What kinds of literary techniques are used in the Bible?by Alex Carmichaeledited by Matt SlickThere is an incredible variety of literary means and methods used by God in His Word to convey what He wanted to reveal to us.  One may wonder, “Why did God use so many different techniques and styles in the Bible?  Wouldn’t it have been easier, or even better, to use just one straightforward way of writing to get His message across?”The simple answer to that question is that God used different people in different ways, each who were free to write in the style they were familiar with as they were inspired by the Holy Spirit.ChiasmExamples of chiasmus can be found in the Bible -- they’re everywhere in God’s Word.  Biblical writers used chiasmus to add emphasis to their writings, to highlight details of particular importance.  Here’s an example of that, from the earliest use, in Genesis 9:6 :• “Whoever sheds man’s blood, by man his blood shall be

shed."Jesus Himself also used chiasmus in Matthew 19:30, “But many who are first will be last, and the last first.”Chiasmus is just one of the many, many literary techniques found in the Bible.  These techniques help to make God’s Word become even more memorable. Here are some of the more commonly used literary devices found in Scripture:AcrosticThis is a device found in Old Testament poetry in which the successive units of a poem begin with the consecutive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The units might be single lines, pairs of lines, or stanzas (as in Psalm 119).  This can

only be seen in the original Hebrew text.AlliterationThis is the repetition of the same initial sounds of adjacent or nearby words, and is used for narrative effect.  This is a literary device that can really only be seen or heard in the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages of the Bible.  In English, an example would be “alliteration attracts attention.”AllusionThis is an indirect reference to something else.  The person, thing, or event being alluded to is understood from a personal or cultural context or knowledge.• John 8:58, "Jesus said to them, “Most assuredly, I say to

you, before Abraham was, I AM.”Many people and events from the Bible have become allusions in the English language, such as when we refer to someone as being a “good Samaritan,” or having “the patience of Job,” or “the wisdom of Solomon,” or even having an unhealthy desire for something that is a “forbidden fruit.”AnthropomorphismThis is a type of personification that ascribes human characteristics (such as human actions, emotions, or physical attributes) to God.  This projection of human characteristics onto God was done in order to make Him more understandable to us.  It is the language of appearance, of describing God in human terms.• Genesis 6:6, "And the Lord was sorry that He had made

man on the earth, and He was grieved in His heart."ApostropheThis is an indirect type of personification, where the speaker addresses an inanimate object, or himself or herself, or others who cannot or do not respond to the statement or question.• Psalm 43:5, "Why are you cast down, O my soul? And why

are you disquieted within me?"• Isaiah 44:23, "Sing, O heavens, for the Lord has done it.

Shout, you lower parts of the earth, break forth into singing, you mountains, O forest, and every tree in it!"

AssonanceThis is the repetition of the same internal sounds of adjacent or nearby words, and is used for narrative effect.  This is a literary device that can really only be seen or heard in the original languages of the Bible.  In English, an example of this would be “conceive it, perceive it, believe it, achieve it.”ChiasmusThis is a figure of speech in which two or more clauses are related to each other through the reversal of the lines of a poetic structure in order to make a larger point.  The two clauses display inverted parallelism.• Isaiah 6:10, "Make the heart of this people dull, and their

ears heavy, and shut their eyes; Lest they see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and understand with their heart, and return and be healed.”

HyperboleThis is a use of exaggeration for emphasis or rhetorical effect.• II Chronicles 1:15, "Also the king made silver and gold as

common in Jerusalem as stones."• Mark 9:43, "If your hand causes you to sin, cut it off.  It is

better for you to enter into life maimed, rather than having two hands, to go to hell, into the fire that shall never be quenched."

• John 12:19, "The Pharisees therefore said among themselves, “You see that you are accomplishing nothing. Look, the world has gone after Him!”

Idiom This is a figure of speech or an expression that is peculiar to a particular language, and in and of itself cannot be understood from the individual meanings of its component words taken separately.  Examples in English would be “to pay through the nose,” “break a leg,” and “a bee in your bonnet.”• Matthew 23:24, "Blind guides, who strain out a gnat and

swallow a camel!"ImageryThis is the use of vivid or figurative language to represent objects, actions, or ideas.    

• Revelation 12:1, "Now a great sign appeared in heaven: a woman clothed with the sun, with the moon under her feet, and on her head a garland of twelve stars."

This imagery is reminiscent of Joseph’s dream of the sun, moon, and stars in Genesis 37:9.MerismThis is a listing of opposite parts to signify a whole or a totality.  For example, the division of “night/day” and “darkness/noonday” in the Psalm below means “all the time.”• Psalm 91:5-6, "You shall not be afraid of the terror by night,

nor of the arrow that flies by day, nor of the pestilence that walks in darkness, nor of the destruction that lays waste at noonday."

Metaphor            This is a figure of speech in which a comparison is made between two seemingly unlike things.• James 3:6, "And the tongue is a fire, a world of iniquity."MetonymyThis is a type of metaphor in which something (either concrete or conceptual) is not identified by its own name, but by a name of something closely identified or associated with it, as in calling a business executive “a suit.”• Leviticus 26:6, "I will give peace in the land, and you shall

lie down, and none will make you afraid; I will rid the land of evil beasts, and the sword will not go through your land."

• Revelation 1:18, "And I have the keys of Hades and of Death."

ParadoxThis is a statement that seems to be illogical or contradictory on the surface, but in actually conveys a deeper truth.• Matthew 16:25, "For whoever desires to save his life will

lose it, but whoever loses his life for My sake will find it."

ParallelismThis is a figure of speech in which two or more clauses are related to each other through the lines of a poetic structure in order to make a larger point.

• Matthew 7:7-8, "Ask, and it will be given to you; seek, and you will find; knock, and it will be opened to you. For everyone who asks receives, and he who seeks finds, and to him who knocks it will be opened."

PersonificationThis is the attribution of human characteristics to non-human objects (usually the divine, inanimate things, or abstract ideas), and is done as a rhetorical device.• Psalm 77:16, "The waters saw You, O God; The waters saw

You, they were afraid; The depths also trembled."• Proverbs 1:20-21, "Wisdom calls aloud outside; She raises

her voice in the open squares. She cries out in the chief concourses at the openings of the gates in the city she speaks her words."

SimileThis is a figure of speech in which a comparison is made between two seemingly unlike things things using “like” or “as.”• Matthew 28:3, "His countenance was like lightning, and his

clothing as white as snow."SymbolismThis is the use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities, giving meaning or character to something.• Revelation 13:1, "Then I stood on the sand of the sea. And I

saw a beast rising up out of the sea, having seven heads and ten horns, and on his horns ten crowns, and on his heads a blasphemous name."

SynecdocheThis is a figure of speech in which: a part is used to represent the whole, or the whole for a part, or the specific for the general, or the general for the specific.• II Kings 8:9, "So Hazael went to meet him and took a

present with him, of every good thing of Damascus, forty camel-loads."

• Ephesians 6:12, "For we do not wrestle against flesh and blood."

TypeThis is a literary foreshadowing, where one person or thing serves as a metaphorical prefigure (type) of another that is

to come later.  In the Bible, this is a person or thing (as is found in the Old Testament) prefiguring another person or thing (as is found in the New Testament).  For example, the bronze snake pole that the people looked to serves as a type, or prefiguring, of the Cross.• Numbers 21:9, "So Moses made a bronze serpent, and put

it on a pole; and so it was, if a serpent had bitten anyone, when he looked at the bronze serpent, he lived."

• John 3:14-15, "And as Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must the Son of Man be lifted up, that whoever believes in Him should not perish but have eternal life."

WordplayThis is the witty use of the meanings and ambiguities of words.  Biblical writers made plays on word meanings that can only be seen in the original languages.• Matthew 16:18, "And I also say to you that you are Peter,

and on this rock I will build My church, and the gates of Hades shall not prevail against it." [Petros, the word for “Peter,” means “a small rock, stone, or pebble”; petra, the word for “rock” here, means “a large rock.”]

• Philemon 1:10-11, "I appeal to you for my son Onesimus, whom I have begotten while in my chains, who once was unprofitable to you, but now is profitable to you and to me." [Onesimus means “profitable or useful.”]

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This article was initially inspired by my three children, and it turned into an issue of my "Family Matters" newsletter.Here's the original opening, before moving into the main section of the article, which begins with the section "Acrostic":             There is an incredible array of varying literary means and methods used by God in His Word to convey what He wanted to reveal to us.  One may wonder, “Why did God use so many different techniques and styles in the Bible?  Wouldn’t it have been easier, or even better, to use just one

straightforward way of writing to get across His message?”.            The simple answer to that is that God delights in using His children.  He delights in the talents and gifts He has given to us, and in our using them.  That even comes down to the way the many human writers of the Bible expressed themselves when inspired by the Holy Spirit to write what God would have them write.            If you think of it on a human level, parents delight in the things their children do.  My three kids have always loved words.  When they were very young, they unwittingly brought a great amount of joy to their parents’ ears by the things they said.            Stewart, when he was very, very young, was always told to give everyone  “a kiss and a cuddle” before he was put in his bed.  We were at my Mum & Dad’s house one time, and he was told to “Give everyone a…”.  And before I could finish my sentence, he said, “…kissle”.  He combined the two key words from “a kiss and a cuddle” into one nice, new wee word.             Alasdair once told us all he knew about World War II.  He was very enthusiastic and animated as he creatively expounded all his knowledge and research to us.  He even rightly identified Hitler the “Nazi German” as being the “Nasty Vermin”.             As for Kirstie, when we lived in Miami, we would often take a wee holiday up to Orlando to visit my sister.  One time, as we were about to leave my sister’s house, Alasdair told Kirstie that, “We have to go back to Miami now”.  She responded, “Alasdair, it’s not your Ami, it’s Daddy’s Ami!”.  She thought that when I said “Miami”, I was saying “My Ami”.  In her mind, “Ami” was the place where we lived, and it belonged to Daddy.  She was also a bit surprised to later discover that when we visited my sister, the place didn’t really belong to us, as it wasn’t “Our Lando”…            These are all nice ways in which my children have played with language.  And I love that.  Just as God delights in His children.            As I too love to play around with words, one of my favorite literary techniques is a type of figure of speech

called “chiasmus”.  Chiasmus is defined as, “A reversal in the order of words in two parallel phrases; a crosswise arrangement of concepts or words that are repeated in reverse order”.            Often it’s better to see what something is rather than to be told what it is, so here’s an example: “Never let a fool kiss you,or a kiss fool you.”             You’ve probably noticed them before without realizing what they are, as chiastic phrases are everywhere--  especially in the world of advertising.  For instance, when a major computer company put out a revolutionary new computer system, their slogan was: “Simply Amazing.Amazingly Simple.”             And for something close to my heart, a famous motorcycle company’s slogan once was: “Live to Ride.Ride to Live.”             Many examples of chiasmus can be found in literature, and many have to do with life, the nature of true love, and the dynamics of the family.  Here are just a few examples of that: “You can give without loving,but you cannot love without giving.”~Amy Carmichael “Home is where the great are small,and the small are great.”~Anonymous “Direct your efforts more to preparing the youth for the path,

and less to preparing the path for the youth.” ~Ben Lindsey “People don’t care how much you knowuntil they know how much you care.”   ~Anonymous             Examples of chiasmus can even be found in the Bible--  they’re everywhere in God’s Word, actually.  Biblical writers used chiasmus to add emphasis to their writings, to highlight details of particular importance.  Here’s an example of that, from the earliest use, in Genesis 9v6: “Whoever sheds man’s blood,By man his blood shall be shed;”             Jesus Himself also used chiasmus in Matthew 19v30: “But many who are first will be last,and the last first.”             Chiasmus is just one of the many, many literary techniques found in the Bible.  These techniques help to make God’s Word become even more memorable.             Here are some of the more commonly used literary devices found in Scripture:

1) inclusio:  also known as bracketing or parenthetical inclusion    "This is my beloved Son" Matthew 3:17 with Matthew 17:52) parallelism: used extensively in the Psalms : my soul thirsts for you; my flesh faints for you (Ps 63:1)3) allusions: "have you not read..." (Matt 19:4 to Gen 1:27)

Literary Features

Chiasm: Saying things forwards and backwardsChiasm (the adjective is "chiastic") is the arrangement of elements (e.g. of a text) in the form of mirror-like reflection: ABba or abcd*DCBA. Since we became aware of how much biblical authors like to arrange texts in patterns we have discovered many examples of chiasm. These are both large scale (where the echoed element is a phrase, sentence or idea), and small scale (where it is words or sounds that are echoed in the Hebrew text). E.g. Am 5:4-6a:For thus says the LORD to the house of Israel:   "Seek me and live;                      a     but do not seek Bethel,                 b       and do not enter into Gilgal            c         or cross over to Beer-sheba;          *       Gilgal will surely go into exile,        C     and Bethel shall come to nought." B   Seek the LORD and live,               Alest he break out like fire in the house of Joseph,    and it devour, with none to quench it for Bethel.

Is 1.21-26 provides an example on a larger scale:21      See how the faithful city         has become a harlot!        She once was full of justice;         righteousness used to dwell in her-         but now murderers!22      Your silver has become dross,         your choice wine is diluted with water.23      Your rulers are rebels,          companions of thieves;

        they all love bribes          and chase after gifts.        They do not defend the cause of the fatherless;          the widow's case does not come before them.24      Therefore the Lord, the LORD Almighty,          the Mighty One of Israel declares:        "Ah, I will get relief from my foes          and avenge myself on my enemies.25       I will turn my hand against you;           I will thoroughly purge away your dross          and remove all your impurities.26       I will restore your judges as in days of old,          your counselors as at the beginning.         Afterwards you will be called          the City of Righteousness,          the Faithful City."

V. 26b echoes v. 21, vv. 25-26a echo 22-23 and v. 24 is the hinge upon which the thought turns, thus this verbal structuring device also indicates the message, which speaks of reversal.

Cohesion: How text sticks togetherIn our everyday reading we seldom need to think about what "sticks the text together". Our everyday texts have one author and reach us in a final polished form. If they are formal printed texts they have even had the small errors and confusions ironed out by professional editors. With most biblical texts however none of these things can be assumed. Many of the texts we have in the Bible are the product of a tradition, with pieces added at different

times. For example, it is unlikely that Amos had the leisure to compose a book (see the story about him 7:10-17 for a hint about his lifestyle). Most likely friends or disciples were the first to remember, then write down his preaching. It is also likely that as time passed other generations of disciples added to the collection, and that their additions were filtered through the concerns of their time.Reading such a text we cannot assume cohesion. So, we need to ask: is this passage / book cohesive, and if so how?Cohesion can be produced by two sorts of textual feature: (i) structure and (ii) meaning.•Structural cohesion is also of two different sorts.

The conventional nature of the forms of particular genres of text produce cohesion. For example, judgment oracles usually contain an accusation linked to a judgment. So, if a passage contains a message of judgment follows one which accuses, the text will be read as cohesive.

Links can be made within a text by the words used. Words which refer back ("anaphoresis") or forwards ("cataphoresis") - we know who "I" is in Am 2:9 because of the phrase Am 2:6 "Thus says Adonai"; likewise the "thus" can only be understood because of what follows. Conjunctions and words that make logical connections also link two parts of a text.

•Semantic cohesion is produced by the presence of unifying themes or recurring motifs within a text, and also by repetition of other kinds (words, roots, even reversals).

Although cohesion helps coherence however, it does not necessarily produce it.

Coherence: Sense or nonsenseA coherent text makes sense. Its parts work together and produce an effect on the reader. An incoherent text does not work (except in the extreme case of nonsense poetry.) To be coherent a text must be cohesive, but this is not enough alone. The following imaginary example is cohesive but not coherent:"The cat sat on the mat but mats are made of straw. Cat has three letters and this letter came from Mary. His letter is green, however, mat has three letters."Coherence implies relevance and meaning too.

Irony: Saying What You Don't Mean & Meaning What You Didn't Say!Irony is a form of speech where the surface meaning is different from that intended by writer or speaker. So text that criticizes or makes fun of something or someone while seeming to speak positively of them is ironic (e.g. Am 4:4-5).Irony is the opposition between the overt sense of the words of the text and the intended meaning (or in the case of what is called "dramatic irony" between what a character believes and the narrative reality).This means that a reader who "misses it" will misunderstand an ironic text totally!One definition of irony makes this clear: a text is ironic if the evident meaning of the words is absurd

(but not because metaphoric language is in use), and if, at the same time, the reverse of this evident meaning makes sense.Other indications are also sometimes present in the text. E.g. Jer 9:17-18:17  Thus says the LORD of hosts:         "Consider, and call for the mourning women to come;                 send for the skillful women to come;18  let them make haste and raise a wailing over us,                 that our eyes may run down with tears,                         and our eyelids gush with water.Here the ironic intent is signaled by the repetition and verbose style which slow the reader, whilst the text demands that the women addressed "make haste"!Irony tending towards sarcasm is frequent in the prophets (e.g. Am 4:1ff.) as it is in the debates in the book of Job (e.g. Job 12:2). In general the function of a biblical book will indicate whether irony is likely to be common. Thus, while common in Prophets, it is rare in Psalms, whose goal is worship not polemic.Sometimes, irony is overtly indicated, Mic 2:6 provides a brief example:"`Do not preach' -- thus they preach -- `one should not preach of such things; disgrace will not overtake us.'"The use of the same word for the activity they wish to forbid and for their act of forbidding it makes the real sense clear.

Parallelism in Hebrew PoetryEven a simple reading of Hebrew poetry in translation makes us aware of parallelism - pairs of

lines which in some way seem to echo each other. Within Ps 2:1-5 for example there is a kind of "thought rhyme" as the lines echo and repeat.The Rabbis noticed this in the middle ages and Bishop Robert Lowth, in 1753, published his De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum Praelectiones Academicae which marks the beginning of widespread and systematic analysis of this phenomenon.Following Lowth it has been conventional to distinguish three major sorts of relation between the lines: synonymic, antithetic and synthetic -synonymic seen in Ps 2:1-5;antithetic in Ps 2:12 but better in Prov 10.1 (this form is especially common in Proverbs);synthetic is where the thought simply progresses Ps 2:6-7 - only a similarity of line length produces parallelism.Recently it has become popular to distinguish many more relationships between lines some of which differ only slightly, and also to recognize grammatical as well as semantic repetitions. This leads to suggestions ranging from the non-existence of Hebrew Poetry to various clarifications and extensions of the idea of parallelism.Where the relationship is generally synonymic the second line, usually at least, seems to add something to the first -clarification: vv. 1 & 2; sometimes the clarification is in greater precision: v. 4 (the "one enthroned in heaven" is the LORD, his name is used in the second line, but only a description in the first);progression is added in v. 3: the bonds are first broken, then thrown off;intensification is also seen in v. 4: "laughing" is a

word which can seem almost playful, scoffing carries rather the idea of scorn and derision.Parallelism is much more widespread than merely correspondence of meaning, and includes correspondence of "grammatical construction". The effect of parallelism in Hebrew poetry is the cumulation of different kinds of correspondence, predominantly of meaning (semantics) and construction (syntax) but also of grammar, form (morphology) and sound (phonology).

Puns and Word Play in Hebrew ProphecyHebrew prophets loved puns and all kinds of word play.Amos 9:14 at the climax of the book provides an example: בּות ת־ְׁש� י ֶא� ִּת� ב� ְׁש ,( ש ) the repetition of shin ְו�beth ( ב ) and tau ( ת ) in the phrase "I will return the exiles..." is reinforced a few words later: בּו ָׁש� ָי� ּמֹות ְו� ָׁש ְנ�("ruined ones and inhabit them"). Each of the words in this alliterative play is from a different root, yet the sounds make an enjoyable pattern. In this case the function seems esthetic.Puns could serve a much more serious purpose as well. At times, they stimulated the prophet's messages. In Am 8:1-2 the prophet is shown a basket of "summer fruit" ִיץ This prompts the message .ָק�from Adonai ץ ...the end" is coming" ָק�

RepetitionRepetition is an omnipresent linguistic phenomenon, often complex in its use and effects.

Within a particular text repeating a word, expression, root or even idea can produce strong effects on the reader. Amos repeatedly speaks of "citadels" in the early chapters. During the oracles against the nations (1:3-2:16) in each case - except Israel - the punishment of fire falls on their "citadels". This establishes a negative connotation for the word, linking it to punishment and foreign oppression. When it recurs at 3:9 this seems confirmed since the "citadels" belong to Philistia and Egypt! However, the use in vv.10-11 reminds that their own citadels are guilty and will therefore be punished.Literary repetition can also be external to the text in question. When one biblical book quotes or refers to another this can be experienced as external repetition. So, quotation, echo and allusion are in a way forms of repetition though external to a particular text (though of course internal to a particular canon). Intertextuality is another way of referring to these effects.Repetition can also be either at the formal (e.g. where words are repeated) or semantic levels (where a synonym provides the repetition).Many kinds of repetition are important to biblical texts. Indeed repetition is fundamental in several ways to biblical poetics and narrative.David Yellin gives several examples from the first chapter of Isaiah, among them:

 noun phrases v.4 nouns v.6 verbs

 v.16

In this case it is the accumulation of synonymic expressions that creates the effect and in combination with the effect of parallelism also beautifies the text.Rhythm, rhyme, assonance and alliteration are all formal repetitive effects. The place of rhythm in the strict sense poses highly technical problems for discussion of Hebrew poetry, however the effects of rhythm in a broader sense are evident even in prose.Parallelism is also a kind of repetition.

Sarcastic SpeechThe Hebrew prophets did not often use gentle words towards those they opposed. Rather their speech is not infrequently contemptuous, and irony often moved over into sarcasm.Amos' likening the elite women of the Northern capital to "cows of Bashan", however prized such sleek, well-fed cattle were at the slaughterhouse, was hardly polite (Am 4:1). Nor does his promise to Amaziah: "Your wife shall whore in the city!", (Am 7:17) show the respect and courtesy due to a senior clergyman!

Anadiplosis DefinitionThe term anadiplosis is a Greek word which means “to reduplicate”. It refers to the repetition of a word or words in successive clauses in such a way that the second clause starts with the same word which marks the end of the previous clause.

Anadiplosis exhibits a typical pattern of repeating a word. For example, the repetition of the word “give” in the sentence “When I give, I give myself.” is termed anadiplosis as it occurs at the end of the first clause and marks the beginning of the following clause.Similarly, notice how the use of anadiplosis repeats in its typical fashion the word “reliability” to highlight the main point of the sentence “This public school has a record of extraordinary reliability, a reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city.”

Anadiplosis and ChiasmusIt is important to note that anadiplosis is part of another figure of speech chiasmus. However, every anadiplosis does not necessarily reverse its structure like it is done in chiasmus. For instance, “Forget what you want to remember, and remember what you want to forget,” is an example of chiasmus (as it involves a reversal of structure in the second clause) and anadiplosis as word “remember” marks the end of one clause and the start of the subsequent clause.Anadiplosis does not always employ a reversal of structure as in the sentence “The land of my fathers and my fathers can have it.” It is an example of anadiplosis involving a typical repetition of the word “my father” but, unlike chiasmus, the structure of the final clause is not reversed.

Anadiplosis Examples in LiteratureWriters employ anadiplosis in their literary texts to

produce special stylistic effects such as decorating texts by means of its typical repetitive pattern and laying emphasis on an important point. Let us have a look at a few examples of this stylistic device from literature:Example #1From The Bible,“……… you must make every effort to support your faith with goodness, and goodness with knowledge, and knowledge with self-control, and self-control with endurance, and endurance with godliness, and godliness with mutual affection, and mutual affection with love” ( The Bible, II Peter 1:5 – 7)In this verse, one is able to see how all the mentioned qualities are connected to each other with the use of anadiplosis.

Example #2From John Milton’s Lycidas,“For Lycidas is dead, dead ere his prime,Young Lycidas and hath not left his peer.”Here the word “dead” has been repeated to put emphasis on the death of Lycidas. Milton often used anadiplosis in his other works to convince or persuade his readers. The word “dead” serves the same purpose in these lines of Lycidas.Example #3From Vladimir Nabokov’s Lolita,“What I present here is what I remember of the letter,

and what I remember of the letter I remember verbatim (including that awful French).”Just observe the beautiful use of a phrase “what I remember of the letter” as an anadiplosis. The writer clearly wants his readers to focus on what he is saying and repeating in these words. The message is further enhanced by the use of the word “verbatim”.Example #4Francis Bacon wrote,“He retained his virtues amidst all his – misfortunes — misfortunes which no prudence could foresee or prevent.”He has used “misfortune” twice to bring home to his readers the main idea he is discussing which is that misfortune is always unpredictable.Example #5From The Isles of Greece by Lord Byron,“The mountains look on Marathon – And Marathon looks on the sea…”This is a good use of anadiplosis by Lord Byron in his poem The Isles of Greece. Here, he has stressed Marathon and repeated it to make it significant in the poem.Example #6From the movie Gladiator,“The general who became a slave. The slave who became a gladiator. The gladiator who defied an emperor. Striking story!”This is the dialogue from the famous movie Gladiator (2000) in which a general is sold as a slave who then

had to work as a gladiator to make himself known in the arena and then defy the emperor. Look at the effects produced by the anadiplosis.

Function of AnadiplosisIt repeats a word in quick succession in successive clauses in order to add emphasis to the main idea, as readers tend to focus more on the repetition of words and thereby on the idea emphasized upon. Anadiplosis also serves to decorate a piece of writing or a speech. Often, CEOs and modern executives are fond of using it to make their suggestions and commands effective.

List of Simile Examples in the Bible• Judges 6:5They came up with their livestock and their tents likeswarms of locusts.Like other uses of simile, this example of simile functions as a visual example.• 1 Thessalonians 5:2For you yourselves know full well that the day of the Lord will come just like a thief in the night.The day of the Lord, the day of reckoning, or judgement day, will come “like a thief in the night,” that is, unexpectedly and at a time that no one is or can ever be aware of.• Matt. 13:44The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a

field.In this example, heaven is compared to a hidden treasure. This comparison carries with it a connotation that heaven is very valuable, but hard to find, just like buried treasure.• Matt. 28:3His appearance was like lightning and his clothes were white as snowHere is a very visual example that illustrates the ability for a simile to impart a vivid description. The author is describing a risen Christ. The author’s imagery is striking in the most literal sense.• Matt. 23:27Woe to you, teachers of the law and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You are like whitewashed tombs, which look beautiful on the outside but on the inside are full of dead men’s bones and everything unclean.In this example we have another visually stimulating comparison that delivers deep meaning as well. The Pharisees, a religious caste, are condemned as being hypocritical and compared to a building that looks nice on the outside, but contains filth.• Matt. 13:52Every teacher of the law who has become a disciple of the kingdom of heaven is likethe owner of a house.In this example, “teachers of the law,” (philosophers, religious, leaders, etc.) are compared to an owner of a house. Like the owner of a house, they have authority over the law they create.• Proverbs 10:26

Like vinegar to the teeth and smoke to the eyes, so is the lazy one to those who send him.This example provides more than just a visual comparison, but a tangible comparison. We can feel these descriptions. Like the harsh taste of vinegar, or the sting of smoke in one’s eyes, we become aware of the author’s opinion of the lazy through these similes.

• Proverbs 25:11A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver.Here is a short proverb about the value of well-spoken words. They are compared to golden apples in containers made of silver.• Matt 10:16Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves: be ye therefore wise as serpents, and harmless as doves.The writer speaks to his audience comparing them to sheep among wolves, conveying the danger they face, and compelling them to be both wise and peaceful, using two symbols of wisdom and peace, the snake and the dove.• Rev. 1:14His head and hair were white like wool, as white a snow, and his eyes were like burning fire.In our last example, there was not only one simile, but three. Groups of three are common in The Bible, and the use of simile is often present in threes. In this

example, we have a prophetic vision for the book of Revelations. The prophet here is relaying a vision of Christ in heaven.• Song of Solomon 2:3As the apple tree among the trees of the wood, so is my beloved among the sons.Here we have a verse that is a part of an extensive dialogue between lovers. Also, another comparison is made to fruit to convey the speaker’s appreciation for their object of affection.• Ps 102:6I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the desert.This verse is a prayer to God. In it, the speaker compares himself to lone, solitary creatures, emphasizing his loneliness before God.• 1 Peter 1:2All flesh is as grass, and all the glory thereof as the flower of grass.In this simile, the flesh, or our humanity is compared to grass, and the glory of God is compared to a flower of the grass, in that God’s glory is more beautiful than that of man.• Ps 131:2Surely I have behaved and quieted myself, as a child that is weaned of his mother: my soul is even as a weaned child.Here is a very common comparison you will see in The Bible. Speakers often compare their nature to that of a child.

• Isaiah 1:9Except the Lord of hosts had left unto us a very small remnant, we should have been as Sodom, and we should have been like unto Gomorrah.In this example, the speaker is suggesting that he and others should have been destroyed completely like the cities Sodom and Gomorrah.

ConclusionIn each of these examples of simile from The Bible, the writers are able to impart vivid imagery and convey deeper meaning to the comparisons they make. By using simile, the authors add depth to their subject matter and anchor abstract ideas with comparisons that provide a reference point for our senses. These examples should give you a good idea of how simile is used in any text, but more specifically, how simile is used in The Bible to enhance parables, descriptions, commands, and prophecy.

You write that the literary form of motif in the Bible is the most difficult to pin down. What do you mean?Dr. Ryken: The difficulty posed by the word motif is that it is so broad. I did not want to omit entries that are genuinely helpful (such as quest motif), but neither did I want to include items that are not really literary (such as “the providential motif in the story of Joseph“). The word motif is used in such a broad range of contexts that I could not allow the mere appearance of that word to count as a reason to include something.How does the Bible show versus tell?

Dr. Ryken: The moment I saw an entry for “showing versus telling” in a handbook of literary terms, I knew that I wanted to include it in my handbook. The concept is basic to a literary approach to composition and texts, and it is a cliché in writing courses. To “show” means to embody or incarnate in concrete form—in a story about characters performing actions in a specific setting, for example, or a poet reflecting on a topic with images and figures of speech. To “tell” means to state truth propositionally, abstractly, and by means of summary instead of enactment. “You shall not murder” is “telling;” the story of Cain embodies (“shows”) that same truth, without using the abstraction murder and without telling us to refrain from it. “Showing” is a touchstone for regarding a given text as being literary, and by this criterion at least eighty percent of the Bible can be labeled literary.Why should readers not be surprised that the Bible contains parody, sarcasm, and satire?Dr. Ryken: Let me first answer the question of why I think most readers of the Bible are surprised by the presence of certain genres in the Bible. The Bible is a serious book that aims to impart spiritual and moral edification. Additionally, most people read only parts of the Bible. It is easy to come to view the Bible as a “nice” book where nearly everything is refined in taste. Certain genres and the literary technique known as realism do not fit this standard of refinement. Name calling (vituperation), ridicule (as in satire), and the realistic portrayal of sex and violence are something that most Bible readers do not expect to find in the Bible.But you ask why readers should not be surprised by

parody, sarcasm, and satire. Upon reflection, I would say that we should not be surprised by any of the forms that we find in the Bible because the Bible is so thoroughly literary. In composing my handbook I was continually amazed by the literary sophistication of the biblical authors. That sophistication is demonstrably present in the Bible. How the writers became so literary and rhetorical in their composition is something that I cannot explain.What is the danger of quoting or memorizing a Bible verse without consideration of its literary form?Dr. Ryken: One way to get at an answer to this question is the following: I have sometimes been surprised at how thoroughly students who engage in oral interpretation as an event at speech contests are expected to research literary criticism of the text that they recite. The same thing is true of actors who perform a Shakespearean play. They do not just memorize the lines; they study the plays and familiarize themselves with literary criticism of the play being performed. From this I draw the conclusion that in order for Bible memorization and quotation to be fully meaningful and correct, a person needs to know as much about a passage as possible. This includes knowing something about the form. In our circles we are familiar with the caution “don’t quote a text without knowing the context;” a good counterpart might be “don’t quote or memorize a passage without knowing its literary form.”One of your book’s entries is “Unity of Text,” where you write, “No principle of literary analysis is more important to grasp than the unity of story, poem, or other text.” Unpack

that.Dr. Ryken: A great weakness of biblical scholarship and Bible commentaries is that they are too atomistic. It is as though a biblical text is a collection of details rather than a coherent whole. Additionally, when biblical scholars and preachers assert a unifying core for a passage, it is usually a concept rather than a literary form. I tell my students that storytellers do not have a thesis to prove but a story to tell. The unity of a story or poem is a literary unity, not a concept or proposition. My career in the literary study of the Bible is nearing half a century now, and as my students and readers of my books provide feedback on what they have learned from me, probably no theme has been more constant than that my literary approach has shown them how to discern the unity of a passage.Bio: Leland Ryken (PhD, University of Oregon) served as professor of English at Wheaton College for over 43 years. He has authored or edited over three dozen books, including The Word of God in English and The Complete Literary Guide to the Bible. He is a frequent speaker at the Evangelical Theological Society and served as literary stylist for the English Standard Version Bible.