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· , I ! ) ] J 1 J A LITERATURE REVIEW OF CHILDREN'S WELL-BEING By Liza Costello October 1999
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A
LITERATURE REVIEW
OF
CHILDREN'S WELL-BEING
By
Liza Costello
October 1999
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wlshes to acknowledge all those who gave support and advice in writing this
literature review, especially David Silke and Helen .lohnston of the Combat Poverty Agency
She would also like to thank N6irin Hayes of DIT Rathmines, Veronica Black of Cherish, Kay
Nolan of UNICEF, Margot Doheny of Treoir, Diane Hogan of the Children's Research Centre
and Madeleine Clarke of the Children's Rights Alliance for their contribution in the preparation
of this literature review
SECTION 5: THE ROLE OF SCHOOLS IN PROVIDING FOR
CHILD WELL-BEING
• School Participanon
• New Models of Schooilng
• Suml11Ql)l ofFlIldings and Key Indicators of
Chzldren's Well-Being
SECTION 6: AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH IN IRELAND ON THE SUBJECT OF
CHILDREN'S WELL-BEING
• Ch zldcare
• Income Support
• Leisure and Physical Space
• The Family
• Education
ApPENDIX A: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES
• Section I - Administrative and Quantitative Data
• Section 2 - Qualitative Data
ApPENDIX B: REFERENCES
ApPENDIX C: LIST OF WEB SITES ON THE SUBJECT OF
CHILDREN'S WELL-BEING
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1. INTRODUCTION
"Too often, childhood is seen as simply a prelude to adulthood· children, as rhepopular rheroric now has it, are 'an investment' - as if well·being LI1 the firsr eighreenyears of life is rdvial in irs own righr " (Weissbourd, 1996, P 224)
The concept of children's well-being encompasses a whole range of issues relating to the
personal development of a child, from their physical and mental capacities to their emotional
and psychological state Defining the concept of children's well-being is a complex task,
mainly due to the varying understandings of the term as adopted by different authors on the
subject. In the introductory chapter to the 1996 EuroSocial Report Asher Ben-Arieh noted that,
"rhe well-being of rhe child is composed of both the 'objective' conditions for wellbeing and his or her 'subjecrive' perceptions and experiences ".
Children's Well-Being is a topic broached by many authors, but with a wide variety of
understanding of the word 'well-being'. While some see children's well-being as something
affected by their physical environment, others relate the concept to the emotional needs and
state of the child Many authors refer to the issue of children's well-being with the sole view of
highlighting how factors obstructing their well-being could have negative impacts on the
individual as an adult. In this review however, the concept of children's well-being is defined
as the state of children in terms of their social, psychological, physical and cognitive
development. Particular focus is given to the negative impact of poverty on children's well
being and quality of life. In relation to this, we will explore issues such as educational
disadvantage, the needs of a child coming from a disadvantaged community and the effects of a
low income on the family. Many of the authors of books included in this review highlight the
fact that children have a right to experiencing well-being as much as adults do
For the purpose of this literature review, children are defined as any person under the age of 18.
This is in accordance with the UN Convention of the Rights of the Child The general
consensus is that while those under 18 years of age should be considered children, it is still
necessary to acknowledge th¥ fact that many people under 18 do not regard themselves as
children. The age range of 0-18 is however, very broad and cannot be considered a
homogenous group.
This review is broken into 5 different sections, each of which deals with a specific aspect of a
child's life, and how they relate to hislher sense of well-being. The flISt section looks at the
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child's development from the perinatal stage onwards up to the age of 18 and what defines a I,
baby's sense of well-being This includes identifying a number of indicators of.a baby's level
of well-being such as growth, up to date immunisations, mother heath and behaviour, weight at
binh etc This will be followed by a section on the family, which will examine effects of family
structure, family functioning, relationships within the family and family difficulties (such as
marital breakdown and economic hardship) have on the well-being of the child
We then go on to look at child well-being in tenns of influences outside of the family Firstly,
we explore issues such as space and physical environment; leisure/play; the socialisation
process of forming of friends, cliques, gangs; youth culture and parental control over children's
leisure activities in the development of the child, The role of education in providing for their
cognitive and social well-being and development is then examined, The final section of the
review presents an overview of research carried out in Ireland to date that relates to children's
well-being As an Appendix, we include an exploration of literature wlinen on the subject of
methodologies and measurement issues when researching children,
Finally, it should be noted that although this literature review explored the concept of child
well-being at many different levels, particular emphasis was placed on children coming from
economically disadvantaged backgrounds, and the effect this may have (or not have) on their
experience of well-being, The concept of children's well-being is a relatively new one, having
emerged in recent years. To date, the majority of literature pertaining to the subject has come
from America, While such literature has provided an extremely useful source of information
and data relating to the identification of social indicators of children's well-being, a large
proportion of it is also of limited relevance when placed within an Irish context. For example,
such studies focus on many social phenomena such as geographic mobility and the
ghenoisation of city suburbs, which would not be a primary concem for most Irish children,
There is a need for more research to be carried out on this subject in Ireland, so that we can
assess indicators of child well-being within the specific cultural context of our own country
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2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE WELL-BEING OF THE Ir-..'FANT
This section explores various factors that affect the well-being of the infant, from the peri-natal
stage to age two It is important to focus on the well-being of the infant, as this can have
cT1Jcial bearing on the well-being and development of the child as slhe grows older Aspects of
the infants life relating to his/her well-being include the physical health of the mother during
pregnancy, receipt and quality of child care, the presence of cognitive stimuli and maternal time
use Having identified these key factors, a number of well-being indicators were drawn out and
are detailed in the summary of this section
2,1 Perinatal Factors
In the book, Consequences of Growing Up Poor, Duncan et al note that the most frequently
studied outcomes of income poverty on the pregnant woman and the infant in first year of life
are perinaral outcomes which include factors such as, "timely receipt of prenatal care, mother
smoking during pregnancy, low birth rate and perinatal complications, growth, receipt of
recommended well-baby visits, up to date immunisations" All of the above are described by
the authors as being typical measures of a child's well-being of this stage of his/her life. They
go on to say that receipt of prenatal care, smoking during pregnancy and low birth rate are all
associated with low income (101" birth rate is defmed as weighing under 2,500 grammes and
very low birth rate refers to babies weighing under 1,500 grams at birth). Duncan cites a study
by Klebanov (ibid: 10), in which it was found that some of the long term effects of low birth
weight, which have been found to continue right through until adolescence include low grade
levels, receipt of special education, lower school achievement and behaviour problems. He
went on to state that such effects persist into childhood, even when controlling for other factors
such as education, parental income, etc. Children who suffer from perinatal complications,
such as low birth rate, along with family poverty have been termed a double risk (ibid:lO).
Weissbourd notes in his book, The Vulnerable Child that depressed mothers are more likely to
smoke, drink and abuse dru~s, including during pregnancy, which can be hazardous to the
physical health of the baby. Maternal depression during pregnancy has been linked with low
birth rate. He goes on to say that this also has a negative effect on behaviour problems, somatic
difficulties, learning problems, slow growth, emotional problems and even accidents of very
young children (ibid: 75)
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In the book, Children's Well-Being - GrowTh, DevelopmenT and Learning Jrom Concepllon TO
Adolescence, author John Brierley looks at the development of a child from aB educational
point of view Th,s book includes a description of the development of the embryo and the
growth of the foetus up to birth He describes how rapid brain growth occurs towards the end
of the first six months of pregnancy and slows down at two years This reflects the growth and
branching of nerve cells (with no increase in number) and is a very JenJillve time for the
development of the brain (ibid: 41) He notes that nerve cells are most sensitive to the effects
of the environment during such periods of rapid growth Therefore, environmental influences
such as smoking, alcohol or even toxic materials found in food or water, could negatively affect
the child
2.2 Poverty and Physical Well·Being of the Infant
Chapter 5 of ConJequences of Growing Up Poor, is entitled EfJeets DJ Long Term Poverry On
Physical Health DJ Children In The Narional Longitudinal Survey DJ Yourh, by Sanders
Korenman and Jane E Miller Here, it is noted that the nutritional status in early childhood is
worse when affected by long term rather than single-year poverty measures. This is because
poverty is especially detrimental to children's health and development during prenatal and early
childhood stages (ibid: 71). Korenman and Miller went on to cite a study by Starfield et al
(ibid: 91) in which it was noted that there was a positive link between low birth weight and
long tern) poverty measures. The same study also noted that poor children are less likely to
receive post-natal nutrition associated with normal growth. Furthermore, a link was found
between poverty and the inhibition of motor and social development in the first 3 years of life ..
2.3 Child Care and Family Characteristics
Chapter 6 of Consequences of Growing Up Poor was compiled by the NICHD (National
Institute of child Health and Development) Early Child Care Research Network and is entitled
Poverty and Parterns oJ Child Care. In this study, the Research Network' defme child care in
very broad terms, including both in-home and out-of-home child care.. They describe five•
categories of child care which are as follows. "parents; grandparents; in-home (care in the
child's home by anyone OTher than a parent or grandparent); child care home (care in someone
else's home by anyone other than a parent or grandparent) and child care centre" (ibid: 102).
The study examines the effect of family characteristics on child care and findings suggest that
I The Research Network for this study is a collaborative group for the NlCHD conducting a longitudinal study on
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family characteristics which tended to be associated with poverty (such as members of a
minority ethnic group, low level of maternal education) had Iitlle effect on the quality and
quantity of childcare when parental income was taken into account It also ·found that infants in
small families entered child care earlier and for longer lengths of time than did those of large
families It was suggested that this was due to reliance of larger families on older siblings or
relatives to care for the infant, thus reducing the length of time s/he spends in childcare. Also,
when cared for at home (by relatives and paid carers), infants in small families received "more
frequent positive interactions and more highly rated child care" (ibid: 126) than did those in
larger families Extended families were expected to help, and when an adult relative lived in
the home, children experienced a slightly higher level of non-maternal care,
lA Poverty and Quality of Child Care
The paper, Poverry and Pattems of Child Care explored the relationship between family
poverty and quality and quantity of childcare This was done by focusing on the age of the
child on entering non-maternal care and the socio-economic position of the family,
Infants who entered non-maternal child care centres early and who spent long lengths of time
there from the age of 15 months onwards tended to come from families with a moderately high
income but who experienced transitory poverty and who received public assistance early in the
child's life (probably due to the family's dependency on the mother's income), Infants who
entered childcare between 3 and 5 months came from families with very high incomes, with or
without the mother's income, Infants not in care by 15 months, ~owever, sometimes came
from low income families The mothers of these infants tended to have little formal education
and therefore low earning power, This group also consisted of persistently poor families and
those receiving assistance continuously over a child's life,
The study also found that families who were consistently poor for the duration of the study
were more likely than others to use non-parental care by the time the child was 15 months old
It also found that parents w~o were temporarily poor during the infants early life were most
likely to put their child in non-parental child care centres very early, This suggests that mothers
employment may have lifted these families out of extreme poverty, who may have been in low
income employment and on the margins of poverty, and that it was for this reason that such
the effects of early child care on child well being across the US
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children were put Into child care at an early age
\The report states that, "the lugher the famdy Ulcome, the more hours children spend in 11 i,l1lalemal care" This suggests that maternal income now constitutes an important part
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family Income In families where thIs is so, most infants aged 15 months or over would spe\ I
long hours in non-maternal child care centres However, it was also found that mothers with
low levels of education placed their children in long hours of care as well This suggests that ill
poor families, such mothers had to work lon£er hours than women with higher levels of
education to provide the needed income to their families While it appeared that such effOrls\
succeeded in lifting the family out of poverty, infants spent long periods of time in non
maternal child care centres, which highlights the need for the availability of high quality care \
for these families
The report concludes by stating that, "whatever their rype of care, its qualiry is the imponant
determinant of children's well-being" (ibid'. 127) Their findings showed that poor children
received relatively poor-quality care2 in home-based settings. Income plays a more important
role here than family structure. They also found that family income predicted the overall quality
of the general social and physical environment better than it did the quality of interaction
between adult and child. Poor children who received care from their father were as likely as
affluent ones to experience positive adult-child interactions, including affectionate, loving
attention This was much less likely when care was provided by paid non-relative adults.
Environment in child care homes where poor children were cared tor were rated as low by the
HOME (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment Inventory which was a
measure of home environments, carried out by Caldwell and Bradley in 1984), and provided
little social and environmental suppons for development. Furthermore, families in poverty have
limited choice of child care facilities due to issues such as cost or availability in the vicinity.
The report goes on to note sttldies which found a link between low-quality home environments
and poor intellectual and academic skills of the children. This raises concern over the effect of
poor-quality child care facilities on the cognitive and social development of an infant,
especially when they are exposed to poor quality environments at an early stage of their life.
, the quality of chlld care was defined through factors such as the quality of the social and physical environmenl
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1.5 Cognitive Development of the Child
Brierley, author of Children's Well-Being, observes [hat many educawrs have shown how
animals provided with a variety of tasks and stimuli are likely to develop more highly
developed associations than one placed in an under stimulated environment He goes on to
argue that if this idea is accepted when considering the effect of the environment on babies, the
early experiences of their life might have lasting and strong effects on their behaviouL This is
supported by an American longitudinal study that found that children who attended pre-school
were much more likely to attend 3rd level education than other children3
According to Brierley, the major growth period of the brain can be stunted by deprivation in
food and stimuli. Brierley then states that from the moment of birth, the baby's brain is ready
to start learning and that it will go on 'learning "fast" up to puberty (ibid: 54). He describes the
brain at this stage as being "finely tuned", and in a two-way, dynamic relationship with its
surrounding environment, remarking that its powers and development are strengthened by
practice Therefore, the cognitive development of a child benefits from a lot of stimulus in
hisfher environment, plus play and language experience and "good models to imitate" in order
to ensure sfhe develops to hisfher maximum potential Brierley draws on this to note that if a
child is socially or culturally deprived, or if sfhe is underestimated by teachers at school, then
sfhe is likely to make poor progress. Hisfher cognitive development would be hindered by poor
motivation and having a poor expectation of life, He cites a study, Primary Education in
England which indicated that children in the inner city were more likely to be underestimated
by their teachers than other children, and least likely to be given work that would fully meet
their potential abilities
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Factors affecting growth are noted as bad feeding, disease and unhappiness, Brierley notes that
j when a child's sense of well-being is improved (through the elimination of the above), a child's
height will grow to reach normal status, citing research which suggests that some children grow
more slowly in school time than they do in holiday time. He concludes by saying,
"some children are last, some slow growers.... To treat all as equal is to follow aprogramme which is suirable for rhe few who happen to fit the mean course of growth"(ibid: 55)
1.6 Maternal Time Use and Infant Well-Being
and adult-infant inteiaction
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A recent study entitled, The SignIficance oJ ChIldren's Age III EstImating rhe Effect oJ MaremaI
Tune Use on ChIldren's Well-Being, by Riccit et al focused on the impoI1ance of the age of a
child when analysing the effect of maternal time spent on a child's well-being The study is set
in peri-urban Egypt, and involved the collection of quantitative data from [61 households on
issues such as maternal daily time allocation, children's dietary energy intake, dianhoeal
morbidity, maternal haemoglobin along with household and individual demographic details
Riccit et al notes how women's participation In the work place in Egypt is recognised as
essential to the survival of poor households The consequences of this reality on children's
health and nutritional status is a matter of huge debate. While previous research showed that
mothers tended to compromise the length of time spent at work with that spent in the
household, the impact of this has still not been identified Riccit et al also notes that previous
research rarely took into account the difference a child's age makes in relation to their need for
maternal care The Riccit study looks at children aged 18-30 months and examines the effect
age has on estimating the effect of maternal time use on children's well-being
Riccit et al identify two stages in this time frame: During the first stage (up to 24 months)
"mothers are expected to engage in exclusive and intimate child care giving, including breast
feeding on demand." In the second stage, which includes children over 24 months, maternal
separation or "weaning" is encouraged as children are taught to become more independent
This stage thus "initiates a new stage of socio-culturally acceptable child care glvmg
behaviour" (ibid: 652)
The study found that when children were under two years of age, mothers tended to spend more
intimate and "intensive" time with their children .. Children over 2 years, however, spent less
time receiving physical attention from their mothers, but more time engaging in social
interaction with them (ibid: 657) Therefore, mothers with children under 2 were likely to
spend more time with their ~hildren than working, or to combine economic production with
child care giving. In contnlst, for children over 2 years, a negative association was found
between economic production and child care gi ving The study also found that "maternal child
care giving behaviour" had a significant impact on the daily energy intakes of infants under 2
years of age, a finding which supports recommendations to feed young children more
j Su How They Grow ~High Scapi Perry Sludy (Weckar; DP) ~ Significant BenefiLS Age 2'7
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frequently in order to improve their levels of energy and nutrient intakes
A study entitled Fathers: Irish Experience in an Inlemalwnal COll/ext, by McKeown, Ferguson
and Rooney argues that one of the benefits of a greater level of involvement of a father in the
life of his children is rhat it leads, "10 children's development a\ a result oJ being emotionally
close to both parems" 0997: 407) They go on to note that while few cases are put forward for
such benefits, numerous criticisms have been made of fathers' failing to do so The McKeown
et al study notes the level of consensus among researchers of this topic that the greater the level
of involvement of a father in his child's life, the more beneficial it will be for the child, "in
tenm of cognitive competence and peifonnance al school as well as for empalhy, self-esteem,
self-control, life skills and social competence" (ibid" 423), However, they go on to note that
children who lose a father through separation or divorce are more likely to suffer adversely
from this than children who never had a father living with them, This, McKeown et al note,
could be a result of the experience of separation rather than being fatherless, Stating that every
child needs a male role model, Mc Keown et al go on to say that research on the subject cites 2
types of involvement of a father with his children The first centres around caretaking roles,
such as nappy changing, preparing food, etc., while the second type relates to activity
involvement with the children Fathers are more likely to become involved in the second type,
and research has shown that this has the most positive impact on the psychological well-being
of the child
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Summary of Findings
• The first years of a child's life bear a strong impact on hls/her cognitive and emotional developmentand well-being in subsequent years
• The main factors influencing an infant's well-being include: the physical health of the mother durin o"pregnancy, receipt and quality of child care, the presence of cogniti ve stimuli and maternal and
paternal time use.
• Poverty was shown to have a potentially derrimental effect on the health status of the infant.• Quality of child care provision was identified as a highly significant factor influencing children's
well-being, with income playing a large role in the quality of child care received• The importance of receipt of early education was highlighted in relation to development of cognitive
skills of the child• The importance of receipt of maternal and paternal care giving in the first two years of the child's life
was also noted..
Indicators of the well-being oftbe'ihfarif: ';'.""';- ., ;.".• Perinatal factors: average!a:b6veay~i~geV{eight p[c·hildat.birth;mother not smoking during
pregnancy.... .....:i '.." '.•' R~eipt~f high quality child car~~hicb al!o"",i:foi'p6'sitlve interaction between
• ReceipCof'~arly'education...• ',"'l:,'';!']'':'; ";v,'iD:>:\,::,,::~i32"c ,. :c:,'> '. ";Co . {'>'::: }:s!;"· .):'Z:!·~:.·• Receipt of maternal and paternal q¥ecglvingin firstt\V0years ofthechijd'~lire
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3 THE FAMILY ANi) CHILDREN'S WELL-BEING
:U Introduction
A large proportion of literature related to children's well-being concerns itself with the role of
the child in the family and the role of the family in providing for the needs of the child
Although a child encompasses a wide range of experiences, most research carried out in this
field looks at four main areas, those being the structure of the family, family functioning,
relationships within the family and the effects of problems within the family (such as marital
breakdown and economic hardship) have on the well-being of the child Family structure refers
to the various identities of the family, including the single parent family, the separated family,
the traditional nuclear family and the dual career family, Family functioning covers issues such
as parenting practices, family conflict levels and time spent between parent and child,
Relationships between family members refers to the types of relationships that occur between
parent and child, and among siblings The final section of this chapter explores the particular
problems that a child coming from a marginalised family may face, and which may affect
hislher sense of well-being
2,2 Definition of the Family
Definitions of the family tend to vary from author to author Hill and Tisdall define the family
as being that which contains children under 18, "while acknowledging that family ties are
significant in adult-adult relationships too" (1997: 65). They refer to the fact that almost every
culture refers to the family as consisting of people related by birth or marriage, although they
go on to note that marriage is not a necessary component of a family'
The Eurosocial Reporr includes a report by Ivar FrlOnes called, Children in Modem Families: A
Scandinavian Perspective, in which he describes the family in more modem way. According to
Fr(?ines, the nuclear family is moving towards a new form, which he describes as modem family
development The "nuclear family" referred traditionally to the unit of parents and children as
a special type of family (ibi~: 115), Fr(?ines argues that the notion that this is separate and.~.
different to the "extended family" has contributed to a lack of awareness of changes in culture
and relationships that have taken place over the past few decades By confming the defmition
of the family to the unit of parents and children, other commentators have interpreted changes
within family structure as signs of a break down in the family within society FrlOnes goes on to
argue that, "the modem nuclear family today is a very different social unit than the nuclear
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family of only a generation ago" (ibid: 116)
According to FnDnes, farmlies today need to be understood in their social, political and
econormc context, rather than forcing upon them a traditional definition and obligations that are
no longer relevant in today's world The family adapts to its environment as the environment
adapts to the needs of the family This change tends to respond to the needs of the dormnant
type of family only, and this does not just mean the dormnant type of family in terms of
quantity, but often more imponantly in terms of ideological and political dynarmcs This leads
Fr0nes to the conclusion that any decision made in relation to the subject of farmly pattems
have to take into account the social, econormc and cultural landscape of their population. Due
to the rapid social transformation of the farmly, the situation has arisen in some countries, such
as Ireland, where such changes may not be reflected in current social policy. The tensions
between social patterns and political corespondents is therefore central to the analysis of family
development and the subsequent well-being of the child.
2.3 Family Structure
Tisdall et al note the continuing debate that is occurring over whether or not farrrilies ought to
take a panicular form or structure in the interests of children. While some commentators on
this issue state that varying structures can be equally beneficial to a child, others, such as New
Right thinkers and ethical socialists argue that in order for a child to experience well-being in
every respect, he/she must be brought up by a heterosexual, married couple, Frl1nes study
(mentioned above) would argue against this viewpoint. Frl1nes identifies a number of different
farrrily structures. She begins by discussing the changes that have occurred in the farrrily in
Norway since the second world war.. She notes how in the 1950s farrrily policies were
developed to a lirmted degree and were directed primarily towards marginalised groups (e"g"
single parents) At this time, the Central Bureau of Statistics used the household farrrily as the
index farrrily, which reflected the political ideology of the time, The past 20 years, however,
have witnessed universal changes in the nuclear farrrily Indicarors of such change include
lower birth rates, educated 'and working women and a changing childhood, Frl1nes cites
Norway as being at the forefront of farmly development, having experienced a rapid
transformation of the farrrily,
The two main farrrily structures that make up the modem farrrily, are the dual income farrrily
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on the well-being of the child (ibid: 146). Brown makes a number of recommendations here,
including the selling up of a national set of indicators that allow the tracking of the proportion
of children living within varying types of family stnJctures cross-sectionally, and over the
course of childhood He also refers to the need to recognise that families can extend beyond
the confines of the household and to the need for further research on children in institutional
care.
Brown proceeds with a list of possible within-household family structure measures from which
family structure indicators can be developed These include the separate identification of
biological and step-parents, divorced and never married single parents, cohabiting parents,
foster and adoptive parents and finally, the identity of the relationship of the child to non
parental family members in the household He concludes on this point by noting the
importance of establishing a set of family indicators that can capture the cumulative experience
of children over the life course, and not just their status at one given point in time This would
rely on the collection of longitudinal data. He recommends that major surveys should allow
identification of the exact nature of the relationship between child and parent, as well as extent
of relationship with parents outside the household. He also noted the need for inclusion of
institutionalised children in national surveys, which should include measures of the quality of
their care
This point is also explored in Weissbourd's book, The Vulnerable Child, in which he presents
an analysis of the effects divorce and single parenthood have on a child. Weissbourd states that
divorce has varying effects and consequences for children, depending on many circumstances
and that it needs to be considered in relation to the types of interactions that might endanger
children and in light of their basic needs
Weissbourd goes on to say that children are not always necessarily better or worse off as a
result of divorce, and that they can be affected by it in different ways. The debate about these
effects is not necessarily a' political one, as people from both liberal and conservative
backgrounds have been seen to take varying views on the subject However, whatever their
stance on the subject, they are still likely to have a polarised opinion, either arguing that
divorce has a negative effect on children, or that it does not Weissbourd asserts that both these
views are myths, and that the truth lies somewhere between them, saying,
19
Drawing from this, Frcnes argues that the modem mother does not see the persual of her career
as a compromise on her child's needs, as she would have wanted her child to receive the
educational benefits of day care in any case Frcnes goes on 1O say that, contrary to popular
belief, modem parents spend more active time with their children than would traditional
parents This is because children from the modem family are chosen As their costs are
calculated as part of the individual's life plan, they are central to the modem career family,
because they have been planned for The issue of maternal employment is also explored by
Weissbourd in his book, The Vulnerable Child. Like Frcnes, he argues that there is little solid
evidence that this is the cause of children's problems, and that its impact on a child's well
being depends heavily on the age of the child.
Formal marriage is therefore becoming just one of many chosen ways of living with someone.
Weissbourd goes on to state that the emotional relationship that occurs between two adults with
individual careers outside the realm of the family constitutes marriage in the modem world
This relationship becomes a family when children enter into it As such, the children are the
couples "common projecL" Furthermore, in such a family, where both parents fully understand
the benefits of education, they are likely to invest in good opportunities in education for their
children. Also, FriOnes notes that the economic costs of this modern educational upbringing
are likely 1O be less for such a family, due to both parents bringing in an income
Another study in the Euro$ocial Report refers to the effect of family structure on the well-being
of the child, This study is entitled, Indicators of the Family Environment in the US: Existing
Data, Gaps, and Plansfor the Future by Brett V, Brown, Here, Brown refers to the impottance
of establishing a list of indicators of child well-being within the family environment, noting
that they can reflect critical dimensions of the family environment in which children live, grow
and develop Also, they allow for a systematic comparison of child well-being across groups,
reflecting different social cleavages within society.
Brown's understanding of fai'nil y structures relates to children living in or out of a single parent
household He writes of the rising rates of divorce and non-marital fertility which have led to
an increase in single parent households and the proportion of two parent households which
include a step-parent, with one biological parent living outside the home Research on this
shows the positive effect of financial contribution and social interaction of non-resident parents
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on the well-being of the child (ibid: 146) Brown makes a number of recommendations here,
including the setting up of a national set of indicators that allow the tracbng of the proportion
of children living within varying types of family stnJctures cross-sectianally, and over the
course of childhood He also refers to the need to recognise that families can extend beyond
the confines of the household and to the need for further research on children in institutional
care
Brown proceeds with a list of possible within-household family structure measures from which
family structure indicators can be developed. These include the separate identification of
biological and step-parents, divorced and never mamed single parents, cohabiting parents,
foster and adoptive parents and finally, the identity of the relationship of the child to non
parental family members in the household, He concludes on this point by noting the
importance of establishing a set of family indicators that can capture the cumularive experience
of children over the life course, and not just their status at one given point in time This would
rely on the collection of longitudinal data, He recommends that major surveys should allow
identification of the exact nature of the relationship between child and parent, as well as extent
of relationship with parents outside the household He also noted the need for inclusion of
institutionalised children in national surveys, which should include measures of the quality of
their care.
This point is also explored in Weissbourd's book, The Vulnerable Child, in which he presents
an analysis of the effects divorce and single parenthood have on a child. Weissbourd states that
divorce has varying effects and consequences for children, depending on many circumstances
and that it needs to be considered in relation to the types of interactions that might endanger
children and in light of their basic needs.
Weissbourd goes on to say that children are not always necessarily better or worse off as a
result of divorce, and that they can be affected by it in different ways, The debate about these
effects is not necessarily a' political one, as people from both liberal and conservative
backgrounds have been seen to take varying views on the subject However, whatever their
stance on the subject, they are still likely to have a polarised opinion, either arguing that
divorce has a negative effect on children, or that it does nOL Weissbourd asserts that both these
views are myths, and that the Lruth lies somewhere between them, saying,
19
j"11 LJ a mylh Ihal divorce LJ a modem scourge, bUI il is also a mylh Ihal divorce 15 11011.
pOlhogellic or lleUlra!. RealllY Is/ar more compllcaled" (ibid: 53)
Weissbourd maintains that while divorce can have some negative effects on the well-being of a
child, these can be overcome He notes the lack of research on the effects on children of livino'"
with parents in an unhappy/destructive mani age, citing research, in which it was found thatJI
children in high-conflict homes are more likely to suffer from depression than children in
single-parent homes (56) However, he goes on to say that there is a need to get beyond trying 1to work out whether divorce is good or bad for children, arguing that both divorce alld decaying
maniages deprive children in different ways. Weissbourd argues that we cannot attempt to
debate whether or not divorce has a negative effect on children, as this
"igllores rhe fUlldamellral facr rhar wherher childrer:' 's basic needs are mer after a divorceoften has 10 do wirh many circumsrallces rhar have Illlle 10 do wirh divorce per se" (ibid:58)
Weissbourd concludes on this point with a list of recommendations for policy change in
relation to the child and the family The first of these is that employed parents should be
enabled to spend more time with their children through flexible hours, job sharing and pan
time work options. Secondly, he notes the need to improve the quantity and quality of child
care and after school programmes Finally, he suggests the benefits for professional child care
workers in the development of a map that would illustrate the various child, family and
community attributes that influence how a child deals with parental absences, which would
enable these child care workers to work with children based on. the child and its family's
panicular assets and needs ..
2.4 Family Functioning
Family functioning is of central significance when determining a child's sense of well-being.
Researchers have long stressed this in relation to the socio-emotional, academic and physical
health of the child. More recently, this has been incorporated into theoretical models, e.g.
Coleman's Social Capital4- Brown outlines a number of family processes of functioning,
included in such models which vary, but include:
parenting practices (e.g styles of discipline, rules of behaviour)
parent/child activities, such as frequency of eating together, outings, parental participation in
... Coleman described social capital as aspects of social organisation. such as interpersonal networks., social norms
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the quantity of time spent by parents with their children
family conflict levels and conflict resolution techniques
social and spiritual values and practices related to their transmission
availability of social support networks in the local community
He notes that most of the research carried out on family functioning has been small scale, with
very few research measures being made to ascertain information on such processes in any of the
large scale surveys. He concludes by recommending the identification and development of a
collection of family functioning measures which can be fielded in large-scale national surveys,
241 Relationships within a Family
This panicular issue was broached by Weissbourd.in The Vulnerable Child, with a specific
focuses on the link between children's well-being and parents suffering from depression.
Weissbourd argues that when a parent is depressed, children can be deprived of many of their
needs, but in a subtle way, that would not constitute serious neglect or abuse He goes on to
note that this is more likely to be experienced by people living in poverty, who often have to
endure experiences such as unemployment and welfare dependency, health problems, mental
illness, hunger, and eviction (among others), all of which create huge anxieties for parents
which can compromise their ability to provide for their children's basic needs, and can
sometimes lead to neglect and abuse (ibid:62 ).
Depression he notes, is a mystery to children, if it is not explained adequately to them It can
lead to feelings of helplessness and deficiency at not being able to help. Furthermore,
consistent forms of discipline seem to be forgotten about, as parents either get too lenient or
issue commands arbitrarily In relation to his point, he cites one study of a long-term
unemployed father which showed that the longer he was unemployed, the more likely he was to
describe his child in negative terms 0996: 74) The extent of the effect a parent's depression
has on a child's well-being is'related to a number of factors, such as the child's temperament,
the availability of support from siblings, or community adults, and whether the family has the
resources to deal with the crisis
and social trust which facilitate a collaborative effort to promote mutual benefit from its members
21
Weissbourd goes on to note how the presence of siblings can affect the development of a child,
stating,
"The interlockrng needs and limllarlOns of different family members aJJect whetherchlldren receive conzinuous support and wilerher they are given appropriate roles andrespolllib,lille.l !11 their families" (ibid:71 )
He refers to the importance of each child having a role in the family that the child feels is
important He also notes how the birth of a sibling can influence family patterns and a child's
sense of well-being. When Weissbourd is reflecting on the effect of a depressed parent on a
child's well-being, he notes how children in poor families tend to fare the worst, not because
poor parents suffer more from depression, but because they have fewer means to cope with
crises and releasing stress, and usually can't allow themselves too much time to recuperate. He
cites the findings of one study that observed how on receiving a simple newsletter containing
information on the developmental needs and tasks of infants and with suggested coping
strategies, parents were much less likely to hit their children than were parents who didn't
receive the newsletter. High risk parents, such as those who are socially isolated or poor
parents, were most likely to benefit
2.6 Economic Deprivation of the Family
Poverty has numerous effects on the well-being of a child These effects can be observed at a
number of direct and indirect levels .. While all of the above discussed aspects of farnily life can
affect all children in different ways, it is important to note how, for various reasons, a child
coming from a poor family can be more at risk from various b.arriers to well-being than other
children. This issue is broached by Sara S. McLanahan, one of the researchers contributing to
the book, Consequences of Growing Up Poor, in her article, Parent Absence or Poverty; Which
Marrers More? In the introduction of the same, Gunn et al write,
"Children depend on others for their well-being. Because of rheir developmelllalsratus, children enter or avoid poverty by vinue of their family's economiccircumsrances They typically cannot alter rheir status by themselves, at least until theyapproach the late adolescent years. ... One in five children lives below the povenythreshold in rhe 1990s and .... rhese children do not fare as well as those living abovethat threshold" (ibid: 16).
McLanahan explores this issue in greatet detail She draws on the findings of a numbet of
research projects included in the book to ascertain which of two determinants, being in poverty
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or parental absence have the greatest effect on children's well-being
This is pan of an ongoing debate, having arisen from the fact that children In one-parent
families in the US experience extremely high rates of poverty The authors of such research
have examined how particular types of family structure are related to children's well-being,
both before and after controlling for income
McLanahan's paper begins by providing the background to this debate McLanahan notes how
prior to 1970, the general consensus was that divorce and single parenthood had negative
consequences for children (intellectually and socially). In the early 1970s, this view was
challenged, as some researchers began to argue that negative outcomes for single parenthood
were due to issues such as poverty and racial discrimination. The mid 1970s saw a focus on
ethnographic studies, which supported this claim and highlighted the positive aspects of single
parenthood, such as extended family support. In the late 1970s, the focus changed again, as
research began to draw more sceptical conclusions on the well-being of children brought up in
single parent families. From the 1980s onwards, there has been a view that the presence of a
suitable role model in the life of a child being raised in a single parent family can overcome any
of the negative effects of single parenthood as identified by research carried out in the 1970s,
and moreover, such an arrangement can prove a more positive environment in which to bring
up a child than an abusive two parent family
According to McLanahan, neither the stage of a child's life issues SU9h as the time of separation
between parents and the length of time spent in a single parent family are not considered as
being very significant. It was also found that remarriage does not overcome the effects of single
parenthood. This suggests that income is not the only factor in relation to the negative effects
of parental absence Other factors include less parental supervision
McLanahan goes on then to provide a summary of her own research findings that she used in
her own research, which are as follows She found little evidence that parental absence was
related to test scores of children, which would suggest that this has minimal effect on the
cognitive development and well-being of a child. Family structure appeared to be very
important in other areas of children's well-being, most notably in areas such as the incidence of
behavioural problems (e.g. fighting and hyperactivity) and psychological problems, although
this effect appeared to decline with age and appeared to be linked to the time frame shortly
before and after break-up occurred In relation to school achievement, other studies found that
separation between parents would have a negative impact on this facet of a child's
development, with reduced school performance, lower rates of college attendance and
graduation and a lesser likelihood to graduate from high school
McLanahan looked at all studies contained in the book, COl1Sequencel of Crowing Up Poor,
with a view to answering the question of whether income accounts for the potential negative
consequences associated with single parenthood, i,e "does the absence of a parent reduce
children 'J well-being, or is it just a proxy for economIC disadvantage" (ibid: 45), If it was the
case that poverty caused a family to break up, then one could argue that family structure did not
negatively affect a child's well-being. However, if the break-up of a family caused the family
to fall into poverty, then one would have to conclude that family structure did matter As none
of the studies gave details on the family's income before and after divorce, it was not possible
for her to distinguish which came first, poverty or break-up of family structure Instead she
examined the extent to which the effects of family structure on a child's well-being persisted
after income was controlled for. She also attempted to define which of the two has a more
negative effect on a child' s well~being (coming from a non-intact family or coming from a poor
family)
McLanahan concluded that family structure affects children's well-being in a number of ways,
depending on individual circumstance. This supports Weissbourd'.s theory that it is necessary
to look at the varying complexities and details of individual children, rather than casting
generalisations on them by merely looking at their socio-economic status McLanahan also
concluded that the type of family structure a child Jives in is related to hislher level of well
being. It is more difficult growing up in some types of families than in others For example,
growing up with a divorced or never-married mother is often associated with lower educational
attainment and more behavic;ural problems, while growing up with a widowed mother rarely
has these effects (ibid: 47), < The answer to the question of whether family structure is more
important than income was fairly ambiguous. The 12 studies she looked at showed that family
structure is related to poverty, but do not show that they are proxies for each other. McLanahan
concludes by sa)~ng that family structure is more important than poverty in determining
behavioural and psychological problems, while poverty is more important than family structure
24
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in determining educational attainment
Conger et ai, in a study of almost 400 young people concluded that family economic problems
have a negative effect on the school performance of children They note that as the less
advantaged population in the US is growing rather than decreasing, this current trend suggests
that Iow/disrupted school performance will become more and more common. They also found
:1 that boys were especially susceptible to loss of self-esteem through parental disagreements over
money. Academic failures of males was associated with deviant companions and antisocial
behaviour, which can also threaten their own perceived ability of assuming role of
breadwinner This, Conger et al argue, will have negative implications for the US economy.
Fnones' study of the family in Norway also referred to the special vulnerabilities of the
marginalised child in relation to his/her sense of well-being. She writes,
"The imponance of active parenting implies that the inequality rooted in differences ineconomic and cultural capital may entail increasing social inequalities among children, anda marginalisation of children, with parents who, for various reasons, put little effon into theprocess ofparenting. "
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Economic and emotional consequences of divorce may influence parental support of children.
Fr~nes speaks here of a "two-nucleus family". This refers to the child's relationship with both
his/her parents after the divorce, as seen through his/her eyes If the child loses some of the
support s/he had before the divorce, this is likely to have negative consequences for hirn/her
Fr~nes notes, in concession with Weissbourd, that the long life career perspective, the position
of the children as the 'fundamental shared project' of the parents, as well as the modern
understanding of the importance of the 1st year of infancy, inducing parents to stay at home for
that year are all crucial elements of the successful modern upbringing of the child. Fr~nes notes
that the rise of the dual life career family has been an enormous cultural transformation Fr~nes
also notes some indications of adaptation of the workplace to this new family. All of this
however, has led to the marginalisation of families that cannot be described as dual life career
The closure of old industries which led to a decreasing demand for unskilled labour means that
children of parents who work in these sectors will fare less well than others This economic
and cultural marginalisation of the previous working class is closely related to the historical
period of transition that we are currently undergoing. She also notes how, due to the increased
importance placed on education in the modern world, parents are under more pressure to
25
finance their children's education Funhermore, the increased level of differentiation of
expenise in the labour market can mean that when both parents are educated theytave a higher
degree of differentiated skills, than parents of fewer qualifications
Brown's study, IndIcalOrJ of rhe FamIly EnvlrOnmelll in rhe US Existing Dara, Gaps, and
PlallS for rhe Future (1996) also refers to the effect of the material resources of a family on
child well-being. He argues for the need to establish indicators of material well-being that
should be able to renect the total wealth available to the child's family, Including money
income, assets and non-cash items, as well as public goods shared by the community (e.g
schools) Indicators should .mirror resources available over time rather than at one point
Brown includes a list of commonly reponed indicators of material well-being taken from the
data sources he used, which include mean and median annual family incomes, the percentage of
children in poveny, near poverty and extreme poveI1y and the percentage of children in families
dependent on public SUPPOI1 programmes of various sorts
From his findings, Brown set out a number of policy implications relating to children's well
being. These included suppon for policies that aim at reducing family poveny and financial
deprivation Examples of these are the introduction of transfer payments and job training
programmes, measures which have already been implemented in Ireland Brown noted that
even if such schemes were introduced, a large proportion of families would still find
themselves experiencing economic difficulties at some stage and that this may cause some
long-term negative effects on members of the family even after they have gained economic
equilibrium. In light of this, Brown recommended that it would be useful to help members of a
family deal with the potentially destructive family interaction that can occur at such a period,
for example, spouses can learn effecti ve communication techniques, instead of shouting at one
another and children can learn they aren't responsible for such conflicts or economic hardships
He concluded by saying,
"Given rhe pervasive influence 0/ economIC problems on the quality o//amily life andrhe development 0/ children, such programmes would be a wise invesrmentin rhe nation 'sfurure " (ibid: 143)
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SlJMMARY OF FINDINGS
• There is a move in recent years towards the development of the educaTional dual-careeamily which provides an ideal setting for the child's development .
• The increased level of individualisation in the career of parents means that children are chosennd thus parents spend a high level of active time with the child, which is beneficial for thehild's emotional and social well·being
Family Structure• In relation to single-parent families, the positive,effect of financial contribution and social'nteraction of non-resident parents on the well-being of the child was noted• Research carried out on the effect of different family structures on the well-being of the child's very limited• 'IVbile some pieces of research ,have identifi~dh.\gher,rates of beh?vioural problems amonhildren affected by divorce, a single parent, fainiiycan ,prove a more ,positiYe enYll-orirrient inhich to bring up;a:child't1).an an abusiy~ i:woiipa):e~tJarnily",A1so:: aIfY>i1egaiiveeff6cts 0
'vorce can be ovr;rcome::~)ti:h~ pi:~ence'bt~·stiikBi~I?(~:m,?clf1;{i1,~li."l;~f~()t}1h~:?l#~:~~[;:;b> ,', .'• ' There is a need forthejdentification,and,develop:rri~I\tof acoll,'<Ction offa'niily fUncJioning:
.ecisures which catibefi~ldea iii'lafge:~caZe:nati()~al sun1eys.", '_ ,»: .' ,. :;')'.>
';',1..""" .•. -
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3 THE COMMUNTTY AND CHILD WELL-BEING
While the role of the family in the development and well-being of the child cannot be over
estimated, it is becoming more and more commonly accepted that we must also examine the
community in which the child lives if we are to get a full understanding of the needs of the
child In the book, Children and Soclery, authors Hill & Tisdall note that it is now commonly
accepted for children to enjoy a certain, albeit restricted level of independence in order for them
to grow "confidence and competence in social interaction with peers, self-care and effective
mobility" In this section, we will explore research carried out on many different aspects of the
community and neighbourhood in relation to children's well-being
3,1 Space and Physical Environment
Hill et al focus on the effect of the local environment (as in the availability of recreational
pursuits, proximity of peers, etc,) on the child's ability to form relationships with peers and
their use of space outside the home, While examining the preferred play environments of
children, Hill et al note that children like to allocate names to their play areas, They refer to a
study by Berg and Medrich which found that children living in densely populated, urban areas
"craved the opportunity to get around on their own" (1997: 108-109) and to shape their own
environment These needs are unmet for children living in such areas, Berg and Medrich
describe wide open areas, which children can safely experience and explore as being a right of
the child. Berg and Medrich also found that children preferred suburban and rural environments
in which to live, as long as there is a sufficient number of young people living there (ibid: 109)..
In Arlene Bowers Andrews paper, Assessing Neighbourhood and Community Factors that
Influence Children's Well-Being (1996), she discusses the importance of physical aspects of the
child's community environment on hislher well-being, She draws from Homel and Bums 1989
study, which assessed the effect of housing characteristics, street type, and quality
neighbourhood and found that children living in conunercial, inner-city streets reported "more
loneliness, dislike of other chjldren, feelings of unhappiness, rejection, worry, fear and anger"
(1996: 133), He does go on to note, however, that a number of studies found no real
connection between community environment and the child's well-being. The exploration of
this relationship is just a developing field and requires further research,
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3,2 Peer Relationships - Friendships and Gang Culture
Hill et al saw the formation of friendships as an important part of the child's lifer as it gives
them the opportunity to develop rules, etc with people on an equal level, rather than with
adults who have power over them_ Contact with peers is based more on personal liking than
kin relationships and Hill et al describe other elements of peer relationships as being dislike,
power and hierarchy
Hill et al define friendship as being determined by the, "strength of mutual liking, lhe amount
of lime spent tagelher alld its duration" (ibid: 97) The loss of a friendship can have a deep
impact on a child_ Friends are a source of information and support and help a child develop a
sense of identity They also offer feedback and evaluation as well as new ideas_ Friendships
also allow children to practise social skills (e_g_, conflict management)_
As children grow older, their perception of friendship changes as they grow to value emotional
support such as intimacy and trust over physical aspects, such as playing together. Contrary to
adult expectations, Hill et al note that children are capable of creating and articulating rules and
methods of avoiding conflicts_ Falling out with friends can be a source of considerable distress
for children, something that tends to be overlooked by adults They go on to note that children
with stable and close friendships have high levels of self-esteem_
In relation to issues of differentiation, exclusion and abuse, Hill et al describe two types of less
popular children, the rejected child and the neglected child (ibid: 9.9)- The neglected child is
described as being insecure, lacking in self-confidence and in the skills involved in social
interaction_ They maintain that these children are not disliked, but are neglected or isolatei:!
The rejected child tends to join in activities with their peers in a generally disruptive manner
They often try to impose their own wants on peers, which can lead to rejection and this is found
to be more persistent than neglect They go on to say that such a child may have their own
friends, but that they also tend to be unpopular This can lead to feelings of isolation and
alienation, and many such children leave school as soon as they can_
In the book The Vulnerable Child, Weissbourd explores the roots of gangs and cliques in
American society_ He notes adult/parental fear over the increasing length of time children
spend with their ]Y".-ers, and argues that children now often rely on other children to fulfil needs
29
once met by the family
Weissbourd stresses the positive aspects of this situation. He writes,
"being a member of a clique in adolescence is a significant predictor of adolescel1lemotional well-being and abiliry to handle stress" (1997: 84)
According to Weissbourd, it is irrelevant to try to work out whether or not this trend is good or
bad. Instead it is necessary to look at why some cliques become destructive Weissbourd says
that this happens when children lack positive sources of recognition, especially from adults .. He
notes that the destructive effect of such peer groups on children will not be solved by seeing
teenagers as "the victims of bad crowds" (ibid: 86). What children need is for policy makers
and professionals dealing with children to acknowledge the importance for children of being
positively acknowledged by adults and an appreciation of the wide variety of circumstance that
can draw children into destructive gangs
Weissbourd goes on to deal with the issue of teenage violence, quoting sociologist Elijah
Anderson, who suggested that inner-city teenage violence is encouraged by "the fear of over
whelming shame" (ibid: 87) This relates to the fact that teenagers need to be respected by their
peers. Weissbourd also draws from the work of psychiatrist, lames Gilligan who interviewed
lOOs of prison inmates who had committed serious violent crimes Gilligan found that most of
them had been "chronically humiliated as children, and were preoccupied also with rhe idea of
being respected" (ibid: 87). By committing crimes, and thus rendering others helpless, these
people eradicated their own sense of unworth, if only temporarily. Weissbourd goes on to note
that both researchers conclude that poor and minority children are more likely to become
violent, as they are "more likely to feel the shame of social and economic inferiority and less
likely to have alternative means of gaining recognition and prestige in school and in their
communities" (ibid: 88). This leads them to cling to gangs for the recognition that their family
and school failed to give.
Weissbourd also notes that children, especially teenagers, are influenced, not only by present
conditions, but by their perceptions of the future He states that if a child does not see any
meaningful or real opportunities in his/her future, slhe may be less likely to fear the
consequences of destructive behaviour. For example, getting expelled from school does not
matter, because, as they see it, they have no real future to jeopardise. He goes on to describe
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how children belonging to ghetto gangs who feel deprived of any future oppoflunities, look to
each other instead to define their sense of self-worth In doing so however, they degrade others
in the same situation as themselves Avoiding gang cultures, however, can mean isolating
oneself from peers
From his findings Weissbourd notes the crucial importance of adults listening to children and
that they, "start with the child's point of view in dealing with peer troubles" (ibid: 90) Also,
any interventions that are made in this area need to remain appreciative of the many strengths
that can be found in children's friendships
He also refers to the importance of providing children with opportunities to establish
meaningful relationships with adUlts. He notes that children understand the consequences of
violent behaviour but are unable to control "the shame and helplessness" that fuels such anti
social behaviour. Children therefore need a variety of exciting opportunities and choices in
life. Weissbourd concludes on this issue by saying,
"Children's well-being depends on adults playing many positive and proacrive rolesin children'sfriendships on manyfronlS "(ibid: 90).
3.3 Play! Leisure Actiyities
Hill et al refer to the importance of play in a child's life They write that it has come to be seen
as a major component of education and development for young children (1997: 100). Through
play, they can "learn and develop their own representations of the social and physical worlds."
Moreover, they can form their own rules among peers, and can acquire skills.
In his book, Childhood and Society, Erik Erikson proposed that play was an attempt made by
the child to deal with his daily experiences by "creating model situations and to master reality
by experiment and planning" (1995: 199) For example, a child building a tower has to destroy
it himself According to Erikson, this arises from the infant's constant experience of toppling
over when walking Trying to stand is represented by the building of the castle, while falling
over is represented by the knocking down of the castle.
From the importance of play, Hill et al go on to discuss youth culrure, noting that autonomous
activities of children can cause concern for parents. The globalisation of youth culture (e.g ..
world-wide music market, Internet) means that a lot of it Is outside of adult controL Music can
31
be seen as the most popular form of leisure/entertainment In the UK, 96% of 16-19 year olds Ilisten to tapes/records Hill et al cite Stephenson's study, 1995, which found tharover 50% of
13 year olds in the UK drink alcohol on a regular basis (ibid: 113)
However, Hill et al go on to argue that the leisure activities of young people, which is affected
by their music tastes, style, etc are all crucial to the development of a young person's identity
Schools, community and the family are all becoming weaker in their influence over children, as
peer relations and youth culture grows more and more important. This opening up of choices,
options and freedom can lead to disorientation of a young person If they fail to cope with
these challenges, they could face negative consequences, as would society Ethnic minorities
can face the problem of trying to identify with both their peers, in terms of globalised youth
culture and their family, in terms of their own ethnic culture, all of which can lead to the social
exclusion of the young person from their family or their peers, or both,
In their conclusion, Hill et al identify two sides to the issue of children and peer relationships
Firstly, from a young age, children tend to enjoy spending time with peers, and this can have
many positive outcomes Secondly, however, concern has been expressed over peer interaction
compromising family loyalty and social discipline which can lead to the existence of
destructive sub-culture in early teens,
Hill et al adopt a rights-based approach in responding to this dilemma, Such an approach
argues that children are entitled to freedom of association whil,,, maintaining the right to
protection from a negative environment. They cite a study (Holden, 1996) which shows how
children themselves are capable of devising their own rules while maintaining balance between
loyalty to family and loyalty to peers (ibid: 116), These rules included that each child should
have the right to:
to be free from bullying
choose games to play
have safe playing equipment
be in a quiet place
be alone
Hill et al argue that these rights justify claims for the need for pre and after school care for
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working parents as they, "promote social competence and cognitive learning" (ibid: 116) Hill
et al state that designated play areas are to be welcomed, but are not sufficient To address all
the needs of children, spaces must be shaped and controlled and modified to some extent by
children Play areas should also provide variety and have a "wild element" to them. Also they
must be safe and have safe access routes Children could participate in the planning and
nmning of such facilities Particular care is needed to meet the needs of children with
disabilities Hill et al conclude that although children generally prefer their own play areas,
they should not be excluded from adult activities,
3.5 The Changing Face of the Community
Weissbourd describes the idea of a traditional community as a myth, "one-dimensional." It
ignores the fact that in an increasingly globalised society, few communities are defined by neat,
geographical boundaries, For example, many worldng people may see their workplace as a
type of community. Weissbourd identifies a need for new community stmctures that would
decrease the level of constant mobility endured by a high number of families as well as a need
to deal with the effects this has on those involved"
According to Weissbourd, the community can mean stressful social networks for some, He
cites a study which found that mothers of low-income families established closer ties with
neighbours, due to mutual needs/dependence such as emotional support and concrete assistance
(ibid: 101), While many psychological advantages were noted from such an arrangement, the
study also found that such women also often felt burdened by the many demands such a
relationship made on them. While not experienced by all low-income parents, this could,
according to Weissbourd, hamper their ability to parent their own children
Both Weissbourd and Erikson highlighted the importance of multiple communities in a child's
life Erikson noted that children, especially teenagers need to be able to explore different roles
and identities Weissbourd cited a piece of research which showed that children unpopular at
school tend to fare better academically if they have friends outside of school He suggests the
advantages for children of having different neighbourhood and school communities, saying that
children benefit most from having access to multiple communities,
L'1 the paper Assessing Neighbourhood and ConvnuniIy FacIOrs Ihat Influence Children's Well-
.33
I,
Being, Andrews begins with providing an overview of some theoretical perspectives on the J
subject The developmental approach acknowledges that the needs of a child relating to
community suPPOrt change from age to age (dependence of young child to relative autonomy of
teenager), while the ecological approach focuses on interactions between individuals, family,
peer group, school, etc
Andrews defines the community as
"a definable paILllcal jUrLsdiction that includes a gavemance structure that contralsresources servIng children andfamilies "(1996: 129)
A neighbourhood, on the other hand is a "relatively small geographic area where people reside
and with which they have an identiry" The sUUctures and processes of a community are
expected to affect the social and material resources that a child needs in order to develop fully
Such resources include aspects of the physical, social and economic environment.
In this context, Andrews discusses the idea of social capital as defined by Coleman, which
describes aspects of social organisation, including interpersonal networks, social norms and
social uust as facilitating a collaborative effort to promote mutual benefit from its members
(1996: 129). Communities with high levels of social capital are ones which enjoy "high
reciprociry among members, effecrive civic action and governance and stronger perceptions of
solidariry " In contrast,
"high residential mobility, widespread reliance on television for entertainment, fewerpersons at home because women are in the labour force and changing family conditionsare cited as contributing 10 decreased social interaction in neighbourhood andcommunity settings" (ibid.: 129),
Andrews goes on to cite a study (Earls et aI, 1994), which found that a parent's attitude towards
the availability of resoulcess in their community may affect the child's upbringing.. Fot
example, the parent who viewed their particular neighbourhood as being dangerous will relate
directly to disciplinary strateg;ies used on the child.
When writing of families m disadvantaged areas, Andrews states that the proximity of
5 Community resources are defIned by Andrews to include "aspects of the physical, economic and socialenvironmelU that create productive and healthy opponuniJies for iJuiividunLr andfamilies" (1996: 129). Examplesinclude transportation, police, housing assistance, libraries, banks, social services, disability and health careservices, colleges and family counselling and mediation services (ibid,: 128)
34
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resources is crucial to their well-being He draws on a study (Wilson, 1987), which found that
the decline of manufacturing jobs has led to the growth of large geographical areas in cities
with a high concentration of unemployed and socially isolated people. Such areas are
characterised by a high number of female-headed households, property deterioration, crime,
family violence, low level of school attendance and completion, as well as low participation in
the labour force. In contrast to this, residential areas for middle or upper class families do not
experience such problems. This is due to a higher level of transportation, and communication
in these communities Furthermore, these residents enjoy more privacy and anonymity from
their neighbours, which enables them more freedom to choose who to socialise with
In identifying the needs of children in relation to the community, Andrews suggests five factors
that need to be taken into consideration:
1) an acknowledgement that human ecology is dynamic, comprising of various levels
of interaction, between families, friends, neighbours and the social, physical and
economic resources of the community
2) Developmental needs of children vary from age to age
3) There is a need to focus research on community assets and benefits, rather than on
negative aspects_
4) Development of the child depends on availability of a choice of resources and on the
careful selection of these by the community_
5) The importance of taking into consideration the perspective of children themselves
Andrews concludes by providing an insightful review on the issue of the community and child
well-being, noting that while common sense suggests that the availability of community
resources for young people would promote their well-being and development, there is little
empirical research carried out to prove this
The following present a number of studies reviewed by Andrews, which did attempt to
establish this:
• Cohen and Ooms (1995) summa.!ised the negative implications of geographic concentrations
of poverty for families and children in the US: Among their findings, they noted that in such
areas, children and infants have higher levels of infant mortality, lower birth rates, lower
IQs, more behaviour problems, poor school achievements and higher rates of delinquency
35
• Mayer and lecks (1989) presented the need for better research to explore the extent to which
there is a causative relationship between features such as academic achievement, crime and
early market success and socio-economic status of neighbourhoods
• Contagion theorists: argue that the presence of peers can influence residents of an area, and
is generally supported by research on the subject. Datcher's longitudinal study of US males
and educational attainment (1982), controlling for other factors, found that the socio
economic status of the respondent was strongly related to educational attainment She also
found a direct relationship between neighbourhood quality and teen problems (the higher the
quality of the neighbourhood, the lower the levels of teen educational problems, such as
dropping out of school) (1996: 132).
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• The importance of available quality play space and a clean ei1Vironment for tlle clii1d werhighlighted
• The formation of friendships and frequent contact with peers was hig!rlighted:a:sanimportant factor in the emotional and social development and well-being of1Jt\~'ShjMi,
• While peer relationships can have many positive outcomes for a youngpersqp:'COricernhas been raised over the compromise this has led to over fanuly loyalty andCthep6tentialdevelopment of a destructive sub-culture in early teens
• In order to allow children to enjoy the freedom to form friendships while at,tl1~:sqP1e.time
protect them from a negative environment, we need to listen to the views cif91lifcirell: .,'themselves, particularly when policy makers are developing a suitable play'ar~:J.,%()r'children
• Violence among children can be caused by feelings of social and eC(Jnclnlic:iJ~f~!io'ric\)'a~
well as negative perceptions of their future,
• Leisure acuvityis;Ct1icial
tathe developmentof a young peJt:~~~~\~~iiill!j• Constant g6?~~BrSi~obilitycanyause,insY:!Jility,ip aaddressedbJencO'Ui13'~ng'iinorestab1eilab6lir marketschools towarclS'a't¥ri!porarypujliL' .",
• A highlev~1,p~s<ici~yapital inacommunityis verY imno:rtallt
• ~el~j~ifg:,¥~if4~tl\j~~~ili~i1g\:ill;"di~~dYantai~g'~e~}the
37
4 THE ROLE OF SCHOOLS IN PROVIDING FOR CHILD WELL-BEING
Schools have been cited by many researchers as an ideal setting for the child to develop, not
only cognitively but also socially. In a study presented in the book, Consequences of Growing
Up Poor, Pagani et al outline indicators of child well-being, which include the transition from
elementary school to junior or middle school; transition to high school; school engagement;
peer relationships, grades in school; achievement test scores; school dropout and high school
graduation All of these are related to the child's performance in and experience of school
Hill et al discuss three different attitudes taken towards the development of educational policy
The first one identified is the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which focuses on
developing the potential of all children. The second one sees schooling as adding to 'human
II,
capital,' thus improving economy and general well-being. The first of these falls within a I;;".
functionalist perspective, whereas the second represents a Marxist critique of the education
system. Finally, the third attitude towards the development of education policy identified by ,
Hill et al is that which views the transition from childhood to adulthood in terms of the
socialisation process which occurs at school.
Hill et al note that while excluding pupils that are disruptive to the class can improve school
performance, such actions can also deprive the excluded individual child of necessary
requirements for proper development This can result in such children fostering delinquent
behaviour as well as leading to future "social, economic and civil exclusion" (1997: 127)
Furthermore, such children would not serve to increase human capital, although according to
Marxism they would serve as reserve capital in times of need.
Researchers writing from the perspective of school as an arena of socialisation argue that most
young children like and benefit from school. Not only is it a place to learn, it is also a place to
meet and make friends, play with peers, etc This process, however has been threatened by the
incidence of bullying in school grounds. Children who are bullied often have parents who were
also bullied. Hill et al cite a,piece of research 6 that suggests that victims of bullying have low
levels of self-esteem and are likely to develop
mental health problems later on in life In some cases, bullying has led to the suicide of its
victims. Bullying can also affect a student's ability to learn or concentrate at school
6 OlwellS D, (1991) BullyNictim Problems among school children basic facts arui effects ofa school-basedintervention program, in D Pepler and K,Rubin (eds) The Development arui Treatment of Childhood Aggression,
38
According to this study, approximately 25% of primary school pupils have been bullied to
some degree Boys are more likely to bully than girls Most frequent forms of bullying
include: name calling, hitting, threats, spreading rumours, taking belongings, ignoring, and
racial teasing
uncommon among women. This finding implies the importance of building on the self
confidence and self-esteem of all children at school, while ensuring that this does not occur at
the expense of other pupils.
J1
In describing the childhood and training of children belonging to a Sioux American Indian1
.1 tribe, Erikson examines how the education of young Sioux boys was focused on providing
them with a maximum sense of self-confidence, firstly through maternal generosity and then by
fraternal training Emphasis was placed on their right to autonomy and on their duty of
initiative .. He goes on to say that while this system was worthwhile in many ways, it did appear
to be grounded on the exploitation of women, for the sake of the male child's "unbroken spirit"
(1995: 129). Erikson also notes that while suicides were unknown among men they were not
According to Weissbourd, schools and communities are in an ideal situation to help children
through the painful process of di vorce. He writes,
"Schools and other institutions, by paying aITention to how their activities reverberatethrough families, stand a beITer chance of strengthening whole families and ofgenerating far more enduring cycles ofsuccess. "
4.3 School Participation
Under the most current education systems in the western world, pupils are allowed little or no
say in the running of schools. Hill et al draw on research that found that most teachers found
j consultation with pupils as "time-consuming, irrelevant and with no value" (ibid: 130) They
describe one exceptional school in the UK that boasts a pupil council, which has its own
budget. \Vhile having little formal power, they are very active This is described by the authors
as being a positive approach, 'which nurtures confidence in pupils
JThe incidence of truancy from school was found by Hill et al to increase with a child's age
When asked Why they played truant, students said it was because of particular courses They
-I
London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
39
also said that if they were given more choice, change in content and in the teacher's method of
teaching, they would stop truanting
Hill et al go on to observe that all theories relating to education see school as a stage of "human
becoming," rather than "human being", i e they are concerned primarily with the outcomes of
education for a child rather than his/her well-being while attending school They conclude by
saying that schools are very important sites for children, and are a place where many of their
needs can be met, 'from !del1tiry formation to Intellectual development ro social relationships"
(ibid: 134) However, from a Marxist perspective, schools are also seen as an undemocratic
system which aim towards meeting the needs of others With a view to compromising these
two polar views, the authors end with a quote from a young boy, who said,
"I think its right that we have ro go fro school}, bur it doesn't have ro be such ad!ClalOrship when we get there" (ibid .. : 134)
4.4 New Models of Schooling
In chapter 10 of The Vulnerable Child, which is entitled, Schools That Work, Weissbourd
provides a number of examples in which a school could provide a child with a setting
conducive to both his social and cognitive development He does so by drawing from a number
of new, innovative school schemes being implemented in many public schools across the US
that aim towards bringing out the full academic potential of all its pupils.
While new research in the US has shown a high correlation between teacher pay and pupil
achievement, Weissbourd argues that more is needed than this, He focuses on the importance
of taking into account the many varied dimensions of school problems, which lead to the need
to change the fundamental structure of schooling He notes that diversity and ambition of the
new plans, as well as the size and magnitude of schools that took on the schemes outlined
below, show that they provide exemplary models for other schools/educators,
i) : The Corner Process:
This scheme bases itself on the principle that all of the elements children need to develop in
order for them to reach their full academic potential ought to be addressed within a school It
focuses on the provision of an orderly environment, where parents are welcomed and included
The scheme acknowledges that structures should allow staff to be flexible, in accordance with
the varying needs of the pupils., The new structure that this scheme entails consists of a school-
40
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based management team (comprising of the principal, parents and teachers, who jointly run
each school), and a mental health team which consists of a social worker, psychologist, special
education teacher and a student counsellor. The mental health team provides child
development guidance to the management team, and sometimes help teachers to detect neglect
and abuse of pupils
This model has the advantage of enabling the participation of parents, Weissbourd notes that
research points to the importance of parental involvement, and states the need to involve
parents who may feel estranged from the school, due to factors such as cui tural barriers, or their
own negative experience at school He goes on to say that when a child sees hislher parents
being active and effective in this sphere, it can have a positive effect on their own sense of self
esteem, an effect he tenus as "Positive dynamics,"
Schools that have incorporated this scheme into their structure have experienced a high degree
of success, One problem identified however, was that some such schools have encountered a
high turnover of staff, due to an initial lack of understanding and appreciation of the aims of
this scheme experienced by many new staff members, This points to the need for full
participation of staff in the scheme as well as the need for training on change management for
new members of staff
ii): Accelerated Schools Model
While operating on the same basis as described of above, this schen:e tries to change dynamics
within the classroom setting, with a view to improving the prospects of disadvantaged children
It seeks to ensure that children have "frequent and meaningful achievements at school" (176)i
It involves hands-on learning techniques, and "co-operative learning," which assigns students
to groups and rewards them for working well together. This scheme is employed by 700
schools in 37 states in the US Requirements are a highly committed principal and sufficient
time for staff to plan and develop curricula"
I.J Hi): Success for All Model:
This model is based on research that showed that children who were not reading at grade level
by 3rd grade were far more likely to fail at schooL It aims to bring all children up to this level
It involves the heavy participation of parents This scheme focuses mainly on problems that
41
undermine reading ability, rather than on anything that effects the child's overall well-being
For example, efforts are made to restore glasses if a child loses his own It is used in over 300
schools in 24 states in the US Evaluation shows that students involved in the scheme do
significantly better than other similar children at reading tests In addition, the lowest
achieving children in the class tend to gain most from this scheme
42
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SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
• Schools have been identified as an ideal setting for the social and cognitive d"velopmentof the child.
• It is important that schools use their position to build on the self-esteem of their pupik• In relation to children coming from low-income families, some studies from America
have found that these children often display signs of disruptive behaviour, which can becaused by recent changes in family structure
• Excluding such children from the educational system not only denies them the properrequirements to develop and gain skills, it also fosters furure delinquent behaviour am.ongthem and inhibits them from contributing fully to the labour market in years to'come.
• Children afforded little or no right to participate in the running of most schools, thuscreating an oppressive environment in which they are educated.
• A new attitude to the educational process is beginning to emerge from new innovative,school schemes cUrr~ntlyoperatingin the US, which acknowledge the impo~ce of
parental p;;rqcipa~~I1a.~~;f~fu.(;~*iIlg thebackgroui1d.oftife pupil:,i.'/.'......, -..., ",'." , ,{..,.,.. ,
INDICATORS'OF CHll,D wELL-BEING WITHIN THE EDUCATIONAL ENYIRONMENT.· ..
• Ability ofthe schof'Ho.'aiidressp:irticular nee.ds ofthe.,pupil. .•. ..:';;; .
: ~~~~t~~h~l::;;:o1\til~~J}~"di§ru~~ve PUPilS;:~:~cf~teX61~~ngtl1em."M·i :i:.~;~:
ff·.: ·.~~~~;i.0;~r~~~~~~~;~~~,:~~~~~chieg,£~fi.R1~~~~;~ .i·t"... .-';-';::':;~;"'\C;! .
43
'~'~., ,
6 AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH IN IRELAND RELATING TO
CHILDREN'S WELL··BEING
While a certain amount of research has been carried out in Ireland on various issues pertaining
to the well-being of the child, there is very little data available that provides information on
positive indicators of child well-being that is set within Irish society There is also a lack of
research that aims to give a holistic view of the needs of the child, in teID1S of emotional,
psychological, physical, cognitive and social development Instead, research seems to focus on
the institutions affecting the child's life, such as childcare provisions, the family and education
However, in recent years, an attempt has been made to examine the experiences of the child in
more detail A Children's Research Centre was established in 1995 by Trinity College with a
view to contributing to the research practice and policy fOIDlation relating to children in
Ireland, panicularly those who are disadvantaged Currently, there are plans to undertake a l'
longitudinal study of children who attended pre-school education, with a view to identifying its
effect on the child's educational attainment in later years .. Just in May of this year,- the Irish
government lent its approval and support to the proposal for a longitudinal study be carried out
on children in Ireland,
1. Childcare
• Childcare Arrangements in Ireland,
by James Williams and Claire Collins (1998)
cited in SIrengthening Familiesjor Life by the Commission on the Family (see pan 4)
Here, the authors explore the childcare arrangements of children in Ireland, with a panicular
focus on that used by parents working both full-time in the home and outside of the home
\<
Findings.
The study found that the most important forrn of childcare provision for children in the
youngest age category (0-2 years of age) was a childminder in the minder's home. When a
child reaches 2-3 years of age, nurseries become the most popular form of childcare (with 20%
in this age category cared for in a nursery between 9am-1pm) .. The study also found that 'other ,,-
relatives' provided a very important source of childcare in Ireland When asked what they I;would do if their minder could not car'e for their child, 34% of households cited this as their
back-up care
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• No Room for Complacency - Families, Communities and HIV
by Aileen O'GonTIan, 1999
This teport explores the impact on children of family members who are HIV positive or who
die from AIDS Here, O'GonTIan notes the particular difficulties these parents face in
arranging childcare for their children, which is often exacerbated by the family's wish to keep
their child's or their own status private from their extended families and childminders
(1999:41 )
2. Income Support
• The CoS! of a Child
by the Combat Poverty Agency, 1994
In this study, the authors explore the financial cost of raising a child in Ireland and shows that
state support falls far short of the cost of raising a child This is a particular issue for families
dependent on welfare The report recommends a substantial increase in the universal child
benefit payment, which is paid to all families irrespective of labour force status. This report
highlights the importance of providing parents with adequate financial means to cover the costs
of child rearing A briefing of this report has been enclosed.
• Refonning Child Income Suppon
Poverty and Policy 1
Brian Nolan, Combat Poverty Agency, 1993
This paper discusses means by which income support for children can alleviate child poverty
• Child Poverty in Ireland
Brian Nolan and Brian Farrell, Combat Poverty Agency, 1990
This report is based on the findings from the 1987 Living in Ireland Survey, which was the first
large scale survey carried out in Ireland on Income Distribution, Poverty and te Usage of State
Services in Ireland. The main findings of this report. were a substantial deterioration in the
relative position of households with children over the period 1973 - 1987, the relatively high
risk of poverty for households with children and the greater likelihood that children will be in
poverty as compared to adults The proportion of children in households falling below the
45
poveny line 7 increased by almost a half between this period, from 27 per cent to 39 per cent
Four main reasons were highlighted as the causes of this increase in child poveI'ty in Ireland:
unemployment, low pay, lone parenthood and government fiscal policy
The repon concludes by saying that in order to tackle child poveny, it is necessary to make
substantial increases to child income suppon payments, as well as benefits in kind, such as the
introduction of a clothing and footwear scheme for school children. However, the authors
conclude by saying that increases in income suppon alone is not an adequate response to
tackling child poveny Rather, a longer tenn approach is required, which takes account of the
needs of all households with children over their life cycle
3. Leisure and Physical Space
• Grounds for Pla:y: A Repon on rhe Policy and Provision of Children's Playgrounds by
Local Authorities,
by Margaret Webb, 1998
Play and leisure provide a crucial opportunity for a child to learn a multiple of social and
creati ve skills, as well as learn to develop rules and acceptable standards of education among
people of their own age. In light of this, the Early Childhood Research Centre completed this
study on the policy and provision of playgrounds by local authorities in Ireland, with a view to
enriching the play possibilities for Irish children.
II~:;
Findings and Recommendations
The study showed that out of 71 local authorities, 38 possessed playgrounds Surprisingly, it
also showed that there was no direct relationship between population density of a panicular~
local authority, and the quantity of their playgrounds On the contrary, data showed that 13
local authorities with a population under 5,000 possessed playgrounds, while others with a
population of over 100,000 did not possess any
failure of local authorities to rook at how
In relation to this, the author points to the
"children's play needs are being provided within the area and instead narrowly focuson playgrounds as the solution" (1997: 39)
Webb goes on to say that in order to provide for play, local authorities need to go beyondi
L,.~
7 S 60 . .et at per cent or average income
46
merely allotting a certain area for play, but to see that as mereiy one form of many provisions
for a child's play needs. Webb also notes that while local authorities are 'empowered' by the
1994 Local Government Act to provide such facilities, there is no national policy on the
subject In order to provide for children's play needs, such a policy needs to be developed from
which local authorities can base the provision of such facilities Currently, despite having
signed the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which recognises the rights of the child
to play, Ireland is not adequately providing for this right of the child.
4. The Familv
• Strengthening Families for Life
Final RepOT! to the Minister for Social, Community and Family Affairs
By the Commission on the Family, 1998
Research carried out on the family is very limited in Ireland and most literature in this area
relates LO single parent families The Commission on the family was established in Ireland by
the Minister for Social Welfare in October 1995 It was set up with the view to examining,
"the effects of legislarion and policies on families and make recommendations 10 thegovernment on proposals which would strengthen the capacity offamilies 10 carry outtheir functions in a changing economic and social environme1lt. ..
In July 1998, the Commission on the Family submitted a report to the government, entitled,
Strengthening Families for Life. It provides an in-depth analysis of many different issues
affecting families and provides a number of recommendations for different policy areas that
affect the well-being of the family and includes a number of studies and research papers on
issues relating to the family and the child, from childcare issues to the protection of the child
within a family.
In chapter four, the Cornmission explores the concept of 'positive parenting' in family policy,
which would be supported by a programme that would allow parents to access information and
parent education programmes; As part of this, they recommend the establishment of a national~;
telephone helpline to provide parents with support. Specialised information should be made
available through the Family Mediation Service to families that are separating.
The authors also make reference to parents raising children without the support of a partner. In
doing so, they make a number of recommendations to the government Such recommendations
47
i •\
are confined to issues whereby public policy can intervene to the benefit of those involved In
this section, the Commission focuses its concern on the needs of the child In dealing with the
issue of lone parenthood, the Commission states that,
"the jundamenral human acrivity of care, Intimacy and belongingnes5 can take place ina vanety of family fomu and thal family policy should recognIse this diversity" (ibid :97)
They note that one of the greatest difficulties for policy makers In this arena is the lack of
research earned out on the subject within an Irish context
In Chapter Seven of this report, entitled Parents rearing Children without the Suppon of a
Panner, the Commission explores the topic of teenage pregnancy. Here, it recommends that a
policy response needs to be developed for teenage pregnancy. This would include prioritising a
support services for teenage mothers, encouraging young people to defer parenthood by
improving their own life choices and opportunities, and the provision of information for young
people with a view to influencing their own life choices (ibid: 109-110).\
A major recommendation of the Commission on the Family's report concerning separating
parents include the drawing up of a policy framework between statutory and voluntary bodies
concerning the counselling of these parents. This should be promoted by campaigns,
infortnation and advice centres In relation to children, the report recommends the evaluation
and exploration of the potential of support programmes for children suffering from loss through
separation (226). Other recommendations included in the report are improved access to
childcare, greater access to information, guidance and support for single parents and improved
opportunities for parents participation in education and training.(footnote: a Family Affairs
Unit has now been established in the Department of Social, Community and Family Affairs to
progress some of the recommendations. A family research programme has been initiated by the
Unit).
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• The Social and Psychological Needs of Children ofDrug Users
Report on Exploratory Srudy
By Diane M Hogan, 1997
In 1996, the Children's Research Centre in Trinity College began a two stage empirical Jresearch project on assessing the effects on children of parental drug use, and the social and
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psychological needs of children arising from these effects This document repons the first
stage of this research It was a qualitative study, and involved ten families, in wl<ich at least
one of the parents were opiate users The objectives of the study included
• identifying patterns of psychological development, both social and cognitive, in children of
drug users,
• exploring the social/family contexts in which children of drug users are being raised,
• identifying the needs in terms of care and parenting, psychological intervention and
education on the basis of these findings
• identifying the reasons why children of drug users are more likely to use drugs themselves
than other childrenc
It was also hoped that findings would lead to policy recommendations being made regarding
services and interventions
Methodology and Findings
It was decided not to include children in the interview samplec Instead, parents and teachers of
the children were interviewed in depth, This was because the resources were not available to
provide follow on support for children who may become distressed from discussing parental
drug use
Findings from the study indicated a low number of children showing evidence of social
emotional problems relating to parental drug usec However, the majority of children were
experiencing difficulties at school, shown in poor attendance levels, concentration difficulties,
poor work completion and low levels of parental involvement with their educationc
• Fathers' Irish Experience in an International Context
by Kieran McKeown, Harry Ferguson and Dermot Rooney, 1997
In this paper, the authors argue that one of the benefits of a greater level of involvement of a
father in the life of his children is that it leads, "to children's development as a result of being
emotionally close to both parents" (ibid: 40n The study notes the level of consensus among
researchers that the greater the level of involvement of a father in his child's life, the more
beneficial it will be for the child,
"in tenns of cognitive competence and perfonnance at school as well as for empathy,self-esteem, self-control, life sl:ills and social competence" (423) ..
49
They go on to note that children who lose a father through separation or divorce are more likely
to suffer adversely from this than children who never had a father living with them This, the
author notes, could be a result of the experience of separation rather than being fatherless
Stating that every child needs a male role model, the authors go on to say that research on the
subject cites 2 types of involvement of a father with his children The first centres around care
taking roles, such as nappy changing, preparing food, ete., while the second type relates to
activity involvement with the children Fathers are more likely to become involved in the
second type, and research has shown that this has the most positive impact on the well-being of
the child.
The authors make two main reconunendations in relation to father and child relationships, The
first of these suggests the promotion of good fathering in Ireland through both the education
system and public education. This would be done via resources such as family resource
centres, parenting progranunes and media awareness programmes The second
recommendation relates to the needs and concerns of the father living in a disadvantaged area.
It includes the improvement of the infrastructure of services in such areas, an increase ln
childcare provision and family centres and other community schemes, such as youth services ..
• Family Policy in Ireland -A Srraregic Overview Background Paper
by Tony Fahey, 1997
This report was submitted to the Commission on the Family and examines the concept of
family policy and its situation in Ireland, Family policy has never,before been identified as a
separate part of Irish policy. The author notes how the title change from the Department of
Social Welfare to the Department of Social, Community and Family Affairs led to formal
identification of the family as "a distincr area ofresponsibiliry in public administration" (385)
Within the report, the author explores the two conflicting policy paradigms that have formed
family policy in Ireland; p~triarchal familism and egalitarian individualism Patriarchal
familism is traditionalist and structuralist, in which the family is seen as a unit of society. It is
also patriarchal and property based This paradigm was most viable in the early 20 th century,
when the family was seen as a primary social institution, This was given credence by the
Catholic Church, whose teachings reflected the traditional family It also had a strong agrarian
basis, with agriculture been a main source of production in Ireland.
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The economic crisis of the 1950s in Ireland created a situation in which agrarian- society no
longer provided necessary social and economic progress for Ireland This was coupled by the
emergence of a new paradigm in social policy that focused on the rights of the individual and
equality within the family, namely, egalitarian individualism Here, the individual is seen as
the basic unit of society. This led to new developments in child psychology which looked at
the 'distinctiveness of childhood' (391) and a new conception of children as individllals with
rights Egalitarian individualism also put emphasis on the importance of love, emorional
closeness and intimacy for the child, and aspired to closeness rather than mere co-residence in a
family. Here, Fahey refers to the symbolic importance of 1987 Status of Children Act in
Ireland which abolished the concept of illegitimacy
In relation to child benefit (footnote: the universal child income support payment paid to all
families - include rates per month), the author argues that while it has increased in recent years,
the increase has not been adequate. Fahey notes that with the growth in unemployment in the
late 80s and early 90s, along with inadequate support for children through social welfare,
dependent families and children are at a very high risk of poverty in Ireland, the poverty rate of
children in lJeland being the worst in Europe in the 1980s.
In relation to disputes concerning children in relation to parental separation, Fahey cites his
own 1995 study in which he noted,
"it seems tlult the child's voice is heard only rhrough the .parents, sometimes in thecontext of birter conflict between the father an.d the mother as to wlult is best for thechild" (394).
He notes that the Law Reform Commission recorrunended in its Family Courts Report that the
J court should be able to appoint a legal representative that would act on the behalf of the child in
such court hearings.
In relation to the Constitution, no reference is made to the rights of the child. This is despite
the fact that a major Irish case on child sex abuse, the Kilkenny Incest Report noted that the
state could not intervene in a situation where a child was thought to be at risk, because of the
powers given to the child's parents by the Constitution
51
Fahey does point out that some outcomes of egalitarian individualism are less positive, for
example, inequalities within the education system Children are the largest population living in
poverty in Ireland and 15% experience serious educational disadvantage When developing
family policy, it is necessary to take account of both paradigms. Fahey argues that family
policy should retain a strong popular base, while remaining open to the diversity of family life.
Family policy should also acknowledge the importance of seeing the family as a centre, while
still remaining open to new awareness and concerns "about the requirements for individual
well-being in the family which have emerged over recent years" (ibid).
Fahey ends with a number of recommendations for Irish family policy In relation to 'the kind
of family life' to be promoted by public policy, he notes,
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"the imponance of equaliry between family members as a principle of familyorganisation and eLl a prirrw.ry and necessary constraint on individuals' freedom ofbehaviour and expression withilJ family life. This meam in panicular that legal 0"
guaranrees for children's rights should properly serve as a limitation on the freedom ofbehaviour ofadults within family life" (400)
In relation to the role of the family in Irish society and family policy, he notes that particular
concern that should be placed on the protection of the most vulnerable members of the family,
such as children,
"on the principle that weaker family members ace most at risk offamily relationshipswhich threaten well-being and equaliry" (401).
5. Education
• The Status of Children and Young Persons: Education and Related Issues
By Kathleen Lynch, 1994
This paper examines the position of children in Ireland with regard to the education system.
Lynch argues that while children differ from adults, they should not be treated with a lack of
respect or as being inferior to them According to the author, in order for children to be treated
on an equal level to adults, greater equality has to exist among adults, noting the low level of
public concern in relation to children's rights in Ireland
Lynch goes on to claim that the lights afforded to the family in the Irish constitution result in
the subordination of the rights of the child at times of conflict, going on to note that the state is
required to enswe that the child receives only, minimum levels of education She ends on this
point by stating,
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"At besr, our treatment of children is welfarm and patronL5ing, at wont, if isindifferent, condescending and lacking in respect"
"As long as people own and control significantly different levels of wealth and income,
then it is almost inevitable that they will be advantaged in education,"
from adequate" Therefore, schools serving low-income groups are severely disadvantaged.
Lynch sees education as a fundamental individual right, and questions the fact that some young
people can benefit from a better quality education than others The author concludes by saying
that,
In a school where parents can afford to make significant voluntary contributions, Lynch notes
that the quality of education is likely to improve for their children Adversely, in schools where
parents are poor and cannot make significant voluntary contributions, their children are likely
to suffer as a result While such voluntary funding makes up a small proportion of a school's)
I resources, they do nonetheless make a significant impact on the schooL This voluntarism can
lead to inequality in the educational system Although vocational/community schools do
receive grants from the government they are not in a position to supplement these with
voluntary contributions from parents.. Provision for these schools is described as being, "far
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This failure to access children's opinions is not unique to Ireland, Lynch notes the need to
establish an institution for consultation with children, Arguing that in order to allow children
to develop a full appreciation of the democratic process, they need to participate directly in the
process itself
• Demonstration Programme on Educational Disadvantage
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Combat Poverty Agency, 1996
The Demonstration Programme on Educational Disadvantage was initiated by the Combat
Poverty Agency in 1996. The programme has led to the establishment of four local networks in
disadvantaged communities in Ireland. Each network includes representati ves of educational
interests and aims to identify the nature and extent of educational disadvantage in each area,
identifying the needs of those concerned and the gaps in current education provision,
developing "thematic working groups" and raising local awareness of educational
disadvantage. The programme aims to use these networks to facilitate the development of
structures "which have the capacity to influence policy at national level drawing from local
experience,"
The programme defines educational disadvantage as,
"lhe complex interactlOn ojfactors at home, in school and in [he communiry whichresu/I U1 a young person deriving leos benefil from fonnal educanon lhan lheir peersAs a rerulllhey leave lhe jonnal educaHon system withfew or no qualifications, pUllingthem a[ a disadvantage in lhe labour market, cunailing personal and socialdevelopment, and leading to poverry and social exclusion"
• [l1legrated Services and Children at Risk
By BarT)' Cullen, J998
In order to aid the operation and success of integrating services for young people, Barry Cullen
of the ChilDren's Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, undertook writing this literature
review, which examined the concept of integration and its expected outcome in relation to the
Demonstration Programme on Educational Disadvantage, as described above In this paper,
Cullen notes that while children who are exposed to just one risk factor tend to do as well as
children who aren't exposed to any, children who are exposed to more than one risk factor
experience an increase of "fourfold (in) the likelihood of emotional problems." It is on this
basis that Cullen argues that children, who are exposed to environmental or social risks for
example, can still perform well at school if they experience support from their family, teachers
and other local institutions He goes on to write that the absence of integration between home,
school and community will "contribute to poor educational outcomes" (1997: 5).
• Educational Disadvantage and Early School-Leavingby Scon Boldt and Brendan Devine, 1997
In this report, the authors draw out a number of factors that result in early school leaving
among students who experience educational disadvantage. In it they note that failure in the
Irish education system can have long term implications on Irish children, extending into
adulthood The authors note that state examinations in Ireland are based on academic
performance, and little attention is given to ar'eas such as sport and art. They also identified the
need for schools and teachers to become more community oriented, and recommend the
increased involvement of parents from disadvantaged areas in the running of the school
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• Educational Disadvantage in Ireland
By Thomas Kelleghan, Susan Weir, Seamus 6 Huallachain and Mark Morgan
The EDucational Research Centre (Department of EDucation and Science) 1995
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This report examines the concept of educational disadvantage and government policy relating
to the varying problems of disadvantage. The authors also attempt to examine the iJlcidence of
educational disadvantage as it occurs in urban and rural areas in Ireland
Findings
Results from this report indicated that the concentration of disadvantage was found to be
greatest in Dublin, while in absolute numbers, the greatest percentage of disadvantaged (60 7
per cent) was found in rural areas A wide number of recommendations were drawn out from
this study, including more targeted and intensive treatment for schools in areas of severe
disadvantage, with especial attention on schools in rural areas which receive inadequate
attention under existing schemes. It was also recommended that a support structure should
provided for schools in dealing with disadvantage and that school based interventions should be
linked with the governments Operational Programme for Local Urban and Rural Development.
• Poverty and Educational Disadvantage
Breaking the Cycle
An INTO publication, 1994
This report highlights the increased risk of poverty as faced by Irish children, and explores the
relationship between social class and educational participation and attainment. Particular focus
is placed on the experiences of schools in rural areas in Ireland, As part of the study, interviews
were carned out with teachers working in disadvantaged areas with a view to outlining the
problems faced by pupils living in disadvantaged areas and areas in which change is needed in
order to effectively tackle educational disadvantage.
Recommendations of the report included widening the reference base for identifying
disadvantage to include factors such as isolation, poor road network, falling enrolments and
overall population decline and that the lack of availability of essential state services be
recognised as a causative factor of disadvantage.
• Education and Poverty -
Eliminating Disadvantage in the Early School Years
The Education Commission of the Conference of Major Religious Superiors, 1992
This paper also presents an exploration of the link between education and poverty, but with a
particular focus on educational disadvantage within primary level. The report commences by
55
indicating that children from a disadvantaged background are at a severe disadvantage within
the lrish education system It explores the variety of factors within a child's'environment
which could result in educational disadvantage, as well as the inability of the lrish education
system to cope with the needs of the disadvantaged child. Among a number of
recommendations provided within this report are the provision of pre,school education for all
children, the provision of extra resources to schools (in terms of extra availability of teachers as
well as financial resources), allowing for the special needs of disadvantaged children, and the
development of partnerships through Community education
• The Case for a National Poli~y on Early Education
Poverty and Policy Discussion Paper No. 2
By N6irin Hayes, Combat Poverty Agency
In this report, weaknesses in the current education system in Ireland are identified. Drawing on
a number of research reports the author presents the argument for the establishment of a
national policy in early education, on the grounds that:
• It leads to immediate, immeasurable gains in educational and social development,
• It has particular benefit for children corning from disadvantaged backgrounds,
In order for early education to be effective, Hayes argues that programmes need to have
a child centred approach, and be well resourced, with a low adult: child ratio.
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ApPENDIX ONE
METHODOLOGY ISSUES
The types of methodology used in the development of indicators of children's well-being has
been broached by a number of commentators in the field Some advocate the use of existing
sources of administrative data, as well as survey research, while others promote the use of
qualitative research methods, which would include interviewing children themselves. This
section provides a brief overview of the advantages and disadvantages of both methodologies,
as identified by the authors drawn on in this literature review.
Section 1- Administrative and Quantitative Data
In the EuroSocial Report, American social analyst, Robert M. Goerge, argues that there is a
wealth of information to be gained from a skilled, creative attempt to analyse and bring
together data from ex.isting administrative sources. Goerge states that decisions cannot. be
made in relation to child policy without the introduction of more advanced methods of data
manipulation and data analysis among those interested in the social sciences This calIs for the
importation of data analysis techniques in the computer science field into that of social
research.
Goerge argues that administrative data, while not being collected primarily for research
purposes can become a powerful resource for research (1996: 278). He describes the
techniques needed to analyse such data as, data modelIing, da_tabase documentation and
database querying. The term "data warehousing" refers to taking data from various different
sources, and then transforining them into a structure that would allow less complex. analysis.
This process is complimented by that of data documentation, or meta-data, whereby the
statistician describes the source of the data, along with any other relevant information He
notes how these techniques are currently being infused into social research in the US, in
particular to child welfare (1996: 279). However, he goes on to say that as of yet, very few
individuals possess such skills.
An example of the use of administrative data involves the combination of two data sources,
e g, linking data on birth certificates and death certificates can provide the researcher with
enough data to calculate infant mortality statistics One of the biggest advantages of using
adrninistrative data is that it allows for the quick development of local or even national
57
indicators of children's well-being, which could then be used to inform policy makers and the
public
In relation to the collection of such data, Goerge points out a number of areas whereby the
quality of the data may be affected For example, if a person entering data is likely to be
affected as a result of the analysis of the data, this may result in changes being made to it, or he
may take shon cuts (i.e. not include cenain data) when he knows the company he works for
won't use it. On the other hand, data collected in this way would have a number of positive
aspects to it also If professionals are using the data for their own decision making, they may
take a special interest in its quality. Also, missing data in administrative sources are often
minimal, and as contact can usually be maintained with the client after data has been entered,
mistakes can be rectified more easily than in a social survey. Besides that, those collecting the
data would not have to interrupt the lives of respondents to gather information, as this would be
done so through the normal routine of business (ibid. :280).
Goerge goes on to note how this type of data tends to focus on negative outcomes, such as the
number of children born without prenatal care, etc. This is due to the fact that bodies gathering
information on the subject of children usuall y work to provide services to ameliorate such
problems. However, Goerge predicts that along with the increasing use of computers on a daily
basis world-wide to maintain information, there will soon emerge new sources of
administrative data that could be used to provide information on the positive aspects of
children's well-being.. For example, library records of children borrowing books could be used
to develop positive indicators on the type of books children are reading, and the extent to which
they read (1996: 281)
Goerge concludes with a number of recommendations, relating to the use of administrative data
sets. These include facilitating the development of a common data collection and database
protocol and the inclusion o( researchers in the development of information systems, which he
maintains would greatly improve the utility of administrative data pIior to data collection.
Goerge concludes by stating that researchers should develop indicators that are useful for
"leaders, managers and practitioners to make informed decisions" (1996: 283)
In his repon, Mal.:ing Children Visible in Official Statistics, Hannele Sauli notes how in the
58-~,
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past, children have been "subdued to private control" (Le the family). Children have no social
status, and their well-being is not taken into account However, Sauli maintainHhat a lot of
useful data, relevant to the subject of child well being does exist in these sources, from which
child-specific social statistics and indicators can be drawn This means however, that data
sources have to be rearranged Therefore, published statistics are usually not enough, as the
researcher needs to have access to the basic data set. Sauli also notes the usefulness of census
j data for studying issues such as the distribution of resources between generation.
The need for a set of longitudinal survey data when establishing indicators of child well being
was raised by Brown, in his study, Indicators of the Family Environment in the US' Existing
Data, Gaps, and Plans for the Future. Here, he provides a list of within-household family
structure measures from which family structure indicators can be developed. These include the
separate identification of biological and step-parents, divorced and never married single
parents, cohabiting parents, foster and adoptive parents and finally, whether the relationship of
the child to non-parental family members in the household is identified Brown notes the
importance of establishing a set of family indicators that can capture the cumulative experience
of children over the life course, and not just their status at one given point in time. This would
I rely on the collection of longitudinal data.
l Brown also identifies the need to recognise family measures that reflect different social
cleavages and recommends that measures should be taken that ensure cross-comparability can
and will be done with all large surveys with a view to identifying iDdicators of children's well
being, It is also necessary that structures are identically defined and reliably measured across
all data sets from which child well-being indicators are collected.
II Section 2 . Qualitative Data
Although very little qualitative research has been carried out on the subject of children's well
being, this trend appears to be changing as researchers and policy analysts grow to appreciate,
the valuable insights and use"s of this fonn of research, especially when exploring the subjective
experience of childhood, from the child himlherself
Weissbourd's, The Vulnerable Child is one of the first major pieces of research in this area that
used a primarily qualitative focus in data collection, that also involved interviewing children.
59
The fIndings in this study are the result of in-depth interviews with about one hundred children
Through this process, the author drew together a set of data rich with insights
In his paper, Assesing Neighbourhood and Communiry FaCiOrs Ihat Influence Children's Well
Being, Andrews highlights the need for both qualitative and longitudinal data on children in
order to define indicators of children's well-being as identified by children themselves, as well
as measuring the changing needs of a child as slhe grows older.
In her paper, The Status of Children and Young Persons: Educanonal and Related Issues,
Lynch notes that researchers have neglected to ask children themselves about their own
experiences of poverty, etc, They rely instead on going to their parents, teachers or other
sources to enquire about the child's experience She writes:
H. we have not yet begun 10 take children sufficiently seriously !O establish structureswhereby they can exercise control and influence over institutions which affect Ihemdirectly"
In Consequences ofGrowing Up Poor, Conger et al noted that if mothers were depressed about
their financial situation, the tended to perceive their children as being depressed as well (295),
Therefore, any correlation that may have appeared between the economic situation of the
family and a child's distress may merely reflect the spurious relationship between the mother's
distress and economic disadvantage. In order to avoid this, the authors asked parents for an
account of their financial situation only, and went to the adolescents for details on their well
being. This highlights the importance of looking towards children for information on their
sense of well-being, whose views are often overlooked in the collection of quantitative data.
Marina Ajdukovic and Dean Ajdukovic encountered a similar experience in the collection of
data in their study, entitled the Impact of Displacemenl on the Psychological Well-Being of
Refugee Children. This report presents the findings of a five year study of the impact of
displacement on the psychological well-being of refugee children in Croatia during the war. It
involved 3 psycho-social assessments of elementary school children in a refugee centre in
Zagreb, Croatia.. During the analysis, the researchers note how for the first twO assessments,
they went to the parents for an account of their children's psychological state However, they
go on to note that for the third assessment, they went to the children themselves for this
information, as they realised that, "in somefamities, the molhers themselves were overwhelmed
60
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by problems and did nor have rhe capaciry 10 recognise and assess rheir children '.I difficullies"
(1998: 190) A lot can be learned fmm this realisation in the effort to determine which forms of
methodology are to be used in developing indicators for children's well-being Ajdukovic and
Ajdukovic do note later on in the report, however, that interviewing children had its own
drawbacks too One of these was the inability of young children to adequately describe their
feelings on being displaced, while older children were often either unaware of some of their
reactions to the situation, or withheld such thoughts from the researcher, as they did not want to
cause any further distress to their mother (1998: 193).
Another issue that emerged from feedback with researchers in the area was an ethical concern
of interviewing a child, especially when the SUbject maner is of a sensitive or disturbing nature
In these cases, it has been noted that such interviews should be appmached with caution, and if
necessary should provide follow on support of a social worker for the child involved
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ApPEN"DIX B
REFERENCES
Ajdukovic, Marina and Ajdukovic, Dean (1998) Impacr of displacemenl on Ihe Psychological
Well-Being of Refugee Children, cited in International Review of Psychiatry 1998, No 10 pp
186-195
Andrews, Arlene (1997), Assesing Neighbourhood and Coml71ul11Iy Facron IhalInfluence
Children's Well-Being, cited in EuroSocial Repo111997, No 62, Vienna: European Centre for
Social Welfare Policy and Research,
Asher Ben-Arieh (1996) MeaSUring and Monloring lhe Slale of Children, cited in EuroSocial
Repol1 1997, 1'10,62, Vienna: European Centre for Social Welfare Policy and Research
Boldt, Scott and Devine, Brendan (1997) Educalional Disadval1lage and Early School-Leaving
Dublin: Combat Povel1Y Agency
Brierley, John (1980) Children's Well-Being - Growlh, Development and Leaming from
Conceplionlo Adolescence, London: Vintage
Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne, Duncan, Greg J and Maritato, Nancy (1997) Poor Families, Poor
Owcomes: lhe Well-Being of Children and Youth, cited in Consequences of Growing Up Poor,
eds, Duncan, Greg J. and Brcioks-Gunn, Jeanne, New York: Russell Sage Foundation,
Brown, Brett V (1997) IndicalOrs oJ/he Family Environmel1l in lhe US, Existing Dala, Gaps,
and Plans for lhe Future, cited in EuroSocial Report 1997, No, 62, Vienna: European Centre
for Social Welfare Policy and Research,
Combat Povel1y Agency, (1994) The Cost ofa Child, Dublin: Oak Tree Press
,,.
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Commission on the Family, (1998) Slrenglhening Families for Life Final RepOT! to the
Minisler for Social, Communiry and Family Affairs Dublin: Stationery Office ~
-,-62 '
II
Conger Rand D , Conger Jewsbury, Katherine and Elder, Glen H Jr (1997) Family Economic
Hardship and Adolescent Adjustmel1l Medzaiing and Moderating Proces.se" cited in
Consequences of Growing Up Poor, eds Duncan, Greg J and Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne, New
York: Russell Sage Foundation
Cullen, Barry (1998) Integrated Services and Children a[ Risk Dublin: Children's Research
Centre
Education Commission of the Conference of Major Religious Superiors (1992) Educa!ion and
Poverty - Eliminaring Disadvan/age in !he Early School Years, Dublin: Conference of Major
I Religious Superiors.
IJ Erik Erikson (1995) Childhood and Sociery, London: Vintage
Fahey, Tony (1997) Family Policy in Ireland - A S!raregic Overview - An Abs!rac! of a Report
[0 !he Commission on the Family Dublin: ESRl
II\
Fr\'Snes, Ivar (1997) Children in Modem Families. A Scandinavian Perspeerive, cited in
EuroSocial Report 1997, No 62 Vienna: European Centre for Social Welfare Policy and
Research.
Hayes, N6iIin (1995) The Case for a National Policy on Early Education
Poverty and Policy Discussion Paper No 2, Dublin: Combat Poverty Agency
Hill, Malcolm and Tisdall, Kay (1997) Children and Sociery, London: Longman
Hogan, Diane M. (1997) The Social and Psychological Needs of Children of Drug Users
Report on an Exploratory S!udy, Dublin: Children's Research Centre
INTO (1994) POl'erty and Educational Disadvantage - Breaking !he Cycle Dublin: An INTO
Publication.
Kelleghan, Thomas, Weir, Susan, 6 HUallachain, Searnus and Morgan, Mark (1995)
Educarional Disadvan[age in Ireland Dublin: The Educational Research Centre (Department of
63
Education and Science)
Korenman, Sanders Miller, Jane E (i997) Effects Of Long Term Poverry On Physical Health
Of Children In The Nallonal Longitudmal Survey Of Youth, cited in COllSequences of Growing
Up Poor, eds Duncan, Greg J. and Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne, New York: Russell Sage Foundation
Lynch, Kathleen (1998) The Status of Children and Young Persons Education and Related
Issues cited in Social Policv in Ireland - PrinciDles. Practices and Problems eds. Healy, Sean
and Reynolds, Brigid, Dublin: Oak Tree Press
McKeown, lGeran, Ferguson, Harry and Rooney, Dermot (1998) Fathers Irish Experience in
anil1lemational COl1lext, cited in Strengthening familiesfor Life, Final repol1 of the
CommissIOn on the Family to the Minister for Social, Community and Family Affairs, Dublin:
Stationery Offlce
McLanahan, Sara S, Parent Absence or Povel1y W/1Ich Mallers More? cited in Consequences
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65
ApPENDIX C
WEB-SITES RELATING TO CHILDREN'S WELL-BEING
+ Indicators of Children's Well·Being
www.f1oridakidscount.org
www.aecforg
+ Indicators of Children's Well-Being
The official websile of the Federallnleragency Forum on Child and Family SlanstiC5, US
www.childstats.f!ov/ac1998/edtxt.htm
+ Parental Education and Children's Well-being
oseda.missouri.edulheaIthorimer/page28.htrnI
+ Parent's concerns about their children's well-being
www.buddvseott.eomlre!ief/O Iinkl.htrn
+ Centre of Excellence for Children's Well-Being - US
www.he-se.ge.ea/hpoblehiIdhood-youth!eentreslreferenee.html,
+ RSF: Publications: Recent Backlist: Indicators of Children's Well-Being
www.russellsage.org/pub!ieations/titIes/... rsehiIdren.htm
+ KidCare - Health and Well-Being for Children
www.eharm.net!-jblakelkideare.htrn
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