LITERARY APPRECIATION

TABLE OF CONTENT

DEDICATION

PREFACE

CHAPTER ONE

LITERARY APPRECIATION

The Meaning of Literature

Functions of Literature

Elements of Literature

a. characters

b. plot

c. Subject Matter/theme

d. setting

Narrative Technique

CHAPTER TWO

GENRES OF LITERATURE

Poetry

Types of poems

Elements of poetry

Poetic Devices

CHAPTER THREE

DRAMA

Types of drama

Elements of Drama

CHAPTER FOUR

PROSE

Types of prose

Elements of Novel

CHAPTER FIVE

LITERARY TERMS AND TECHNIQUES

PAST QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

DEDICATION

To God most high; and the literary genius, Mr. Victor Saduwa

PREFACE

For any student to perform well in Literature, he or she

must be well-grounded in Literary Appreciation. Literary

Appreciation is the bedrock of Literature. It covers literary

principles, terms, techniques and devices. The SSCE Literature

Paper 1 and some JAMB questions are based on literary

appreciation. In addition literary appreciation’s knowledge is

required for evaluation of poems, plays and prose works. For

instance, a candidate may be asked in a Literature Examination

to compare the dramatic technique used by one playwright to

that of another. Such a student needs literary appreciation

knowledge to answer such a question successfully. Moreover, to

acquire the language of literary criticism, so as to use

appropriate words to describe techniques/devices, expressions

and situations employed in a literature text, literature

students need a thorough study of literary appreciation.

This textbook is specially designed to furnish Senior

Secondary School Students and JAMB candidates with the

essential literary appreciation skills and knowledge they need

to perform well in their Literature Examinations.

My special thanks go to the following persons who

assisted me in the course of writing this textbook: Mr.

Francis Dieseru, Mr. Moses,Miss Ayuba Abigail, Mr. Fatai J.

among others.

Permit me also, to place on record my appreciation of the

following authors whose works provided me with valuable

information in the course of my research which has flowered

into this textbook: Benson Omonode, Richard .J. Smith and

Max .F. Schulz, Nanyen Ojukwu, Chinweikpe Iwuchukwu ,Sylvanus

Igwebuike, William Shakespeare of blessed memory and a host of

others.

Usiemure O. Christopher

CHAPTER ONE

LITERARY APPRECIATION

Literary Appreciation is simply the ability to

understand, enjoy and evaluate works of Literature. Evaluate

here means to make judgment about the quality or value of

literary work. Evaluation is usually an opinion about a

given work, but it must be based on facts

The Paper one of the SSCE Literature usually requires

candidates to answer questions on: Literary Appreciation and

a Prescribed Shakespearean Text. Questions on Literature

Appreciation are further divided into questions on general

knowledge of literature, questions on unseen prose and

poetry passages. This text is devoted to these aspects of

Literature.

The Meaning of Literature

Literature is a word derived from a Latin word

‘Littera’ which means, ‘letter of the alphabet’. Literature

as a field of study has many definitions. Some of these

definitions tend to describe literature as writings valued

as creative works, as writings of a country or as anything

in print. However it is wrong to limit Literature to only

written materials. An effort to reduce Literature to only

written materials removes from Literature the Literature of

Preliterate societies that were not written down. For

example, Nigeria only began writing with the advent of

European education in the 19th century. Should we then

conclude that Nigeria had no Literature before the coming of

the British Education, it would be a wrong conclusion. Of

course, the proverbs, songs, folktales, riddles etc that

existed in preliterate societies like Nigeria are forms of

Literature. Creative writings valued as work of arts are

only forms of literature. Literature is an umbrella word

used to describe a variety of creative works of imagination

that may be written or oral. We can also define Literature

as imitation of Life. It is an imaginary composition.

Literature is not a faithful record of reality as History

is. This means Literature merely copies actual life people,

events and situations.

Professor Egudu in his book, The Study of Poetry, describes

Literature as ‘a mode or method of expression. This implies

that Literature is concerned with the manner in which words

are put together to express a new idea. It is not a subject

that just says something new, but says that new thing with

skillful manipulation of words as somebody plaiting hair

dexterously weaves it to form a beautiful hairstyle like

braid.

The Functions of Literature

We study literature because of its great value, which

include the following;

1. Entertainment: One of the functions of literature is

entertainment. The primary purpose of literature is to

provide entertainment. A book that fails to provide

entertainment can hardly pass for a literature book. We read

novels, play, recite poems mainly for recreation. People

tell stories or sing to entertain themselves. Referring to

this function of literature, Horace had said that literature

is out to please and delight

2. Mastering of English Language: By reading literary works

composed in the English Language, students get familiar with

new words and master the structure of the English Language.

3. Emotional Relief: By expressing our thought or our

emotions as we often do through literary works or reading

literature books, we release our emotions. This is because a

literary work leaves us at the end of easthetic experience

with a relax mind, by providing our emotions with focus.

4. Social Control: Literature serves as a weapon of social

control. The literary artiste (i.e. novelist, poet, e.t.c.)

is like a watch dog to the society. He barks the moment

things start going wrong. Morality of the society is

measured through his works. Also through works of literature

wrong-doings of a society are exposed to all and sundry.

5. Literature also functions as a means of direct

experience. Some literary works have the settings

(background) of a foreign land we may not have been to. E.g.

The Merchant of Venice written by Shakespeare has Venice,

Belmont as well as Jewish and Christian traditions as its

background. In the same vein, The Joys of Motherhood,

written by Buchi Emechata has Ibusa, Lagos together with the

Igbo culture as its background. Thus by reading such works,

we get to know about the people and places reflected without

having been to these lands.

6. Literature Mirrors Life: By this we mean that literature

is a mimetic art. It imitates. The events, Situation and

characters we find in literature shows real life situations.

As we get amused by actions in literary works or condemn

activities of some characters, we equally laugh at ourselves

or condemn ourselves.

7. Literature is a reservoir of culture: When we read

literary works written by people from other culture area, we

get to know about those cultures. Sometimes we learn more

about our own culture by reading works by authors from our

culture area. This is because most of the literary works we

read embodies culture of a group of people. Simply put,

Literature is a store in which culture are stocked or

preserved.

8. Literature Serves As Historical Document/ Social

Document: A literary work would be used by historians as

social document to reconstruct history of past society. This

is because; a literary work conveys or reflects time it was

written as well as the virtues and the prejudices of the

time. The idea is that, every writer is influenced by the

happenings of the time he is writing. In fact some novels,

poems, plays e.t.c are reactions to political happenings at

the time they were written.

9. Finally, Literature is also a means of education and

enlightenment: It teaches new things and new ways of doing

things. In so doing, it broadens our knowledge and builds

our individual skills. In addition, it informs us about the

happenings around us.

ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE

There are four basic elements of literature. This include

1. Character

2. Plot

3. Subject Matter/Theme

4. Setting

1. Characters: These are the people we read about in a

literary work. In a literary work, a writer describing

actions or ideas must as well describe the characters

affected by the actions or ideas. The major interest of an

audience is on the people in a drama. So also our central

interest is on the characters in a novel. The author of a

literary work makes his comments on society through his

characters. A good writer must have complete knowledge of

his characters; the way they look, how they talk, e.t.c.

There are two identifiable ways of showing characters,

namely are, Motivation and Setting.

Motivation: This refers to the reason for a character’s

action. The reason for a character’s action must be given.

In literature, as in life, characters dictate actions. For

example, if Shylock had not insisted on Antonio’s pound of

flesh, the play, Merchant of Venice would have been

something different. A writer has to ensure that the reasons

behind his character’s action are clear and logical.

2. Setting: It is the place in which a character’s story

takes place. The people in literature, like the one who

reads about them, do not exist in space. They act and react

to one another. They also react to their world. The real

geographical location, the period and cultural environment

are some of the things which come together to form setting.

For example, the setting of Sizwe Bansi is Dead is South

Africa and the Apartheid regime. So also the settings of The

Joys of Motherhood are Ibusa, Lagos as well as the Colonial

period.

3. Plot: Every literary work has element of plot. Plot tells

what happens to the characters. It is the story-line of a

literary work. A plot is created around a series of event

that occur within a specific period of time. There are no

general rules guiding the order in which the events are

arranged. However a good plot has a beginning, middle and an

end. That is to say, the plot guides us from a character

with problem {somewhere} through a character confronting the

problem, {through somewhere} to the character overcoming or

being overcome by the problem {to a point.}

E.M. Forster describes plot as “the arrangement of event in

cause-effect relationship”. This means a plot tells us what

makes something happens (cause) and what happens (effect).

If there is no relationship between cause and effect, there

will be no conflict, and therefore no plot.

A story is different from a plot. Story is the narration of

a series of events or happenings in chronological order.

Consider the example below:

a. Mr. Odudu died last week and was buried two days later.

His children are in his home town sharing his property now.

This is a story telling us what events took place in order

of time. (Chronological order)

b. Mr. Odudu died last week. It was uncertain what killed

him, until it was discovered that he drank poison. His

children had gone to his village to share his property as

their tradition requires children of a deceased to inherit

his belongings.

In the above, the cause of Mr. Odudu’s death was his

drinking of poison. And the effect was his death. This is a

good example of a plot. A story may have more than one plot.

Hence we talk of major plot and sub-plot. Sub-plots are

woven into the major plot.

4. Theme or Statement: Is the basic idea expressed by a

literary work. It is the central idea or observation about

life. It builds from the interplay of characters and plot. A

theme may state that life is good or not good, or condemn

crime or exonerate crimes. It may sanction or warn the

reader to live a better life or adopt a new lifestyle. A

good story directs the reader to the author’s conclusion.

5. Subject Matter: Often students mistake theme for subject-

matter. Subject-matter is what is discussed by a literary

work while the theme is derived from the comments on what is

discussed or how the writer discusses the subject-matter.

The things, people and events a writer writes about are the

subject matter. We can liken a theme and subject-matter to

the subject and predicate of a sentence. While the subject

is what performs the action mentioned in a sentence, the

predicate is the comment on the subject of the verb. E.g.

Ojevwe went home. Here Ojevwe is the subject while went home

is the comment (predicate).

Mr. and Mrs. Portrayal’s children are very good children.

They are obedient and hard-working at home. They do all

their assignments and home-works. They keep their house

clean at all times and respect one another. Their good-

manners and hard-work at school are indeed reflections of

their good behavior at home. They are very intelligent too.

This has made them win scholarships. Their parents and

teachers praise them and are proud of them.

In this story, the subject-matter is Mr. and Mrs.

Portrayal’s children. While the theme is good behaviour, is

praise-worthy.

Mr. and Mrs. Portrayal’s children are very bad children.

They are disobedient and lazy at home. They do not care to

do their assignment and home-works when they get home from

school. They don’t help their parents. They are the worst

set of students at school. They give their teachers

headache. They are lukewarm and dull set of students. Their

behavior at school is the reflection of what they do at

home. Their parents and teachers are ashamed of them and

always punish them.

In the above plot the subject-matter is Mr. and Mrs.

Portrayal’s children. Even though the subject-matter of this

passage is the same as the first, the theme is different.

What is the theme?

Style: Is the manner a writer uses words to create his

literary work. The way a writer or a poet writes what they

have to express. We can rarely enjoy a story’s characters or

plot without enjoying the author’s style. A writer must

solve problems of style from his first word to the last, by

answering such questions as: What kind of words shall I use?

How shall I present details? Should sentences be colloquial

or formal? Should paragraphs be long or short?

Point Of View or Narrative Technique is a part of a writer’s

style. Point of view may be first person Narrator, Third

person Narrator, Third person limited, or Third Person

Omniscient.

a. First Person Narrator: This is technique by which the

writer tells his story as though he was one of the

characters in the story. The writer uses I, We, Us instead

of He/ She, They, Them.

b. Third Person Point Of View: Here the writer uses the

third person pronouns (he/ she). The narrator/ writer stands

apart from the character.

c. Third Person Limited Point Of View: This is a narrative

technique by which the writer describes the action as a

single character might see them. The writer sees the events

through the eyes of his narrator.

d. Third Person Omniscient: It is the method in which the

narrator/ writer reports on what many characters are

thinking and feeling.

e. Stream Of Consciousness: It is a narrative technique by

which the audience or reader is made to follow the mind or

thoughts of the narrator. The narrator here is not regarded

as real narrator though. The story is usually not told in

the order the events took place or in the order of time.

This is because; the human mind we are made to follow by

this narrative technique can recall many things at the same

time

CHAPTER TWO

GENRES OF LITERATURE

The term genre means branch of literature. There are

three main branches of literature, namely are: Poetry, Drama

and Prose.

POETRY: Poetry has been variously defined by different

poets. According to one school of thought, it is the

expression, in a language, of thoughts and feelings which

popped up intuitively. William Wordsworth however defines

poetry as the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings

recollected in the moment of tranquility. The above

definitions imply that poetry is natural, imaginative and

emotional expression. Poetry is also defined as “the art

which uses words as both speech and songs to reveal the

realities that the senses record, the feeling salute the

mind perceives and the harping imaginations orders”. . It

employs beautiful language in passing across its message. A

poem is usually written in verse, stanza and arranged in

lines.

UNSEEN POETRY

Unseen poetry is a piece of a poem, examination candidates

might not have seen before the examination. The poem is not

among the ones prescribed. Candidates are expected to read

and demonstrate their literary appreciation skills by

answering questions based on the unseen poem. Students who

make good use of this textbook will find this section not

only easy but also interesting.

TYPES OF POEM

There are four basic types of poem, namely are: Narrative

poem, dramatic poem, A closet Drama and lyric.

Narrative poem: tells a story. Epic is an example of

narrative poem

Dramatic poem: This is a poem that tells its story

through the speech of a character. There are two types of

Dramatic poem. A dramatic poem, in which only one character

speaks, is termed Monologue.

Closet Drama: A play in a poem form that is designed to be

read but not acted.

Lyric: Is a short song-like poem, often expressing strong

feelings. We may describe a lyric poem in terms of what it

discusses (Subject-Matter) or in terms of its form. Hence we

term a poem eulogy if it praises the qualities of someone or

something; or elegy if it laments the dead. Other poems

classified according to subject-matter are discussed below.

Panegyric poem: It is a poem meant to praise a person or

object.

Ode: It is a poem addressed to somebody or something or an

idea. It is often more or less a sober reflection on an

object or a personage. The following are examples of ode:

Ode to the Grecian Urn, by John Keats, Ode on the Morning of

Christ’s Nativity-by Milton, Ode to Nightingale, by John

Keats e.t.c

Dirge: A poem which expresses grief or mourns the dead. It

is shorter and less formal than Elegy. Songs of Sorrow, by

Kofi Awoonor is an example of Dirge.

Poems Described According To Forms

Sonnet: It is a poem of 14 lines long with a definite rhyme

scheme. There are two types of sonnets. The Shakespearean

sonnet and Pertrechan or Italian sonnet

.

Shakespearean sonnet is also called English sonnet. It is

named after William Shakespeare who is a foremost writer of

this type of poem. It has four divisions. From the first to

the twelfth line, it is divided into three stanzas of four

lines each. The last two lines form the fourth divisions.

Pertrechan or Italian sonnet is a poem named after the poet

Francesco Pertrach. It is usually divided into two stanzas,

viz: The OCTAVE (eight lines) and the SESTET (six lines).

The second stanza has the following rhyme scheme: c d e c d

e. However note that the rhyme pattern of the sestet is not

constant. It may have cde dde etc, as its rhyme scheme.

Usually, the octave creates a problem while the sestet

resolves or comments on the problem.

Ballad: It is a narrative poem which tells a simple and

dramatic story. It is often meant to be sung. A ballad has

strong rhythms and rhymes which give it its songlike

qualities. The following are features of a ballad:

(i) Themes of physical courage and love

(ii) Events that happen to common people

Every stanza of a Ballad is made up of four lines with

the following rhyme - scheme: ab ab, the first and the third

lines usually have four stressed syllables while the second

and the fourth carry three syllables

Idyll: a short poem that expresses a peaceful and happy

scene.

ELEMENTS OF POETRY

Diction: It is the choice of words of a poet. A good diction

passes its message with suitable words

Rhyme: It is the repetition of similar sounds in different

words. Rhyme often occurs at the end of lines. E.g.(by /

sky). For there to be a perfect rhyme, the consonants

preceding the rhyming vowel sounds must be different. E.g.

ban /can, corn/ born

Internal Rhyme: If the rhyming words are in the middle of a

line of poem, the kind of rhyme thus form is called internal

rhyme.

End Rhyme: It is a form of rhyme that occurs at the end of

each line

Masculine Rhyme: Rhyme made up of single stressed syllable

e.g. Word/work

Feminine Rhyme: Double rhyme (when rhyme consists of two

syllables with a stressed syllable followed by unstressed

syllable e.g. ending/ pending

Rhyme- scheme: The pattern or sequence of in which words

rhyme with each other. It is usually denoted aa, bb, cc, dd,

e.t.c.

Alternate Rhyme-Scheme: It occurs when first line of a poem

rhymes with the third. The second, with the fourth, the

fifth with the seventh e.t.c.

Tone: Tone is the inner voice which sends the feelings of

the poet or the poet’s persona to the reader. A tone may be

of sorrow, anger, resignation, ridicule, contempt, sarcasm,

joyous e.t.c if a student is asked to state the tone of a

poem; he is expected to use appropriate word as one of the

ones listed above, to describe the tone. The tone of a poem

has direct effect on the mood.

Mood: It is the author’s or poet’s state of mind at the time

of writing his poem. Put differently, it is the emotional

attitude of the poet to his theme.

Rhythm: Is a word derived from a Greek word. It means

movement from one part to another part. Sounds are expected

to flow in poetry. As we unstressed or stressed word in a

line of poem, flow of sound is generated. Briefly put,

rhythm is that element which gives a poem its musical

quality.

Stanza: It is an Italian word for stopping place. Stanza in

a poem is a group of lines considered as one unit. Each

stanza contains a single thought or idea. Stanzas are to

poem as paragraphs are to a prose. Stanzas are usually

separated by spaces. A stanza may be named according to the

number of lines it contains.

1. Couplet: a stanza of two lines

2. Tercet: a stanza that has three lines

3. Quatrain: a stanza that contains four lines

4. Cinquain: a five-line poem

5. Sestet: a six-line stanza

6. Heptastich: a seven-line stanza

7. Octave: a stanza of eight lines

Imagery: It is a language that produces pictures in the mind

of a reader or a listener. In other words, it is a form of

language which calls up picture in the mind.

Imagery appeals to the following senses

1. Visual sense (sight)

2. Aural sense (hearing)

3. Olfactory sense (smell)

4. Gustatory sense (taste)

5. Tactile sense (touch)

6. Thermal sense (heat)

7. Motion

POETIC DEVICES

Figures of Speech: These are expressions commonly used by

poets in composing poems in order to arouse feelings through

evoking images in the mind. Figures of speech include:

metaphor, simile, synecdoche, allusion, symbolism hyperbole,

meiosis, euphemism and apostrophe.

Most of the examples used in this chapter are drawn from

some prescribed poems for SSCE and JAMB candidates.

Meiosis: Also termed understatement, is a deliberate

understatement to achieve humour and satirical effect. It is

a direct opposite of hyperbole

A. Hyperbole: It is an overstatement. An exaggeration of

fact for the purpose of emphasis e.g.

1. His head is bigger than a mountain.

2. All the perfume of Arabia cannot take away her body odour

3. I am so thirsty that I can drink all the water in the

Atlantic Ocean

B. Simile: This is a figure of speech used to compare two

things which are different in their nature but are alike in

having the quality mentioned. It usually uses ‘as’ ‘like’ in

comparing things. E.g.

1. He is as strong as a lion

2. We know the knife scars serrating down your back and

front like beak of the sword fish

3. The Nile and Nyaza lay like two twins

4. Clothes wave like tattered flags

It should be noted that it is not simile when the comparison

is between two similar things. For example, the following is

not simile; my car is like your car.

C. Metaphor: it is a direct comparison between two unlike

things. This figure of speech is like simile. The difference

is that while simile says something is like something or as

something, metaphor says something is another thing. We can

also define metaphor as the transfer of attributes

(qualities) of one object to another. ‘It is a compressed

simile. E.g.

1. He is a palm tree

2. Ojo is a lion

3. I am the squirrel teeth, cracked the riddle of the palm

4. Thou’rt slave to fate

5. The pelting march

6. My vegetable love

Metaphor has two elements: The tenor and the vehicle.

Tenor: It is the idea being expressed

Vehicle: It is the medium or image employed in expressing

the idea e.g in example (2) above lion is the vehicle while

strength of the of the lion is the tenor (idea expressed)

D. Personification: It is a figure of speech that gives

qualities of animate objects (living things) to inanimate

objects (non-living things). We can also define

personification as the giving of human qualities to non-

human beings.

When we speak of things like the sun, night, moon, fish or

stars as doing or saying things just as we talk of human

beings we are giving human qualities to them. Examples:

1. The sun smiles on the earth. The sun is smiling. But it

is not a human being that can smile thus we give it the

human quality of smile.

2. The wind is friendly tonight

3. Death knocks at his door.

4. Clouds come hurrying with the wind

5. Pregnant clouds ride stately on its back

6. The wind whistles by

7. Jagged blinding flashes, rumble tremble and crack

Stand still, yet we will make him run

E. Euphemism

It is a figure of speech by which we use a mild or indirect

expression to avoid the direct statement of harsh or

unpleasant truth.

Examples

1. The man passed away (to mean the man died)

2. Jacob got Okiemute laid

3. Each day a weary pony dropped

4. Each afternoon a human skeleton collapsed

F. Apostrophe

It is a figure of speech by which someone, abstract object

or non-living thing is addressed directly as if it could

hear or it were present even though it is

absent. It is simply described as direct address to

inanimate object.

The speaker talks to an imaginary second person who is not

present or

cannot hear, directly.

Examples

1. Death be not proud-(john Donne)

2. Oh JAMB why do you treat me like this!

G. Synecdoche

It is a figure of speech by which we use part to refer to a

whole. In other words a part is used to represent a whole or

a whole make to stand for a part.

Examples;

1. All hands on deck

2. He is a mender of soles

3. He has many mouths to feed

4. We need ten hands

5. Okotete has several fingers

N.B: all hands in example one is used to mean human beings.

Hands are part of human being

Example2; soles are part of shoes hence used to refer to

shoes

Example 3.mouths refer to people since mouth is part of

human beings

Example 4.hands here refer to workers

Example5-fingers refer to children

F. Allusion

It is a reference to a popular event in the past or an

object bearing similarity to what is being described. It

mentions another person or topic in an indirect manner.

There are two types of allusions; biblical allusion and

literary allusion.

Biblical allusion is a reference to events in the bible.

While literary allusion is a reference to other literature

books.

Examples

A Daniel comes to judgment (The Merchant of Venice, William

Shakespeare). The above statement is used by Shylock to

refer to the story of Daniel in the bible. In that story,

Daniel who acted as a judge over the case of a woman accused

of adultery, was able to give the right verdict being a wise

man

1. John is a prodigal son- prodigal son here refers to the

parable of prodigal son by Jesus in the bible.

2. Our relationship is that of Hut-Tutsi-this refers to

hostile relations between Hut and Tutsi tribes, both in

Rwanda, which culminated in genocide.

H. Symbolism

It is a figure of speech that makes use of symbols to

represent ideas. The use of an object to suggest a meaning

not clearly connected to that object. E.g.

Ekpo bore his cross patiently-in this example cross is a

symbol of suffering.

In her womb from east to west

Big volcanoes cough and blink

Belching streams of liquid fuel

N.B: womb in the first line of the poem symbolizes the earth

while volcanoes represent oil wells

I. Contrast

It is a device by which one object or idea is placed in

opposition to another to highlight the contrasted idea. It

is usually for the purpose of emphasis.

Figures of Thought: These are also literary devices employed

by mostly poets to convey their messages in a more aesthetic

form. By surprising the reader at first reading, figures of

thought stimulate the reader’s thinking ability. They

include, oxymoron, metonymy and paradox

A. Metonymy

It is a literary device by which we refer to something by

another thing closely associated with it.

Examples

1. My boss employs anything in skirt. Here skirt is used to

represent girls since it is only girls that wear skirt.

2. Crown gives up the ghost. Crown in this example is used

to mean king since it is closely associated with kings.

3. The pen is mightier than the sword. Here the pen refers

to intellectuals while the sword represents violent people.

B. Oxymoron

It is a literary device which places side by side opposite

qualities, often than not for the purpose of sharp emphasis.

It is also described as the juxtaposition of two apparently

contradictory ideas which modify each other in a sentence.

Examples

1. Loving hatred-Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare

2. I have a bitter sweet experience

3. He maintained eloquent silence during the seminar

4. Pregnant virgin

5. An open secret

C. Paradox

It is a statement that appears impossible, absurd or self-

contradictory but contains much wisdom and it is true.

Examples;

1. The child is the father of the man. This simply means

that the child who is now being cared for and provided for

by the father, will one day grow up, and when his father is

old and cannot provide for himself the child would provide

for him like a father.

2. More haste less speed. Sometimes we hurry to get certain

things done. But in the process we omit or forget things

that will make us start all over again. In such a situation

our haste has only slowed down our speed at completing the

required assignment.

3. The more you look the less you see.

4. Death, thou shall die

D Antithesis: Literary device in which ideas are

contrasted by the use of diametrically opposed

statements. In other words, it is the placing side by

side of opposite or contrasting statements. Examples;

Prosperity doth best discover vice

But adversity doth best discover virtue.

Bacon

Figures of Sound

These are expressions employed to give sound effect to a

piece of literary work.

A. Alliteration

It is the repetition of similar consonant sounds at the

beginning of words in a line of poetry. Consonants sounds

include: b, p, b, d, f, g, h, j k, l, t, w, m, n, s, q, v, z

etc

Examples of alliteration

1. Motherly moon

2. Sitting on stool outside mud hut

3. Let life lead

4. Bleeding blood

5. Singing song of solemn companionship

B. Assonance

[

It is the repetition of two or more similar vowel sounds in

a line of poem. E.g.

1. Coffee to keep the PS awake on return journey

2. Green dreams

C. Consonance: It refers to the repetition of consonant

sounds in a line of poetry in the middle or the end of words

E.g.

D. Repetition

It is a rhetorical device that repeats something for the

purpose of emphasis or clarity.

E.g.

Man has ceased to be man

Man has become beast

Man has become prey

(Nightfall in SOWETO, Oswald Mtshali M.)

In this poem man and has are repeated.

E. Onomatopoeia

It refers to words whose sound suggests their meanings.

Examples;

1. The vehicle zoomed past

2. Catastrophic crisis

3. A Dominion dominated by deceit is doomed

CHAPTER THREE

DRAMA

Drama is one of the three genres of literature. It is

defined as a work of art acted on the stage before an

audience. We can also define drama as the recreation of life

on the stage. A Greek philosopher called Aristotle also

defines drama as “imitated human action”. This definition

implies that what is acted on stage as drama, copies actual

life situations.

Play is often mistaken for drama. A play cannot be termed a

drama until it is produced on stage before an audience. A

play is therefore defined as a piece of writing designed for

the stage.

Professor J.M. Manly listed three essential elements in

drama. They are:

a. A Story (b) Told in action (c) By actors who impersonate

the characters of the story. We appreciate the story, the

plot and the themes of a drama through the actions and

conversations of the characters.

TYPES OF DRAMA

Comedy: It is a kind of drama which amuses and ends happily.

It strives to provoke laughter e.g. the following are types

of comedy. TheTempest, written by William Shakespeare.

Comedy of manners: It ridicules people who violate the

social tradition and order of the society. Every society at

any given time, has laid down pattern of behaviour that

people have to abide to. Comedy of manners deals with the

traditions, relations and intrigues of people in a given

society. Examples

(a) Love’s Labour’s Last and (b) Much Ado About Nothing,

both by William Shakespeare

Romantic Comedy: It is a kind of comedy which deals with

love affairs that involve a beautiful and idealized central

female character who is sometimes disguised as a man. This

love affair is usually rough but all difficulties are

overcome in the end and it ends happily. It was practiced by

Shakespeare and some of his contemporaries during

Elizabethan’s period. Examples:

Midsummer Night’s Dream, William Shakespeare.

Satiric Comedy: A comedy that ridicules philosophical

doctrines or political policies, or attacks the disorder of

society by ridiculing people who violate the standards of

manners or morals.

Tragedy: It is a form of drama which end is usually sad. The

leading character or the character we admire most in a

tragedy ends tragically, sorrowfully, or gets involved in a

situation that arouses sympathy. According to Aristotle, the

purpose of tragedy is to arouse feelings of pity and fear,

as a result, produces in the audience a catharsis

Modern tragedy is derived from Greek and medieval tragedy.

The Greek tragedy originated from rituals of life and death.

Medieval tragedy on the other hand, originated from the

representation of the life, death and resurrection of Christ

Jesus.

Examples of Tragedy

1. The gods are not to Blame, Ola Rotimi

2. Julius Ceasar, William Shakespeare

3. Macbeth, William Shakespeare

4. Hamlet, William Shakespeare

5. Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare

Features of Tragedy

1. A protagonist or hero who commands respect in the society

2. A hero who undertakes an action of a certain size or

seriousness

3. Through the action of the protagonist he falls into

trouble or faced a physical suffering.

Tragic-Comedy: This is a drama /play which have both

qualities of a tragedy or comedy. It may begin with a tragic

plot but ends happily. Its action appears to be leading to a

catastrophe until an unexpected turn of events, usually in

the form of abrupt happy end changes everything.

Farce: A humorous play in which the characters make silly

mistakes meant to make people laugh. Its action and events

deviate from reality.

Melodrama: A play that is full of exciting sensational

actions or events and in which the characters and emotions

appear too exaggerated to be real.

ELEMENTS OF DRAMA

They include story, plot, characters, act, scene, Dialogue,

settings, stage, Audience, Catastrophe, Denouncement and

comic relief. (Setting, plot, story, characters have been

discussed under elements of literature)

Stage: A platform usually in theatre, where actors and

actresses, dancers perform. A stage is otherwise described

as the physical representation of the world of the play.

Audience: A group of people watching a performance of a play

on stage. Drama is an audio-visual literary work. The

audience sees and hears the dialogue of the actors who

translate a play to drama on the stage. The audience serves

as the element of measuring the success or failure of the

play.

Dialogue: This means conversation between the characters or

actors and actresses in a play or drama. Dialogue is also

found in other literary works like poetry and prose. It has

the following stylistic values:

(a) It advances the action in a given way and is not used as

mere ornamentations

(b) It reflects the social position, character and special

interest of the speakers. It changes expressions and tone

according to the speaker’s nationalities, dialect,

occupations and social standards.

(c) Although it is not a word for word record of what was

actually said in real life, it gives the impression of

naturalness.

(d) It does not only give the interplay of ideas and

personalities among the characters speaking, but also

provides a conversational give-and-take as opposed to series

or remarks of alternating speakers.

(e) It varies in diction, phrasing, and rhythm e.t.c

Before 1558, the tradition was: nobles and elevated

characters speak in Blank verse and high rhetoric while

minor characters (underlings) speak in prose firm.

Act: It is a major division in the action of play just as

the novel has chapters so also a play is divided into ACTS.

This division was introduced by dramatist of the Elizabeth

period. These Elizabethan dramatists imitated a Roman

playwright, by dividing the actions into five acts.

However, during the 1900’s many writers imitated Chekhov by

structuring plays in four acts. Whereas in the 1900’s some

plays were written in three acts.

Scenes: Sir Edmond Chambers describes scenes as a continuous

section of action in an unchanged locality. Simply put, a

scene is a logical unit into which an act is divided. In

today’s plays, a scene usually consists of units of actions

in which there is no change of place or break in the

continuity of time.

In constructing a scene, climatic arrangement is the most

important principle. A scene may also be that of relief, or

dialogue scene, battle scene, court scene, and monologue

scene e.t.c

Comic Relief: It is a humorous scene or funny incident or

speech in a serious drama. In a tragedy such humorous scenes

are usually introduced to provide relief from emotional

intensity. This can as well, increase the seriousness of the

story.

Catastrophe and Denouement: This refers to the turning point

in the life or actions of the protagonist in an unfolding

play. This turning point may result in success or failure

for the protagonist. The misery is solved or the

misunderstanding is cleared away at this point in the play.

If the play is a tragedy, this turning point is termed

catastrophe. But in both tragedy and comedy, this change of

event is commonly referred to as Denouement. Denouement is

also called Resolution.

Denouement may involve reversal (peripety, According to

Aristotle) in the hero’s fortunes. The reversal may be to

the protagonist’s failure or destruction as we have in

tragedy.

CHAPTER FOUR

PROSE

This is the third genre of literature. Prose is written in

the ordinary spoken or written language of man. The message

of the prose is often conveyed without acting. A prose work

may be fiction or non-fiction.

Fiction; is an imaginary story created or invented by a

writer. E.g., The Joys of Motherhood. .

Non-fiction; a true-life story. Historical novel is an

example of non-fiction.

. Autobiography; It is non-fictional prose written by

somebody about himself. Simply put, it is the life history

of a person written by the person himself. For example if

Mary writes a novel that tells the story of her life, such a

story is called autobiography. African Child written by

Camara Laye and Second Class Citizen by Buchi Emecheta are

examples of autobiography.

Biography; This is the life story of somebody written by

another person. For example if Efe writes the story of

Okoro’s life such a story is Biography. This type of story

may be written while the person is alive or dead.

UNSEEN PROSE

Unseen prose refers to a passage usually adapted from a

prose work which is not among the prescribed Prose works.

This section in the SSCE Literature Paper I requires

students to answer some questions based on the passage.

For a candidate to do well in this section he needs basic

literary appreciation skills which are discussed in this

textbook.

TYPES OF PROSE

1. Novelette: It is generally known as a narrative, longer

than a short story but shorter than a novel, especially a

romantic novel which is considered to be badly written.

2. Short Story: It is a narrative of event or many related

events, which is less complex than novel.

3. Anecdote: It is a short humorous or interesting story

about a real person or event. It can show a single aspect of

personal life or event. E.g.

There was a man called Tony who went to his friend’s party.

When it was dancing time, Tony like other people went to the

middle of the arena to dance. He noticed something as he was

dancing: the people behind him applauded and hailed him

tumultuously, while those at his front just watched in

silence. He thought that his backside was doing more wonders

than his front-side. He decided to turn his backside in

every direction so that he could gain the applause of all,

which he enjoyed very much. By the end of the party almost

everybody had seen his backside.

He decided to dance before a large mirror when he got home

from the party to know for himself how wonderfully he looked

behind when dancing. It was then he saw in the mirror that

his trousers was torn behind. And since he had gone to the

party without underwear, his private part was in full view.

It swung helplessly while he danced and that was the cause

of the uproar he had mistaken for applause.

4. Novel: It is a long narrative fiction that has a more

complex plot than a short story. It can also be described as

an ‘invented prose narrative of great length and a certain

complexity that deals imaginatively with human experience

usually through a connected sequence of events involving a

group of persons in a specific setting’. The novel shows

life through plot, story, characters, conflict and realism.

The plot of a short story or novelette is simple and

straight forward. While that of a novel is complex and

always include sub-plots.

Types of Novel

1. Picaresque

2. Epistolary

3. Gothic

4. Romantic

5. Realist

6. Historical

7. Psychological Novel

8. Political novel

9. Detective novel

10. Sociological Novel

11. Novel of character

12. Novel of manners

1. Picaresque Novel: It deals with a sequence of adventures

of a rogue or outcast. It was common between 17th and early

18th centuries. It is usually exciting and lusty.

2. Novel of manners: It deals with problems of personal

resolution resulting from the complex restrictions of highly

formalized ‘codes’ of etiquette in good society.

3. Sentimental Novel: A form of novel which emphasizes the

importance of building and nurturing emotionality, and a

sentimental understanding of simple ways of life; the

beauties of nature and cordiality(friendship) between people

of refined sensibilities”

4. Gothic Novel: A kind of novel common in the 18th

centuries. It described romantic adventures in frightening

or mysterious environments.

The first gothic novel was published in 1764 by Horace

Walpole. The mystery of Udolpho, by Ann Redeliffe is another

example.

5. Historical Novel: It is a novel that deals with past

events. In historical novels, some notable figures in the

past are brought to life fictionally and characters are

invented to help reader understand how past events affected

people.

6. Sociological novel: It deals with the state and the

impact of social factors on the characters in a certain

society. In this way we get to understand the reason behind

character’s behavior in the society. Sociological novel

offer a thesis and supports it as an answer to a social

problem.

7. Detective Novel: It is a form of novel in which a crime,

usually crime of murder, is committed and the criminal or

perpetrators are unknown until a detective unravels the

mystery behind the crime. Most of James Hardley Chase novels

fall under this category.

8. Psychological novel: It stresses the inner life of

characters. A psychological novelist focuses on the inner

life of the character, assesses his motives and explores

such psychological characteristics which led to external

actions.

9. Novel of character: It stresses the creation and building

of character instead of unity of plot, structure and

exciting story.

10. Novel of incident: A type of novel in which action in

almost unrelated episodes dominate while characters and plot

are subordinate. There is more emphasis on thrilling

incident than characterization or sustained curiosity.

Robinson Crusoe, written by Daniel Defoe is a good example.

ELEMENTS OF NOVEL

Elements of Novel

1. Setting

2. Character

3. Story

4. Realism

CHAPTER FIVE

LITERARY TERMS AND TECHNIQUES

Some terms used in the language of literary criticism and

techniques employed in literary works are discussed in this

chapter. Understanding them will be of great help to senior

school certificate Examination and JAMB candidates.

DRAMATIC CONVENTIONS

A. Suspension of disbelief: This is a dramatic convention

which demands that we pretend that the people and event we

see in a drama are real. In the performance of a play,

actors imitate the characters in the play. For example, when

your school decides to act Wedlock of the gods or stage

Women of Owu, or our Husband has gone Mad Again, your

classmates we act as the characters in the story. While the

drama unfolds, you believe that your classmate who is

playing the role of Uloko or Oguoma is actually Oguoma or

Uloko.

In other words, you suspend disbelieving that your

classmate is not the characters mentioned. Suspension of

disbelieving helps audience to get the mental and emotional

appeals the drama puts forward

B. Soliloquy: It refers to a speech made by a character to

himself in a play. It occurs when a character says aloud his

thoughts to the hearing of the audience i.e. when a

character is thinking aloud. It is aimed at revealing to the

audience what is going on in the mind of the character.

Example:

Hamlet soliloquizes as follows in the play; Hamlet, written

by Shakespeare William.

To be, or not to be- that is the question whether it’s

nobler in the mind to suffer

The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,

Or to take arms against a sea of troubles

And by opposing end them?-to die- to sleep-

No more; and by a sleep to say we end

The heart ache and the thousand natural shocks

That flesh is heir to; is a consummation

Devoutly to be wished. Top die-to sleep

To sleep! Perchance to dream.

C. Interior Monologue or Aside: This is a convention in

which a character talks to himself to the hearing of the

audience. The other characters are to pretend they do not

hear even though they hear what the character is saying to

himself. The audience also suspends their disbelief that the

audiences do not hear.

D. Unity of Time: It is a dramatic concept that demands that

the time in a play should be limited to specific number of

hours. It could be 12 hours or even more. That is to say

that a play should not contain events that happened over a

long period of time. But some playwrights do not abide by

this idea.

E. Unity of Action: It is most important of the three.

Originally, this idea was advanced by Aristotle. It

is however, later expanded to include unities of time

and place. Aristotle holds the view that all the

actions in a play should have unity. Drama, he

believes, is an imitation of complete action of a

given size. A whole should have beginning, middle and

the end with a causal relationship in the aspects of

the play so that if an aspect is detached, the

actions become disjointed. That is to say, a plot of

an action should be naturally conceived to derive all

its part from a common action that unifies them. Put

differently, all the plots in a play should be

properly connected to a major one

F. Unity of Place: It is an idea that all the actions in

a play should take place in one location. Put

differently, that all the actions in a play should be

united in a certain city or town or locality. A play

is not supposed to unite actions that took place in

far locations. Shakespeare does not abide by the

rule.

Didactic Literature: It is a literary work meant

to teach moral, branch of theoretical, religious

or practical knowledge various forms of satire

are didactic.

Satire: It is a literary work which lampoons

human follies and frailties or vices as well as

institutions with a view to correcting them.

Allegory: Imaginary narratives in which human

beings and events have a symbolic meaning (i.e.

represent ideas such as justice or freedom). The

narrative may talk about something but has

another thing in focus.

Epistolary: It is a novel written in the form of

letter

Fable: A short story used to illustrate moral

lessons in which animals talk and act like human

beings

Foreshadowing: It is sometimes referred to as

unconscious prophesy. A character may say

something which gives clue about a future event

casually, or an event which foretells what would

happen later in the literary work or may take

place. When this occurs, we call it

foreshadowing.

Euphony: It is the pleasantness of sound.

Atmosphere: this is the overall emotional

feeling that the details a writer uses create.

An atmosphere can be described as sad,

frightening or mysterious etc. A writer creates

atmosphere by the way he describes his settings,

characters and events. The writer chooses his

words carefully so that the readers or audience

will be affected by his writing in the way he

wants them to be affected. For example, a writer

who wants to stir the feeling of terror in a

reader may use the details below:

It was midnight. Joan moved on the bed suddenly as

if startled. Her room was pitch black. Sinister

weeping of an owl was paving the way for the

booming of gun by her window.

Cacophony: Harshness or unpleasantness of sound

Diction: It simply means choice of words of a

poet or choice of words of other literary

writer.

Pun: Play on words that have more than one

meaning. For example, bank (of a river), bank

(where one saves money), bark (noise makes by a

dog), bark (cover of a tree). A writer may play

on the meanings of these words. When such occur,

we describe it as pun.

Epic: It is a long narrative poem.

Characterization: It refers to the creation of

characters in a literary work by giving blood

and flesh to fictitious people. The writer is

the creator of his characters. He kills them if

he wants them to die. He defends them if he

wants them to be protected. He makes them behave

the way he wants them to behave. Hence a young

girl in novel can woo a young man in a novel and

even sustain his love without reservation even

though if it may not be possible in real life.

Methods of characterization: (a) explicit method/telling

method and (b) dramatic/ action method. By the explicit

method, the writer makes us know a character via the authors

description, this description include what the character

says about himself and other characters says about him

The dramatic method: We get to know the character through

what he does or how he handles things and what he says. Here

there is no direct exposition by the author.

Types of Characters

1. Round Characters—they are like real human beings.

They are complex, showing many aspects to their

personality. They change and grow as the story

unfolds.

2. Flat Characters—they have only one side and

usually show a single personality quality. They

remain the same throughout the story.

Elements of Character: to write a note on or analyse a

character, the following elements should be considered:

1. Appearance of the character- what does the character look

like? What kind of clothes does the character normally wear?

What do the above things say about the character?

2. Background of the Character-describe where the character

grows up. Talk about the character’s experiences. Talk about

the character’s education and the occupation of the

character. Mention the hobbies of the character.

3. Personality- is the character shy or outgoing? Is he

emotional or rational? Is he caring or cold? Honest or

dishonest? A leader or follower

4. Motivation- mention what makes the character act as he

acts, what he likes and what he hates as well as his wishes,

dreams, goals, desires, dreams and needs

5. Relationship-describe how the character is related to

other characters in the story; how he interacts with these

relatives, what resulted from these interactions.

6. Conflict-say whether the character is involved in any

conflict, mention the kind of conflict (is it conflict

within him or conflict between him and other characters?)

7. Type of Character-state whether the character changes in

the course of the story; whether he learns and grows or just

remains the same throughout the narration

Flashback: It is a technique used to recall events

that happen before the point at which the work

begins or events that occurred earlier. This

technique is used in the Joys of Motherhood. The

first chapter tells about Nnu Ego running to commit

suicide and how she is prevented from taking her

life. In chapter two the writer continues to recall

all the past events for us to understand what led to

the actions in chapter one.

Flashback is of two types: Narrative flashback and dramatic

flashback. A narrative flashback is that type that relates

the events as a story. While the dramatic flashback is

acted. It is this form that is employed in drama.

Protagonist: It refers to the leading character in a

prose work or drama. It is a word derived from a

Greek word, AGON

Antagonist: The chief character who opposes the

leading character, e.g. in the Merchant of Venice by

William Shakespeare, Shylock is the antagonist.

Suspense: It is a technique used by a writer to

arouse curiosity in the reader. This he may do by

mentioning an important event that occurred without

stating its cause. He gradually reveals what led to

the event as the work unfolds. Suspense is usually

used to sustain the interest of the reader.

Prompter: Somebody who stays behind a scene to

remind actors who forget their lines.

Playwright: Somebody who writes play

Dramatist: A person who writes a play and takes part

in the action.

Novelist: One who writes a novel.

Poet: A person who writes a poem

Poetic licence: It is the freedom a poet has to

enable him use words out of their ordinary usage in

order to achieve special effect

Poetic Justice: Comeuppance on character in a

literary work is called poetic justice.

Narrator: The person who explains what is happening

in a work of literature.

Motif: A dominant or repeated idea in a work of art.

It is also defined as the formula idea or pattern

which forms the main base on which a work of

literature is made or developed.

Parody: A poem meant to amuse which copies the

style, characters and content of a know poet or

writer to mock him.

Pathos: A quality which arouses feeling of pity,

sorrow and sympathy from audience

Actor: A male acting in the performance of a play

E.g. Pete Edochie (Okonkwo) is a popular Nig actor.

Actress: A female who acts in drama. Example:

Genevieve Nnaji is a popular Nigerian actress.

Anthology: A book containing collection of poems

written by different poets.

Bathos: If is a literary device in which word or

ideas are arranged in descending order of

importance, form the sub line to the ridiculous.

E.g. she was once managing director, later his wife

and now his house help.

Anti – Climax: Otherwise termed bathos. It is the

opposite of climax. It is the arrangement of event

or ideas in descending order, i.e. from highest to

lowest, Example: Okoh lost his one million Naira,

his wallet and his handkerchief. Ojo lost his wife,

his building and motorcycle.

Burlesque: It is a poem that ridicules ideas or

objects.

Consume irony: It is also called irony of fate. It

occurs in a literary work in which god or divine

force is presented as if deliberately dominating the

affair of the chief character, giving him false

hopes only to frustrate and humiliate him at the

end.

Anthonomesia: A literary device that employs the

name of a well known person or place to represent

some quality in a similar person, place, event or

object E.g.

(1) Lagos is the New York of Africa (2) wole Soyinka is the

William Shakespeare of Africa.

Caricature: It is the ridiculous imitation of one

person of another person’s manner and character.

Enjambment: It is also referred to as run-on-line.

Enjambment occurs

When ideas or thought unit run from one line of a poem into

another without pause. The line flows on and on into the one

following it.

Mime: It is a drama performed without speaking. The

actors use only gestures and gesticulations in

acting the play.

Malapropism: It is the wrong use of a word which is

far from the meaning of what you want even though

the word sounds like the correct one. It simply

means the inappropriate use of words. E.g. somebody

may want to say Arsenal conceded a goal but say

conceived because he does not know the difference

between them since they sound alike.

Inversion: It is the technique use in turning a

sentence upside down against the normal grammatical

order of the clause, phrase or sentence. E.g. For

man’s salvation Jesus died.

Lineation: It is the arrangement of poem in lines

Catharsis: It is a term used to describe the

purgation of emotion. It is otherwise described as

transfer of feeling from actors to the audience in

a play performance

Cast: A group of people who represent character on

a stage performance.

Epigram: A shot witty poem. Example

A Christian is a man.

Who goes to church on Sunday to confess the sins he

commuted on Saturday which he would continue on

Monday

Prologue: It is defined as short speech at the

beginning of a literary work. It also means

introductory part of work of literature

Meiosis: A figure of contrast that reduces

somebody or an object to an inconsequential size

or status even though the person or object is

actually bigger than what is suggested. This is

used mainly for the sake of comic irony. E.g.

Thompson is but an eye of Marcus.

Exposition: It is the act of explaining and making

clear the background of event or actions that

will occur in advance so as to capture the

audience or reader’s attention.

Anagnorisis: It is an element of tragedy. A point

at which a tragic hero discovered for the first

time, the trap set for him. He is usually

helpless against his fate at this point, hence he

cannot retrace his steps Example: The point at

which Macbeth discovers that Macduff was not born

of a woman.(Macbeth, William Shakespeare). The

three witches had earlier assured him that no man

born of a woman could kill him thus when he

realized that Macduff was not born of a woman, it

dawned on him that he could be killed by him yet

it was two late for him to retrace his steps.

Tragic Flaw: It is also called harmatia. It the

weakness or fault in hero which, exploited by

forces against him, often causes his down -fall

Interlude: It refers to an interval or breaks

between two parts of a drama or play

Epilogue: It is a short speech at the end of a

literary work.

Dues ex Machina: It is the sudden turn of event in

a literary work.

Clown: A character who dresses in a funny manner

and tries to amuse people by his jokes, actions

and tricks.

Climax: It is the peak or highest point in a work

of art where feelings are most intense. It also

means the arrangement of ideas or events in

ascending order. E.g. I came, I saw, I conquered-

Shakespeare William.

* Theatre: It is the arena, structure or a space where play

are performed.

* Prop: It refers to the stage property.

* Costume: It means the clothes or style of dress actors and

actresses wear on stage.

* Pastoral poem: A poem about village or rural life.

* Cloak Room: A room where in which stage property are kept.

* Stage manager: A person who supervises and provides

general instructions on the production or performance of a

play.

* Aphorism: A brief saying that is true or full of wisdom

* Comedian: A person who acts in comedies or somebody who

tells jokes to entertain people. A female comedian is termed

a comedienne

* Directions: This means all the information or instructions

provided by a writer of a play about the settings and

actions of the characters in a play. These instructions are

usually written in italics and brackets. The directions in a

play tell us whether a character smiles or smiles

sardonically or even cry e.t.c.

* Stage Directions: The instructions telling the actors or

performers what to do. Stage Direction is usually provided

by stage Director.

* Apparent Interrogation: It is similar to rhetorical

question. It means a question which does not need answer but

has literary effect. E.g. “Who disputes that hard-work leads

to success?”

* Foil: A character that contrasts with the virtues of

another character and as such emphasizes the qualities of

the other character.

* Eponym or Eponymous Character: The character mentioned in

the title of a literary work. E.g. Romeo and Juliet are

eponymous characters of the great tragedy by William

Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet. Hamlet is also an eponymous

name used in Hamlet by Shakespeare.

* Autobiography: It is the life history of a person written

by himself. Biography which is mistaken for Autobiography

means the life history of another person written by another

person. For instance, if Juliet writes the life history of

Henry, such a book written by Juliet is called biography.

* Caesura: A pause near the middle of a line of poetry. It

is introduced by a punctuation mark

* Producer: Somebody who is in charge of the financial and

practical responsibilities of making a film/movie or a play.

* Prolepsis: It refers to mentioning future action in a way

that seemed that the action had been performed or had taken

place E.g. ‘I eat little and I am satisfied’

* Tragedian: Is one who acts a tragedy. Tragedienne is a

female equivalent of tragedian

* Panegyric: A poem that praises and extols somebody’s

qualities (Virtues)

* Epyllion: A narrative poem that is shorter than epic.

* Epithalamion: A poem written in celebration of marriage.

* Prothalamion: A poem in celebration of an independent

marriage.

* Prosody: It is the patterns of sounds and rhythms in

poetry. It is also the study of the pattern in which poetry

is written (versification)

* Exemplum: It is a short story highlighting morals

* Sarcasm: The use of words that are opposite of what you

mean with the intentions to hurt or to be unpleasant to

somebody or to make fun of them

Examples:

(i) James is such a very good student that all his beautiful

classmates are afraid to stay alone with him in the class.

(ii) The commissioner has embarked on noble capacity

building which include the buying of ‘Okada’ for law

graduates

* Symbol – An object, a sign or person used to represent

another E.g. Candle, water (to represent life), cross (to

represent suffering) e.t.c. whereas symbolism is the use of

symbol to represent somebody, something or a place or an

idea.

* Nostos: A poem whose a subject-matter describes return

journey.

* Synopsis: A brief summary of major events in a story or

play.

* Epitaph: An inscription or words written on a dead

person’s gravestone or tomb.

* Epithet: It is an adjective or phrase used to describe a

person or an object either to praise or criticize.

* Transferred Epithet: An epithet transferred from what it

rightly belongs to another it does not belong. Examples: He

lied all night on a sleepless pillow (Sleepless which

belongs to he, is transferred to pillow (2) Margaret had a

happy Easter holiday (here happy which belongs to Margaret

is transferred to Easter holiday)

* Prosiast: somebody who writes a prose.

* Roman a clef: A novel based on real events and people with

pseudonyms.

* Saga Novel: A prose work that explores the story of a

family or social group over successive generations.

* Travesty: A work of literary which imitates another

literary work in a ridiculous manner to provoke laughter

* Opera: It is a play or drama in which words or most of the

words are meant to be sung.

* Soap Opera: A type of opera that tells a story of the

lives, and problems of a group of people. It is usually

broadcast on the television from time to time.

* Anthimeria: It refers to the use of another part of speech

in place of another. For example an adjective may be used in

place of another part of speech like verb. Or verb used as

noun.

e.g.1. “Gift him with a novel for Valentine “in this example

gift, a noun is used in place of verb.

2. “He worked his did” here did is used as a noon.

* Beggars Opera: a kind of opera which mocks the futility

and vanity of consumption of lace materials.

* Realism: A style that depicts persons or objects in

Literature as they are in real life. It also means the

quality of resembling real life.

* Verisimilitude: this is similar to realism. It is the

quality of appearing to be real or true. A novel that lacks

verisimilitude is termed Romance.

*Travelogue: it is a literary work depicting a person’s

travel experiences.

Curtain Raiser: short play staged before the main action in

a theatre.

Hero: A main male character in the work of art.

Heroine: The Female equivalent of a hero

Tragic Hero: the chief character in a work of Art whose

weakness contributed to his downfall

Anti-Hero: The main character in a story who does not

possess the qualities of a typical hero. He is either

unpleasant or more like an ordinary person.

PAST QUESTIONS

1. A definition that limits Literature to writings

negates---

(a). Literature of Nigeria (b). literature of pre-

literates societies(c). Literature of Africa (d).

Literature of societies.

2. Literature is derived from a Latin word---

a. littera b.litra c.liffera d.little

3. According to Professor Egudu, Literature is--- a. medium

of expression b. manner of expression c. mode or method of

expression d. idea of expression

4. Literature is a mimetic art means --- a. Literature

imitates life b. Literature is an important Subject c.

Literature is Fine Art d. literature is an Art.

5. The three genres of Literature are --- a. prose, poem and

drama b. play, prose and poetry c. drama novel and poetry d.

drama, poetry and prose

6. Drama is work of art meant for --- A. the theatre B.

stage C. home D. video

7. As listed by Professor J. M. Manley the following are

elements of drama---

A. story, told in action and by actors who impersonate the

characters of the story B. drama poetry and play C. Plot,

conflict and setting D. comic relief, anaphora and cacophony

8. According to Aristotle Tragedy is meant to arouse the

feelings of --- A shame and fear B. Fear and pity C. Pain

and anger D. love and fear

9. A prose work is usually divided into---

A. Acts B. scenes C. chapters D. stages

10. The following are elements of poetry except---- A.

Stages B. blank verse C. tunes D. conflict

11. The central idea of a literary work is ---

A. its theme B. its idea C. its subject-matter D. its

discussion

12. The ability to understand, enjoy and evaluate a given

literary work is termed ----

A. literature understanding B. understanding literature C.

Literary appreciation D. literature knowledge

13. The four elements of literature include---

A. characters and setting B. characters and theme C.

characters and point of view D. characters and people

14. Pleasantness of sounds in poetry is termed---- A.

cacophony B. euphony C. Anaphora D. Rhymes

Unseen Poetry

Whenever Richard went down town

We people on the pavement looked at him

He was a gentleman from sole to crown

Clean favoured and imperially slim

And he was always quietly arrayed

And he was always human when he talked

But still he fluttered pulses when he said

Good morning; and he glittered when he walked

And he was rich-yes richer than a king

And admirably schooled in every grace

In time, we thought he was everything

To make us wish that we were in his place

So on we worked and waited for the light

And went without the meat, and cursed the bread

And Richard Cory one calm summer night

Went home and put bullet through his head

15. The above poem is written in---

A quatrains B. two good stages C. four stages D. scenes

16. The rhyme-scheme of stage one of the poems is …..

A.abab B. acbd C.aabb D. abda

17. According to the poem, Richard Cory---

A. put a bullet into his head B.commits crime C. commits

suicide D. dies

18. We can understand from the poem that from his head to

his sole of his feet Richard Cory is ---

A. radical man B. troublesome fellow C. talkative D. a

gentleman

19. The themes of this poem include –

A, all that glitters is gold B. all that glitters is not

gold C. somebody dies D. Richard Cory, walking down the

street

20. The last stanza of the poem has the mood of---

A. disturbance B. happiness C. disillusionment D.

resignation

21. A literary work in which action and characters represent

ideas is A. an allusion B. an epigram C. an allegory D. an

innuendo

22. ‘‘Peter’s pretty partner paid the bills’’ is an example

of A. alliteration B. rhyme C. satire D. digression

23. ‘‘O happy torment’’ is an example of A. oxymoron B.

synecdoche C. innuendo D. simile

24. A question which does not require an answer is A.

discourse B. rhetorical C. ironic D. flashback

25. A literary work written in form of a letter is A.

creative B. romantic C. tautological D. epistolary

26. The lawyer addressed the bench” illustrates A. metonymy

B. alliteration C. simile D. oxymoron

27. The concluding part of a play where the conflict is

resolved is the A. resolution B .enjambment C. denouement D.

climax

28. Pick the odd item out of the underlisted A. ode B. elegy

C. sonnet D. simile

29. ‘‘pregnant clouds” is an example of A. cliché B. litotes

C. metaphor D. synecdoche

30. A writer’s choice of words is his A. diction B. Mood C.

tone D. setting

31. The act of creating fictional personages constitutes A.

point of view B. characterization C. narrative technique D.

symbolism

32. Dream is meant to A. teach manner only B. criticize C.

educate and entertain D. be read and acted only

33. A piece of writing which teaches morals is A. serious B.

didactic C. playful D. analytical

34. A poem of fourteen lines is A. an elegy B. a dirge C. a

sonnet D an ode

35. A piece of writing or speech at the beginning of a work

of art is the A. prologue B. dialogue C. monologue D.

epilogue

Read the poem and answer question

At the onset of the rain

The drought-stricken land

Suck up the wetness

And the gates to the filed

Are flung widely open

It is the signal for joyous toiling

At various time of the dayS

The hard and erect hoe

Would thrust and dig deep

Into the receiving wet soil.

Seed in different quantities

Seed of varying potency

Are broadcasted in layers

Into the womb of the earth

With tine and much labour

The seed now transformed

Blossoms and grows into new life!

36. The subject matter of the entreat is A. harvesting B.

rain C. time D. farming

37. The dominant device used in the extract is A. metaphor

B. paradox C. symbolism D. simile

38. ‘‘The hard and erect hoe” connotes A. uprooting of weeds

B. the sowing of seeds C. digging of the soil D. farming

implements

39. ‘‘Joyous toiling” is an example of A. onomatopoeia B.

oxymoron C. irony D. metaphor

40. The last line of the extract suggests the A. growth of

seed B. birth of child C. harvesting of fruits D.

flourishing of flowers

It is here,….., thou art slain;

No medicine in the world can do thee good;

In thee there is not half an hour of life;

The treacherous instrument is in thy hand,

Unabated and envenom’d: the foul practice

Hath turn’d itself on me; lo, here I lie,

(Act 5, scene Two, lines 298-303)

41. The speaker is A. fortinbras B. Guildenstern C. Laertes

D. hamlet

42. The queen has just A. left the scene B. died C. run away

D. arrived

43. The character being addressed is A. Hamlet B. the queen

C. the king D. fortinbras

44. The addressee later A. kills him self B. sleeps off C.

runs away D. stabs the king

45. The setting is A. a hall in the castle B. the

battlefield C. a platform in front of the castle D. the

queen’s room

46. The speaker is A. Polonius B. the king C. hamlet D. the

queen

47. The character being addressed is A. Horatio B. Marcellus

C. Polonius D. Leartes

48. The speaker is suffering from A. malaria B. headache C.

tumor D. hallucination

49. The other character in the scene is A. the king B.

Marcellus C. Polonius D. the queen

50. The character that just left the scene is A. Hamlet and

Horatio B. Rosencrantz and the queen C. the king and the

queen D. the king and the Guildenstern

I shall the affect of this good lesson keep,

As watchman to my heart, but, good my brother

Do not, as some ungracious pastor do,

Show me the step and thorny way to heaven;

While, like a puff’s and reckless libertine,

Himself the primrose path of dalliance treads,

And recks not his own rede.

(Act I, scene Three, Lines 45-51)

51. The speaker is A. Getrude B. Ophelia C Reynaldo D.

Guildenstern

REFERENCES

1. L.A. Hill et al, English Language Teaching Games

2. E. B. Castle, The Teacher

3. Richard .J. Smith and Max .F. Schulz, Journeys, a

Reading and Literature Programme, Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich Publishers,(Newyork,1982)

4. Benson Omonode, Background To Literature,

University Press, 1992 Benin City

5. Nanyen Ojukwu, Literature in English, Hybrid

Publishers, 1997, Onitsa

6. Tony .O. Uche,Modern English and Literature,

Primasecter Publications,2001 Enugu Nigeria

7. Chinweikpe Iwuchukwu, Mastering of Literature, 2001

8. Sylvanus Igwebuike, Jamb selected prose and Drama

including Literary appreciation Elites publishers,

2000 Onitsa Nigeria

9. William Shakespeare, the Merchant Of Venice, Longman ltd,

1962, England

10. West Africa Examination Council, Senior School

Certificate Examination, 2008 Literature-In-English

Questions

11. Prentice Hall, Literature, Silver, Annotated Teachers’

Edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632