Literary Traditions in India
Classification of literature in ancient India
Purpose Style Core theme
Evolution of literature in Ancient India
• 1500 - 600 BC - Vedic literature in oral form • 600 - 300 BC
– Vedangas– Panini’s Astadhyayayi– Buddhist literature in Pali language - Pitakas– Jaina literature in Prakrit language – Greek accounts of Achaemenids and Alexander
Evolution of literature in Ancient India
(Herodotus)• Mauryan Age - Greek literature - Megasthenes Indica
– Political literature - Arthashastra– Buddhist literature – Abhidamma Pitaka
Evolution of literature in Ancient India
• Post Mauryan Age – Smriti (Manusmriti) ü Epicsü Scientific literature
Ø Charak samhita (Medicine)Ø Sushruta samhita (Surgery)
ü Sangam literature in South India• Gupta and Post Gupta Period – Smriti (more additions)
§ Puranas§ Philosophical literature§ Scientific literature
§ Aryabhatta§ Varahmir
§ Plays§ Biographies § Law Books
Vedic literature • Veda : vid to know• Veda : revealed by Gods, apaurusheya, Shruti literature• Role of Brahmana priests in carrying forward the Shruti
traditions through the Smriti traditions• Passing over the corpus of literature to the next
generations through Shruti and Smriti traditions
Vedic literature Four Vedas
• Rig Veda – Collection of hymns to be recited during rituals – Divided into ten mandalas (2nd - 7th - oldest)
• Yajur Veda – Book of sacrificial prayers – Prescribes rituals for different sacrifices– Book for Adhvarus
Vedic literature• Sama Veda
– Contains rhythmic compilation of hymns of Rig Veda– Also has hymns for soma sacrifice to be sung by ‘Udgatris’
• Atharva Veda– Collection of popular beliefs, superstitions and magic spells
of the folks – Earlier not considered part of Vedas – Mundaka Upanishad part of Atharva Veda
Vedic literature Subdivisions of Vedas
• Samhitas– Contains mantras and benedictions without meaning
and sounds • Brahmanas– Explain the symbolism and meaning of samhitas– Also contain scientific knowledge - Astronomy,
Geometry, Architecture – Some Brahmanas also contain mystical and
philosophical material
Vedic literature • Aranyakas
– Written as forest books containing philosophical elementsand mysticism
– Emphasis on meditation and moral values– Bridge between Brahmanas and Upanishads– Details of life of forest dwellers
• Upanishads– Philosophical speculations emphasising upon spirituality– Discussions between Teacher and pupil– Known as ‘Vedanta’
Vedic literature Upanishadic philosophy • Philosophical exposition related to earthly existence, creation,
meaning of rituals
Brahma • The ultimate reality, God, Creator and originator • Universal pantheism • Saguna and Nirguna Brahma
Atma (Soul)• Ultimate reality within an individual • Immortal, Imperishable, Permanent• Yagnyavalkya and Maitri - Atma identified with Brahma
Vedic literatureMoksha• Realisation of unity of Atma with Brahma ‘Brahma-Atma
Aikyam’• Shankaracharya Advaita Vedanta - ‘Aham Brahmasmi’• Emphasis on ‘Gyan Marga’ for moksha• Early Upanishads emphasis on performance of rituals for
moksha• Later Upanishads Katho Upanishad for meditation and
contemplation for realisation of Brahma
Vedic literature Doctrine of Karma• Brihadranayaka Upanishad • Desire - Will - Karma - Destiny• Legitimised existing social hierarchy
Maya (Illusion)• World as Maya• As creation of Brahma
“Upanishads as epitome of Vedic knowledge”
Vedic literature Shruti and Smriti literature• Shruti– “that which has been heard” and is canonical– revelation and unquestionable truth, and is eternal– Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, & Upanishads
• Smriti– “that which is remembered, supplementary and may
change over time”. – entire body of the post Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature– comprises Vedanga,, Puranas,, Upveda etc
Vedic literature Upveda
applied knowledge and are traditional literatures which contain thesubjects of certain technical works
• Arthaveda: Deals in sociology and economics and associatedwith the Rigveda
• Dhanurveda: Deals in Archery and associated with theYajurveda
• Gāndharvaveda: Deals with Music and Dance and associatedwith the Samaveda
• Ayurveda: Deals with medicine and associated with theAtharvaveda
Vedic literature
• Vedangas– six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and
understanding of the Vedas.– Shiksha (Phonetics)– Kalpa (Ritual Canon)– Vyakaran (Grammar)– Nirukta (explanation)– Chhanda (Vedic meter) – Jyotisha (Astrology)
Vedic literature Sutras• Condensed format of Vedic knowledge
Kalpa• Applied science of Vedas • Srauta sutra - Rules for performance of public rituals • Sulva sutra - Construction of fire altars • Grihya sutra - Domestic rituals for the dvij householder• Dharma sutra - Duties and responsibilities of various varnas
The Epics• Long narrative poems • Ramayana - Maharishi Valmiki
– consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (Kandas) and 500 sargas)
• Mahabharata - Maharishi Vyas – Originally consisting of 24,000 verses,– Later expanded to 1 lakh verses – Divided into total 18 parvas (chapters) – Bhagavad Gita is part of Bhishma Parva of Mahabharata
PURANAS• Main Puranas are 18 encyclopaedic collection of myths and
legend• Dated generally around 4th or fifth century BCE (some later also)• 18 Mahapuranas and 19 Upapuranas• Mahapuranas deal with Vaishnavite and Shaivite traditions • Mahapuranas have five subjects:
– Sarga- the creation of Universe– Pratisarga-the periodical process of destruction and re-
creation– Manvantara-the different eras or cosmic cycles– Vamsha-Solar and Lunar lineages– Vamshanucharita- genealogies of kings
PURANAS• Bhagvat Purana, the most popular (9th century) - Impetus to
Vaishnavite Bhakti tradition • Vaishnavite Puranas - Vishnu Purana, Naarad Purana, Garud
Purana etc• Shaivite Puranas - Linga Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda
Purana, Agni Purana etc• Puranas - a blend of mainstream and folk life • Shudras allowed to study Puranas
Sanskrit works • Panini
– Astadhyayi - Written in in the 6th to 5th century BC by the– set the linguistic standards for Classical Sanskrit.– sums up in 4,000 sutras the science of phonetics and grammar
that had evolved in the Vedic religion
• Patanjali (2nd century BC)– Mahabhasya - Commentary on Astadhyayi– linkage between words and their meaning – Yoag Sutra - Codified knowledge of Yoga
Sanskrit works • Bhasa’s Swapnavasavadatta - the romantic narratives about
the Vatsa king Udayana and Vasavadatta, the daughter ofPradyota, the ruler of Avanti
• Bhavabhuti’s (8 CE) Uttara-Ramacharita - Uttara Kanda oframayana
• Vishnu Sharma’s Panchatantra - collection of interrelatedanimal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose during Gupta period
Sanskrit works Kalidasa’s works • Meghadutam (the Cloud Messenger) • Abhijnanashakuntalam• Vikramoshaiyam• Malavikagnimitram• Kumarasambhava• Raghuvamsham• Ritusamhara
Sangam Texts
Development of literature in Medieval India • Advent of Turks in India - Arabic and Persian literature
• Decline of Sanskrit• Emergence of regional languages
• Sanskrit – Apabhramsha – Regional languages andmodiefied form of Hindi
• Khari Boli – Different dialects of Hindi in North India• Emergence of Hindustani - Amir Khusrau called it Hindawi
Development of literature in Medieval India
Urdu• Synthesis of Khadi Boli and Persian - growth of Urdu• Amir Khusrau 1st to write in Urdu
• Bahmani Kingdom - Dakkhani form of UrduSufi Saint Gesu Daraz’s ‘Miraz – ul - Ashiquin’
• Further development – Sultanate and Lucknow – Ghazal• Climax of Urdu - 18th century
- Mir Rafi Sauda- Mir Taqi Mir-Mirza Ghallib
Persian• Historical accounts
– Al Beruni’s Kitab ul Hind - Encyclopaedic account – Strong inclination towards Indian culture, philosophy, scientific
knowledge – Admired India’s knowledge of astronomy, mathematics
Indian caste system and practices
Development of literature in Medieval India
Persian• Court Historical work
i) Slave Dynasty - Minhaz Siraj - Tabaqat - i Nasiri - Sultan Nasirud Din Mahmud of Delhi and also Muslim rule foundation inBengal
ii) Tughlaq dynasty - Ziauddin Barani - Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, dynastichistory from the reign of Ghiyas ud din Balban - Firoz Shah Tughluq(first 6 years)
- Fatwa-i-Jahandari - Book on political ideals for a Muslim ruler
Development of literature in Medieval India
Author Book Content
1. Hasan Nizami Taj-ul-Mathir History of Ilbari Turks
2. Minhaj-us-Siraj Tabaqat-i-Nasiri History of Sultanate till 1260
3. Amir Khusrau (known as Tutt-i-Hind, Parrot of India)
Qiran-us-SadainMiftah-ul-FutuhAashiqaNuh SiphirTughlaqnamah
About Sultan KaikubadConquests of JalaluddinKhaljiRomance of Khizr Khan & Devala RaniAn account of Mubarakshah KhaljiRise of GhiyasuddinTughlaq
Author Book Content4. Feroz Shah Tughlaq Futuhat-i-Feroz Shahi Autobiography
5. Zia-ud-din Barani Tarikh-i-Feroz ShahiFatwa-i-Jahandari
History of TughlaqDynastyLegal advice on worldly rule
6. Shams-i-Siraj Afif Tarikh-i-Feroz Shahi History of TughlaqDynasty
7. Ibn Batuta Kitab-ul-Rehla An account of Delhi Sultanate
8. Isami Futuh-us-Salatin Bahmani Kingdom
Bhakti literature
• Rise of Vernaculars
• Theme based on devotion• Writings of Female Bhakti Saints-Voice of Dissent• North Indian traditions- Saguna and Nirguna Literature• Ram Bhakti & Krishna Bhakti literature• Sufi literature- Malfujats• Oral traditions
Sufi literature • Persian, Urdu and regional languages • Mystical literarture• Malfujats – sayings or discourse of saints • Makhtubat – letters by Sufi saints to disciples
Literature during the Mughals• Literature of all genres, including Persian, Sanskrit,
Brajabhasha, Avadhi and other regional languages continuedto flourish under he Mughals
• Persian was the language of the court• Many Persian poets from Iran such as Utbi and Naziri moved
to the the Mughal court• Abul Fazl and his brother Faizi were the leading poets• Akbar set up a translation department• Mahabharata was translated under the supervision of Faizi,
Abul Fazl and Badayuni
• Ramayana was translated into Persian by Abdul QadirBadayuni
• Atharvaveda was translated by Haji Sirhindi• Dictionaries of Persian languages were also compiled• Tulsidas a famous Hindi poet wrote Ramacharitamanas• Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan produced a blend of Bhakti
poetry• Akhbarat – Newspaper in Akbar’s court
Famous Books written during the Mughal period
Author Book Content
BaburGulbadan Begum Khwand Mir
Tuzuk-i-Baburi Humayun Nama Qanun-i-Humayuni (Humayun Nama) Tarikh-i-Humayun
Autobiography in Turkic Biography of HumayunAccount of Humayun’sreign
BayazidAbdul Qadir Badayuni
Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh Akbar’s reign
Abul Fazl Akbarnama(in 3 volumes)
vol. I-History of Mughal Royal family from Timurto Humane vol. II-History of Akbar’s Reign
Abul Fazl Akbarnama(in 3 volumes)
upto 1602 vol. III- Ain-i-Akbari – principal source for Akbar’sadministrative institutions continuation of AbulFazl’s Akbarnama till Akbar’s death in 1605
Mulla DaudNizamuddin Ahmed
Tarikh-i-AlfiTabaqat-i-Akbari
History of Akbar’s reign
Jahangir Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri Autobiography of Jahangir in Persian
Mutamid Khan Iqbalnamah-i-Jahangiri History of Jahangir’sreign
Abdul Hamid Lahori Padshahnamah History of Shah Jahan’sreign
Muhammad Waris Padshahnamah History of Shah Jahan’s reign
Inayat Khan Shah Jahan Namah History of Shah Jahan’s reign
Muhammad Salih Shah Jahan Namah History of Shah Jahan’s reign
Aurangzeb Raqqat-i-Alamgiri A collection of his letters
Muhammad Kazim Alamgirnamah History of Aurangzeb’s reign
Khafi Khan Muntakhab-ul-Lubab History of Aurangzeb’sreign
Aqril Khan Zafar Namah-i-Alamgiri History of Aurangzeb’s reign
Muhammad Saq Masir-i-Alamgiri History of Aurangzeb’sreign
Ishwar Das Futuhat-i-Alamgiri History of Aurangzeb’sreign