace, C (1992) Reading OUP


Links:Theories of Readinghttp://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/theories-reading

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Element C19.EnAnalyse the processes involved in speaking.

Literacy and ESOL teachers know and understand:• Cognitive processes in speaking. • Socio-cultural factors in spoken communication. • How the approaches to speaking may vary, depending on the context and purpose for speaking. • The sub-skills of speaking. • Factors that enhance or inhibit spoken discourse. Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B8.En

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of speaking skills and practices.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers know some of the key features of interaction in spoken English (openings,closings, turn-taking, interruption, adjacency pairs, topic management, non-verbal communication, deixis) andunderstand the relationship between speaking skills and writing skills.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers need to take account of the range of speaking purposes and situationsthat learners will experience outside the classroom.

Literacy teachers understand the potential importance of addressing the development of speaking and listeningskills with learners who have only self-identified issues with their reading and writing skills. They also recognise thatliteracy learners’ speaking skills will vary a great deal; some will be articulate and confident using a range of registersand styles appropriately; others will be aware of the need to vary spoken discourse but will not have the skills andknowledge to do it; others might not be aware of the need to vary speech according to purpose and context.

ESOL teachers recognise that many ESOL learners wish to prioritise the development of their spokenEnglish, that ESOL learners in particular need to build confidence in spoken English, that affective factorscan have a significant impact on successful production and that spoken interaction in other languages doesnot always follow the same routines or adhere to the same social norms as in English.

ESOL teachers understand the need for balance between accuracy and fluency in the spoken English of ESOLlearners and recognise that a level of phonological accuracy is needed in order for learners to be understood.

ESOL teachers recognise that bilingual learners are often interacting in assymetrical encounters, and thisaffects their role in conversations and transactions.



Carter, R and McCarthy, M (2002) Exploring Spoken English Cambridge University PressCameron, D (2001) Working with Spoken Discourse Sage

Literacy ESOL



Element C20.EnAnalyse the processes involved in writing.


• Cognitive processes in the design and production of written texts.

• Socio-cultural factors in the design and production of written texts.

• How approaches to writing vary according to context and purpose.

• The sub skills of writing.


ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of writing skills and practices.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers need to take account of the range of writing purposes and situations in which literacy and ESOL learners may need to be writers outside the classroom. They also know theimportance of maintaining a balance between improving compositional skills (text level) and improving thesubskills of writing.

Literacy teachers recognise the difficulty in encouraging literacy learners to increase the amount of writingthey do when they have little need to write in their everyday lives and understand the need to broadenopportunities to develop learners’ writing through the provision of meaningful contexts and purposes.

Literacy teachers understand that literacy learners often focus on the word and sentence level skills (suchas spelling or punctuation) rather than the text level skills of ordering, paragraphing, and using cohesivedevises and layout effectively. Literacy teachers realize that learners’ self-correction processes are oftenconcerned with finding spelling or grammar errors rather than on identifying whether their communicativepurpose has been achieved.

ESOL teachers recognise that the home literacy practices of ESOL learners may involve very little need forESOL learners to write in English and understand that the conventions for written texts are culture-bound.

ESOL teachers understand that factors which enhance or inhibit design and production of written texts byESOL learners may vary according to level and/or educational, linguistic and cultural backgrounds, includingpoor handwriting resulting from an unfamiliar script, difficulties with English spelling, grammatical inaccuracyand conventions of genre. However, some learners may benefit from the fact that they are familiar with arange of different writing systems and scripts depending on their other language/s.

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59



Grieff, S and Chatterton, J (2007) Writing (Practitioner Guide) NIACE Hall, N and Robinson, A (eds) 1996) Learning about Punctuation Multilingual Matters

Literacy ESOL



Kelly, S et al (2204) Teaching and learning Writing – a Review of Research and Practice NRDC

Cope, B and Kalantzis, M (eds) (1993) The Powers of Literacy, a Genre Approach to Teaching Writing Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press

Mace, J (2002) The Give and Take of Writing: Scribes, Literacy and Everyday Life Leicester: NIACE

Department for Education and Skills (2001) Yesterday I Never Stopped WritingLondon: DfES

O’Rourke, R (2005) Creative writing – Education, culture and community NIACE


Tribble, C (1996) Writing OUP

Sunderland, H and Spiegel, M (2007)


Links:Writing in a Second Languagehttp://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/2175

Learning Second Language Writing Systemshttp://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/2662

60

Element C21.EnKnow a range of learning and teaching approaches associated with listening, reading,speaking and writing processes.


• How to apply their awareness of listening processes to planning, teaching and assessing learners.

• How to apply their awareness of reading processes to planning, teaching and assessing learners.

• How to apply their awareness of speaking processes to planning, teaching and assessing learners.

• How to apply their awareness of writing processes to planning, teaching and assessing learners.

• How to support the development of beginner readers and writers.

• Use a range of written and spoken texts and activities which reflect diversity of purpose, audience,form and function.

• How to use knowledge of processes involved in speaking and writing to plan programmes andsessions which take account of process as well as product.

• How to use knowledge of processes involved in speaking and writing to develop learners’ fluency and accuracy.

Professional practice related to this element is detailed in B6.En, B7.En, B8.En, B9.En

ExplanationThis element underlines the importance of the application of knowledge and understanding to professionalpractice. Specific examples of pedagogy related to the development of skills for literacy and ESOL learnersare detailed in Domain B of the application guide.


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Element C22.EnUnderstand perceptions of literacy and ESOL and consider their impact on learner motivation.

Literacy and ESOL teachers know and understand:• The range of motivations for learning literacy and ESOL and the relationship to wider national and

international views of literacy and language. Professional practice relating to this element is detailed in B2.En, B10

ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of agendas relating to literacy and ESOL, and thediffering ways in which literacy and ESOL learners approach literacy and language learning.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers recognise differing models of literacy and language (such as the deficitmodel) that can be found in the media, in government texts and in literacy campaigns, and how these canimpact on both policy and on learners’ sense of self.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers recognise the diversity of motivation that learners exhibit in relation totheir desire to engage with society, further study or employment.

Both literacy and ESOL teachers recognise that a minority of learners are attending under duress, but that agrowing number have been drawn in through positive aspirational reasons rather than responding to a deficit model.

ESOL teachers understand the impact on learning of learners’ status in the UK (e.g. migrant workers,refugees/asylum seekers, partners and spouses, longer term residents), and an individual’s social, domesticand work-related circumstances, on access, achievement and progression. They are also able to takeaccount of differing types of motivation between individuals, between different cultural and language groupsor, for example, between those recently arrived and long term residents from settled communities.


Resources and Links Both literacy and ESOLDfES (2001) Skills for Life - the National Strategy for Improving Literacy and Numeracy SkillsSimpson, J, Cooke, M, Baynham, M (2008) The Right course? An Exploratory Study of LearnerPlacement practices in ESOL and Literacy NRDCBynner, J and Parsons, S (2008) Illuminating Disadvantage NRDC

Literacy ESOLHamilton, M and Hillier, Y (2006) Changing Faces of Adult Literacy, Language and Numeracy: A Critical HistoryTrentham Books

Barton, D (2007) Literacy; An introduction to the Ecology of the Written LanguageBlackwell

DfES (2001) Breaking the language BarrierNIACE (2006) More than a languageVideo: I came to England available from LLU+ESOL Pathfinder – Learner Voices (QIA)Rosenberg, S (2007) A Critical History of ESOL in the UK 1870 – 2006 NIACECooke, M and Simpson, J (2008) ESOL, A CriticalGuide OUP

Element C23.EnDemonstrate specialist knowledge of strategies that engage and enthuse literacy and ESOL learners.


• How to build confidence in literacy and ESOL learners, e.g. valuing prior learning and experience,breaking down tasks into appropriate steps in order to create opportunities for success.

• The effects of teacher confidence, enthusiasm and specialist knowledge in promoting language andliteracy development.


ExplanationThis element relates to knowledge and understanding of factors which encourage literacy and ESOL learnersto persist and progress.

DiscussionBoth literacy and ESOL teachers know that when learners enjoy their learning and make good progress they will overcome many inhibiting factors to persist and progress with their learning.

Literacy teachers recognise the importance for many literacy learners of exploring and understanding theirprevious (often negative) experiences of literacy learning and know the importance of changing the learners’perception of themselves so that they see themselves as ‘a reader’ and/or a ‘writer’.

ESOL teachers understand the importance of making explicit the relevance of classroom learning tocommunicative or real world language experiences and needs.

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Reflect Issue 7 (2007) 4 page report on Learner Persistence NRDCBarton, D et al (2006) Relating adults lives and learning: participation and engagement in different settings NRDC

Literacy ESOL

Links:Learning Journeys: Learners’ voices; Learners’ Views on Progress and Achievement in Literacy and Numeracyhttps://www.lsneducation.org.uk/user/order.aspx?code=021912&src=XOWEB

ESOL Pathfinder – Learner voices (QIA)

DfES (2003) Working with Refugees and Asylumseekers – Support Materials for ESOL ProvidersDfES Publications

Windsor, V and Healey, C (2006) Developing ESOL,Supporting Achievement NIACE

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Acknowledgements


Lifelong Learning UK would like to acknowledge the contribution of the following critical readers to thedevelopment of this guidance:

Yvon Appleby Senior Lecturer, School of Education and Social Science, University of Central LancashireMelanie Cooke Researcher, Department of Education and Professional Studies, King’s College, LondonMary Hamilton Professor of Adult Learning and Literacy, University of Lancaster Literacy Research CentreKathy Pitt Research Fellow, University of Lancaster Literacy Research CentreIrene Schwab Pathway Leader PGCE/Diploma Language, Literacy and Numeracy, Institute of

Education, London UniversityJames Simpson Research Fellow in Language Education, University of Leeds School of Education

Part of the Skills for Business network of25 employer-led Sector Skills Councils

Lifelong Learning UK

LONDON 5th Floor, St Andrew’s House, 18-20 St Andrew Street, London EC4A 3AYTel: 0870 757 7890 Fax: 0870 757 7889Email: [email protected]

To request additional copies of this publication please contact usEmail: [email protected] Information and Advice Service: 020 7936 5798

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