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CONTENTS

Editor : B. KALYAN KUMARAssociate Editor : B. SHIV SHANKAR

Printed, Published and Owned by B. Shiv Shankar, Printed at Karshak Art Printers, 40, A.P.H.B. Blocks, Vidyanagar, Hyderabad - 500 044. India.Published at 2-1-444/16, 1st Floor, O.U.Road, Nallakunta,Hyd-44. Editor: B. Shiv Shankar.

TECHNICAL EDITORIAL BOARD

Dr. P.K. Shukla, Jt.Commissioner Poultry, G.O.I., New Delhi.

Dr. V. RAMA SUBBA REDDY, Retd. Professor, Agrl. Uni. Hyd.

Dr. D. NAGALAKSHMI, Asst. Professor, S.V.V.U. Hyderabad.

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Dr. P.K. SINGH, Asst. Prof. (A.N.), Bihar Vet. College Patna.

Dr. S. NANDI, Sr. Scientist, CADRAD, IVRI, Izatnagar, U.P.

Dr. INDRANIL SAMANTA, Lecturer (Micro), WBUAFS, Kolkata.

Dr. M. KAWATRA, Sr. Manager-Bayer Animal Health, Thane (W), Mumbai.

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Dr. MD MOIN ANSARI, Asst. Prof., SKUAST, Srinagar, J&K.

Dr. AZMAT ALAM KHAN, Asst. Prof., SKUAST, Srinagar, J&K.

Dr. S K MUKHOPADHAYAY, Asst. Prof., (Vety Pathology) WBUAFS, Kolkata.

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4LIVESTOCK LINE, MARCH 2016


ANESTRUS CASES IN GANDERBALAND THEIR THERAPEPEUTIC MANAGEMENT

U

Abstract:- Data was observed on the number of

gynaecological cases in District Ganderbal of Kashmir

valley over a period of time. The percentage of anestrus

cases was determined. The percentage of postpartum

anestrus due to uterine pathology came out to be 21.64%

at veterinary clinical complex of SKUAST Kashmir.The

cases of anestrus were classified on the basis of etiology

at different veterinary centres of the district. Observations

were made on management strategies of anestrus.

Key Words: Anestrus, Etiology, gynaecological cases,

management strategies, postpartum

INTRODUCTION

Anestrus in cattle is the principal symptom of many

conditions that affect the estrous cycle. It is the

commonest single cause for infertility in cattle (Roberts,

1998). The resumption of estrus cycle after parturition in

cows is delayed for a variable period. The influences

include genetic, environment, nutritional status, milk yield,

parity, breed, calving difficulties, postpartum diseases,

ovarian disorders and inadequate amount of

gonadotrophins (Hukeri, 1995). The reproductive

efficiency of the cow is manifested by a regular cycle

called estrous cycle. The cow is polyestrous and comes

in estrum through out the year. The estrous cycle length

in heifers is an average of twenty days with 85 percent of

the heifers having cycles of 18 to 22 days in cows the

average length of the estrus cycle is 21 days and 84 % of

the cows have cycles of 18 to 24 days. The estrous

cycle is regulated by endocrine and neuro-endocrine

mechanisms, namely the hypothalamic hormones, the

gonadotropins and the steroids secreted by ovary.

Regulation of gonadotropin secretion estrous cycle requires

a delicate balance among complex hormonal interactions.

One component known to be an important influence is

gonadotrophic hormone releasing hormone at the ovarian

level, the estrous period is characterized by high estrogen

secretion from pre-ovulatory graffican follicle.

Estrogen stimulates uterine growth by a mechanism

that involves interaction of hormones with receptors and

the increase in synthetic processes within the cells.

Estrogen also stimulates the production of prostaglandins.

At the end of estrus, ovulation occurs followed by corpus

luteum fornmation resulting in progesterone secretion.

Prostaglandin (PGF2á) is the uterine leutolytic hormone

in several mammalian species.

Cow in intense heat may exhibit partial inapetance

due to excitement. The animal is not keen in feeding and

while in stables prefers to stand. There is drop in the milk

yield particularly in those exhibiting intense heat symptoms.

Restlessness is observed in varying degrees. Bellowing is

marked. The cow on heat is mounted by other cows and

in turn she attempts to ride other cows. The vulvar lips

appear swollen and congested, the wrinkles on the vulva

disappear and vulvar lips appear turgid and stand

prominently. Depending on the stage of estrus, a clear,

shiny mucous discharge is seen at the vulva lips extending

down to the perineal region and smearing the hind quarters.

Anestrus is a period of sexual rest in which there is

a complete absence of sexual cycles with no manifestations

of heat. It is usually characterized by quiescent function

of ovaries and reproductive tract. It needs to be

differentiated from diestrus which lasts only a weak or

so. During the anestrus, the uterus is small and flaccid,

the vaginal mucosae is pale and cervix is tightly closed.

The mature follicle and ovulation seldom occurs during

anestrus period. Anestrum in cow is observed most

commonly either after parturition as post partum or pre

service anestrum or following service anestrum when

conception does not occur.

Zubair Ahmad Akhoon* and F.U.Peer1

*Corresponding author:Junior Scientist, KVK, SKUAST Kashmir, [email protected]: Ex Prof and Head Vety clinical Complex SKUAST Kashmir


Observations on the therapeutic Management

1. For smooth and inactive ovaries the following

treatment is given.

A). Mineral supplement (Chelated Agrimin inj,

Tonophosphon, Inj tonoricin, injection urimin,

Growmin-SE powder, Biobloom).

B). Vitamin Supplements (Injection Vitamin A,

Vetedae, Injection Adcelin).

C). Heat inducers- (herbal preparations-Segni,

prajana-HS.

A-10% veterinarians use it.

A+B-is used by 30%

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The total number of gynaecological cases was

recorded over a period of time at different veterinary centres

of District Ganderbal over a period of time. Then the

RESULTS

DATA OF RECORDED CASES

Vety centre True Post partum Cystic Sub Total Total no of Percentagelocated at anestrum anestrus due ovary estrus Gynaeco- % affected

to uterine -logical with anestruspathology cases (%)

Ganderbal(Beehama) 55 19 20 3 97 150 64.6

Tulmulla 83 12 31 11 137 200 68.5

Wakoora 59 23 18 - 100 200 50

Manigan 31 12 9 9 61 123 49.59

Lar 58 25 21 5 109 209 52.153

Batwina 61 21 29 - 111 195 56.92

Aanchar 27 13 18 6 64 123 52.03

Saoroo 39 23 27 - 89 201 44.27

Nunner 37 10 17 4 68 125 54.44

Kangan 32 12 18 - 62 150 53.9

Shalimar 38 17 23 - 78 193 40.41

Dhara 37 11 15 2 65 147 44.27

Total 557 198 246 40 1041 1984

%age 53.50 19.02 23.63 3.8 52.54

No of cases recorded at Vety clinical complex Shuhama

In active ovaries (smooth) = 65

Postpartum anestrum due to uterine pathology =21

Subestrus = 11

Total gynaecological cases = 151

% age as inactive ovaries =67.01%

% age as subestrus = 11.34%

% age postpartum anestrus due to uterine pathology = 21.64%

percentage of anestrus cases was determined. The number

of anestrus cases was classified in its different categories

based on the etiology. The same procedure was done at

the Teaching Veterinary Clinical Complex Shuhama,

SKUAST Kashmir.


A+B+C- is used by 60% with good results.

2. Postpartum anestrus (due to uterine pathology).

A) I/U preparations (Enrocin 2%, Ranvidone-I.U,

Wokadine, Lixen-IU.

B) Systemic antibiotics (gentamicin, Ranbamycin)

C) Hormonal therapy (Estrogen, PGF2á)

A-13% use it.

A+B -57% use it.

A+B+C- 26% use it.

3. Cystic ovary

A) Hormones (PGF2á)

B) Vitamins

C) Mineral supplements

A+B+C- used by most veterinarians in field

conditions.

4) Sub estrus treated by

Heat inducers, Apetite stimulants, Mineral

supplements.

Discussion:

Anestrous due to inactive ovaries is a multi factorial

disorder and many agents affecting hypothalamo-pituitary

-ovarian axis could affect this pathologic disorder(

Fourichon et al 2000, Noakes et al 2001and Wilt bank et al

2002). Sheldone et al(2002) studied the influence of uterine

bacterial contamination after parturition on ovarian

dominant follicles selection and follicle growth and function

in cattle and find evidence for an effect of the uterus on

the ovary after parturition, whereby uterine bacteria have

a contemporaneous localized effect on ovarian follicle

selection and subsequent growth and function, but not

initial emergence. Variable observations pertaining to

postpartum anestrus have been reported viz. 25.7 per cent

(Sreemanarayana and Rao, 1997) and 31 per cent (Kutty

and Ramachandran, 2003) in crossbred cows. As is

evident from the table that maximum no. of gynaecological

cases are of anestrus oriented (52.54%). It is again evident

that anestrus cases due to inactive (smooth) ovaries is at

higher side (53.50 % and 67.01 at clinics) followed by

cystic ovary condition and anestrus due to uterine

pathology (23.63% and 19.02 % respectively. This

indicates that nutrition provided to the cows in ganderbal

is not adequate. The anestrus has been recorded maximum

in cross bred cows and heifers, possibily due to low body

weight gains and late puberity. The maximum no of cases

are recorded during winter season because of lack of green

forages. Cattle kept in confinement has manifested more

anestrus then those which are in free range. Older cattle

showed greater frequency or silent anestrus. Inactive

ovaries has been recorded heifers. Heavy lactating animals

are at greater risk to ceasation of estrous cycle. Wheeler

(1993) has studied effect of prajana on anestrus cows

and has found that it is very effective in causing estrus in

cows of temperate regions. Thakur et al (1998) has

pointed out that fertivet acts as a good drug for induction

of estrus in cross bred cattle. Pandey et al (1999) has

studied that reproductive performance in cattle can be

increased by feeding poultry litter feed to the animal. It is

rich source of various nutrients such as non protein

nitrogen, metabolizable energy, amino acids, vitamins and

minerals. Krishana Kumarl and Subramania (1999) has

pointed out that low doses of PGF2á through intra-vulvo

submucosal route can induce estrus and increases fertility.

Dhanale et al (1998) has studied MAU, Porbhani,

ayurvedic drug prepared by six ingredients was selected

for induction of estrus in cattle population. Sharma et al

(2003)- luteal injection of PGF2á was effective in inducing

estrus in all treated cows. The mean interval between

treatment and appearance of estrus was marginally shorter

with luteal injection of 30 µgm as compared to 750µgm

tiaprost given I/M. Results suggested that luteal injection

of reduced dose of PGF2á (1/25th) was as effective as

high with I/M route for induction of estrus in cyclic cows.

Singh et al (2002) has stated that when treated with

norgestomet and small ECG, the heifers and cows with


postpartum anestrus showed encouraging results of 71-

100% improvement. Sathia monthy and Subramania

(2003) has studied that combination of GnRH and PGF2á

produces greater effect than that of PGF2á alone. Ansari

and Khana (1998) has pointed out that combination

buserelin and folltropin-V or buserline and PMSG produce

greater ovulation rate in cross breed cattle.

CONCLUSION

The Reproductive efficiency in such areas can be

increased by providing adequate nutrition to heifers. Feed

and fodder should be made available in winter periods.

Adequate exercise to the cows is necessary. Heavy lactating

cows need special attention as loss in body weight can

make them anestrus cows. Indiscriminate use of hormones

need to be avoided because it can cause cystic ovaries

conditions. Similarly uterine pathology can be avoided by

proper handling of cow at parturition and immediate

treatment should be given if any such case occur.

REFERENCES

Ansari, MR, and Khana, S, (1998). Effect of Buserlin

on superovulatory response in cross bred cattle treated

with PMSG and follotropin- V. IJAR 19 (1) p: 10-12.

Dhanale, PK, Dhobe, RL and Dande, CG (1998). Chemical

efficacy of MAU drug for induction of estrus in postpartum

anestrus buffalo. IJAR 19 (1) p: 24-25.

Fourichon , C. , Seegers , H.and Malher , X.(2000) Effect

of disease on reproduction in the dairy cow : a meta –

analysis. Theriogenoligy. 53(9) 1729 – 1759 .

Hukeri, V. B (1995). Indian J. Anim. Reprod., 16: 1-4.

Krishna Kumar and Subramania, SA (1999). Effect of low

doses of PGF2á through intravulvo submucosal route on

estrus induction and fertility in cross bred cows. IJAR

Vol 20 p: 82-86.

Kutty, C. I. and Ramachandran, K. (2003). Bovine

infertility., 73: 155-157.

Noakes , David.E.and Parkinson.T.J.(2001) Arthur’s

Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics. W.B.SAUNDERS,

A Harcourt Health Sciences Company.LONDON.8th

.ed.

415 – 446.

Pandey,IA, Atheya, UK and Chauhan, SS (1999). Effect

of poultry litter feeding on the reproductive performance

of cross bred Cows. Indian Journal Of Animal Research

Vol 20 (2) p: 113-115.

Roberts, S. J. (1998). Veterinary Obstetrics and Genital

Diseases. 2nd Edition (Indian

reprint) CBS Publishers, New Delhi- 100012, PP. 436.

Sathia monthy and Subramania, A (2003). Effect of GnRH

and PGF2á combination on fixed time breeding and fertility

in dairy cows. Indian Veterinary Journal (80). p: 543-546.

Sharma, RK, Ranal, CVS and Haque M (2003).

Laproscope guided luteal injection of PFF2á for

synchronization of estrus in cows. IJAR 24 (1) p: 65-66.

Sheldon IM, Noakes DE, Rycroft AN, Pfeiffer DU and

Dobson H.(2002) Influence of uterine bacterial

contamination after parturition on ovarian dominant follicles

selection and follicle growth and function in cattle

.Reproduction.123: 837-845.

Singh, Umed,Singh, IJ, and Khan, S.K (2002). Influence

of season, age and postpartum interval on reproductive

parameter of nor gestomet treated anestrus zebu cattle.

IJAR 23 (2) p: 113-116.

Sreemannarayana, O. and Rao, A.V.N. (1997). Indian J.

Anim. Reprod.,18: 46-47.

Thakur, MS,. Bhat, VK and Pandey, SK (1998).

Introduction of estrus in anestrus cross bred heifers with

fertivet or secrodyl effect on certain blood constituents

IJAR Vol.22 (2) P:60-64.

Wheeler, GE (1993). The use of prajana, a herbal product

in anestrus dairy cattle. Indian journal of Indigenous

Medicine. Vol 10 (1) page 61.

Wilt bank , M.C. , Gumen , A.and Sartori , R.(2002)

Physiological classification of anovulatory conditions in

cattle.Theriogenology. 57 : 21 – 52 .

U


Biosensors: Types and their ApplicationsU

A biosensor is a analytical device incorporating adeliberate and intimate combination of a specific biologicalelement (that creates a recognition event) and a physicalelement (that transduces the recognition event)(Fraser, 1994).According to the International Union of Pure and AppliedChemistry (IUPAC), a biosensor is “a self contained integratedreceptor transducer device, which is capable of providingselective quantitative or semi quantitative analyticalinformation using a biological recognition element”. Thename “biosensor” signifies that the device is a combinationof two parts:

1. bio-element

2. sensor-element

Components of biosensor

A biosensor is a device for the detection of an analyte thatcombines a biological component with a physicochemicaldetector component. It consists of the Analyte (What doyou want to detect) Molecule - Protein, toxin, peptide, vitamin,sugar, metal ion…etc., the sensitive biological element(biological material (eg. tissue, microorganisms, organelles,cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids etc), abiologically derived material or biomimic) The sensitiveelements can be created by biological engineering, thetransducer in between (associates both components) andthe detector element (works in a physicochemical way;optical, piezoelectric electrochemical, thermometric, ormagnetic) (Fig.1).

Basic Characteristics of a Biosensor

1. LINEARITY: Linearity of the sensor should be high forthe detection of high substrate concentration.

2. SENSITIVITY: Value of the electrode response persubstrate concentration.

3. SELECTIVITY: Chemicals Interference must beminimised for obtaining the correct result. Means itshould be specific to analyte sould not interact withother analytes or chemicals.

4. RESPONSE TIME: Time necessary for having 95% ofthe response. It should take very less time to givereaction.

Classification of Biosensors

Depending on the transducing mechanism used by biosensor,they can be of following types such as

1. Optical-Detection biosensors

2. Resonant biosensors

3. Thermal-Detection biosensors

4. Ion-Sensitive FETs (ISFETs) biosensors

5. Electrochemical biosensors

6. piezoelectric/acoustic biosensors

1. Optical-Detection biosensors:

In optical biosensors, the output transduced signal thatis measured is light. The biosensor can be made based onoptical diffraction or electro-chemiluminescence. In optical-diffraction based devices, a silicon wafer is coated with abiological element (antibodies) via covalent bonds. The waferis exposed to UV light through a photo mask, and the biologicalelements become inactive in the exposed regions. When thediced wafer chips are incubated in an analyte(antigen), antigen-antibody bindings are formed in the active regions, thuscreating a diffraction grating. This grating produces adiffraction signal when illuminated with a light source suchas a laser. The resulting signal will be measured by detector.

2. Resonant biosensors:

In resonant biosensors, an acoustic wave transducer iscoupled with an antibody, or bioelement. When the analytemolecule, or antigen, gets attached to the membrane, the massof the membrane changes. The resulting change in the masssubsequently changes the resonant frequency of thetransducer. This frequency change will be measured.

3. Thermal-Detection biosensors:

Thermal detection biosensors exploit one of thefundamental properties of biological reactions, namelyabsorption or production of heat, which in turn changes thetemperature of the medium where the reaction takes place.These biosensors are constructed by combining immobilizedenzyme molecules with temperature sensors. When theanalyte comes in contact with the enzyme, the heat reactionof the enzyme is measured and calibrated against the analyteconcentration. The total heat produced or absorbed isproportional to the total number of molecules in the reaction.Common applications of this type of biosensor include thedetection of pesticides and pathogenic bacteria.

4. Ion-Sensitive biosensors:

Ion sensitive biosensors are semiconductor having anion-sensitive surface. The surface electrical potential changeswhen the ions and the semiconductor interact. This changein the

potential can be subsequently measured. This can beconstructed by covering the sensor electrode with a polymer

R V.V.S.N. Murthy1, Kanika Mahajan1, Priyanka Minhas1

1 School of animal Biotechnology, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana1 Corresponding author: [email protected]


layer. This polymer layer is selectively permeable to analyteions. The ions diffuse through the polymer layer, causing achange in the surface potential. This type of biosensor is alsocalled an enzyme field effect transistor and is primarily usedfor pH detection.

5. Electrochemical biosensors:

Electrochemical biosensors are mainly used for thedetection of hybridized DNA, DNA-binding drugs, glucoseconcentration, etc. The underlying principle for this class ofbiosensors is that many chemical reactions produce orconsume ions or electrons which in turn cause some changein the electrical properties of the solution which can be sensedout and used as measuring parameter.these may beconductimetric- measured parameter is the electricalconductance / resistance of the solution. Whenelectrochemical reactions produce ions or electrons, theoverall conductivity or resistivity of the solution changes.This change is measured. Potentiometric- the measuredparameter is oxidation or reduction potential of anelectrochemical reaction. The working principle relies on thefact that when a ramp voltage is applied to an electrode insolution, a current flow occurs because of electrochemicalreactions. The voltage at which these reactions occur indicatesa particular reaction and particular species. Amperometric-measured parameter is current, Glucose Biosensors is bestexample. The first historic experiment that served as the originof glucose biosensors was carried out by Leland C. Clark. Heused platinum (Pt) electrodes to detect oxygen. The enzymeglucose oxidase (GOD) was placed very close to the surfaceof platinum by physically trapping it against the electrodeswith a piece of dialysis membrane. The enzyme activitychanges depending on the surrounding oxygen concentration.Glucose is catalyzed by GOD. Glucose reacts with glucoseoxidase (GOD) to form gluconic acid while producing twoelectrons and two protons, thus reducing GOD. The reducedGOD, surrounding oxygen, electrons and protons (producedabove) react to form hydrogen peroxide and oxidized GOD(the original form). This GOD can again react with moreglucose. The higher the glucose content, more oxygen isconsumed. On the other hand, lower glucose content resultsin more hydrogen peroxide. Hence, either the consumption ofoxygen or the production of hydrogen peroxide can bedetected by the help of platinum electrodes and this can serveas a measure for glucose concentration (fig.3).

6. piezoelectric/acoustic biosensors:

Electroacoustic devices used in biosensors are basedon the detection of a change of mass density, elastic,viscoelastic, electric, or dielectric properties of a membranemade of chemically interactive materials in contact with apiezoelectric material. Bulk acoustic wave

(BAW) and surface acoustic wave (SAW) propagationtransducers are commonly used. In the first, a crystal resonator,usually quartz, is connected to an amplifier to form an oscillator

whose resonant frequency is a function of the properties oftwo membranes attached to it. The

latter is based on the propagation of SAWs along a layer of asubstrate covered by the membrane whose properties affectthe propagation loss and phase velocity of the wave. SAWsare produced and measured by metal interdigital transducersdeposited on the piezoelectric substrate.

Nanobiosensors:

Nanomaterials are exquisitely sensitive chemical andbiological sensors. Nanosensors with immobilized bioreceptorprobes that are selective for target analyte molecules are callednanobiosensors. They can be integrated into othertechnologies such as lab-on-a-chip to facilitate moleculardiagnostics. Their applications include detection ofmicroorganisms in various samples, monitoring of metabolitesin body fluids and detection of tissue pathology such ascancer. Their portability makes them ideal for pathogenesis ofcancer applications but they can be used in the laboratorysetting as well.

Applications

There has been a great demand for rapid and reliablemethods which can be used in biochemical laboratories fordetermination of substances in biological fluids such as blood,serum and urine, etc. There is also a demand to move clinicalanalysis from centralized laboratories to a doctor’s clinic andpatients self-testing at home.

Application in immunology:

Immuno-sensors are small, portable instruments foranalysis of complex fluids and are designed for the ease ofuse by un-trained personnel, rapid assay and sensitivitycomparable to that of ELISA. During the past decade, a numberof methods for immunoassay by specific interactions betweenantibodies and antigens to analyze microorganisms, viruses,pesticides and industrial pollutants have been developed.Immuno-sensors are the analytical systems based on immuno-chemical principles that can automatically carry out estimationof desired parameter. One of the most important applicationsof immunosensors is the rapid detection of pathogens in theblood stored in the blood banks. Sevars et al., 1993 developeda immunosensor however it does not directly detect themicroorganisms in blood but detects the presence ofantibodies thereby concluding the presence of the causativeorganism Treponema pallidium. The selectivity was achievedby the use of recombinant T. pallidium membrane protein A(Tmp A).

Application in molecular biology and diagnostics:

DNA biosensors have an enormous application inclinical diagnostics for inherited diseases, rapid detection ofpathogenic infections and screening of cDNA colonies arerequired in molecular biology. Conventional methods for theanalysis of specific gene sequences are based on either directsequencing or DNA hybridization. Because of its simplicity,


most of the traditional techniques in molecular biology arebased on hybridization. Several immobilization techniquessuch as adsorption, covalent attachment, or immobilizationinvolving avidin–biotin complexation were adopted for a DNAprobe to the surface of an electrochemical transducer. Thetransducer was made from carbon, gold or conducting polymer.In the case of a common sandwich assay the signal generatingspecies is an enzyme, such as horseradish peroxidase. Linkedthe tagged DNA to the surface of the microsphere using asuitable reagent. Another effort is the use of microfabricationsystem and micro mechanical technology to the preparationof DNA samples and their analysis (e.g. DNA chip).

By using this application recently DNA biosensor wasdeveloped. The genosensors contain two probes, a cysteinemodified NH2-end peptide nucleic acid (PNA) and 5-thiol endlabelled DNA probes, immobilized on gold-coated glass plates,that have complementary target sequence in genomic DNAof M. Tuberculosis (Prabhakar et al 2008).

Biosensors for Detection of FMDV

An allosteric biosensors was developed andstandardized for foot- and- mouth disease (FMD) diagnosis.Allosteric biosensors allow detection of antibodies againstdifferent viruses by accommodating peptide sequences fromsurface viral proteins, acting as antibody receptors, intopermissive sites of allosterically responsive recombinant â-galactosidases. This recombinant â-galactosidases could bealso efficiently reactivated by sera from infected animals thatpermitted differentiation between sera from infected animalsand those from naïve and conventionally vaccinated pigs(Gajendragad et al. 2001).

The potential application of a modified platinum DNAbiosensor in mutation analysis

A label free platinum DNA biosensor by modifyingwith electrochemically synthesized poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiopene). A designed single-strand DNA oligowas immobilized with the carboxyl group of poly(p-aminobenzoic acid) and served as the probe, a target DNAwas then hybridized with the probe under a proper condition.

Biosensors for Cancer diagnosis

Tumour associated antigens have been used asbiomarkers for cancer diagnosis. These comprise cellularmolecules that can be detected in tumour cells, blood, urine,or other body fluids which are over-expressed due to canceronset and growth. To date there are a range of biomarkerswhich have been identified with different types of cancers.These include DNA modifications, RNA, proteins (enzymesand glycoproteins), hormones and related molecules,molecules of the immune system, oncogenes and othermodified molecules. New advances in proteomics andgenomics research are resulting in the elucidation of newbiomarkers. Combining this with toxicology studies and highthroughput strategies, multiple antigens can be identified andused as biomarkers for diagnosis.

Application of biosensors in cancer clinical testing has severalpotential advantages over other clinical analysis methodsincluding increased assay speed, capability for multi-targetanalyses, automation, reduced costs of diagnostic testing.

References:

Clark LC Jr, Lyons C. Electrode systems for continuousmonitoring in cardiovascular surgery. Ann N Y Acad Sci1962;102:29-45.

D.M. Fraser. 1994. “Glucose biosensors-The sweet smell ofsuccess,” Med. Device Technol., vol. 5, no. 9, pp. 44–47.

M. R. Gajendragad, K. N. Y. Kamath, P. Y. Anil, K. Prabhudas,and C. Natarajan, “Development and standardization of a piezoelectric immunobiosensor for foot and mouth disease virustyping,”Veterinary Microbiology, vol. 78, no. 4, pp. 319–330,2001.

Prabhakar, N., Arora, K., Arya, S.K., Solanki, P.R., Iwamoto,M., Singh, H., Malhotra, B.D., 2008. Analyst 133 (11), 1587–1592.

Sevars, A.H., Schasfoort, R.B., Salden, M.H., 1993. Biosens.Bioelectron. 8 (3–4), 185–189.

Fig.1 Schematic diagram of a biosensor

Fig.2 Glucose biosensor

U


CAGE FARMING: AN INTRODUCTIONU

Introduction

Increased populations have resulted in terrestrial

ecosystem degradation and depletion of natural resources,

resulting in many countries struggling to maintain their

food production (Bagarinao, 2000). The proportion of

fisheries production used for direct human consumption

increased from about 71% (112 mmt) in the 1980s to

more than 86% (136 mmt) in 2012 whereas the capture

fisheries continuously decline, therefore aquaculture is only

hope (FAO, 2014). Marine finfish aquaculture industry is

poised to expand in the near future. Demand for seafood

is on the rise and cannot be met by wild catch fisheries

(Halwart et al., 2007). Domestic aquaculture production

of seafood is certain to play an increasing role in fulfilling

the need for reliable marine protein sources (NOAA, 2007).

Developing countries are committed to the growth of a

modern ocean aquaculture industry that is both profitable

and environmentally responsible (Gulf of Mexico Fishery

Management Council 2009, NOAA, 2011).

Aquaculture has a checkered history in the world, and

since the 1950s its development has focused on different

types of culture systems. Cage culture is probably started

as a means for fishermen to hold a suitable quantity of

caught fish alive until market (Masser, 1988). Initially,

cages were fabricated with wood or foliage material, and

fish were fed food scraps and possibly trash or by-catch

fish. More advanced cage culture started in the 1950s,

and synthetic materials were used in cage construction

and mooring. Research on cage culture started only in the

1960s, as before then pond culture seemed to be

economically viable and was more popular, and therefore

was the focus of research in academic institutions (Halwart

et al., 2007).

The first true cages for producing fish were seemingly

developed in Southeast Asia around the end of the last

century. These early cages were constructed of wood or

bamboo, and the fish were fed trash fish and food scraps.

Today cage culture is receiving more attention by both

researchers and commercial producers. Factors such as

increasing consumption of fish, some declining wild fish

stocks, and a poor farm economy have produced a strong

interest in fish production in cages. Many of America’s

small or limited resource farmers are looking for

alternatives to traditional agricultural crops. Aquaculture

appears to be a rapidly expanding industry and one that

may offer opportunities even on a small scale. Cage culture

also offers the farmer a chance to utilize existing water

resources which in most cases have only limited use for

other purposes (Masser, 1988).

Cage farming an introduction

Fish are raised commercially in one of four culture settings:

open ponds, raceways, tanks, or cages. The confined

aquaculture system as cage consists of growing of young

fry of finfish oe shellfish to a large size, within netting or

screening, which allows free circulation of water. Cage is

confined bay, where shoreline is typically closed-off by a

net or a screen barrier on all but one side. Cage is enclosed

on all sides leaving a small portion at a top for cage

operations (Ayyappan et al., 2011).

Types of cage

Four types of cages are being used for cage aquaculture:

fixed, floating, submersible and submerged.

1. Fixed cage: It is very primitive in origin, still in

vogue, is used in shallow water with water depth 1

to 3 meter in those reservoirs where water depth

does not fluctuate too much. Fixed cages are

comparatively inexpensive, simpler and smaller in size.

2. Floating cage: it is basically supported by a floating

frame, where from net bags are kept hanging in water

without touching the basin. It is generally practiced

in water-bodies with depth of water more than 5 m

in reservoirs, 3m in wetlands and 2 m in canals.

S. S. Rathore, S. I. Yusufzai, S. R. Lende *, P. J. Mahida and Minaz ParmarDepartment of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries Science,

Junagadh Agricultural University Veraval, Gujarat - 362265*corresponding author- [email protected]


3. Submersible cage: These have net bags suspended

from surface and with adjustable buoyancy may be

rigid or flexible.

4. Submerged cage: These have net bags fitted in a

solid and rugged frame and submerged under water,

operational mainly in marine environment (Ayyappan

et al., 2011).

Scope of cage culture

To bridge the gap in production and potential, stocking of

fingerlings of fast growing fish species is being advocated.

Availability of quality seeds of desired species at desired

size is often scarce, expensive and becomes a critical

requirement for successful fish production ventures, both

in stocking of open water bodies and aquaculture in ponds.

Thus stocking with right kind of fish seeds at right time is

essential to optimize fish yield from such open waters.

The fish seeds, if at all available in some distant places, it

is difficult to transport them uo to reservoir or wetland

site due to high mortality during transport. Therefore, cage

culture offers ample scope in in-situ production of stocking

materials, provides a vital input towards production

enhancement programme for open waters.

Cage culture in sea offers the fishers a chance for

optimally utilizing the existing water resource which in

most cases has limited use for other purposes. It is a low

impact farming practice with high economic returns. India

with a vast continental shelf-area of 0.53 million km2 and

Exclusive Economic Zone of 2.02 million km2 has ample

scope for mariculture which can be taken only in cages

(Ayyappan et al., 2011).

Advantages

Cage culture does have some distinct advantages which

include:

1. Many types of water resources can be used,

including lakes, reservoirs, ponds, strip pits,

streams and rivers which could otherwise not

be harvested. (Specific state laws may restrict

the use of “public waters” for fish production;

check with your state fish and wildlife agency).

2. A relatively low initial investment is all that is

required in an existing body of water.

3. Harvesting is simplified.

4. Observation and sampling of fish is simplified.

5. Fish health and growth are easier to monitor.

6. Allows the use of the pond for sport fishing or

the culture of other species.

7. Pond construction costs are eliminated when

existing ponds are used.

These advantages are appealing. A potential fish

farmer can produce fish in an existing pond without

destroying its sport fishing; does not have to invest large

amounts of capital for construction or equipment; and

can, therefore, try fish culture without unreasonable risks

(Masser, 1988).

Site selection

The selection of site for cage culture is very important

and success depends on selection of proper site. Factors

that must be taken into accounts include:

1. Depth of water column, it should be at least 5

m or more in case of reservoirs/creeks and

coastal areas and 3 m in case of wetlands and

canal.

2. Water quality.

3. Fish seed availability.

In large and medium reservoirs, site should be in protected

bays to evade strong wind action while in wetlands, it is

the deepest portion. In small reservoirs, the cage should

be anchored in the deeper lentic sector. Site should be

devoid of local and industrial pollution, devoid of algal

blooms and macrophytes and have good water circulation.

Should have access to land and water transportation but

away from frequent disturbance of local’s. it should not

hinder the navigation, if being practiced in the reservoir or

sea (Ayyappan et al., 2011).

Culture species

The desired species characteristics for cage culture are:

1. Fast growth rate, in regional environmental

conditions.

2. Tolerance for crowded conditions.

3. Native to the region.

4. High survival.


5. Rapid adaptation to artificial feeds.

6. High-feed conversion rate.

7. Quality flesh and resistance to disease.

8. Good market value.

Fish culture in cage is practiced by 62 countries all over

the world and currently 80 species of finfishes are being

cultured in cages. The dominant being Salmonids, followed

by Japanese amberjack, Red sea bream, yellow croaker,

European sea bass, Chinese carps, perches tilapia etc.

(Ayyappan et al., 2011).

Cage culture operations

Cage culture operation involves:

1. Stocking: The stocking density of fish depends on

the carrying capacity of the cages and feeding habits

of the cultured species. For those species which are

low in the food chain, stocking will also depend on

the primary and secondary productivity of the sites.

The optimal stocking density varies with species and

size of fish and ensures optimum yield and low

disease prevalence.

2. Feeding: Many biological, climatic, environmental

and economic factors affect feeding of fish in the

cages. Growth rate is affected by feeding intensity

and feeding time. Each species varies in maximum

food intake, feeding frequency, digestibility and

conversion efficiency. These in turn affect the net

yield, survival rates, size of fish and overall

production from the cage. The shortage of suitable

fish feed is a major problem in many countries with

large scale cage farming.

3. Farm management: Farm management must

optimize production at minimum cost. Efficient

management depends heavily on the competence and

efficiency of the farm operator with regard to feeding,

stocking, minimizing loss due to diseases and

predators, monitoring environmental parameters and

maintaining efficiency in technical facilities.

Maintenance works are also very vital in cage culture

(Gopakumar, 2009).

ConclusionPonds, reservoirs and open sea are major fishery resource

but they remain highly dispersed under a plethora of

controlled regimes with variable governance and policy

support. These resources can produce much more fish

than current production level. Based on average fish yields

of these resources, it has been estimated that yields is far

behind the expected production potential. Intervention of

cage culture technology at large scale through public private

partnership (PPP) mode in these resources can boost and

bridge the gap between the current aquaculture production

and expected production potential. (Karnatak and Kumar,

2014).

References

Ayyappan, S.; Moza, U.; Gopalakrishan, A.; Meenakumari,

B.; Jena, J. K. and Pandey, A. K. 2011. Handbook\g of

Fisheries and Aquaculture. Indian Council of Agricultural

Research, New Delhi, India. pp 450-469.

Bagarinao, T. 2000. Aquaculture no longer bridging the

gap in the Philippines. European Aquaculture Society.

28: 51.

FAO, 2014. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture.

Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome.

Gopakumar, G. 2009. History of cage culture, cage culture

operations, advantages and disadvantages of cages and

current global status of cage farming. National Training

on ‘Cage Culture of Seabass’, CMFRI, Cochin.

Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council. 2009. Final

Fishery Management Plan for Regulating Offshore Marine

Aquaculture in the Gulf of Mexico.

Halwart, M.; Soto, D., and Arthur, J. R. 2007. Cage

aquaculture: Regional reviews and global overview. FAO

Fisheries Technical Paper No. 498, FAO, Rome, Italy.

Karnatak, G. and Kumar, V. 2014. Potential of cage

aquaculture in Indian reservoirs. International Journal of

Fisheries and Aquatic Studies. 1 (6): 108-112.

Masser, M. 1988. What is Cage Culture? Southern

Regional Aquaculture Center. 160: 1.

NOAA, 2007. 10-year Plan for Marine Aquaculture.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

NOAA, 2011. Marine Aquaculture Policy. National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

U


Different Methods Used for Detection of Adulteration in MilkU

INTRODUCTION:

Although many known methods for detection ofadulteration in milk exists, the methods compiled beloware not only simple and rapid but also very sensitive to detect

milk adulteration. These tests can be carried out easily byconsumers using simple laboratory apparatus, commonchemicals and the milk adulteration test reagent kitdeveloped. The testing protocols are as given below:

REAGENTS REQUIRED:

1. Concentrated Hydrochloric acid. (1:1)

2. Concentrated Sulphuric acid. (1:1)

3. Concentrated Nitric acid. (1:1)

4. Citric acid. (Concentrated Solution)

5. Ammonia Solution: (1:1)

6. Phosphomolybdic acid. 1% (w/v) water

7. Resorcinol (White flakes)

8. (N/10) hydrochloric acid standard

9. Rosolic Acid: 1% (w/v) in alcohol

10. Phenolphthalein Indicator: 1% (w/v) alcohol

11. Paraphenylene diamine indicator: 1% (w/v) alcohol

12. Iodine solution: 1% iodine in 10% Potassium IodideSolution (w/v)

13. Vanadium Pentoxide Reagent: 1% (w/v) in 6% (w/v) sulphuric acid solution

14. Barford Reagent: Dissolve 24 gm of Copper acetate

in 450 ml of boiling distilled water. Add 25 ml of 8.5 %(w/v) acetic acid solution, shake, cool to roomtemperature and make upto 500 ml. After sedimentationfilter the reagent and store in dark coloured bottle.

15. Para-dimethyl amino benzaldehyde reagent: 16% (w/

v) in 10% (w/v) hydrochloric acid

16. Urease solution: (20 mg / ml)

17. Bromothymol blue solution: 0.5% (w/v) in water

18. Barium Chloride: 5% (w/v) solution in water

19. Sodium hydroxide: 2% (w/v) solution in water

20. Sodium hypochlorite: 2% (w/v) solution in water

21. Phenol solution: 5% (w/v) solution in water

22. Silver nitrate reagent : 0.8% (w/v) in water

23. Potassium dichromate: 1% (w/v) in water

24. Bromocresol purple solution: 0.5% (w/v) in water

25. Ferric Chloride: 0.5% solution (w/v) in water

26. Turmeric Paper

27. Lactometer, test tubes, droppers, gas burner,measuring cylinders, beakers, bottles and other simplelaboratory equipments

I. DETECTION OF NEUTRALIZERS IN MILK

Prohibited neutralizers like hydrated lime, sodiumhydroxide, sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate areadded to milk to prevent spoilage.

Rosolic acid test (Soda Test):

Take 5 ml of milk in a test tube and add 5 ml alcohol

followed by 2-3 drops of rosolic acid. If the colour ofmilk changes to pinkish red, it is inferred that the milk isadulterated with sodium carbonate / sodium bicarbonateand so unfit for human consumption. (Please note that

this test will be effective only if the neutralizers are presentin milk. In case the added neutralizers get nullified by thenaturally developed acidity in milk, then this test will benegative and one needs to test, the alkaline condition of

the milk for the presence of soda ash.)

Alkalinity Test

Take 20 ml of milk in a silica crucible and evaporatethe water. The contents are then burnt in a muffle furnaceat 550°C. The ash is dispersed in 10 ml distilled water andtitrated against decinormal (N/10) hydrochloric acid using

Rohit Charan*, Om Prakash1 and Sandeep Meel2

Department of Animal Husbandry, Govt. of Rajasthan, Barmer (344001)1 PhD Scholar, Division of Animal Genetics, IVRI, Izatnagar

2 Dept. of Animal Nutrition, CVAS, Bikaner*Corresponding Author: [email protected]


phenolphthalein indicator. If the titre value exceeds

1.2 ml, it can be construed that the milk is adulteratedwith neutralizers.

II. TEST FOR DETECTION OF HYDROGENPEROXIDE

• Take 5 ml milk in a test tube. Add 3 drops of

paraphenylene diamine and shake well. Change incolour of the milk to blue confirms that the milk isadulterated with hydrogen peroxide.

• To 10 ml of milk sample in a test tube add 10-15drops of Vanadium Pentoxide reagent and mix. The

development of pink or red colour indicates presenceof hydrogen peroxide.

III. TEST FOR DETECTION OF FORMALIN

Formalin (40%) although poisonous, can preserve milkfor a long time.

• Take 10 ml of milk in a test tube. Add 5 ml conc.sulphuric acid through the sides of the test tube

without shaking. If a violet or blue ring appears atthe intersection of the two layers, it shows thepresence of formalin. Note violet coloration usuallydoes not appear when relatively large quantities of

formaldehyde are present.

IV. TEST FOR DETECTION OF CANE SUGAR INMILK

Generally cane sugar is mixed in milk to increase thepercentage solids content of milk i.e., to increase thelactometer reading of milk, that was already diluted withwater.

• Take 10 ml of milk in a test tube. Add 5 ml of

hydrochloric acid along with 0.1 g of resorcinol.Shake the test tube well and place it in a boiling waterbath for 5 min. Appearance of red colour indicatesthe presence of added cane sugar in milk.

V. TEST FOR DETECTION OF STARCH

Addition of starch increases the SNF content of milk.

Wheat flour, arrowroot, rice flour, etc., can also be addedfor increasing the SNF content.

• Take 3 ml milk in a test tube and boil it thoroughly.Cool the milk to room temperature. Add 2 to 3 dropsof 1% iodine solution. Change of colour to blue

indicates that the milk is adulterated with starch.

VI. TEST FOR DETECTION OF GLUCOSE

Poor quality glucose is sometimes added to milk to increasethe lactometer reading.

• Take 3 ml of milk in a test tube. Add 3 ml Barford’s

reagent and mix it thoroughly. Keep the test tube in aboiling water bath for 3 min and then cool it for 2min by immersing it in tap water without disturbance.Add 1 ml of phosphomolybdic acid and shake. If

blue colour is visible, then glucose is present in themilk sample.

VII. TEST FOR DETECTION OF UREA

Urea is generally added in the preparation of synthetic milkto raise the SNF value.

• 5 ml of milk is mixed well with 5 ml paradimethylamino benzaldehyde reagent. If the solution turnsdistinct yellow in colour, then the given sample of

milk contains urea. Control, normal milk may showa faint yellow colour due to presence of natural urea.

• Take 5 ml of milk in a test tube. Add 0.2 ml of freshurease (20 mg / ml). Shake well at room temperature.Add 0.1 ml of bromothymol blue solution. Appearance

of blue colour after 10 – 15 min indicates theadulteration milk with urea.

VIII. TEST FOR DETECTION OF AMMONIUMSULPHATE

The presence of sulphate in milk increases the lactometerreading.

• 5 ml of hot milk is taken in a test tube. A suitable acidfor e.g. citric acid is added and the whey obtained is

separated and filtered. The whey is taken in anothertest tube and 0.5 ml of 5% barium chloride is added.Appearance of precipitate indicates the presence ofammonium sulphate.

• Take 5 ml of milk add 2.5 ml of 2% sodium hydroxide,

2.5 ml of 2% sodium hypochlorite and 2.5 ml of 5%phenol solution. Heat for 20 seconds in boiling waterbath. If bluish colour turns to deep blue it indicates thepresence of ammonium sulphate, however in case it

turns to pink it shows that the sample is free fromAmmonium sulphate.

IX. TEST FOR DETECTION OF SALT

Addition of salt in milk is mainly resorted to with the


aim of increasing the corrected lactometer reading.

• 5 ml of silver nitrate reagent is taken in a test tube.Add 2-3 drops of potassium dichromate reagent. Add

1 ml of milk in the above test tube and mix thoroughly.If the contents of the test tube turn yellow in colour,then milk contains salt. If it turns to chocolate orreddish brown in colour, the milk sample is free from

salt.

X. TEST FOR DETECTION OF PULVERIZED SOAP

• Take 10 ml of milk in a test tube and dilute it with

equal quantity of hot water. Add 1 – 2 drops ofphenolphthalein indicator. Development of pink colourindicates that the milk is adulterated with soap.

XI. DETECTION OF DETERGENTS IN MILK

• Take 5 ml of milk in a test tube and add 1-2 drops of

bromocresol purple solution. Mix well.

Appearance of violet colour indicates the presenceof detergent in milk. Unadulterated milk samples will

show a very faint violet colouration.

XII. DETECTION OF WATER IN MILK

Lactometer reading detects adulteration of milk with water.

• Take raw milk in a long stemmed wide mouth bottle or

a measuring cylinder. Place the lactometer in it takingcare to see that the lactometer does not touch thesides of the bottle or the measuring cylinder. Notedown the reading at the surface of milk sample taken.

Also note the temperature of the milk sample. Thoughthe adulteration of milk with water can be checkedby lactometer reading, other adulterations too affectthe lactometer reading. Hence freezing point

depression, recognized by AOAC, is usually adopted.

Percentage of water added = Normal freezing point – Observed freezing point X 100Normal freezing point

Normal freezing point of milk is taken as – 0.55°C. A

tolerance level of 3% is given which is equivalent tospecifying a minimum freezing point depression forauthentic milk of – 0.55°C.

XIII. DETECTION OF SKIM MILK POWDER INMILK

• If the addition of nitric acid drop by drop in to thetest milk sample results in the development of orange

colour, it indicates the milk is adulterated with skim milkpowder. Samples with out skim milk powder shows yellowcolour.

XIV. DETECTION OF BENZOIC AND SALICYLICACID IN MILK

• Take 5 ml of milk in a test tube. Add 3-4 drops of

concentrated sulphuric acid. Add 0.5% ferric chloride solutiondrop by drop and mix well. Development of buff colourindicates presence of benzoic acid and violet colour indicatespresence of salicylic acid.

XV. DETECTION OF BORAX AND BORIC ACID INMILK

• Take 5 ml milk in a test tube. Add 1 ml of concentrated

hydrochloric acid and mix well. Dip the tip of turmericpaper into the acidified milk and dry in a watch glass

at 100°C or over a small flame. If the turmeric paper

turns red, it indicates the presence of borax or boricacid. Add a drop of ammonia solution on the turmericpaper and if the red colour changes to green, it confirmsthe presence of boric acid.

XVI.DETECTION OF VEGETABLE FAT IN MILK

• The characteristic feature of milk is in its fatty acidcomposition, which mainly consists of short chain

fatty acids such as butyric, caproic, caprylic acid;whereas the vegetable fats consist mainly of longchain fatty acids and hence adulteration of vegetablefat in milk can be easily found out by analyzing the

fatty acid profile by gas chromatography.

XVII. DETECTION OF BUFFALO MILK IN COWMILK

• The presence of buffalo milk in cow milk is testedby Hansa test. It is based on immunological assay.One ml of milk is diluted with 4 ml of water. It is

then treated with 1 ml of antiserum. Thecharacteristic precipitation reaction indicates thepresence of buffalo milk in the sample taken. (Theantiserum is developed by injecting buffalo milk

proteins into rabbits).

U


Diseases Due to Deficiency of VitaminsU

Vitamins are Vital Substances necessary for growth and

normal body functions. Their importance is felt when they aredeficient in the body. Preformed Vitamins or their precursorsare present in feeds and fodders.

Estimation of vitamin in body fluids and tissues is

complicated and expensive procedure. Disappearance ofclinical symptoms after suitable supplementation provides abetter clue to diagnosis of deficiency in the field. The

deficiency diseases are therefore better called as “ResponsiveDiseases”.

Vitamins are classified as under:

(1) Fat Soluble Vitamins (Vit A, D, E and K)

These are usually stored in the Liver.

(2) Water Soluble Vitamins (Vit B. complex group andVit.C).These are not stored in the body (except B

12) and

most of them are synthesized by microflora in rumenand intestines.

Vitamin A Deficiency (Hypovitaminosis-A):

Hypovitaminosis-A occurs as a primary disease ofdietary deficiency of Vit A or its precursor Carotene, if

continued for prolonged period of time so as to produce visiblesigns of deficiency.

The alcoholic form of Vit. A present in carotene does

not pass through placental barrier but the ester form presentin fish liver oil passes through placental barrier and increaseslevel in the foetal liver. Feeding greens in advance pregnancy

therefore does not increase levels of Vit. A in foetus butsignificantly increases Vit. A content of colostrum which actsas a source of Vit. A for new born calf.

Secondary Vit.A. A deficiency may occur in chronic

diseases of live or intestines and during high atmospherictemperature in summer.

Pathogenesis:

Vit. A is essential for regeneration of visual purplenecessary for dim light vision. Deficiency results in night

blindness. Vit. A is necessary for normal growth of bones and

maintenance of normal epithelial tissue. Exfoliated epithelial

cells of urinary tract from a nidus for formation urinary calculi.Vit.A deficiency affects the reproductive and reducesconception rates. Deficiency also increases susceptibility to

infection and hence the vitamin is called as “anti infective” or“antistress”.Intestinal worms proliferate if the animal isdeficient in Vit. A.

Clinical symptoms:

Night blindness is the earliest sign. Cornea becomes

thick and cloudy in doges and calves. Reproductive problems,infertility, stunted growth, abortions and retained placentasare common.

Fig: Cattle affected due to Vitamin A Deficiency

Treatment:

Immediate treatment with Vit. A at 10 to 20 times the daily

requirements usually @ 440 i.u./ kg b. wt. is preferable byparenteral injections.

Daily dietary requirements are as under:

• Growing calves & sheep: 30 – 40 i.u. / Kg b. wt.

• Pregnant and milking cows & sheep-70-80 i.u. / kg b. wt.

• Dogs-500 i.u. per 100g diet (dry basis).

Some proprietary preparations containing Vit. A.

(1) Inj. Prepalin forte (Glaxo) 3 lac IU/per ml

(2) Inj. Vitacept (Concept) (Vit ADE0 10 ml, I/M

(3) Inj. AQUASOL

*Alok Kumar Yadav1, Rakesh Kumar1 and Jitendra Singh2

1-Ph.D. Scholar, DCB,Division, ICAR-NDRI Karnal-1320012- Veterinary Officer, Department of Animal Husbandry, (U.P.)

*Corresponding author: - alokvet1000 @gmail.com


Feed Suppliments

(4) VITABLEND-AD 3 (Glaxo)

(5) VIMEROL (Roche)

Vitamin supplement for oral administration useful for

calves and dogs.

(6) AROVIT tablets for dogs and cats.

Feeding of green grasses, yellow maize and fish liver oilare the common feed supplements.

Vitamin-D deficiency (Hypovitaminosis-D):

Vit. D exerts a profound action in regulating calcium,

absorption and metabolism together with hormones calcitaninand paratharmone and as such is very important for allgrowing animals, pups and dairy animals Vit.D is also known

as an “antirachitic factor” because of its role in prevention ofrickets in small animals.

Source:

Vit.D is formed due to ultraviolet solar radiation in the skin ofanimals and in the plants and sun dried hay. Dietary sources

are fish liver oils, egg yolk, milk butter and sun-dried hay.

Etiology:

Keeping animals indoors in areas where sunlight isinadequate may cause deficiency, particularly in pet animals.Pregnant ewes and post parturient cows whose requirements

of ionized calcium are increased and are particularly vulnerablefor vitamin D deficiency.

Pathogensis:

Vit. D is essential for absorption and utilization of calciumand phosphorus. In rickets, the normal ossification of bones

does not take place and they become soft and cartilaginouswith the result that the skeletal structure becomes misshaped.Similar disease known as osteomalacia occurs in adult animals.

Clinical Symptoms:

Normally due to plentiful availability of sunlight and

consumption of sun dried hay gross symptoms of deficiencyare not usually seen in farm animals in India. It may occur inpigs, sheep with heavy coat and pups. Rickets is common

disease in young pet dogs due to defective mineralization ofgrowing bones.

Parturient paresis (Milk Fever) – occurs in high yielding

cows, soon after parturition due to sudden and excessiveloss of calcium through colostrums and milk and reducedmobilization of calcium bones due to slow release of

paratharmone by quiescent parathyroid gland. Similar

parturient hypocalcemia occurs in bitches and is known as“Eclampsia”.

Treatment and Control:

Adequate calcium and phosphorus should be providedalong with administration of Vit. D3 give to a cow or a buffaloa week before expected day of parturition is one of the possibleways to prevent attack of hypocalcaemia (milk fever) inj.

Arachitol (Vit.D3) 6 Lakh i.u. / ml can be administered for thispurpose.

Vitamin – E Deficiency (Hypovitaminosis –E):

Vit. E is a fat soluble vitamin and structurally occurs as

a mixture of alpha, beta, gamma and delta tocopherols out ofwhich alpha tocopherol is most potent and main biologicalfunctions in association with selenium and prevents necrosis

of liver and muscular dystrophy in animal. vit. E also enhancesthe reproductive effiiciency in farm animals.

Etiology:

Deficiency of vit. E and selenium collectively causenutritional muscle dystrophy and other syndromes.

Clinical Symptoms:

Nutritional muscular dystrophy in lambs and calves is

characterised by stiffness, weakness, trembling and inabilityto stand. Muscles become hard, rubbery and swollen. Animaldie suddenly. Plasma SGOT and Creatinine phosphokinase

(CPK) activity are much increased as a laboratory finding andprovide diagnosis for confirmation.


Treatment:

Combination of selenium with Vit. E is preferred. Injectable

and oral supplements are available for treatment. Germinatedwheat contains high conc. of Vit. E and should be included inthe feed.

Vitamin-K Deficiency (Hypovitaminosis –K):

Is a fat soluble vitamin synthesised from green leafy

vegetables which are the natural source of Vit. K-1 necessaryfor formation of prothrombin and other clotting factors.Deficiency causes decrease in prothrombin leading to

prolonged clotting factors. Deficiency cause decrease inprothrombin leading to prolonged clotting time anduncontrolled haemorrhages. Warfarin and sweets clover

poisonings are the examples of Vit. K deficiency.

Injectable preparation like KAPLIN (Glaxo) available. Other

causes of haemorrhage be ruled out.

Vitamin B-Complex Deficiency:

Members of Vit. B-complex group are water soluble,thermolabile and are synthesised in the rumen and largeintestines by microbes in all animals. These vitamins are not

stored in the baby and occasional deficiency may occur.

Thiamine Deficiency :

Thiamine is synthesized in rumen but can be destroyedby enzyme “thiaminase” produced by certain bacteria andfungi during acidosis. Thiamine has important activity in the

metabolism of carbohydrats, fats and proteins .

Clinical Symptoms:

Nervous sign, tremors and anorexia are common, which

respond to treatment when other causes are ruled out.

Treatment:

Multidose vial Thiamine Hydrochloride @ 100 mg/ml.

Riboflavin, Panthothenic acid Nicotinic acid, Pyridoxine, Folicacid, Biotin, Choline, Cyanacobalamine- Vit B12 deficiencies

are collectively considered as vit. B- Complex deficiencies.

Some of these vitamins are responsible for maintenance ofneural functions, enzymes systems and erthropoiosis (Vit.B12). These are usually available in a combined “B-complex”

form as injective preparation or for oral administration ascapsules or syrups. These preparation are commonlyemployed in digestive disturbances, neurological disorder,

paraplegia and anaemia as a supportive therapy.

U


Marine Derived: A Promising Source of NutraceuticalsU

Introduction

Maintaining a healthy lifestyle is a basic need for most

people. It is well known that good health is strongly associated

with diet and many other factors such as genetics,

environment, lifestyle habits, and physical activity. People

are highly concerned about selecting healthy foods with a

wide range of medicinal values to reduce their risk of chronic

diseases such as coronary heart diseases, hypertension,

obesity, cancer, diabetes, and osteoporosis. Numerous reports

have shown that marine-based food products have remarkably

higher benefits in maintaining good health and well-being

(Jha and Zi-rong, 2004; Rajasekaran et al., 2008).

Drugs and food from natural origin play an important role in

public healthcare system throughout the world. The word

nutraceutical is a broad term describing foods, food

ingredients, and dietary supplements that provide specific

health or medical benefits, in addition to the basic nutritional

value found in the food (Jain N. and Ramawat K.). Foods that

promote health beyond

providing basic nutrition are termed “functional foods.”

These foods have the potential to promote health in ways not

anticipated by traditional nutrition science. The term

“nutraceutical” was coined in 1989 by the Foundation for

Innovation in Medicine (New York) to provide a name for this

rapidly growing area of biomedical research. A nutraceutical

was defined as any substance that may be considered a food

or a part of a food and provides medical or health benefits

including the prevention and treatment of disease (Andlauer

and Furst, 2002). Nutraceuticals possess pertinent

physiological functions and valuable biological activities.

Interestingly, during the last 2000 years, from the time of

Hippocrates (460–377 BC) to the dawn of modern medicine,

little distinction was made between food and drugs.

The concept of nutraceuticals is not entirely new,

although it has evolved considerably over the years. In the

early 1900s, food manufacturers in the United States began

adding iodine to salt in an effort to prevent goiter (an

enlargement of the thyroid gland), representing one of the

first attempts at creating a functional component through

fortification. Today, researchers have identified hundreds of

compounds with functional qualities, and they continue to

make new discoveries surrounding the complex benefits of

phytochemicals (nonnutritive plant chemicals that have

protective or disease-preventive properties) in foods.

There is a slight difference between the functional foods

and nutraceuticals. When food is being cooked or prepared

using “scientific intelligence” with or without knowledge of

how or why it is being used, the food is called “functional

food.” Thus, functional food provides the body with the

required amount of vitamins, fats, proteins, carbohydrates,

etc., needed for its healthy survival. When functional food

aids in the prevention and/or treatment of disease(s) and/or

disorder(s) other than anemia, it is called a nutraceutical (Since

most of the functional foods act in some way or the other as

antianemic, the exception to anemia is considered so as to

have a clear distinction between the two terms, functional

food and nutraceutical). Examples of nutraceuticals include

fortified dairy products (e.g., milk) and citrus fruits (e.g., orange

juice).

Figure 1: Causes of deaths in India

Source: Adapted from

S. R. Lende *1, S. I. Yusufzai1, P. J. Mahida1 and A. K. Jha2

1College of fisheries, Junagadh Agricultural University Veraval, Gujarat - 362265.2 Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Bhidiya Veraval

*corresponding author- [email protected]


Classification of Nutraceuticals

Nutraceuticals are nonspecific biological therapies used to

promote wellness, prevent malignant processes, and control

symptoms. It is a broad umbrella term used to describe any

product derived from food sources that provides extra health

benefits in addition to the basic nutritional value found in

foods. Phytochemicals and antioxidants are two specific types

of nutraceuticals. It has been proved that phytochemicals

found in foods may help to provide protection from diseases

such as cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and hypertension, for

example, carotenoids found in carrots. Antioxidants may be

helpful in avoiding chronic diseases, by preventing oxidative

damage in body. There are multiple different types of products

that come under the category of nutraceuticals:

1. Dietary supplements

2. Functional foods

3. Medical foods

4. Farmaceuticals

Types of marine nutraceuticals

Marine-derived bioactive peptides have been obtained widely

by enzymatic hydrolysis of marine proteins (Kim and

Wijesekara, 2010) and have shown to possess many

physiological functions, including antioxidant,

antihypertensive or ACE inhibition, anticoagulant, and

antimicrobial activities.

In fermented marine food sauces, such as blue mussel sauce

and oyster sauce, enzymatic hydrolysis has already been done

by microorganisms, and bioactive peptides can be purified

without further hydrolysis. In addition, marine processing

by-products contain bioactive peptides with valuable

functional properties. Sulfated polysaccharides (SPs) not only

are chemically anionic and widespread in marine algae but

also occur in animals, such as mammals and invertebrates.

Marine algae are the most important source of nonanimal

SPs, and their chemical structures vary according to the

species of algae, such as fucoidan in brown algae

(Phaeophyceae), carrageenan in red algae (Rhodophyceae),

+ and ulvan in green algae (Chlorophyceae). Phlorotannins

are phenolic compounds formed by the polymerization of

phloroglucinol or defined as 1,3,5-trihydroxybenzene monomer

units and biosynthesized through the acetate–malonate

pathway. They are highly hydrophilic components with a wide

range of molecular sizes between 126 and 650,000 Da. Marine

brown algae accumulate a variety of phloroglucinol- based

polyphenols, as phlorotannins could be used as functional

ingredients in nutraceuticals with potential health effects

(Wijesekara et al., 2010).

Marine lipids provide unique health benefits to consumers

and are highly prone to oxidation. Fucosterol, a phytosterol

found in brown seaweeds, is well recognized for its health-

beneficial biological activities, such as antioxidative,

cholesterol-reducing, and antidiabetic properties. Fucosterol

obtained from the n-hexane fraction of Pelvetia siliquosa

(Phaeophyceae) is effective against free radical and CCl4-

induced hepatotoxicity in vivo.

Health benefits of marine nutraceuticals

Marine nutraceuticals might have a positive effect on human

health as they can protect human body against damage by

reactive oxygen species (ROS), which attack macromolecules

such as membrane lipids, proteins, and DNA and lead to many

health disorders such as cancer, diabetes mellitus,

neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases with severe

tissue injuries. Recently, chito oligosaccharides (COS) have

been the subject of increased attention in terms of their

pharmaceutical and medicinal applications (Kim and Mendis,

2006), due to their missing toxicity and high solubility, as well

as their positive physiological effects such as antioxidant,

ACE enzyme inhibition, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic,

hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, anti-Alzheimer’s,

anticoagulant properties, and adipogenesis inhibition.

Carotenoids are thought to be responsible for the beneficial

properties in preventing human diseases, including

cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and other chronic diseases.

Moreover, marine-derived sterols have received much

attention in the last few years because of their cholesterol-

lowering properties. Further, marine algal-derived SPs

exhibited various health-beneficial biological activities such

as anti-HIV-1, anticoagulant, immunomodulating, and

anticancer activities (Wijesekara et al., 2011). Moreover, some

bioactive peptides from marine organisms have been identified

to possess nutraceutical potentials for human health

promotion and disease risk reduction (Shahidi and Zhong,

2008), and recently the possible roles of food-derived bioactive

peptides in reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases have

been demonstrated (Erdmann et al., 2008). In addition,

saringosterol, a derivative of fucosterol, discovered in several

brown algae (Phaeophyceae), such as Lessonia nigrescens


and Sargassum ringgoldianum, has been shown to inhibit the

growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Nutritional Value of Sea Lettuces

Seaweeds represent one of the most nutritious plant

foods, and general utilization of seaweeds in food products

has grown steadily since the early 1980s (Besada et al., 2009).

Sea lettuces comprise the genus Ulva, a group of edible green

seaweeds which is widely distributed along the coasts of the

world’s oceans and often found in the mid and upper tidal

zones. They are easily identified by their paperthin, semi

translucent, and vibrant green color. Sea lettuces contain large

amounts of polysaccharides, which constitute around 38%–

54% of the dry matter. The protein content of sea lettuces

varies with the species, but is generally present in high

amounts. For example, protein content in Ulva reticulate is

21.06% of the dry weight, whereas higher protein contents

(27.2% of the dry weight) are recorded in U. lactuca (Ortiz et

al., 2006; Ratana-arporn and Chirapart, 2006). These levels

are comparable to those found in high-protein terrestrial

vegetables, such as soybeans, in which protein makes up

40% of the dry mass (Murata and Nakazoe, 2001). Sea lettuces

are rich in nutrients with medicinal and health-promoting

effects. From a nutritional standpoint, the main properties of

sea lettuces are their richness in polysaccharides, proteins

and amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins.

Therefore, their nutritional values make them valuable food

supplements. Furthermore, sea lettuces may be used to fortify

processed foods. Food preparation from sea lettuces

worldwide may be studied to increase sea lettuce utilization.

Moreover, recognition of sea lettuces as sources of diverse

bioactive principles may open the medicinal potential of sea

lettuces, and there is a great potential to be used in

pharmaceuticals. Therefore, combination between culinary

use and research on bioactive compounds may revitalize the

use of sea lettuces in the new health-conscious consumers.

Sea lettuce products could be used for food fortification,

enrichment, and multipurpose applications.

Chitin and chitosan

Chitin is an abundant natural polysaccharide, which can

be found in the exoskeleton of crustaceans, cuticle of the

insects, and cell wall of some microorganisms. Chitosan is a

common derivative of chitin and gained by N-deacetylation

in the presence of alkaline. Chitosan is reported to be a

functional and basic linear polysaccharide. Generally,

deacetylation cannot be completely achieved even under

harsh treatment. The degree of deacetylation usually ranges

from 70% to 95%, depending on the method used. Chitosan-

based products are known to have many biological activities,

such as antitumor, anti-HIV, antifungal, antibiotic, and act

against oxidative stress (Artan et al. 2010; Kendra and

Hadwiger 1984; Kim et al. 2008; Nishimura et al. 1998; Xie et

al. 1999). Activities can be grouped into two according to the

use of chitin-based products. These products are highly used

as indirect helping agents to enhance the effectiveness of

other active compounds through chemical modification or

nonchemical linkage against diabetes and obesity. On the

other hand, the main role of chitin-based products is to act as

therapeutic nutraceutical agents directly against diabetes and

obesity.

The number of patients diagnosed with diabetes is rapidly

increasing in recent years. There is no cure for diabetes, and

controlling the diabetic complications is not at the desired

level. On the other hand, high mortality and morbidity of

diabetes urge effective preventing and treatment methods to

this disorder. Environmental and genetic factors, which lead

to diabetes and impaired pancreatic functions in later stages,

also have to be kept under control for improved prevention of

diabetes onset. Chitosan, its monomer glucosamine, oligomeric

derivative chitooligosaccharides, and other reported

derivatives express highly efficient activity in a manner of

lowering lipid accumulation and cholesterol as well as

pancreatic â-cell protection. Reported evidences suggest that

chitosan and its derivatives are promising lead compounds

with highly potent utilization as nutraceuticals for treatment

and prevention of diabetes and diabetes-related complications.

Abalone

Abalone is a commercially important marine

“archeogastropod” mollusk with characteristic single auriform

shell under the family of Haliotidae (Lee and Vaequier, 1995).

As a food, abalone has been in demand for a long time due to

its rich nutritional value, superior taste, and various other

benefits to human health among other mollusk species; hence,

it is known as “the emperor of the seashells,” “mother of

shellfish,” or “ginseng in the ocean” (Kim et al., 2006; Lee et

al., 2010). There are 56 recognized abalone species that belong

to the genus Haliotis; however, it is believed that there could

be more than 100 species of abalones (Geiger, 2000).


Conclusions

With so many new species of marine resources still to bediscovered, the potential for new marine-derived bioactivenutraceuticals is immense with beneficial effects on humanhealth, and the food industry is poised for accelerateddevelopment in the near future. Marine resources have beenwell recognized for their biologically active substances with agreat potential to be used as nutraceuticals. Moreover, muchattention has been paid recently by the consumers towardhealthy lifestyle with natural bioactive ingredients. Recentstudies have provided evidence that marine-derived bioactivenutraceuticals play a vital role in human health.

Bibliography

Andlauer, W. and Furst, P. (2002). Nutraceuticals: A piece ofhistory, present status and outlook.Food ResearchInternational, 35, 171–176.

Artan, M., Karadeniz, F., Karagozlu, M.Z., Kim, M.M., andKim, S.K. 2010. Anti-HIV-1 activity of low molecular weightsulfated chitooligosaccharides. Carbohydrate Research345: 656–662.

Besada, V., J.M. Andrade, F. Schultze, and J.J. González. 2009.Heavy metals in edible seaweeds commercialised forhuman consumption. Journal of Marine Systems 75:305–313.

Erdmann, K., Cheung, B. W. Y., and Schroder, H. (2008). Thepossible roles of food–derived bioactive peptides inreducing the risk of cardiovascular disease. Journal ofNutritional Biochemistry, 19, 643–654.

Geiger, D.L. 2000. Distribution and biogeography of theHaliotidae (Gastropoda: Vetigastropoda) world-wide.Bollettino Malacologico 35:57–120.

Jha, R.K., Zi-rong, X. 2004. Biomedical compounds from marineorganisms. Mar Drugs 2:123– 146.

Kendra, D. F. and L. A. Hadwiger. 1984. Characterization ofthe smallest chitosan oligomer that is maximally antifungaltofusarium solani and elicits pisatin formation inpisum sativum.Experimental Mycology 8 (3):276–281.

Kim, H.L., Kang, S.G., Kim, I.C., Kim, S.J., Kim, D.W., Ma, S.J.et al. 2006. In vitro antihypertensive, antioxidant andanticoagulant activities of extracts from Haliotis discushannai. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr 35:835–840.

Kim, J. H., Y. S. Kim, K. Park, S. Lee, H. Y. Nam, K. H. Min, H. G.Jo, J. H. Park, K. Choi, S. Y. Jeong, R. W. Park, I. S. Kim, K.Kim, and I. C. Kwon. 2008. Antitumor efficacy ofcisplatin- loaded glycol chitosan nanoparticles in tumor-bearing mice. Journal of Controlled Release 127 (1):41–49.

Kim, S. K. and Mendis, E. (2006). Bioactive compounds frommarine processing byproducts A review. Food ResearchInternational, 39, 383–393.

Kim, S. K. and Wijesekara, I. (2010). Development andbiological activities of marine-derived b i o a c t i v epeptides: A review. Journal of Functional Foods, 2, 1–9.

Lee, C.G., Kwon, H.K., Ryu, J.H., Kang, S.J., Im, C.R., Kim, J.I.et al. 2010. Abalone visceral extract inhibit tumorgrowth and metastasis by modulating Cox-2 levels and CD8+T cell activity. BMC Complement Alternat Med 10:60.

Lee, Y.H., Vaequier, V.D. 1995. Evolution and systematic inHaliotidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda): Inferences from DNAsequences of sperm lysin. Mar Biol 124:267–278.

Murata, Y., N. Sasaki, E. Miyamoto, S. Kawashima. 2000. Useof floating alginate gel beads for stomach-specific drugdelivery. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 50: 221–226..

Nishimura, S. I., H. Kai, K. Shinada, T. Yoshida, S. Tokura, K.Kurita, H. Nakashima, N. Yamamoto, and T. Uryu. 1998.Regioselective syntheses of sulfated polysaccharides:Specific anti-HIV-1 activity of novel chitin sulfates.Carbohydrate Research 306 (3):427–433.

Ortiz, J., N. Romero, P. Robert et al. 2006. Dietary fiber, aminoacid, fatty acid and tocopherol contents of the edibleseaweeds Ulva lactuca and Durvillaea antarctica. FoodChemistry 99:98–104.

Rajasekaran, A., Sivagnanam, G., Xavier, R. 2008.Nutraceuticals as therapeutic agents: A review. Res JPharm Technol 1:328–340.

Ratana-arporn, P. and A. Chirapart. 2006. Nutritional evaluationof tropical green seaweeds Caulerpa lentilliferaand Ulva reticulata. Kasetsart Journal: Natural Sciences40:75–83.

Shahidi, F 2008. Bioactives from Marine Resources, ACSSymposium Series, ACS Publications, O x f o r dUniversity Press, Cary, NC, pp. 24–34.

Wijesekara, I. and Kim, S. K. (2010). Angiotensin-I-convertingenzyme (ACE) inhibitors from marine resources: Prospectsin the pharmaceutical industry. Marine Drugs, 8, 1080–1093.

Wijesekara, I., Pangestuti, R., and Kim, S. K. (2011). Biologicalactivities and potential health benefits of sulfatedpolysaccharides derived from marine algae. CarbohydratePolymers, 84, 14–21.

Xie, W., P. Xu, and Q. Liu. 2001. Antioxidant activity of water-soluble chitosan derivatives. Bioorganic & MedicinalChemistry Letters 11 (13):1699–1701.

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[Lexington,KY] — ONE: The Alltech Ideas Conference the32nd annual three-day conference has attracted more than 3,000people from 71 countries to Lexington, Kentucky, USA fromMay 22nd – 25th. Over the three-day conference attendees heardfrom 60 of the brightest international minds in science,agriculture, technology and business. Including SteveWozniak, co-founder of Apple Computer, Inc. and chiefscientist of Primary Data, Alan Mulally, former president andCEO of Ford Motor Company, and John Calipari, head coachof the University of Kentucky men’s basketball team, JimStengel, former global marketing officer of Procter & Gamble(2001-2008), David Hunt, co-founder of Cainthus (formerlyknown as Agrilarity), and Ramez Naam, co-chair of Energyand Environment and a member of the exponential advisoryboard at Singularity University.

International Welcome Dinner

On 22nd May Sunday evening, when guests from 71 countriesdined together and enjoyed a night of entertainment.

ONE Fun Run

On Monday morning, more than 250 participants took part inONE Fun Run, powered by Stand Energy. 3K mini-marathonwas held on the stately campus of Lexington’s historicTransylvania University.

Opening Session – Solving the problem

During the opening session on Monday, Alan Mulally, Calipariand Dr. Pearse Lyons, founder and president of Alltechaddressed a packed audience in Rupp Arena and spoke aboutthe importance of one idea, one choice and one team. Exploreworld-changing ideas and challenged attendees to seek outthat one-in-a-million idea that will change our future throughinnovation in science, agriculture, entrepreneurship andbusiness.

Dr. Pearse Lyons: CHOOSE to pursue your dreams

When Dr. Pearse Lyons, founder and president of Alltech,took to the stage at the company’s annual symposium, ONE:The Alltech Ideas Conference, his one question to the 3,000gathered delegates was: “What is your ONE big idea?”

Dr. Lyons shared his perspective from more than 35 years inbusiness and recognized that there were many other “lamps”that lit the path on his journey to creating a now $2 billioncompany. Bringing his team along on this journey wasimportant, he noted, and at ONE, Dr. Lyons shared thefollowing insights:

1. Find what you love, what makes your heart sing

2. Welcome opportunity

3. Make your one choice

Calipari, head men’s basketball coach at the University ofKentucky (UK), and Mulally, former CEO of Ford and the

ONE IDEA, ONE CHOICE, ONE TEAM, ENDLESSOPPORTUNITIES – ONE: THE ALLTECH IDEAS CONFERENCE

U

PRESS RELEASE


recipient of the Alltech 2016 Medal of Excellence, both spokeon the idea of building a team and working together to achievegoals within a team.

John Calipari: Connection, communication and creatingcommunity leaders

Calipari gave five main points that he thought best suit hisstyle of being a leader and building a team. He urged peopleto build strong relationships that are based on trust andhonesty.

Alan Mulally: Making working together work

Mulally explained what he did to bring Ford out of a $12.7billion loss.

“Everybody has to know what the plan is; everybody has toknow what the status is,” said Mulally.

He shared four key points for leading a team:

1. Go after a compelling vision

2. Include everyone

3. Work on strategy

4. Check it out – review the plan and make sure it’s working(i.e., goals are being achieved)

ONE Vision offers a glimpse into the innovative future ofagriculture

In order to visualize the world in 2050, Alltech created a virtualexperience entitled ONE Vision. ONE Vision which allowedattendees to experience a planet of plenty, where technologyand science align in order to produce nutritious food.Attendees were guided through a 10,000-square-foot virtualplanet, where they can witness a world in harmony with itsthree essential elements: land, air and water. Attendees couldalso interact with reaction tables, allowing them to understandthe effects of today’s choices on the agriculture industry andthe future of our planet.Wozniak: ONE man’s peaceful revolution through technologyApple has created some of the most innovative products inthe world. Steve Wozniak was the mastermind and the engineerbehind the Apple I and Apple II computers. Wozniak, recipientof the 2016 Alltech Humanitarian Award, addressed a packedhouse at ONE: The Alltech Ideas Conference to talk about hisvision and how he sees computers in the future.

PRESS RELEASE


PRESS RELEASE

Wozniak started Apple with Steve Jobs when they were youngwith no money, no savings and no business experience. Heclosed by recommending the three types of people that youngentrepreneurs need to start a business:

1. A guider: Someone who knows the business and howto make money.

2. A marketer: Someone who knows the quality of theproduct.

3. A very good engineer: Someone who has talent andknows what will and will not work.

Special key concurrent sessions, with an option for attendeesto attend the topics of their interest were part of AlltechONE:

• Cash Cow: Special session on Dairy

• The Future of Beef

• Opportunities in Poultry Industry

• Pork Symposium: The Other White Meat

• Crop Science Symposium: A Growing Revolution

• Risk Assessment

• Marketing for Business Growth

• Brain Health

• Aquaculture around the world

• The Business of Agriculture

• Craft Brewing and Distilling

• Global and Local Business Opportunites

The sessions were chaired by experts in the field, along withworld renowned speakers.

Closing Session:

Damien McLoughlin, Professor of Marketing, UCD MichaelSmurfit Graduate Business School, addressed attendees inRupp Arena at the closing session of ONE: The Alltech IdeasConference. ONE explored world-changing ideas andchallenged attendees to seek out that one-in-a-million ideathat will change the future through innovation. During theclosing session, McLoughlin spoke about red and blue oceanstrategies, and the need to address creative destruction inthe food and agriculture industry. He urged attendees todifferentiate, apply innovative technology and invest todayfor tomorrow.

“When you are not investing in tomorrow, you will not seesuccess in the future. Businesses are currently too busy,focusing only on the issues of today,” said McLoughlin.

Dr. Lyons closed the program by welcoming globalphenomenon Riverdance to perform traditional Irish danceon the main stage in Rupp Arena

The conference returns May 21-24, 2017. Visit one.alltech.comfor all the latest information from the event or write [email protected]

U


FOOD BORNE VIRAL ZOONOSESU

Introduction

Food was first recognized as a vehicle for the

transmission of viruses in 1914 when raw milk associated

outbreaks of poliomyelitis was reported. Various animal and

human viruses are transmitted through milk, meat. Most of

the cases were due to consumption of under processed foods.

Zoonotic viruses like Flavivirus (tick borne encephalitis virus,

louping-ill virus), Hepevirus (Hepatitis E), Calicivirus

(Norovirus and Sapovirus) are transmitted through foods.

For most the viruses still the transmission via food is not well

established and for few it well reported.

Hepatitis E

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has been isolated from swine

which is source of HEV infection proved its zoonotic potential.

The reservoirs of HEV infection are not known, but virus has

been isolated from the feces of a wide range of domestic

animals. Recent reports showed that the virus may be

transmitted to humans by close contact with infected swine

or from the consumption of contaminated raw or undercooked

pork, wild boar liver and deer meat. The most convincing

evidence of zoonotic transmission was reported in Japan with

consumption deer meat leads to HEV infection in certain

families. Transmission also associated with the consumption

of undercooked deer meat, which considered as important

risk factor.

Veterinarians and people working with pigs were more

likely to be infected with HEV due to occupational hazard,

studies showed presence of HEV antibodies. The isolation of

a swine HEV that cross-reacts with antibody to capsid antigen

of human HEV indicated zoonotic transmission. Nonhuman

primates can also be infected by swine HEV, leads to

seroconversion, fecal shedding of virus, viraemia and

development of a mild acute hepatitis with slight elevation of

liver enzymes. Chimpanzees can also be infected with HEV

results in seroconversion, fecal shedding of virus but not

viremia or hepatitis. These suggests that swine HEV may infect

humans and the swine could be a zoonotic reservoir for HEV.

HEV is shed in the feces and bile of swine for 3-5

weeks after infection. The excretion of HEV in feces of infected

pigs could lead to the spread of HEV in the environment and

increase the potential for zoonotic transmission. Similarly, fecal

contamination of runoff waters from pig farms or from lands

on which untreated pig manure has been spread could

contaminate irrigation and surface waters with subsequent

HEV contamination of fruits, vegetables, and shellfish.

Although there is increasing evidence of the zoonotic

transmission of HEV, the risk factors are still largely unknown.

Two cases of conûrmed zoonotic transmission of HEV

through the consumption of contaminated animal food

products have been reported in Japan. In these two cases,

clinical symptoms occur 40 or 60 days after consumption of

Sika deer (sushi) or wild boar (grilled) meat. In both cases,

HEV RNA was successfully ampliûed in the patients as well

as in the leftover frozen animal meat. The HEV viral sequences

recovered from the patients and from the leftover frozen meats

are either identical or near identical with 99.95% identity,

conûrming the zoonotic nature of transmission through the

consumption of animal food products. In one of these cases,

the level of HEV contamination of the meat was estimated by

quantitative RT-PCR to be approximately 105 genome

equivalents (GE) per gram of meat. There was no indication

on the quantity of meat ingested by the patient nor the type

of meat (liver or muscle) involved.

In four other studies in Japan, HEV infection HEV

infection via the consumption of contaminated food was

supported by several pieces of evidence. In all cases, hepatitis

E were observed 14 to 60 days after consumption of raw or

under cooked pork products wild boar barbecue, raw wild

boar liver, grilled or uncooked pork liver. IgM and/or IgG

antibodies and/or HEV RNA were detected in patients who

shared the same meal with the index-case(s). Very recently in

France, a case-control study showed that eating raw sausage

made with pork liver is linked with autochtonous hepatitis E

human cases3 . Thus, among the possible contamination

pathways of HEV, contaminated food must be seriously

considered. A recent German study also supports a foodborne

Dr. Elamurugan. A, Dr. Ramesh. K, Dr. Elaiyaraja. R and Dr. Sundar, AIndian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly.

Dr.Elamurugan A PhD scholar, QC & QA Unit, FMD Research center, IVRI, Hebbal,Bangalore-560024 Ph: 07795519079


origin of HEV infection. A case-control study was performed

and the risk factors found, independently associated with

autochthonous HEV infection, were offal consumption (41%

versus 19%) and wildboar meat consumption (20% versus

7%). The meat products implicated should be investigated

for the presence of HEV. These data would contribute to deûne

preventive measures. Another possible way of HEV exposure

is through direct contact with animals. Higher anti-HEV

antibody prevalences within individuals in close contact with

pigs have been reported: slaughterhouse staff, veterinarians

and pig breeders. A survey in a cohort of 295 veterinarians

from 8 American states showed an antibody prevalence of

27% in swine veterinarians versus 16% in the general

population. Both swine veterinarians and normal blood

donors, from traditionally-major swineproducing states are

more likely to be seropositive than subjects from traditionally

non-major swine-producing states. A limited number of pig

handlers in two endemic countries (China and Thailand) were

also tested for IgG antiHEV prevalence, and most of them

were found to be seropositive for HEV. In Sweden, a study

also showed a high prevalence of HEV antibodies within the

pig breeders’ population (13%). To support these data, a

Bayesian approach was used in the Netherlands to estimate a

seroprevalence rate of approximately 11% for swine

veterinarians, 6% for non-swine veterinarians and 2% for the

general population. In Moldova, it has been reported that

approximately 51% of swine farmers were IgG anti-HEV

positive whereas only 25% of control subjects with no

occupational exposure to swine were seropositive. Swine

farmers with a history of cleaning barns or assisting pig birth

were 2.46 times more likely to be seropositive than controls.

In North Carolina, Withers et al. reported that swine workers

had a 4.5-fold higher anti-HEV prevalence (10.9%) than the

controls (2.4%). Recently, an acute hepatitis E was reported

in a person who had been given a pet pig 2 months before the

onset of symptoms. HEV sequences closely related to the

sequence recovered from the patient were identiûed from the

animal, and shown to belong to the genotype 3 HEV strain

with 94% nucleotide sequence identity. Thus, contact with

animals and especially swine increase the risk of HEV

exposure. The possible source of HEV infection in these cases

could be feces or manure, since large amounts of virus can be

excreted in feces. One study has investigated the presence of

HEV in manure storage facilities (earthen lagoons or concrete

pits). HEV-contaminated efûuents were detected in seven of

the 28 farms investigated with up to 103 GE of HEV genomic

RNA per 60 mL of pit samples. The presence of infectious

virus was conûrmed by a swine bioassay. None of the water

samples tested in the farm vicinity was positive. Manure

storage and spreading may vary from country to country, and

thus further investigations should be done to evaluate this

possible contamination pathway. Furthermore, a recent study

has investigated zoonotic, foodborne, or water-borne origin

of genotype 3 HEV infections in people in The Netherlands.

Interestingly, 17% of surface water samples were found

positive. The possible HEV contamination of the environment

is thus of concern and must be further studied. To evaluate

the risk associated with zoonotic HEV transmission, a piece

of very important data such as a dose-response model for

HEV, is still missing. Since there is no efûcient in vitro cell

culture model to propagate HEV, little is known on HEV

infectivity. The number of infectious particles in correlation

with the number of genome equivalent (GE, estimated by semi-

quantitative RT-PCR) has been estimated using the pig model.

A titration of a suspension containing 106 (GE) was performed

and it corresponds to approximately 104.5 50% pig infectious

dose (PID50). Thus, one PID50 corresponds to approximately

101.5 GE, but IV inoculation is not a natural route of HEV

transmission, except in cases of blood transfusion. Another

study has shown that pigs orally infected with 105.3 GE had

seroconverted, or excreted virus in 25% of the cases (4/16).

Thus, the data suggest that infection by HEV genotype 3

requires high copy numbers of GE in animals. This observation

might be different for genotypes 1 and 2 in humans, although

this can serve as an indicator.

Tick borne encephalitis

One of the most important Flavivirus is TBEV, which

is endemic in many countries. It affects thousands of people

annually and has a significant impact on public health. The

virus is transmitted to humans mainly through a tick bite,

however, the infection has also been reported to occur by

drinking unpasteurised goat milk from viraemic animals. It is

continuously excreted between 2 and 6 days after infection

and attains in the milk of an infected animal several hundred

times those in the blood. This may be due to the multiplication

of the virus in the udder, or to filtration and concentration of

the virus from the blood in the udder.

Louping-ill virus

Louping ill virus (LIV) is another Flavivirus disease

affecting principally sheep with a disease that is known as

ovine encephalomyelitis, infectious encephalomyelitis of

sheep, or trembling-ill. LIV is transmitted to sheep by the tick

vector Ixodes ricinus. Humans are also susceptible to infection


with LIV. However, the majority of the cases reported are

accidentally acquired infections in laboratory workers. The

second most frequent infection results from handling infected

animal carcasses. Infection with LIV in humans can cause a

neurological disease resembling the clinical picture observed

for TBEV infections, i.e. biphasic encephalitis, influenza-type

illness, fever, articular pain, meningitis, myagia and

poliomyelitis-like illness. Other possible transmission routes

for LIV infection to humans include drinking contaminated

milk from goat or sheep in an acute phase of infection.

Calicivirus (Norovirus and Sapovirus)

Calicivirus-like particles and Calicivirus RNA

sequences in the cecum of pigs and in fecal samples from

calves, isolated and their sequence analysis showed that they

are genetically more closely associated with human

noroviruses than with other known caliciviruses. Now they

are termed Norovirus genogroup III, referred as Jena and

Newbury agents. Although the discovery of these noroviruses

prompted concerns that calves and pigs may be rsevoir of

infection for human noroviral diseass through contamination

of food. Outbreaks of noroviruses results from preharvest

contamination of foods such as shellfish and postharvest

contamination through food handling. Several outbreaks have

been reported were due to consumption of contaminated

shellfish, delicatessen meats.

Noro- and sapoviruses belong to the virus family

Caliciviridae and constitute their own genera Norovirus and

Sapovirus within this family. Noroviruses as the most

important causative agents of non-bacterial epidemic human

gastroenteritis are important for public health. Sapoviruses

play a minor role as causative agents of gastroenteritis mainly

in young children. The detection of noroviruses and

sapoviruses in the faeces of healthy as well as diseased farm

animals increased public interest in a possible zoonotic

transmission of these viruses. Virus isolates from animals and

humans belong to the same two genera. This raises the

questions whether transmission of these viruses between

animals and man and vice versa occurs and whether animals

represent a reservoir for enteric disease in man.

Norovirus has been detected in a variety of animals

including pigs, cattle, mice, sheep and lion. The genogroups

associated with human and animal noroviruses are as follows.

GI norovirus has been linked to humans; GII norovirus to

humans, pig, cattle; GIII norovirus to cattle, sheep; GIV

norovirus to humans, lion, dog and GV norovirus to mice. It

has been suggested that there is at least one additional

norovirus genogroup, and that viruses in this group occur in

dogs and humans. A key public health question in this area is

whether animals can act as a reservoir for human noroviruses.

Although zoonotic transmission of noroviruses had not been

observed, the current understanding of norovirus

epidemiology was too limited to be sure this did not occur.

Foot and mouth diseases

FMD is one of the most contagious diseases of cattle,

but man appears to be only slightly susceptible to it. This is

evident from the fact that despite extensive and repeated

epizootics of the diseases, human infection has been rarely

proved. Milk-borne infection is seldom observed, even when

raw mild from infected farms is consumed. Moreover, few of

the reported cases were confirmed by animal inoculation or

neutralization tests.

Conclusion

The zoonotic viral diseases transmitted through milk

and meat, mainly due to undercooking. This can be prevented

by proper processing of food material. Contamination of foods

during pre and postharvest by fecal material can be well

checked by proper managemental conditions.

References

Bank-Wolf, B.R. and Thiel, H.J. (2010). Zoonotic aspects of

infections with noroviruses and sapoviruses. Veterinary

Microbiology, 140: 204-212.

Christou, L. (2011). The global burden of bacterial and viral

zoonotiv infection. Clin Microbiol Infect 17: 326–330.

Greening, G.E. (2006). Human and animal viruses in food. In:

viruses in foods, ed. Sagar. M. Goyal. Springer publications.

Kallio-Kokko, M., Uzcategui, N., Vapalahti, O. and Vaheri, A.

(2005). Viral zoonoses in Europe. FEMS Microbiology Reviews

29: 1051-1077.

Kaplan, M.M., Abdussalam, M. and Bijlenga, G. Diseases

transmitted through milk. OIE veterinary public health unit.

Ludwig, B., Kraus, F.B., Allwinn, R. and Preiser, W. (2003).

Viral zoonoses – a threat under control? Intervirology, 46: 71-78.

Meng, X.J. (2010). Hepatitis E virus: animal reservoirs and

zoonotic risk. Veterinary Microbiology, 140: 256-265.

Newell, D.G et al. (2010). Food-borne diseases — The challenges

of 20 years ago still persist while new ones continue to emerge.

International journal of food microbiology, 139: S3-S15.

U


Homoeopathic Approach to treat Bovine Clinical MastitisU

Bovine clinical mastitis is a disease of paramount

importance in female milch breeds. If not given attention

at proper time then not only it dampens the milk production

but also significantly affects the economy of the herd.

Most of the cases even after the treatment the animal

seldom attains its full productivity. The condition is also

worsened by the reduction in the size of the teat and the

udder. If any contaminants or debris get accessed inside

the udder then there is every possible chance of spreading

the infection to the other healthy compartments of the

udder. In female it sometimes affects other reproductive

parts (Metritis-Mastitis Complex). The prognosis in such

cases are always grave.

The medicinal approach (Allopathic approach) to treat

such anomaly is very costly and effective only to some

extent but the quality and taste of the milk cannot be

restored. In certain cases purulent discharge comes out

from the udder which if not treated properly then

toxaemia prevails and animal gradually succumbs to

death. However homeopathic treatment being cost

effective and has no side effects on animal health, now

gaining momentum in animal practices.

Hence the farmer should consider the use of homeopathic

drugs given below to treat clinical mastitis with following

symptoms

• If the udder is swollen and hard and watery or

curdled milk comes out from it

Cal Sulph - 6×

Hyper Sulphur - 6×

Cal player – 1M

Phytollyca – 1M

Belladona – 1M

Administer three to four times orally daily

• If the udder and teat became cyanotic (Blue

colour)

Arsenicalbs – 200

Lychasis – 200

Agnus cast – 200

Administer 20 drops each, three to four times

orally daily

• If blood comes along with milk but there is no

inflammation or swelling of the udder

Arnica – 1M

Hypericum – 1M


• If milk present in the udder but flow of milk

from the teat is less

Conium Mac- 1M


• If there is change in the shape of the teats

Phytollyca – 1M

Pulsetilla – 1M

Administer three to four times orally daily.

Saraswat Sahoo1, Subhash Sharma2, Arpita Padhy3, Shyam Lal Garg4 and Subha Ganguly5

1Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics, 3Assistant Professor,5Associate Professor & Head, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, 4Teaching Associate,

Department of Livestock Production Management, Arawali Veterinary College(Affiliated with RAJASTHAN UNIVERSITY OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES, Bikaner),

V.P.O. Bajor, Dist. Sikar, Pin – 332001, Rajasthan, India*Corresponding Author, Dr. Subha Ganguly, Technical Editorial Board Member & Adviser, Livestock Line (LL),

E-mail: [email protected]

U


GOAT REARING FOR MEAT PURPOSEU

Broiler goat production is highly suitable technology in

areas where green fodder is not available (or) due to

lack of grazing land. It is one of the techniques to improve

the economy of rural farming community. Broiler goat

rearing has been found to be highly remunerative

compare to rearing other farm animals and it has been

advocated as a better substitute of livelihood for the rural

farmer.

What are broiler goat kids?

As far as broiler goat raring is concerned, we don’t have

any specific breed for this purpose. The kids produced

from goats (whatever breed available in your area) can

be used for broiler goat rearing (both male as well as

female kids).

Parent stock

This technique is highly applicable to the farmers having

goats or already involved in goat rearing. The kids

produced from these animals can be used for broiler

goat rearing.

For example, suppose a farmer is having 50 goats. Out

of these 50 goats, may be 20 goats kidded (delivered) on

an average of 2 kids/goat at a time. So that farmer can

get totally 40kids. Out of these 40 kids (20 male & 20

female), the kids which are having higher birth weight

and those not used for further breeding can be selected

for broiler goat rearing.

Housing

Low cost housing should be constructed in such a way

in a raised platform (about 1 meter height from ground

level) by using bamboo/wooden poles or ‘pakka’ building

by establishing concrete pillars. Floor and side walls may

be made of wooden material. Roof may be thatched

with coconut leaves, grass or asbestos sheets. . Average

floor space per kid is 0.75 to 1 sq. metre. Floor should

have atleast 1 cm space between bamboos/wooden

planks to allow passage of dung and urine down to the

ground.

Selection of kids

The goat kids about 15 days to 1 month old i.e before

starting to eat green leaves and are having higher birth

weight and not used for further breeding can be selected

for broiler goat rearing. The selected kids will not be

allowed to feed on green fodder/grazing green grasses

in open spaces.

Method of rearing

The selected kids are reared intensively by providing

concentrate feed (goat feed) @ 5 g mixed with equal

quantity of rice gruel (broken boiled rice) initially i.e. at

start (15-30 days). Then gradually increase the amount

day by day as per feed intake (eg. 7g, 10 g, 15 g like

that). Apart from these you can add, coconut cake, rice

bran or ground cake with minimum level (1-2 g/day/kid

to maximum of 150-200/day) pure water also should be

available at all times (24 hours).

Liver tonic (Tefroli/Livol etc.) and Fish oil should be given

twice in a week @ 2.5 ml/animal per day initially and

increase upto 5-10ml/kid/day. The young kids should be

allowed for mother’s milk twice or thrice in a day.

Goat feed: Available in the market or you can also

prepare own feed mix by using following feed

ingredients.

Dr. Om Prakash1,*, Dr. Amit Kumar2 and Dr. Rohit Charan3

1 Ph.D. Scholar, Division of Animal Genetics, IVRI, Izatnagar (Bareilly) UP-243122,2Scientist, Division of Animal Genetics, IVRI, Izatnagar and

3Department of Animal Husbandry, Govt. of Rajasthan, Barmer*Corresponding Author: [email protected]


Marketing

In India goat meat is preferred by all. So marketing of

broiler goat is not a major problem. Direct marketing is

highly profitable. Involvement of middleman can reduce

the price of animals. Broiler goat meat is soft and minimize

goaty odour. Marketing should be done at the attainment

of 25-30 kg or at the age of 3-4 months whichever is

earlier.

Breeding of parent stock

Parent stock should be allowed for mating by using good

quality male (superior breed) or by using frozen semen

at about 45 days postpartum (after delivery). Thereby

the farmers can get continuous supply of goat kids for

broiler goat production. Furthermore, the female goats

produce more number of kids in their life time. Repeated

mating by using same male should be avoided.

Synchronization of estrus

In a large herd, synchronization of estrus by using PGF2

alpha injection and timely breeding by using good quality

frozen semen or natural service by superior male will

enhance not only conception rate but also the farmer

can bring all the animals to deliver (kidding) at a specified

period.

Advantages

1. No need to observe oestrus signs.

2. Fixed time breeding at 72 hrs and 96 hours

following PGF2 alpha injection.

3. Delivery of all mated or inseminated animals

at a particular time.

4. Highly useful for broiler goat rearing

5. Management is easy.

6. Reduced inter-kidding interval (in between the

deliveries)

Conclusion

A farm woman can manage about 10-20 kids at a time

without any extra labour. It is highly profitable to the

farmers who are already involved in goat rearing. The

kids should be sold off at about 3-4 months or at the

attainment of 25-30 kgs whichever is earlier. A farm

woman/farmer can produce more number of broiler kids in

short period of time. Apart from these the reproductive

efficiency of female goats can also be highly exploited

by proper planning of breeding.

U

Ingredients Parts

Deoiled ground nut cake 12

Horse gram 30

Wheat/maize/jowar (grain) 30

Rice polish/wheat bran 15

Dried unsalted fish 10

Mineral mixture 1.5

Common salt 1.5

Vitamin AB2D

325 gms/100 kg of feed mixture


INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS (IGR): AN ECO-FRIENDLYAPPROACH FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

U

Introduction

Insect growth regulators (IGR) are new category of chemicals/compounds for control of insect arthropods. Thesecompounds are developed as alternatives to insecticides sincethe use of insecticides may cause the development ofinsecticide resistance, environmental contamination and mayaffect human and animal health. Insect growth regulators(IGR) or Insect Growth Inhibitors (IGI) are chemicalcompounds or products that interrupt or inhibit the life cycleof insects in the egg, larvae, pupae stage of insectdevelopment. The idea with an IGR is that if an insect cannotreach adulthood, it cannot reproduce. In short, IGR is a formof “birth control” for pests which helps keep the populationsof unwanted pests under control by preventing current andfuture infestations.

Some of most common pests targeted by IGR include flea,ticks, ants, bedbugs, cockroaches and other stored productpests. Since IGR address only the problem of reproductionbut do not actually kill the adult insect, it is always a goodidea to use a knockdown-and-kill insecticide along with theIGR for ultimate population control. Several features of insectgrowth regulators make them attractive as alternatives tobroad-spectrum insecticides. Because they are more selective,they are less harmful to the environment and more compatiblewith pest management systems that include biologicalcontrols.

Compared with conventional insecticides, insect growthregulators are

• More selective

• Less harmful to the environment

• More compatible with biological controls

• Less likely to be lost because of resistance

Insect have demonstrated a propensity to developresistance to insecticides. Broad-spectrum insecticides that

are used routinely will eventually be lost because of resistance.Intelligent use of IGR should reduce the likelihood ofresistance developing by insect arthropods. Virtually allchemicals used to control insects fall into one of threecategories; Neurotoxins, Growth regulators and Behaviormodifiers.

i) Neurotoxins ’! most chemicals used to control insectsare neurotoxins which interfere with normal nervefunction. Organophosphate insecticides were derivedfrom nerve gases that were first exploited for militarypurposes. Other insecticides were discovered by testingchemicals to find those that killed pests quickly. Aboutthe only thing that kills quickly is a neurotoxin sochemicals that acted on neurotransmissions weresought and developed as insecticides. In the earlydiscovery and development of insecticides, efforts werefocused on chemistry rather than biology. Because allanimals share basically the same neurochemicalsystems, neurotoxins are toxic to all animals.

ii) Insect growth regulators ’! the origin of IGR was entirelydifferent. Their discovery was based on knowledge ofhow insects grow, develop, function and behave. Oneway of discovery was to expose an insect to IGR andobserve abnormalities in how it develops functions orbehaves. Chemicals that produce desired effects weredeveloped. Another was to find out what processes inthe insects development involve hormones and to usethose hormones as models to synthesize chemicalanalogs that will interfere with normal insect growth anddevelopment. Because IGR act on systems unique toinsects or shared with close relatives, they are less likelyto affect other organisms.

iii) Behaviour modifiers ’! behavior affecting chemicals,such as pheromones, are discovered in the same way asIGR but tend to be even more specific. Pheromones aid

A. Latchumikanthan*1, P. Pavan Kumar2, A. Prasanna Vadhana3,M. Vivek Srinivas4, Vijesh Kumar Saini1, M.V. Jithin5

1. Ph.D Scholars, Division of Parasitology, I.V.R.I, Izatnagar, Bareilly2. Ph.D Scholar, Division of Veterinary Public Health, I.V.R.I, Izatnagar, Bareilly3. Ph.D Scholar, Division of Veterinary Bacteriology, I.V.R.I, Izatnagar, Bareilly

4. Ph.D Scholar, Division of Veterinary Virology, I.V.R.I, Izatnagar, Bareilly5. Ph.D Scholar, Division of Veterinary Medicine, I.V.R.I, Izatnagar, Bareilly

(*Email: [email protected])


the sexes of a single species to find each other so thateffort is not wasted chasing mates of a different species.

How insect growth regulators work?

Insects wear their skeletons on the outside. Theskeletons are called exoskeletons. As the insect grows, a newexoskeleton must be formed inside the old exoskeleton andthe old one shed. The new one then swells to a larger size andhardens the process is called moulting. The changes formlarval to adult form, a process called metamorphosis, alsotake place during moulting. Hormones control the phases ofmoulting by acting on the epidermis, which is part of theexoskeleton.

Based on their different mode of action, IGR are classifiedinto;

a) Chitin synthesis inhibitors

b) Chitin inhibitors

c) Juvenile hormone analogs and mimics

d) Anti-juvenile hormones

a) Chitin synthesis inhibitors

These compounds prevent the formation of chitin, apolymer of acetylglucosamine closely related to cellulose thatis an important structural component of the insect’sexoskeleton. When treated with this chitin synthesis inhibitors,the insect grows normally until the time to moult. When theinsect moults, the exoskeleton is not properly formed and itdies. Death may be quick, but in some cases it may take severaldays.

Benzoylphenyl urea (BPU) compounds are chitinsynthesis inhibitors. The exact mechanism of action of thesecompounds is not accessed, but they may interfere or affectsthe assembly of chitin chains into microfibrils of insects.Developing stages of insects treated with benzoylphenyl ureacompounds cannot complete metamorphosis and they dieduring the development itself. Chitin synthesis inhibitors cankill eggs by disrupting the normal development of the embryo.These compounds also show transovarian effect in controllinginsects. Adult insects exposed to these compounds produceeggs in which the chemicals also incorporated into egg nutrient.The development of eggs is normal but the larvae are incapableof hatching.

BPU compounds are systemic insect growth regulators,lipophilic in nature so they are building up in fat of animalbody and slowly released into the bloodstream finally excretedout without any change in them. BPU compounds used asinsect growth regulators are Lufenuron, Diflubenzuron,Fluazuron, Triflumuron and Flufenoxyuron.

Lufenuron (Program®, Ciba-Geigy) is currently availablefor the flea control. Following oral administration thecompound accumulates in fat and slowly released into blood.When fleas ingest it along with blood, the eggs of fleas becomenon-viable and the formation of chitin structure inhibitedthereby development of flea larvae inhibited.

Diflubenzuron (Hilmilin®) is an insect growth regulator,highly effective against immature stages of mosquitoes anddoes not produce harmful effects on non-target organisms.Diflubenzuron which acts by interference with the formationof chitin in insect cuticle, thus inhibiting the moulting process.

Triflumuron and Diflubenzuron produce delayedimpact (such as lesser pupal production and inhibition ofadult emergence) at very low concentrations. Both theformulations produced complete inhibition of the developmentof pupae and emergence of adult mosquitoes of Anophelesstephensi, Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus up tofour weeks in tanks with clear water, and Cx. quinquefasciatusin moderatedly polluted small pools. They are used atconcentration of 0.5 to 1 ppm (half to one tablet per 40 litre ofwater). The tablet and granule formulations of thesecompounds are very effective in prevention of adultemergence of mosquitoes even at very low dosages. An.stephensi is most susceptible to these compounds followedby Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus.

b) Chitin inhibitors

Triazine and Pyrimidine derivatives act as chitininhibitors. Their mode of action differs from action of chitinsynthesis inhibitors and also the structure of these chemicalsdiffers. Chitin inhibitors mainly act by altering deposition ofchitin into cuticle of insects under development therebypreventing the development of adult insects.

Pyrimidine derivatives (Dicyclanil) are used in blowfly control by affecting the dipteran larvae. Dicyclanil givesprotection to animals against the blow flies development forabout 20 weeks. The compound is available as pour-onformulation.

Triazine derivatives (Cyromazine) are used againstmosquitoes, blow flies and house flies control. Cyromazine(Larvadex, Vetrazin®, Ciba-Geigy) is used as pour-onapplication. It is used as effective larvicidal cover againstblow fly strike up to 8 to 13 weeks. It affects moulting andpupation following ingestion by first larval stage. Thiscompound does not affect the process of chitin synthesis.

c) Juvenile hormone analogs and mimics

Juvenile hormone (JH) is secreted by two tiny glandsbehind the brain, the corpora allata. As long as there is JH,


ecdysone promotes larva to larva moults. With lower amountsof JH, ecdysone promotes pupation. Complete absence of JHresults in formation of the adult.

For example, if the corpora allata glands are removedfrom an immature stage silkworm, it immediately spins a cocoon

and become a small pupa and a miniature adult eventuallyemerges out (Fig. A). Conversely, if the corpora allata of ayoung silkworm are place in the body of fully mature larva,metamorphosis does not occur. The next moult produces anextra-large caterpillar (Fig. C).

(Fig. A, B, C - Changes in developmental stages in relation with corpora allata glands)

When applied to an insect, these abnormal sources of

juvenilizing agent can have striking consequences. For

example, if the normal course of events calls for a moult to the

pupal stage, an abnormally high level juvenilizing agent will

produce another larval stage or produce larval pupal

intermediates.

Juvenoid IGRs can also act on eggs. They can cause

sterilization, disrupt behavior. Juvenile hormone analogs mimic

the activity of natural hormones in insects such as

Prothoracicotrophic hormone (PTTH), Ecdysone, Bursicone

and thereby preventing moulting processes.

Normally in insects, juvenile hormones are destroyed

by larval enzymes permitting development into an adult stage.

The juvenile hormone analogs bind to the juvenile hormone

receptors site, since they are structurally altered they are not

destroyed by the insect enzyme mainly esterases or

epoxidhydrolases. These enzymes are both JH signal

suppressors and JH signal responsive. Therefore development

into an adult stage is prevented. At high levels of juvenile

hormone, larvae can still moult, but the result will only be a

bigger larva, not an adult. Thus the reproductive cycle is

broken.


Methoprene is approved by WHO for use in drinking

water cisterns to control mosquitoes larvae. Methoprene is

used at the rate of 0.001 ppm against mosquitoes. Methoprene

is used in control of flood water mosquitoes. Larvae of Culex

pipiens are 10 times less sensitive than Aedes agypti

mosquitoes.

Methoprene/ Altocid IGR (Precor, Precor 2000) when

used indoors, will prevent the egg and larvae stages of fleas

from developing, with a 3-7 months residual effect. Existing

adult fleas and flea pupae are not affected by the compound.

Methoprene is having very low mammalian toxicity. It is not

photostable and is for indoor use only as shampoo, spray,

collars even feed as larvicide for controlling hornflies.

Methoprene is available in liquid concentrate and aerosol

formulations for indoor flea control. Methoprene is also

effective against cigarette beetles control.

Methoprene is combined with Fipronil in ‘Frontline

Plus’ - as topical flea and tick treatments for dogs and cats.

Fipronil kills and repels ticks and adult fleas as the Methoprene

inhibits the growth of immature fleas.

Pyriproxyfen / Nylar (Archer, Flea Fix) - is used for

control of fleas in dogs and cats. It is photostable can be

used outdoors and indoors. It does not kill adult fleas, but it

stops both eggs and larva from proceeding to the next stage

of growth. It inhibits the growth of fleas and cockroaches.

Nylar has a 3 to 6 month residual indoors and can last 30 days

when used outdoors. It can be used alone (for roach and flea

prevention) or tank mixed with an approved adulticide.

Cypermethrin insecticides work best with this compound.

Nylar is available in liquid concentrate and aerosol

formulations.

Hydroprene - is the active ingredient used in Gentrol,

GentrolPoint, Gentrol Aerosol. Hydroprene is not photostable

and for indoor use only. Hydroprene is very useful in

eliminating or controlling cockroaches and many pantry pests.

This compound is available is liquid concentrate, aerosol and

in solid dispensers.

d) Anti-juvenile hormones

It is a new area of research for the control of insect

pests of agriculture and dairy animal farms. The search for

synthetic chemicals which induce premature metamorphosis

has only recently been successful and a natural phytochemical

antagonist of JH has been found (W.S. Bowers, personal

communication). Since the chemical induction of premature

metamorphosis may have lethal effects on early larval insects,

which are the major pest in crop agriculture; it is likely that the

future/considerable research and development will take place

in academic and industrial laboratories.

The small molecules which completely antagonize

juvenile hormones, which are selectively cytotoxic to the

endocrine organs, or which inhibit the unique biosynthetic

pathway to the JH could become very valuable in agriculture

and pest control. Such chemicals would also be definable as

IGRs, but their properties would show considerable

advantages over the known JH-analog IGRs, since the latter

have little if any practically useful effect on early-stage

caterpillars. Nevertheless it appears that through the detailed

study of the JH and of insect endocrinology will come the

basic knowledge needed to design new chemicals for the

selective control of early developing insects.

Conclusions

Insect growth regulators have a very low toxicity to

mammals, birds, fish and adult insects, but are highly toxic to

the immature stages of insects. They breakdown rapidly in

the environment but may last for several weeks/ months when

applied as granules or microcapsules. So they can be well

used as they do not pose any hazard to mankind and other

wildlife.

IGRs are particularly suited for use in strategic pest

control and integrated pest management but, since they do

not act immediately and often do not kill the pest at the stage

where damage occurs, a better understanding of the ecology

and population dynamics of the pest is required for their

effective use.

References

• Siddall, J.B., 1976. Insect Growth Regulators and Insect

Control: A Critical Appraisal. Environmental Health

Prospectives. 14: 119-126.

• Hall, M and R. Wall., 1995. Myiasis in human and

domestic animals. Advances in parasitology. 35: 258-

334.

• Evaluation of IGR compounds; A Profile of National

Institute of Malaria Research (Integrated vector

management). pp. 231-232.

• Taylor, M.A., 2001. Recent Development in

Ectoparasiticides. The veterinary journal.

161: 253-268.

U


Therapeutic Considerations of Diseases of FishU

Therapeutic options in fish are limited. FDA-approved drugscommercially available for use in food fish are listed in Table:FDA-approved Drugs for Aquaculture Use in the USA(2002). In addition, the FDA has listed several compoundsas being of “low regulatory concern” (Table: DrugsDesignated as Low Regulatory Priority for Aquaculture bythe FDA). These compounds, though not fully approved, areconsidered innocuous enough for use in food fish. Of these,salt is the most important. A few compounds, including coppersulfate and potassium permanganate, are not FDA-approved,but are used in aquaculture under the provision of “moderateregulatory concern.” Finally, there are several non-FDAapproved compounds that are used in pet fish practice undercontrolled conditions. These have no legal status at presentand have no place in food animal practice. In addition to beingaware of FDA concerns, fish practitioners should be familiarwith state environmental regulations. Federal and stateenvironmental regulations are of greatest concern whentreating outdoor ponds.

FDA-approved Drugs:

FDA-approved drugs for use in aquaculture in the USAinclude 2 antibiotics, 1 parasiticide, 1 anesthetic, and 1spawning hormone. In many cases, therapeutic managementof fish other than catfish or salmonids requires extra-label useof drugs.

Oxytetracycline is approved for use in Pacific salmon (formarking bony tissue), salmonids, catfish, and lobsters. It iswidely available and has a broad spectrum of activity againstgram-negative bacteria. Clinical evidence suggests that it isquite effective against myxobacteria, which do not grow onMüller-Hinton agar, making sensitivity testing difficult. Itsmain disadvantage is that it is only available in sinking feeds,which may make it difficult to determine whether it has beeneaten, especially when treating fish in ponds. Becauseoxytetracycline has been used extensively for several decades,significant bacterial resistance has developed. Reliance onbacterial sensitivity test results is recommended.

A potentiated sulfonamide is approved for use in salmonidswith furunculosis ( Aeromonas salmonicida ) and in channelcatfish infected with Edwardsiella ictaluri . It should be fedat a dosage of 50 mg/kg for 5 days. The drug binds to the skin,and salmonid products are generally sold with intact skin, solonger withdrawal times (42 days) are required. This drug isavailable in floating feed, which makes it easier to determinewhether it has been eaten. Clinical evidence suggests that it

is not always effective against myxobacteria; therefore, it isnot recommended as the drug of choice if columnaris is animportant component of an epizootic. Formalin is FDAapproved for use in finfish and penaeid (saltwater) shrimp.Parasite-S® is labeled for all finfish and penaeid shrimp; 2other brands, Formalin-F® and Paracide-F® are labeled forselect finfish species (TABLE 7, Table: FDA-approved Drugsfor Aquaculture Use in the USA (2002)). Methanol may beadded to formalin products as a preservative. Formalineliminates protozoan parasites and monogenean trematodesfrom the external surface of fish. It can be used as a prolongedbath at concentrations of 15-25 mg/L. The lower concentrationis recommended for pond use because formalin removesdissolved oxygen from the water. Vigorous aeration duringformalin treatment is essential. A concentration of 25 mg/L isequal to 2 drops/gal. (useful for delivering formalin to aquariumfish). When treating at d”25 mg/L, a water change is notnecessary following chemical administration. At thisconcentration, formalin has minimal impact on biofiltration;however, if ammonia is tested using Nessler’s reagent, a veryhigh reading may be observed for several days. This is anartifact caused by the interaction of the 2 compounds. Short-term baths with formalin can be provided at concentrationsup to 250 mg/L for 30-60 min. At water temperatures >77°F(25°C), the concentration should be decreased to ~170 mg/L.Fish should never be left unattended during treatment and ifadverse reaction to the chemical becomes apparent, the fishshould be immediately placed in clean water. If formalin isallowed to chill to <45°F, a white precipitate, paraformaldehyde,will form. Because paraformaldehyde is highly toxic to fish,formalin should never be used if a precipitate or cloudiness isobserved. Formalin is carcinogenic and potentially toxic toworkers; material safety data sheets should be on hand inbusinesses where the chemical is used, and employees shouldbe informed of appropriate safety precautions.

Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) is FDA approved for useas a sedative and anesthetic in food fish and is often used tosedate broodstock for handling and injection of hormonesfor spawning. It is also useful for pet fish and is effective forsedation, surgical anesthesia, and euthanasia. Sedation cangenerally be achieved with concentrations between 50-100mg/L, although species-specific sensitivities should beexpected. Induction for most species may be near 125 mg/L;however, when working with unfamiliar species it is best tostart at a lower concentration (ie, 50 mg/L) and increase theconcentration until the desired effect is achieved. Because

1Dr.Phaniraj.K.L M.V.Sc., Ph.D., 2 Kishorekumar and Sushmita

Complete postal address: 1Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Veterinary College,Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University. SHIVAMOGGA.

E-mail address of the corresponding author: [email protected]


MS-222 is an acid, the chemical should be buffered (2 partssodium bicarbonate by weight to 1 part MS-222). Followinginduction, the concentration may be decreased to 50-100 mg/L to maintain the desired depth of anesthesia. Respirationshould be monitored; if opercular movement ceases, fishshould be immediately moved to clean water. MS-222 can alsobe used to euthanize fish at concentrations of 1,000-10,000mg/L. For small animals, a squirt bottle with a stock solutionof 10,000 mg/L can be used to quickly apply a lethal dose ofchemical to the gills. The compound will not remain stable formore than a few weeks when used in this manner. As itdegrades, the color of the solution will change from clear tobrownish. MS-222 is light sensitive and should be kept in abrown bottle when stored as a solution.

Chorionic gonadotropin is FDA approved as a spawning aidfor finfish. Veterinarians may work as part of a team for fishhatcheries and may be asked to assist in obtaining spawninghormones.

Salt:

Salt can be used for many purposes, including destruction ofsingle-celled protozoans and management of osmoregulation.Seawater is 3% salt, which is 30,000 ppm. By increasing ordecreasing the amount of salt to which a freshwater fish ormarine fish, respectively, is exposed, osmoregulatory stresscan be minimized and many parasites eliminated. Forfreshwater fish, a 3% dip is an effective ectoparasiticide andis strongly recommended when moving fish. However,tolerance varies by species. Most freshwater fish will tolerate3% salt for 30 sec up to several minutes, after which theyshow signs of stress, commonly manifest by rolling on theirside. Recovery is rapid if fish are promptly removed from thesalt solution. The use of salt is a quick, effective, inexpensive,and readily available means of minimizing the introduction ofprotozoans into a system with new fish. A solution of 0.5-1.0% salt is recommended for transportation of freshwaterfish, and most species will tolerate this concentration forseveral hours or days. A solution of 0.02-0.2% (200-2,000 ppm)salt can be added to freshwater recirculating systems as acontinuous treatment to minimize parasitic protozoa in thesystem. Salt is less caustic than other parasiticides and seemsto optimize healing of epithelial surfaces. Unfortunately, it isnot practical for use in ponds (other than for control of nitritetoxicity) because of the massive quantities that would berequired to achieve a nominal level of salinity. Addition of saltmay be practical in small ornamental ponds of a few thousandgallons. Less information is available on lowering salinity formarine fish, but it is a technique that should not be overlooked.

Non-FDA-approved Compounds:

Copper sulfate (CuSO4) is not approved by the FDA; however,

a number of compounds containing CuSO4 have been

approved by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)as algicides for use in aquatic sites. CuSO4 is currentlydesignated as “of moderate regulatory concern” and is used

in food fish practice; however, practitioners must keepthemselves informed of possible changes in the status of thischemical. CuSO

4 has been used for many years as a

parasiticide and is particularly useful in large productionponds because of its relatively low cost. Copper is highlytoxic to fish, and safe use depends on its interaction withcarbonate salts in water. In freshwater systems, theconcentration of CuSO

4 applied should be based on the total

alkalinity (TA) of the water. If TA is <50 mg/L, copper cannotbe used safely without performing a bioassay. If TA is 50-250mg/L, a safe concentration of CuSO

4 can be determined by

dividing the TA by 100. For example, if TA = 100 mg/L, a safeconcentration of CuSO

4 would be 1 mg/L. If TA is >250 mg/L,

the concentration of CuSO4 should not exceed 2.5 mg/L. Other

concerns when treating a pond with CuSO4 (in addition to its

direct toxicity to fish) relate to its algicidal activity. Rapiddeath of an algal bloom can precipitate a catastrophic oxygendepletion. Use of CuSO

4 in ponds not equipped with

supplemental aeration is risky. Use of CuSO4 is hazardous if a

pond has a heavy algal bloom (secchi disc d”18 in.) or if thewater is already deficient in oxygen due to other factors, (eg,cloudy weather or high water temperature). CuSO

4 is

efficacious against most protozoal parasites, is economical,and despite these concerns, may be an excellent choice whenmultiple treatments are required (eg, in an epizootic ofIchthyophthirius multifiliis ). In saltwater systems, copper issometimes applied in a chelated form because it stays inconcentration longer. Chelated compounds may be difficultto use safely and require careful monitoring. CuSO

4 can be

used to treat marine fish, but the concentration of active coppermust be closely monitored (test kits are available) and shouldbe maintained at 0.2 mg/L for up to 3 wk. Safe and effectiveuse of copper in marine systems requires that Cu2+

concentrations be tested at least once a day. Copper isextremely toxic to invertebrates, so these must be removedbefore the water is treated. Copper is also toxic to plants andshould not be used in ornamental ponds that have beenstocked with valuable plants. Finally, copper will impactbacteria in biofilters and a transient increase in ammonia shouldbe expected for several days following treatment. Monitoringammonia until measurable concentrations subside isrecommended.

Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is not approved by the

FDA but is also in the group designated “of moderateregulatory concern.” KMnO

4 is used as an external

parasiticide, fungicide, and bactericide. It is a strong oxidizingagent and “burns” organic material off the external surface ofthe fish. Overuse, particularly multiple uses within a shortperiod of time, will kill fish. Use of KMnO

4 no more than once

a week seems safe for many fish. The concentration of KMnO4

used varies with the permanganate demand of the water.Permanganate demand is greater in water with a high organicload than in water with little organic matter. To determine thepermanganate demand, a bioassay can be performed; the water


to be treated is placed in small containers and KMnO4 is added

in incremental concentrations of 2 mg/L. The correctconcentration for therapeutic use will be the lowestconcentration that maintains a pink color for at least 8 hr. Apractical method is to apply KMnO

4 at 2 mg/L in the morning—

if the color changes from pink to brown or clear in <8 hr, thetreatment should be repeated. If the concentration of KMnO

4

required to maintain a pink color for at least 4 hr is >6 mg/L,then the organic load is excessive, and sanitation practicesshould be evaluated. In large production ponds, little can bedone to decrease the accumulation of organic material inponds other than draining the pond, drying the bottom, anddiscing it. This is not done very often, perhaps once in 10-15yr. In smaller systems (<0.1 acre), mechanisms may be in placeto facilitate cleaning and removal of debris. KMnO

4 has little

impact on biofilters when applied at 2 mg/L or less.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O

2, 3%) is currently used to control

protozoan parasites in both food and ornamental species asan alternative to CuSO

4 and KMnO

4 . H

2O

2 is categorized as

“low regulatory priority” by the FDA and is used in thesalmonid and hybrid striped bass industries. Food grade H

2O

2

is 35% active and is the best product for aquaculture use. Theprimary use of H

2O

2 is the control of sea lice and aquatic fungi

on fish or fish eggs. It may also help control bacterial gilldisease and columnaris. Dosages are variable and some fishmay not tolerate this chemical. It is applied as a short-termbath, often for 15-30 min intervals. A dosage of 250 mg/Lwould be 2.7 mL of the 35% solution/gal. of water. Practitionersunfamiliar with use of this compound should experiment withit in a bioassay before applying it to a valuable group of fish.Efficacy can be monitored by evaluation of gill and skin biopsymaterial before and after treatment.

Erythromycin is not FDA approved but has been used inmanagement of bacterial kidney disease of salmonids andstreptococcal infections in food and nonfood species. It canbe incorporated into fish food at a dosage of 100 mg/kg bodywt and fed for 14 days. FDA permission is required for use infood animals.

Another group of compounds have been designated by FDAas “high regulatory priority,” ie, their use is likely to result inenforcement action by the FDA. The most important of thesecompounds are chloramphenicol, the nitrofurans, andmalachite green. These compounds should never be used infood animals for any reason, and their use in nonfood speciesis discouraged.

Pet Fish Practice:

Some drugs are used in pet fish practice that are not appropriatefor aquaculture use, including both antibiotics andparasiticides. None of these compounds are approved for theuses described, and safety and efficacy data are sparse.Nonetheless, these treatments are considered somewhatroutine in the practice of ornamental fish medicine.

Kanamycin has been used with some success to treat bacterialdiseases of ornamental fish, including koi. It can beadministered orally at 20 mg/kg, by injection at 20 mg/kg, or ina bath at a concentration of 750 mg/L for 2 hr. Anorectic fishcan be medicated with a bath treatment or by injection,repeated daily, until fish begin to eat, at which time the drugcan be incorporated into the feed to complete the treatmentperiod. Treatment should be continued for 7 days beyond thealleviation of clinical signs. Aminoglycosides are toxic to fishand should be used with caution. Severe kidney lesions havebeen reported in goldfish treated with gentamicin. Toxicitymay be exacerbated by a high ammonia concentration in thewater

Organophosphates have been used in nonfood fish practicefor decades to control monogenea, crustaceans, and leeches.Historically, there was an approved compound, Masoten(used at a concentration of 0.25 mg/L active ingredient), foruse in ponds stocked with nonfood fish, however the labelexpired and was not renewed. Use of organophosphates inaquaria is still practiced, and the dosage is often increasedslightly in marine systems due to the higher pH. Use oforganophosphates in outdoor ponds is not generallyrecommended because of legal and environmental concerns.

Metronidazole is used to control flagellated protozoans andcan be delivered in a medicated food or as a bath when fishare anorectic. A concentration of ~7 mg/L (~250 mgmetronidazole dissolved in 10 gal. of water) can beadministered daily for 5 days. A daily water change a fewhours after treatment is recommended. Metronidazole can beadministered at 50 mg/kg PO, for 5 days. Anecdotal informationsuggests that excessive treatment (10 times the recommendeddosage for 30 days) with metronidazole may be associatedwith reproductive failure in some fish.

Fenbendazole has been used to control intestinal helminthsin fish. A dosage of 25 mg/kg, delivered in food for 3-5 days,has been commonly recommended, but this regimen has notbeen evaluated in controlled trials.

Praziquantel has also been used successfully in fish to controlintestinal cestodes as well as monogenean trematodes on thegills and skin. The most common use of praziquantel is as aprolonged bath in large marine aquaria for control ofmonogenean trematodes, particularly Neobenedenia spp . Itis applied at a concentration of 2 mg/L, and limited workindicates that the compound remains active for several weeks.Praziquantel can also be administered PO at a dosage of 35-125 mg/kg for up to 3 days or as a short-term bath treatment ata concentration of 10 mg/L for 3 hr.

Chloroquine has been used to control Amyloodinium sp inornamental marine fish. It is applied as a prolonged bath atconcentrations of 2 mg/L. Efficacy in recirculating systemsseems to be very good; however, there are essentially no dataon treatment intervals, effects on biofilters, or other basichusbandry data.



U


MORPHOLOGICAL AND FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERS OFSWEAT GLANDS IN DAIRY CATTLE

U

Sweat glands secrete an odorless, clear fluid which aid in theregulation of body temperature by allowing heat loss byevaporation. Sweat or sudoriferous glands are distinguishedbased on their morphological and functional characteristicsinto two types. Eccrine type of sweat glands directly openedon the epidermal surface of the skin by a duct which is arrangedin a spiral fashion. The other type of apocrine glands is closelyassociated with hair follicles and their ducts opened into thehair follicle (Ingram and Mount, 1975). In the human bodyboth the eccrine and apocrine types of glands arepredominantly found. But in the dairy cattle possess onlyapocrine type of glands (Findlay et al., 1950; Dowling, 1955;Nay and Hayman, 1956). This type of sweat glands plays amajor role in the heat regulation of dairy animals. However,limited literature is available about the sweat gland morphologyand function significance of different breeds of dairy cattle.

Morphology of Sweat glands

In Zebu-type cattle (Bos indicus L.) sac- like sweat glands arefound with few convulations, whereas in European cattle (Bostaurus L.) the sweat glands are rarely sac-like and quiteconvoluted (Nay and Hayman 1956; Nay and Dowling 1957;Walker 1960; Yeates et al.,1975). In the crossbred cattle hadclub-shaped sweat glands (Yeates et al., 1975) present.However, Barker and Nay (1964) observed that various typesof sweat glands found in Jersey cattle. There is some variationin length and diameter of these sweat gland and mostly smallbaggy glands can be considered characteristic of the Jerseybreeds. In Sindhi and Sahiwal animals (Nay, 1959) the baggyglands are larger glands, which shown in “honeycombed”like structural characters. The baggy sweat glands present inBos indicus cattle are more active than other types of sweatglands (Carvalho et al., 1995) were reported.

Distribution of Sweat Glands

The density of sweat glands also varies between Zebus andEuropean breeds. Several studies of apocrine sweat glands inBos indicus and Bos taurus breeds suggest that Zebu cattlehave a higher density of sweat glands than European breeds(Nay and Hayman, 1956). However, there was no difference insweat gland density between Sahiwal and Jersey (Pan, 1963).The regional variations of number of sweat glands are alsofound in different dairy breeds of cattle. Findlay and Yang

(1950) found that the ventral region of the neck and trunk hadthe more number of sweat glands, while the forehead and legsshowed the less numbers especially in Ayrshire dairy cows.In Zebus, sweat glands were slightly larger, and much morenumerous, on the mid-side than on the dewlap (Nay andHayman, 1956). They are much closer to the skin surface inZebu cattle than in European breeds. There is broad agreementthat the shoulder regions posses greater sweat gland numberscompared to the rump regions (Scharf et al., 2008). Besides,the moisture evaporated from the skin is more related to thefunctional ability of the glands than their distribution overthe skin (McLean, 1963).

Mechanism of Sweat glands

Apocrine sweat glands are controlled by the alpha-adrenergic system and acts through phospholipase C, whichin turn results in changes of calcium level in the cell and alsoinvolved smooth muscle contraction. Interestingly, no nervesupply has been detected histologically in cattle, although itis known that an intact nerve supply is essential for sweatgland function (Jenkinson et al., 1966). It appears that a fibrouscapsule exists around the sweat glands and no nerves havebeen able to penetrate the capsule (Roberstshaw, 1985).However, there is a close anatomical association of capillarybeds with sweat glands that the amount of blood directed tothese capillary beds may affect of rate of sweat production incattle during heat stress (Schleger and Bean, 1971). Till somecontroversy suggestions are existing about the exactmechanism of sweat glands in the dairy cattle.

Role of Sweat glands in thermoregulation

An average about 70 – 85 % of maximal heat loss occurs inanimal body through sweating (Finch, 1986).Dowling (1958)demonstrated that sweating plays an essential role in differentbreeds of cattle for thermoregulation. The Cattle originatesfrom Zebu breeds are better ability regulate body temperaturein response to heat stress than the cattle breed originate froma variety of B.taurus breeds of European origin. There are anumber of anatomical and physiological features that improvesheat loss from the skin in Zebu breeds than the breed oforigin of European cattle. These includes greater blood flowto the skin facilitating heat transfer to the surface, lowerresistance to internal heat transfer thus allowing heat to be

Shailendra Chaurasia1, R Menaka2 and T K S Rao3

Department of Veterinary AnatomyCollege of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry

Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari-396450(Gujarat)


removed via the skin, short hair coat and lower metabolic rate(Finch, 1985;Finch, 1986 and Hansen, 2004 ). Reducedmetabolic rate may also be a contributing factor for theirthermo tolerance in Zebu breeds (Hansen, 2004).

At large, when body temperature increases, sweating ratesare greater and increase more quickly in indigenous tropicallyadapted cattle as compared to Bos taurus. In Bos tarus breeds,the sweating rates tend to reach a plateau after the firstincrease (Finch, 1985). Furthermore, in crossbred ( Bos taurusx Bos indicus) cattle’s have greater sweat production thanpure-bred Bos taurus. The small baggy shaped glands arepresent in Jersey cattle, which are known to be more heattolerant than other Bos taurus breeds (Yeates et al., 1975).

Conclusion

It is shows that the apocrine types of sweat glands are presentall over the body of dairy cattle. In Zebu breeds, baggy shapedsweat glands are present where as European breeds hadtubular or coiled sweat glands and crossbred cattle club-shaped sweat glands present. Zebu breeds of cattle possessa higher density of sweat glands as compared to Europeanbreeds. Cattle from Zebu breeds are better ability to regulatebody temperature in response to heat stress than the cattlefrom European breeds. The smaller baggy shaped sweat glandspresent in Jersey breeds which are known to be more heattolerant than other Bos taurus breeds. Further studies arerequired to look into the correlation between sweat gland’sperimeter and body temperature during exertion in Bos indicusand tropically adapted Bos taurus cattle and also on therelationship between epidermal layers and regulation of bodytemperature.

REFERENCES

Barker, J. S. F., and Nay, T. (1964) “A study of sweat glandcharacters and their relationship to adaptation in Jersey cattle”,Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod., vol. V, pp. 173-180.

Carvalho, F.A., Lammoglia, M.A., Simoes, M.J., and Randel,R.D. (1995). Breed affects thermoregulation and epithelialmorphology in imported and native cattle subject to heatstress. J. Anim. Sci. 73: 3570-3573.

Dowling, D.F. (1955). The hair follicle and apocrine glandpopulations of Zebu (Bos indicus L.) and Shorthorn (B. taurusL.) cattle skin. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 6: 645-654.

Dowling, D.F. (1958). Significance of sweating in heat toleranceof cattle. Aust. J. Agric.

Res. 9(4): 579 – 586.

Findlay, J. D., Goodall, A. M., and Yang, S. H. (1950). Thenumber of sweat glands in the helix of the cow’s ear and themilk yield. J. Dairy Res. 17: 22.

Finch, V. A. (1985). Comparison of non-evaporative heattransfer indifferent cattle breeds. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 38:497.

Finch, V. A. (1986). Body temperature in beef cattle: Its controland relevance to production in the tropics. J. Anim. Sci.62:531.

Findlay, J. D. and Yang S.H. (1950). The Sweat Glands ofAyrshire Cattle. J. Agric. Sci. 40:126-132.

Hansen, P.J. (2004). Physiological and cellular adaptations ofzebu cattle to thermal stress Animal Reproduction Science82–83: 349–360

Ingram, D.L. and Mount, L.E. (1975). Man and Animals in HotEnvironments, Springer-

Verlag, New York, Heidelberg, Berlin, pp 1-185.

Jenkinson, D. M., Sengupta, B. P., and Blackburn, P. S. (1966).The distribution of nerves,monoamine oxidase andcholinesterase in the skin of cattle. J. Anat. 100: 593.

McLean, J. A. (1963). The regional distribution of cutaneousmoisture vaporization in the Ayrshire calf. J. agric. Sci., Camb.61: 275-280.

Nay, T. and Hayman, R.H. (1956). Sweat glands in Zebu (Bosindicus L.) and European

(B. taurus L.) cattle. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 7: 482-494.

Nay, T. and Dowling, D. F. (1957). Size of sweat glands inShorthorn strains and Zebu x Shorthorn crossbred cattle.Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 8: 385.

Nay , T. (1959). Sweat glands in cattle: histology, morphology,and evolutionary trends.

Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 10: 121.

Pan, Y.S. (1963). Quantitative and morphological variation ofsweat glands, skin thickness, and skin shrinkage over variousbody regions of Sahiwal Zebu and Jersey cattle. Aust. J. Agric.Res. 14, 424–437.

Robertshaw, D. (1985). Heat loss of cattle. In Volume 1: StressPhysiology in Livestock.

Basic Principles, pp. 55-66. Florida: CRC Press.

Schleger, A.V. and Bean, K.G. (1971). Factors determiningsweating competence of cattle skin. Aust. J. Bio. Sci. 24: 1291-1300.

Scharf . B., Wax, L.E., Aiken, G.E. , and Spiers, D.E. (2008).Regional differences in sweat rate response of steers to short-term heat stress. In.J. Biometeorol. 52(8):725-32.

Walker, C. A. (1960). The population, morphology andevolutionary trends of the apocrine glands of Africanindigenous cattle. Journal of Agricultural Science 55: 123.

Yeates, N.T.M., Edey, T.N. and Hill, M.K. (1975). AnimalScience, Reproduction climate, meat, wool. Chap. 8, p 108.PergamonPress, Headingdon Hill Hall, Oxford.

U


Progeny Testing Methods for Evaluation of SireU

Progeny Testing Methods for Evaluation of Sire

Breeding value of the individual estimated on the basis of the

performance of the progeny is called Progeny Testing. If the

heritability (h2) of the trait is high and the animal is able to

express the trait by itself then individual selection is the best

method. But in case of many traits it so happens that the trait

is expressed in only one sex (i.e., sex limited traits), or when

the trait is expressed after the death of the animal (i.e.,

slaughter traits), then the breeding value (B.V.) of the animal

can be estimated based on the performance of the relatives

(dam, sisters and progeny). Where, B.V. is the additive genetic

value or breeding worth of the animal or the value of the

individual based on the mean performance of the progeny.

The pedigree selection based on the performance of dam is

not a good selection criterion for the reason of halving process

and sampling nature of inheritance. Thus, it is not possible to

know which half of the dam’s genes (superior or inferior) is

transferred to the progeny (future Sire). Not only this, pedigree

selection is only efficient for traits of high h2.

Sib selection is also less effective for sire evaluation. This

happens due to sampling nature of inheritance. Every

individual inherits different set of genes from their parents

and just on the basis of performance of the sibs it is very

difficult to predict whether a particular individual also has

inherited the same set of genes because of which its sib

performance is either better or inferior to their contemporary.

But this confusion can be ruled out if the B.V. is estimated

based on the performance of many progenies which gives the

most reliable information about the genetic merit of the

individual. This has the ability to overcome the limitation of

the Mendelian error of gene segregation and hence provides

the true estimate of the B.V. of an individual.

Genetic Principles of Progeny Testing

Progeny as an index of parent’s genetic worth. Progeny inherits

one-half of the genes of each parent.

B.V. of the parent = 2 x (mean deviation of the progeny from

the population mean)

Inheritance of genes depends on chance of segregation during

the formation of gametes. The performance of many progenies

gives the best and most reliable information about the genetic

merit of the parent.

Requirements of progeny testing

A minimum of 4-5 males should be progeny tested for each

cycle. Only one male is usually selected from a group of 5

males and 2 are selected from a batch of 10 males. Facilities for

A.I. and record keeping should be present. To get about 10

daughters for performance recording at least 100 inseminations

or 50 pregnancies from each bull is required. No progeny

should be culled until the end of the test. One complete set

should be completed as early as possible. To get at least 40

daughters from each sire, an insemination regime of at least

300 cows are required.

Sire evaluation biasness

Genetic biasness is created due to differences in genetic merit

of the mates allotted to different sires and also because of

differences among herds from which the sires are selected for

progeny testing. Whereas environmental biasness, occur due

to different environmental conditions like management,

feeding, parity of dam etc. To reduce these biases, the data

should be adjusted before estimating the B.V. of the sires. A

number of indices have been proposed to evaluate the value

of sires.

Important methods for indexing sires

Progeny testing results are obtained in the form of an index

which generates a particular value as an estimate of genetic

merit of each sire. This index is known as sire index. After

obtaining the index value of each sire, the sires are ranked

according to their genetic worth so as to select the best sire.

1) Least Square constants (Harvey, 1960)

Least square technique adjusts the data for all the

environmental effects including the non-orthogonality in data.

It is based on the concept of minimising the error variance.

Sire constants are obtained by LS technique.

Sourabh Sulabh* and Ramji Yadav*Corresponding Author : Division of Animal Genetics, Indian Veterinary Research Institute,

Bareilly-243122(India)


Where, is the sire constant for ith sire.

2) Maximum likelihood method (Hartley and Rao, 1967)

and Restricted Maximum Likelihood (Patterson and

Thompson, 1971)

Maximum Likelihood method estimates the parameters by

maximizing the logarithm of the likelihood function. The

likelihood function is the likelihood of simultaneous occurrence

of observation which is generally product of the density

function of the observation. In ML estimates no account is

taken of the degree of freedom. Whereas, REML maximises

the likelihood function with respect to error contrast by taking

into account the degree of freedom. Thus, loss in degree of

freedom is considered under REML model. REML takes care

of the bias in estimates and avoids negative estimates of the

component of variance.

However, both are based on the assumption of normality and

use same quadratic form. Both methods are biased and are

solved by iteration.

3) Best linear unbiased prediction (Henderson, 1949, 1973)

y = Xb + Zu + e

where,

y = vector of observations of length N

X = incidence matrix for fixed effect

b = unknown fixed vector of length p

Z = incidence matrix for random effect

u = non-observable random vector of length q

e = non-observable random vector of length N

It is best because it maximises the correlation between true

and estimated value of effects by minimising the error variance.

The factors for which estimates are required are linear

functions of the observations. The equation is unbiased as it

is estimates of the fixed effects and estimable functions are

such that E(â ‚|b) = b.

BLUP provides directly comparable values estimates of the

average B.V. of groups of animals born in different years. It

has the ability to deal with the complications of non-random

mating, sires from more than one herd, environmental trends

over time, herd differences for breeding value of dam and bias

due to selection. It takes into account the fixed effects and is

applicable when mixed models are used. This method reduces

both genetic as well as non genetic biases. BLUP is the most

effective method for calculating the most accurate estimate of

Β.V.

Inference

Starting from Simple daughter average index, rest of the

methods developed to minimise the error component in order

to obtain accurate breeding value of the sire. All these methods

were popularly used to estimate the breeding worth of an

individual. With the advent of the regression model of least

square technique there was a drastic change in the way of

analysing the data as it provided the method for evaluating

even non-orthogonal data. Based on the concept of iteration,

regression model was further modified to introduce the concept

of maximum likelihood and restricted maximum likelihood. But

revolutionising analysis technique developed by Henderson

(1949,1973) greatly increased the efficiency in obtaining the

breeding value of the sire. He introduced the concept of BLUP

which was based on mixed model regression equation and

was able to take into account both random as well as fixed

effects, thus reducing the chances of error by a great degree.

References

Harvey, W. (1960). Least-squares analysis of data with unequal

subclass numbers. Technical Report ARS-20-8. USDA National

Agricultural Library.

Henderson, C. R. (1949). Estimation of changes in herd

environment. 32:709. (Abstract).

Hartley, H.O. and Rao, J.N.K. (1967). Maximum-likelihood

estimation for the mixed analysis of variance model. Biometrika.

54: 93-108

Henderson, C. R. (1973) Sire evaluation and genetic trends. J.

Anim. Sci. 1973: 10–41.

Patterson, H. D. and Thompson, R. (1971).Recovery of inter-

block information when block sizes are

unequa. Biometrika 58 (3): 545.

Sundaresan, D., Puri, T.R. and Gurnani, M. (1965). Method of

Sire Evaluation for Milk Production on Indian Farms. J. Dairy

Sci., 48(11):1494-1497

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Role of Skin in the Elimination of Body Waste ProductU

The excretory system is a passive biological system that

removes excess, unnecessary materials from the body

fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain internal

chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body.

There are four excretory organs in human body includes

skin, lungs, liver, and the kidney (urinary system). If liver,

kidneys and lungs do not fulfil their tasks sufficiently to

get rid of toxins, the body needs help from the skin. Skin

plays an important role in excretion in the mammals.

The skin is formed of two layers; the thin epidermis at

the top, and the thicker dermis below. The inner layer of

skin (dermis) contains the oil glands, hair follicles, fatty

layers, nerves, and sweat glands. The sweat gland leads

to the sweat duct (tube) which opens on the skin surface

through a pore.

Naveen Kumar1, Srinivasu. M2 and R. Huozha3

1 Ph. D. scholar, 2 P. G. Scholar, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology; 3 Associate Professor,Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, G. B. Pant

University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand).

Figure: Localization of sweat gland in the skin


Skin of mammals is glandular and has two types of

glands, e.g., sebaceous glands and sweat glands. In

mammals, skin excretes sweat through sweat glands

throughout the body. Sweat glands in the skin secrete a

fluid waste called sweat or perspiration. Sweat glands

are highly vascular, coiled, simple tubular glands. These

separate the wastes from the blood and send it out in

the form of sweat. Sweat is formed of water (99%),

sodium chloride, lactic acid, some urea and carbon

dioxide. The main functions of sweat are to (a) Excretion

of excess of salts and water; (b) Evaporation of sweat

causing a cooling effect and helping to maintain body

temperature. Sebaceous glands are branched glands

opening into the hair follicles. These secrete an oily

secretion called as sebum formed of lipids like waxes,

sterols and some fatty acids.

Excretory products are divided into two categories.

Nitrogenous waste and non nitrogenous waste products

are the two main categories of excretory products.

Nitrogenous excretory products are those that contain

nitrogen and arise from deamination of excess amino

acids and include urea, ammonia, uric acid and trimethly

amino oxide. Urea is major nitrogenous waste product

derived from amino acid metabolism. It is also excreted

by some animal as an end product of purine bases

metabolism. Urea is less toxic and more soluble in water

than ammonia. The non nitrogenous waste products don’t

contain nitrogen and include, CO2, excess salts and

excess water. Main waste products are CO2, H

2O and

urea. The main excretion organs are the skin, kidneys

and the lungs. The skin excretes water, excess salt and

urea inform of sweat. Kidney excretes excess water,

excess salts, and urea as urine. Lungs excrete CO2 and

H2O (g) in exhaled breath.

Excretion and osmoregulation in other organisms

Marine fish (live in water which contain a lot of salts/

sea water has a very high osmotic pressure than the

body fluids of the sea fish, hence they can easily lose

water by osmosis). In order to conserve water, they

excrete nitrogenous waste in form of a compound which

is soluble and non toxic while fresh water fish excrete

their nitrogenous waste as ammonia, a highly toxic

substance which requires large volume of water for its

dilution in the excretion process. This is not a challenge

to fresh water fish because it has more water than it

needs, hence no need for conserving water. However

marine water fish suffering a water shortage cannot

afford such a loss. For this reason, ammonia is replaced

by the non toxic trimethly amine oxide which requires

very little water for excretion.

Reptiles, insects and birds excrete nitrogenous

waste as uric acid, which unlike urea, is insoluble in water

and as a result water is extensively removed from the

uric acid as its being excreted. This ensures that a lot of

water is retained in the body and therefore uric acid is

excreted in semi-solid form.

Contractile vacuole, a small sac like structure found in

the cytoplasm of amoeba and other fresh water

protozoans. Since it lives in fresh water, water enters by

osmosis. If a lot of water enters without being eliminated,

the cell burst. To counter this, water is secreted into the

contractile vacuole as fast as it enters the body. As this

happens, the contractile vacuole enlarges and then

discharges its contents to the exterior via a small pore in

the cell membrane, after which the whole process is

repeated.

Conclusion

Excretion is the elimination to waste products from the

body. Waste products are unwanted and toxic by-

products which are removed to maintain homeostasis

and protect the body from their toxicity. The skin is the

largest organ of protection and defence. It is a sensory

organ. It serves for thermoregulation, secretion and

excretion. The skin plays an important role in the

elimination of toxins and can assist the kidneys in their

work. It evacuates the waste products that are classified

as crystals. They are soluble in liquids and are evacuated

in the form of sweat through the sweat glands. Crystals

are the residues of the metabolism of food rich in protein.

Uric acid and urea are part of the group of crystals.

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Water stress in fishU

IntroductionFishes are water animal that’s why they are always surroundedby pathogenic loads and also environmental stress. Fish is afragile animal and little alteration is surroundings make it proneto diseases. Fishery is one of the major sources of income incostal India that is why it is important to keep fish away fromenvironmental and pathogenic stress. Fishes are subject to awide spectrum of diseases. To control fish disease it isimportant to understand the fish behavior and etiologicalcause approaches for control of fish disease are also differentfrom that of terrestrial animals.Fish disease diagnostician must have a broad knowledge notonly know the disease causing agents but also the aquaticenvironment in order to relate clinical finding to diseaseentities. Fish are poikilothermic, and their internal biologicalsystems are tremendously affected by water temperature andother factors of the environment, pH, osmotic pressures,dissolved gases etc. Growing fish market tends to increasethe people interest in fish health.

Fish health is related with the trio of host, pathogenand environment. When the balance among three is disturbedthe fish suffers with the disease.

Environmental EffectsTemperatureThis is the most important factor in both pond and aquarium.Fish can survive a short range of temperature .Alteration inwater temperature put fish under stress.Fish cannot sustain the temperature rise. Some species aremore susceptible to temperature stress than others and this isthought to be due to a poorer ability ofosmoregulation at thenew temperature,. High temperature increase metabolism andOxygen demand also increases.This causes fast water influxthrough gills. This affects the osmoregulatory mechanism. Atthis situation fish are highly susceptible to bacterial infections.Especially respiratory diseases and gill diseases. The situationleads to severe mortalityOxygen insufficiencyOxygen dependency of fish is according to its size. Small fishhave higher requirements than older larger ones. Decrease inO2 in water is identified by seeing fish on the surface withgasping movement and sometimes fish gets concentratedtowards water inlet.fish show symptoms of anemia and gilldiseases in

Megha Kadam Bedekar, 9619129422, [email protected] Institute of Fisheries Education, Versova Mumbai

Supersaturationwith gasWater which is supersaturated with either O2 or

N2gas, cause the condition gas-bubble disease. lesions ofthis diseases are presence of small bubbles forming insuperficial blood vessels, on gills and fins and behind theeye. Proper aeration of the aquarium or tank can take care ofthis problem. Gas bubble disease renders fish susceptible toother diseases and also effect the growth. Young fish aremore susceptible. Low-level continuous supersaturation,cancause chronic gas-bubble disease, may result in cataracts, finrot and gill disease.High concentration of Carbon dioxideIncreasing levels of CO2 in the blood results in decreased pHof water.This decreases the O2binding capacity ofhemoglobinf. Fish hemoglobin is very sensitive to CO2. Uptake of oxygenis affected by level of CO

2. The CO

2increase causes kidney

diseases in fishAmmonia toxicityThe toxic levels of ammonia damage the gill epithelium. Thisdirectly affect the oxygen uptake capacity of gills. It alsoeffectsliver, kidney and brain. Continuous prescence of toxicammonia cause chronic disease.Nitrites and nitrates· Nitries are highly toxic to fish. Nitrites can cause theproduction of methaemoglobin with consequent hypoxia andcyanosis. Nitrite poisoning is also known as brown gill diseasebecause the blood turns brown from an increase ofmethemoglobin. Fish dies with suffocation.ChlorineAgain is one of the most toxic substance, causing acute gilldamage consisting of epithelial hypertrophy and necrosis.Chronic exposure can result in epithelial hyperplasia withconsequent respiratory distress.Suspended solidsWater debris and sediments also pollute the water and causedisturbance in fish surrounding , it cause irritation to the gillepithelium and result in significant pathological changes andrespiratory problems.Organic waste and spillage in water: The number of organiccompounds toxic to fish such as PCBs, detergents andhydrocarbons. Usually problems are due to accidental spillageor contamination of water supplies upstream. Clinicalsymptoms and toxic effects will vary with the type ofcompound, but tend to include distress, avoidance behavior,respiratory failure and death. Sub-lethal effects may occursuch as imbalance, blindness, anaemia, skin lesions, poorgrowth, tumors, etc.

U



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