Literature Review over the Effect of Textile Material Affecting Forensic Important Insects from

Entering a Body

By

Dustin Stockmann

A paper submitted for ENTO 896 at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln

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Table of Contents

Abstract............................................................................................................................................4

Introduction......................................................................................................................................5

Taphonomic Research.....................................................................................................................6

Forensic Entomology.......................................................................................................................6

Fabric/textile barriers.......................................................................................................................7

Estimation of the Post-Mortem Level..............................................................................................9

Forensic Entomology and Post-Mortem Interval..........................................................................10

Influencing factors of time since death estimations .....................................................................10

Accumulated degree days (ADD).................................................................................................10

Accumulated degree hour(ADH)...................................................................................................11

Cumulative degree hours (CDH)...................................................................................................11

Stages of tissue decomposition......................................................................................................12

A. rigor mortis........................................................................................................................12

B. livor mortis.........................................................................................................................13

C. Algor mortis.......................................................................................................................13

Fresh Stage.....................................................................................................................................14

Autolysis........................................................................................................................................14

Decay Stage...................................................................................................................................14

Skeletonization Stage.....................................................................................................................15

Factors affecting the rate of decomposition ..................................................................................16

A. temperature........................................................................................................................16

B. moisture.............................................................................................................................16

Insect Activity................................................................................................................................17

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Arthropods relationship to a body.................................................................................................18

Necrophagous species....................................................................................................................18

Predators and parasites of nectophagous species...........................................................................18

Maggot activity in a body..............................................................................................................19

Omnivorous species.......................................................................................................................20

Adventive species..........................................................................................................................20

A. seasonality..........................................................................................................................20

B. Surface vs. buried bodies...................................................................................................21

Fabric/textile barriers.....................................................................................................................19

Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................22

Work cited.....................................................................................................................................23

Vita................................................................................................................................................26

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Abstract

There are a large number of factors that can impact the process in which forensically

important insects may enter into a carcass. A main hindrance of insects has been the ability to

access substantially more portions of a body to feed on. This literature review deals with the

accessibility and chance of being able to find an opening to explore if a body has been covered.

Coverings can impact the decomposition process of a cadaver in which are frequently found in

forensics cases (Dautartas, 2009). Depending on which season the carcass is discovered in, can

lead to a possible interference of not only insects being able to access entrance into a body, but

also how this can retard the process of insects entering into the body (Miller, 2002).

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Introduction

Forensic entomology is a broad field in which arthropods and the judicial system interact.

A forensic entomologist uses the presence of insects as tools of evidence to discover

circumstances of interest to the law as it is often related to crime (Silahuddin, Latif, Kurahashi,

Walter, & Heo, 2015). A problem that must be addressed in the ever-growing field of forensic

science is to establish accurately when a death occurred (Gordon, 2003). This issue of having to

determine postmortem intervals (PMI) is helped by the use of forensically important insects. This

determination uses several different factors in allowing insects to determine PMI due to their

succession on a corpse (Dautartas, 2009). Due to a body possibly being wrapped in some textile

or fabric, this can affect how the insects would effectively access a body. Since a multitude of

factors can affect the decomposition process, coverings for this literature review were based on

the textiles of plastic and fabric because they are the most common coverings observed on

bodies.

This literature review purpose is to: first, assess how different materials covering a body

can affect the entrance of crucial forensics insects into a body. This question focuses on how

individual textiles can hinder forensically important insects from accessing a body. The second

question of this literature review is to help determine how coverings can affect a PMI estimate.

Clothing has different effects on the decomposition of a body based on its material and thickness

(HauTEO, Hamzah, Osman, Ghani, & Hamzah, 2013). The research behind developing this

literature review stands to the current knowledge of how PMI estimates within legal cases can be

affected due to the environment in which they are found. Insect activity is arguably one of the

most important factors influencing decomposition (Dautartas, 2009). Traditionally, a forensic

entomologist who is trying to establish A PMI, first needs to establish the age of the insects,

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particularly blow fly larvae collected from the corpse (Mohr & Tomberlin, 2014). The age of

these larvae are then applied to either AAH or ADD growth models and calculated using the

accumulated-hour and accumulated day concept of growth (Higley & Haskell, 2001)

Taphonomic Research

Taphonomic research has become more common in forensics work across the world

(Dautartas, 2009). The Field of study regarding taphonomic research examines how the

processes of a biological organism change in the time of death estimates. Such factors as

environmental, biological, chemical, and even cultural factors can affect how matter can be

decomposed. Figuring out these processes can help explain precisely how decomposition can be

affected, and this in turn allows for more accurate estimate of the PMI or time of death. An exact

assessment of PMI can help narrow the carcass of data that will need to be assessed. This overall

helps with creating a timeline for a forensic case.

Forensic Entomology

Forensic entomology is the study of insects in the use of criminal investigations (Joseph,

Mathew, Sathyan, & Vargheese, 2011). The study of insects associated with the human corpse is

an effort to determine the elapsed time of death upon a carcass (Anderson, 2010). Insects being

used as a tool of evidence can assist in determining if a body has been moved, such as, if a

corpse has been moved to a second site after death, or the body has been disturbed either by

animals or the perpetrator returning to the scene of the crime. Insects on and around the dead

body can tell forensic entomologists how long a person has been dead. An entomologist from a

forensically trained program can help to create an approximate estimation to give an estimated

time of death. This is an estimate created from the different types of insects that are found either

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on, or around the carcass. Proper identification of insects and arthropod species of forensic

importance is one of the most important elements in forensic entomology (Byrd & Castner,

2001).

Fabric/textile barriers

Forensic entomologists and other scientists often attempt to study decomposition rates

and patterns by compiling information gathered from individual forensic cases. These case

studies can then be compared with other similar situations, and commonalities and differences

can be discovered. Anecdotal information also provides a useful starting point for developing

future research topics. Common trends seen in the forensic cases can provide questions that fuel

hypotheses and experimental designs.

The idea to study how clothing, fabric, or textiles affects the decay rate stemmed from

case reports. In a review of forensic anthropology casework in New Mexico, 120 of 598 cases

were reported to include clothed individuals found at the crime scene (Komar, 2003). Although

this seems to be a small percentage of the total number of cases, instances where the individual

was clothed were frequent enough that further study of the effects of clothing would prove

useful. Clothing has different effects on the bodies based by its material and thickness (HauTEO,

Hamzah, Osman, Ghani, & Hamzah, 2013).

Also, not all of the individuals were clothed in the same manner. Seventy-four

individuals were found in light summer clothing while forty-six individuals were dressed in

winter clothing (Komar, 2003).

Clothing also promotes adipocere formation (Miller, 2002). Adipocere can be defined as

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an insoluble soap formed from fatty acids, which hydrolyze with bivalent ions (Jackowski et al.,

2005). However, the presence of clothing on a surface deposition has been shown both to slow

and to accelerate decomposition, depending upon other factors (Cahoon, 1992, Miller, 2002).

Other types of covering such as plastic bags, carpets and tarps can also affect the decomposition

rates of buried bodies in a similar fashion. For example, plastic bags have been observed to

increase adipocere formation by trapping moisture (Miller, 2002).

Clothing, although possibly the most frequently studied covering, is not the only type of

covering to be reported on a deceased individual. In the same survey of New Mexico cases,

Komar (2003) reported that sixteen individuals were found wrapped in plastic, and twenty were

noted as wrapped in a cloth or blanket. A canvas tarp was found wrapped around another

individual, and two instances were reported in which individuals were located in burlap bags

(Komar, 2003).

Variation in body coverings spans a broad spectrum. A case from Singapore involved the

remains of a child found wrapped in nine layers of plastic and then placed in a plastic bag (Chui,

2006). In this instance, the body was reportedly in a state of much higher preservation than

expected for the hot, humid climate (Chui, 2006). Again, this illustrates how coverings can

dramatically affect the estimation of post mortem interval. Individuals are sometimes responsible

for their own placement in odd coverings. One suicide report detailed how an individual wrapped

himself in a large plastic bag and then connected plastic tubes between the bag and two gas tanks

(Piatigorsky, 2006).

Manhein (1997) discusses several case studies from Louisiana that she had examined. In

one of these cases, a body had been deposited in a plastic bag, which appeared to preserve the

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body. A second case study had a woman wrapped in a polyester mattress cover, which did not

seem to preserve the remains. Still a third case introduced another type of fabric; a man was

wrapped in a vinyl tablecloth prior to disposal (Manhein, 1997). In a survey conducted of eighty-

seven cases, fifty-four of the bodies were wrapped in some type of fabric prior to burial. Plastic

was one of the most common fabrics, but a wide variety was noted, including rugs, sleeping

bags, blankets, and clothing (Manhein, 1997). Another instance of unusual deposition happened

in Virginia. A man murdered his wife and buried her charred remains wrapped in a carpet

(Glassman, 2003).

Light clothing amplifies decomposition by protecting maggots from sunlight, rainfall, and

other hazards from the world (HauTEO, Hamzah, Osman, Ghani, & Hamzah, 2013). This

covering creates a potential importance of how a body will decompose. Kelly, Van Der Linde,

and Anderson (2009) demonstrated that carcass wrapping is of clear importance, as it results in

larger, more visible and more freely moving larval masses, longer duration of advanced decay

and more biomass remaining after termination of active decay. However, clothing (considered in

isolation) was found to be of no importance, since control and clothed carcasses decomposed

with the same pattern and rate as control and unclothed carcasses

Estimation of the Post-Mortem Level

The post-mortem level can be affected by various factors such as temperature, moisture,

and the carcass chemical content. Forensic entomologist collect samples from on and around the

carcass. These may be eggs, larvae or maggots, pupae and/or empty pupal casings, as well as

adults (Anderson, 2010). In order to build a timetable that is usable, there must be enough data

collected to help establish the post-mortem level.

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Forensic Entomology and Post-Mortem Interval

Over a span of the last few decades, more studies have been conducted trying to figure

out which species of insects help with providing PMI the best. Insects including flies, beetles,

and moths have been able to provide the most accurate description of figuring out PMI. This

research conducted has been looking at the amount of activity that insects will put into trying to

access a carcass after death. Being able to identify the insects correctly that are present at a death

scene, and being able to determine where the insects are in their life cycle can help to create an

accurate time of death estimate.

Influencing factors of time since death estimations

There are many ways that influence how to figure out the time of death of an individual.

This comes from the amount of a body mass that has been lost due to the blow fly larvae during

the first few days when decomposition has set in. It is possible for the blow fly larva to remove

up to 60% of the body mass in a relatively short period (Greenberg & Kunich, 2005). With the

loss of soft tissue, forensic entomologist investigators may come up with a much longer time

than what is accurate due to the blowfly behavior. Other insects that may traumatize the remains

during the different stages of decomposition can include bees, wasps, ants, lice, and cockroaches.

Knowledge of these insects’ different types of behavior can allow forensic entomologist

investigators a chance to determine PMI more accurately from a body (Dautartas, 2009).

Accumulated degree days (ADD)

Accumulated degree days (ADD) is a term that is used to help establish a time in the

number of days since death or the accrued total hours since a death has occurred. Recently

accumulated degree days has become increasingly more prevailing as a standardized unit of

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measurement for postmortem intervals (Dautartas, 2009). There are limitations that exist with

this method due to the basic principle is that this correlation is linear between temperature and

development (Anderson, 2000). Since insect development is heavily influenced by temperature

such as temperature extremes, ADD was established to help align certain stages of development

with a range of differing temperatures within extremes. Since temperature extremes can affect

how accumulated degree days can be determined, this method only requires that an individual be

aware of how the temperatures can affect the overall development and could require less

calculation of accumulated degree days (Dautartas, 2009).

Accumulated degree hours (ADH)

Since there’s been an increased frequency of the use of the accumulated degree days in

entomological research and application, this is prompted entomologist to expand and refine the

concept of ADD. Accumulated degree hours (ADH) is the response to this which was first

established in agricultural studies (Greenberg & Kunich, 2005). ADH was originally developed

to help find the time that was best for insecticide application to help limit the damage that in

agricultural pest could provide to crops. ADH is also assumed as a linear relationship between

temperature and insect development overall. To determine the total ADH for an insect

maturation requires an individual to add the number of hours from eggs to adulthood. Next the

researcher will multiply them by the quantity of the temperature in degrees Celsius after

subtracting the total developmental threshold temperature (Greenberg & Kunich, 2005).

Cumulative degree hours (CDH)

Cumulative degree hours refines the concept further of establishing intervals for

establishing when death occurred. For the possibility of having a body decomposing for many

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months, the estimation of accumulated degree days may not be critical to impact the case work.

Being able to narrow down the technique is much more beneficial when determining the

decomposing rate of a body that has been dead for a shorter amount of time (Dautartas, 2009).

To calculate CDH the average temperature in degrees Celsius is added for each twelve hour

interval that the body is in a decomposing process (Vass, et al., 2002). Measuring temperatures at

a smaller interval allow for a greater accuracy to happen. The limit to this technique in cases in

which a body has not been decomposing for a long period.

Stages of tissue decomposition

The decomposition of a body will happen in a very predictable pattern depending on

temperature, moisture, and climate. The research has tried to describe and define how each stage

is and its total length, at controlled conditions. There are many factors that may change how a

body will decompose, but it will still follow a standard set of stages. These stages are called:

rigor mortis, livor mortis, and algor mortis. During the beginning of death, the fresh stage of the

soft tissue, decomposition will take place. This is normally within the first 24-48 hours following

death (Galloway, Birkby, Jones, Henry, & Parks, 1989).

Rigor Mortis

Rigor mortis is the process in which muscles in the body will stiffen due to an increase of

lactic acid in the tissue following death (Hunter, Roberts, & Martin, 1996). Eventually, what will

happen is all of the muscles will seize, and the body will become unable to move from its

position. This will begin within 2-4 hours after death has taken place and its peak around the 12

hour mark after death has occurred. Rigor mortis is affected by both the body temperature and

metabolic rate of the body before death.

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Livor Mortis

Livor mortis is the next process that is used to describe a post-mortem interval (Kaatsch,

Schmidtke, & Nietsch, 1994). When the cells of a body break down, and circulatory activity has

ceases, blood will respond to the effect of gravity and settles in the lowest points of the body.

This settling creates visible, red areas on the skin of the body (Baden & Hennessee, 1990).This

process, although affected by other variables, begins within an hour post mortem and takes

around eight hours to complete (Baden & Hennessee, 1990). Additionally, if a body is moved

after a period of time, the lividity will be fixed. This fixing of the lividity creates “stains” that

are noticeable at the site of original contact. The blood that has not pooled in the body will not

move out of the body unless the body has been punctured where the blood has pooled.

Therefore, this can be helpful in determining not only post mortem interval, but if the body is in

its primary or secondary placement (Kaatsch, Schmidtke, & Nietsch, 1994).

Algor Mortis

This is described as when the body has died, and the temperature drops two degrees

within the first twelve hours after death and continues to fall at a constant rate of about one

degree per hour (Kaatsch, Schmidtke, & Nietsch, 1994). Simple calculations are then needed to

determine the time since the death has occurred. The issue with these calculations are that

temperature can be affected by the ambient temperature and bacterial activity (Dautartas, 2009).

These processes can be used to create an approximation of a time since the death that is precise

to a few hours. All the same, these techniques will stop to be effective at around the thirty-six

hours post mortem. The need to develop a time table for this process later in the decomposition

stage, needs to be assessed.

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Fresh Stage

This is the first stage of death and will continue until the body has started to show

evidence of bloating (Goff, 2010). During this stage there are a few decompositional changes

that happen with the body, such as, color changing of the abodomen and livor and the skin will

start to crack. Generally insect intrusion of a body will happen with any opening that is possible

such as the head, anus, and genitals or if there is a wound present.

Autolysis

During the process of decomposition, when the carcas is no longer considered in the fresh

phase, this is when autolysis occurs (Dautartas, 2009). Autolysis is a name given to the cell death

that results in a complete loss of cellular integrity and widespread necrosis (Parsons, 2003). The

stopping of circulatory activity and the resulting loss of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) causes a

chemical change in the cell wall and a mixing of the extracellular matrix and the surrounding cell

tissue (Dautartas, 2009). This process of cell death then leads to a drop in the pH of the

cytoplasm as cellular death continues within the body. Within the cytoplasm, the enzymes

become active and continue to process the deterioration of the cellular material. On the outside of

the body, massive color change is evident in the skin complexion, which will become paler, and

skin slippage is often observable (Vass et al., 2002).

Decay Stage

This stage , the decay consists chiefly of increased and intensive interior decomposition

reactions. The skin cracks, and eventually decomposer, along with other microorganisms enter

into the soft tissues of the body (Galloway, Birkby, Jones, Henry, & Parks, 1989). This stage is

when the activities of the maggot feeding and bacterial putrefaction have reached critical mass

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and the skin starts to break down. This is the point of when the bloating of the body will start to

retard back due to escaping gasses. As the internal tissue becomes exposed to the environment,

this opening will allow oxygen to enter in, progressing the rate of decomposion. This increases in

the aerobic bacterial activity, which accelerates tissue decomposition (Rodiguez, 1982). The

feature that helps explain further insect involvement is the presence of large feeding masses of

Diptera larvae (Goff, 2010). As the body is splitting open due to the pressure of the putrefaction

and maggots producing heat, the maggots will spill out onto the ground around the body. These

Diptera larvae will remove most of the flesh from the body leaving skin, hair and cartilage (Goff,

2010).

Any remaining head hair cast off from the body and forms a “hair mat.” This is a slew of

tangled hair which accumulate below the body structure. Liquid leaking out of the body allows

for the exposure of the skeleton, and the remains of the body begin to dry. As this process starts

to happen, more bone is exposed, leading to the dry stage. As the body starts to dry out, the

Diptera start to cease to be the predominate insect. Varous groups of Coleptera will replace the

Diptera, during this stage of decomposition.

Skeletonization stage

This last process of the decomposition phase includes little or no soft tissue leftover, with

extensive skeletalization evident over the entire body (Rodiguez, 1982). Although there can be a

great deal of variations in the biological processes that lead to the remaining of a skeleton, any

remaining parts after skeletalization is reasoned to be component of the end of the decomposition

process. The skeletonization stage can last for months or years. It is marked only by the ultimate

breakdown of the skeleton its self. Once a body has achieved this phase, determination of time

that has passed since death has occurred can be hard because skeletal preservation will count

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more on the surroundings. Scavenging, weather conditions, soil acidity, and other factors can all

affect how well bone material remains intact.

Factors affecting the rate of the decomposition process

A multitude of factors can affect each stage of the decomposition process, either

accelerating the process or retarding it, depending on the particular agent at work. Some of the

most frequently observed variables are temperature, moisture, insect activity, and exposure to

either sun or shade. Another factor that can affect activity is if the remains are left on the surface

or have been buried or submerged has an impact on the rate of decay. Normally, many of these

variables affect the decomposition process of a body. The effects of decomposition are seen in

multiple stages. The fact that these influences interact throughout the entire process is what

makes the sequence so variable.

Temperature

Decomposition of a body is affected by the temperature of where the body is at. It is

observed that a trend of warmer climates will promote a faster rate of decay and in a colder

climate, there will be a reduction in the process (Adams & Byrd, 2014).

Moisture

Moisture is a factor that can contribute to the rate of decomposition of a body. An

environment that retains more moisture will aid in decomposition whereas a climate that is

arider, will affect the process by slowing it down (Galloway, Birkby, Jones, Henry, & Parks,

1989). The combination of arid conditions and temperature extremes will provide that the body

will start to become mummified faster. These are examples of how active factors can lead to an

increase in the amount of how fast a body can decompose. The importance of moisture content

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to decomposition allowed for accelerated water loss and this leads to faster desiccation of tissue

(Saras & Lukasewycz, 1999).

Insect activity

Insect activity is reasoned as one of the most significant factors affecting a body’s

decomposition. Insects quicken the decomposition process by processing different levels of the

body breaking down (Gonzales, Vance, Helpern, & Uberger, 1959). Ants, blowflies, beetles, and

cockroaches all affect the decomposing tissue. Typically, blowflies are the first insects attracted

to the body; they can be observed on a corpse minutes after deposition (Campobasso, Di Vella,

& Introna, 2001). Insects position eggs approximately close to the orifices of the mouth, nostrils,

eyes and genitals, and any open wounds that can be accessed on the body. These eggs then hatch

into maggots within eight to fourteen hours (Campobasso, Di Vella, & Introna, 2001). Insects

can be affected by coverings blocking the entrance to a body as well as where the location of the

body is, in relationship to shade and sun. (Dautartas, 2009). Insects prefer warm protected areas

away from directed sunlight (Miller, 2002).

The succession of these insects come in waves to the body after death that can be

adequately calculated in forming an idea of when did death occur (Mohr & Tomberlin, 2014).

Most research has shown that as the body has started to enter the breaking down phase, blow

flies are the first indication that insects are going to be on the way to begin to decompose the

body. There are also flesh flies (Sarcophagidae) that will appear as soon as the body starts to

break down (Goff, 2010). The female flies will begin to explore any openings for possible

entrance for oviposition or larvipoition. These insects will bore into any opening and deposit

eggs, 1st instar larvae or maggots. These openings to the body are affected by if they are covered

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or not such as by cloth or another textile material (Goff, 2010).

Arthropods relationship to a body

In the decomposition of a body, there are many different relationships that arise as the

body changes (Goff, 2010). As a body decomposes, there are four different stages of species that

will approach the carcass. These four stages of species are: I) necrophagous species, II) predators

and parasites of necrophagous species, III) omnivorous species, and IV) adventive species.

Within these different population of species that will come to a body, not all will have the same

role (Goff, 2010).

Necrophagous species

These are the species of insects that are actually feeding on the corpse. This group

includes many of the true flies (Diptera), including the blow flies (Calliphoridae), and the flesh

flies (Sarcophagidae) who are the first to arrive on a body after death. The next important insects

to arrive are the beetles (Coleoptera: Dermestidae, and Silphidae) who are important for use in

figuring out the minimum period of activity on a body. The last group of insects, the Acari, are

not too involved in this stage but start to show up (Goff, 2010).

Predators and parasites of necrophagous species

This next significant group of taxa that attacks a corpse are the most significant because

they will visit the body the most. Many beetles (Coleoptera: Histeridae, Silphidae, and

Staphylinidae), the true flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae and Stratiomyidae), and wasps

(Hymenoptera) who are parasitic on the fly larvae and pupae are included in this list. Certain

18

species of fly larvae are necrophages during their early developmental stages of life in which

they must have the carrion to survive (Goff, 2010).

Maggot activity in a body

As the maggots mature, they disrupt the soft tissue, burrowing into the flesh. The larvae

also decompose proteins in the soft tissue, which leads to liquefaction of the area (Evans, 1963).

Large numbers of maggots are cultivated in the body, and this collective group is often capable

of damaging much of the soft tissue within a short period of time. This focal liquefaction of the

body helps the maggots travel throughout the body. Also, as the maggots travel throughout the

body, they help to disseminate bacteria while feeding (Lord, 1990). The natural process of the

maggot mass also creates heat within the body, which further stimulates decomposition (Mann et

al., 1990). Insect activity rates are variable depending upon ambient temperature and on sun or

shade exposure. Direct sunlight leads to more rapid insect succession but smaller populations,

while shady areas typically exhibit larger insect populations, but slower onset (Srnka, 2003).

With the increase of eggs, 1st instar, and larvae being deposited into the body, and the

heat increases due to the body beginning to digest the tissue, the bloated stage begins. This

combination of putrefaction and metabolic activity of the maggots can increase the body

temperature significantly compared to the surrounding ambient temperature (Goff, 2010). This

combination leads to a perfect combination of a maggot habitat.

This habitat can be changed due to the amount of clothing that is surrounding the body.

Clothing made of cotton or other natural materials are susceptible to microorganism degradation

while artificial polyester clothing is resistant to degradation. These different types of clothing can

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either enhance or hinder the habitat that maggots would enter for completion of the life cycle

(HauTEO, Hamzah, Osman, Ghani, & Hamzah, 2013).

Fly eggs are normally deposited on a corpse once the death has occurred, determining the

age of the immature insects specimens. Sometimes maggots are found, but no corpse is located.

This association between corpse and maggots can be exceptionally significant (Zehner, Amendt,

& Krettek, 2004). In the cases of sexual assault, the masses of maggots activity could produce

changes that mimic the position of where clothing is currently, compared to where it was. This

clothing position can change daily due to the masses of maggots in the corpse until the body has

had an exodus of the maggot mass (Miller, 2002).

Omnivorous species

There are taxa such as wasps, ants, and some beetles that feed on the corpse and

arthropods that are on and around the corpse. Goff (1986) watched as large populations of these

taxa attack not only the body, but also the other insects causing a slowing in the rate of

decomposition from necrophagous species. Ants typically feed on the epidermis, which allows

the dermis beneath to dry and crack (Miller, 2002).

Adventive species

This final category includes insects that use what is remaining of the corpse as an

expansion of the normal habitat. This is common for centipedes, millipedes, spiders and

springtails (Collembola) (Goff, 2010).

Seasonality

Fly species are also constrained by season (Greenberg & Kunich, 2005). Blowfly species

20

will only appear during the summer months, while others favor cold weather. This information

can also be of importance in determining both the time since death has happened and possible

relocation of the body. The usefulness of seasonality data can be complicated by the fact that

bodies can be moved indoors, with artificial temperature settings that can frequently harbor out

of season insects within the body. Abnormal weather, such as heat waves or cold spells, can also

bewilder the seasonality data. Sometimes a shift in temperature leads normally diurnal flies to

become more active at night, or to less frequent breeding of a species (Greenberg & Kunich,

2005).

Surface vs. buried bodies

Whether remains are deposited on the surface or buried greatly affects decomposition.

Burial of remains inhibits both insect and mammalian scavenging activities and therefore, can

delay decomposition. Also, temperatures above ground are higher than below the surface

(Galloway, Birkby, Jones, Henry, & Parks, 1989). Burial of a body generally shields the remains

from weathering activities, which damage the tissue. The depth of burial also factors into decay

rates and how insects can reach the bodies. As a general trend, a deeper interment will provide

better preservation of remains, due to more stable temperatures and better protection from

surface factors (Adams & Byrd, 2014)

The burial of bodies can make finding of bodies more difficult. Which results in bodies

being interred for a longer period of time and furthering decomposing prior to being recovered

and analyzed. In an attempt to deal with this issue, Vass et al. (2002) researched how chemicals

released during decomposition and the odors that are emitted are picked up by insects. By

building a database of decompositional odors, the researchers hope to develop a chemical sensor

21

that can detect buried bodies without the aid of cadaver dogs. In order to collect the necessary

data, Vass et al. (2002) conducted research over a year and a half period, and collected chemical

samples from bodies buried in shallow graves.

Conclusion

In conducting this literature review, there has been an argument regarding whether

clothing can affect the acceleration or decomposition of a body and how this relates to insects

being able to access entrance. The results of this literature review has shown that clothing, fabric,

and textile material prevents insects to find a way into a body initially. As a body goes into

further steps of decomposition, insects will make a run for any openings that may arise such as

the bloating stage of the decomposition process. As forensic entomologist are called upon to help

in figuring out the time of death of an individual, it must be considered that the clothing, fabric,

and textile material must be taken into account regarding how to calculate Accrued Degree Days

(ADD) and Accrued Hour Days (ADH).

Clothing affects abiotic conditions of the cadaver, as for example its humidity, amount of

shade, or protection for inhabiting arthropods. Some results indicate that it may increase

abundance and diversity of carrion insects, enlarge dipteran larval masses and make larvae more

freely moving, or prolong the period in which some larval Diptera are present on a cadaver.

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Vita

Dustin Ray Stockmann was born in Farmington, Missouri on October 06, 1986. He was

raised in De Soto and attended elementary and secondary school in the De Soto R-73

School District when he graduated in 2005. Dustin went on to attend college at Jefferson

College in Hillsboro, Missouri and graduated with an Associates of Arts. He then

attended Missouri Baptist University in Saint Louis, Missouri and graduated with a B.A.

in Elementary education in 2010, and a M.S.E. in Curriculum and Instruction in 2012.

Next he attended Washington University and graduated with a certificate of Advance

Science Education. Finally he has attended Lindenwood University and has graduated

with a M.S. in School Administration in 2013, and an Educational Specialist in 2014 in

Educational Leadership. He is currently pursuing a MS at the University of Nebraska-

Lincoln, and a Educational Doctorate at Lindenwood University.

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