1
Louis P.PojmanEthics: discovering right and
wrong
2
Ethical theories
ethical theory the locus of value
deontological the (kind) of act
teleological the outcome i.e. consequences
virtue the character
Pojman p 11-12
3
Normative subjects Subject Normative Disjuncts Sanctions
Ethics Right and wrong, as defined by conscience or reason
Conscience – praise and blame, reputation
Religion Right and wrong (sin), generally as defined by religious authority
Conscience – eternal reward and punishment, due to a supernatural agent or force
Law Legal and illegal, as defined by a judicial body
Punishments determined by the legislative body
Etiquette Proper and improper, as defined by the culture
Social disapprobation and approbationPojman p 6
4
Traits of Moral Principles
1. Prescriptivity
2. Universalizability
3. Overridingness
4. Publicity
5. PracticabilityPojman p 7
5
What and how do we evaluate
Domain Evaluative Terms
1.Action (the act) Right, wrong, obligatory, optional
2.Consequences Good, bad, indifferent
3.Character Virtuous, vicious, neutral
4.Motive Good will, evil will, neutralPojman p 9
6
Types of action
Right Wrong
(permissible) (not permissible)
Obligatory
Optional
Neutral SupererogatoryPojman p 10
7
The Purposes of Morality
1. To keep society from falling apart.
2. To ameliorate human suffering.
3. To promote human flourishing.
4. To resolve conflicts of interest in just ways.
5. To assign responsibility for actions.Pojman p 18
8
Ethical Relativism
1. The Diversity Thesis: there are no universal moral standards held by all societies
2. The Dependency Thesis:to act in a certain way is relative to the society
3. The Conclusion:there are no absolute or objective moral standards
Pojman p 28
9
Ethical Subjectivism
»Solipsism
»Atomism
»EscapismPojman p 33
10
Ethical Conventionalism
• Conservative
• Totalitarian
• IntolerantPojman p 41
11
The doctrine of natural law
1. Morality is a function of human nature.
2. Reason can discover valid moral principles by looking at the nature of humanity and society.
Pojman p 45
12
The key ideas of the natural law tradition
1. Human beings have an essential rational nature
2. Reason can discover the laws for human flourishing
3. The natural laws are universal and unchangeable
Pojman p 47
13
The doctrine of double effect
an act is morally permissible:
1. The Nature-of-the-Act Condition
2. The Means-End Condition
3. The Right-Intention Condition
4. The Proportionality ConditionPojman p 48
14
Moral absolutism and objectivism
moral absolu-tism
moral principles are nonover-ridable
moral norms are without exceptions
Kant, act utilitaria-nism
moral objecti-vism
moral principles are universally valid
no moral duty has absolute priority
Ross
Pojman p 45
15
Prima facie principles
valid rules of action
that one should generally adhere to
but that, in cases of moral conflict,
may be overridable by
another moral principle.Pojman p 51
16
Minimal principles of the core morality
1. Do not kill innocent people.2. Do not cause unnecessary pain or suffering.3. Do not steal or cheat.4. Keep your promises and honor your contracts.5. Do not deprive another person of his or her freedom.6. Do justice, treating equals equally and unequals
unequally.7. Reciprocate: Show gratitude for services rendered.8. Tell the truth, or, at least, do not lie.9. Help other people, at least when the cost to oneself is
minimal.10. Obey just laws. Pojman p 52
17
Justification of Moderate Objectivism
1. Human nature is relatively similar, having a common set of needs and interests.
2. Moral principles are functions of human needs and interests, instituted by reason.
3. Some moral principles will meet human needs and promote human interests better than others.
4. These principles can be said to be objectively valid principles.
5. Therefore an objectively valid set of moral principles is applicable to all humanity.
Pojman p 53-54
18
The attraction of ethical relativism
1. The option that absolutism and relativism are the only alternatives.
2. Objectiviam is confused with realism.
3. The move from descriptive cultural relativism to normative ethical relativism.
4. Drive to moral nihilism and relativism because of the decline of religion in Western society.
5. As metaethics so ought also ethics be morally neutral (amoral). Pojman p 56-58
19
Egoism
The doctrine that it is morally right
always to seek one's own self-interest without regard for others.
Pojman p 71
20
Four types of egoism1.Psychological egoism
We have no choice butto be selfish.
2.Personal egoism
The state of being selfish by choice
3.Individual ethical egoism
Everyone ought to serve my best interest
4.Universal ethical egoism
Everyone ought always to do those acts that will best serve own best self-interest Pojman p 65
21
Ethical egoism
1. The Economist Argumentindividual selfinterest in a competitive marketplace
produces a state of optimal goodness for society at large
2. The Argument for the Virtue of Selfishnessaltruism is suicidal3. The Hobbesian Argumentbecause we are predominantly psychological
egoists it is morally permissible to act entirely out of self-interest Pojman p 72-74
22
A critique of ethical egoism
1. The Inconsistent Outcomes Argumentmorality is not a guide to action2. The Publicity Argumentegoist must act alone, atomistically or solipsistically in
moral isolation3. The Paradox of Egoismin order to reach the goal of egoism on emust give up
egoism and become (to some extent) an altruist4. Counterintuitive Consequenceshelping others at one's own expense is morally wrong
Pojman p 76-78
23
Altruism
The theory that
we can and should
sometimes act
in favor of others' interests.Pojman p 66
24
Four types of altuism1.Psychological altruism
We have no choice butto be unselfish.
2.Personal altruism
The state of being unselfish by choice for reciprocal cooperation
3.Individual ethical altruism
I ought to serve everyone’s best interest
4.Universal ethical altruism
Everyone ought always to sacrifice own happiness for the good of others From Pojman chp 4 Noormägi
25
Reciprocal Altruism
No duty to serve those
who manipulate us,
but willing to share with those
willing to cooperate.Pojman p 80
26
Axiology
-10..........................0.........................+10
negative neutral positive
evil/disvalue (value neutral) highest value
Pojman p 85
27
Value (to be of worth)
intrinsic
worthy in itself
(because of its nature)
instrumental
creation of choosers
(because of its consequences)
Pojman p 86-87
28
Plato's question
Do we desire the Good
because it is good,
or is the Good good
because we desire it?Pojman p 85
29
Schema of the Moral Process ACTIONS
Failure: weakness of will leads to guiltDECISIONS
Failure: perverse will leads to guiltJUDGMENTS Weighing
Failure: error in applicationPRINCIPLES
Normative question: What ought I do?VALUES Objects of desire or objects existing independently of desires
FORMS Hierarchies of beliefs, values, OF LIFE and practices; cultures or ways of life
RATIONAL Of ethical theoriesJUSTIFI- 1. ImpartialityCATION . 2. Freedom
3. Knowledge Pojman p 95
30
The Relation of Value to Morality Values are rooted
in cultural constructs
(in whole forms of life)
and
are the foundation
for moral principles
upon which
moral reasoning is based. Pojman p 96
31
Views of happiness
Absolu-tists
A single ideal for human nature - harmony of the soul - is to live according to reason
Subjec-tivists
Happiness is in the eyes of the beholder -
if I feel happy, I am happy
Combina-tional (Objec-tivism)
There is a plurality of life plans open to each person - the person is the autonomous chooser of a plan, but there are primary goods and unless these goods are present, the life plan is not an authentic manifestation of an individual's own selfhood Pojman p 96-97
32
Plan-of-life
1. an integrated whole
2. freely chosen by the person
3. possible to realizePojman p 97
33
The happy life
Action Participation in our own destiny,
not being entirely passive
Freedom To make choices, not being determined
Character To be someone, have identity
Relationships To love and be lovedPojman p 99
34
Standard of happy life
exclude being
severely retarded,
a slave,
a drug addict
include being
a deeply fulfilled,
autonomous,
healthy personPojman p 100
35
Happiness
is a life in which existfree action
(including meaningful work),loving relations, and
moral character,and
in which the individual isnot plagued by guilt
and anxiety butis blessed with
peace and satisfaction. Pojman p 100
36
Traditional morality advise who criticism
Let your conscience be your guide
common sense
conscience is a function of upbringing
Do whatever is most loving
St. Augustine
no help in a conflict of interests
Do unto others as you would have them do unto you
the Golden Rule
we are different
Pojman p 105-106
37
Utilitarianism
“The Greatest happiness
for the greatest number”
Pojman p 107
38
Punishment
how why purpose
retribution justice defensive
proportional threat preventivePojman p 109
39
Hedonic calculus
make quantitative measurements
and
apply the principle impartiallyPojman p 110
40
Criteria of pleasure and pain
»intensity»duration»certainty»nearness»fruitfulness»purity»extent Pojman p 110
41
Moral experts
Those who have had
wide experience of
the lower and higher pleasures
almost all give
a decided preference
to the higher type.Pojman p 111
42
Act-Utilitarianism
An act is right
if and only if it
results in as much good
as any available alternative.Pojman p 112
43
Rule-Utilitarianism
An act is right
if and only if it is
required by a rule that is itself
a member of a set of rules
whose acceptance would lead to
greater utility for society than
any available alternative.Pojman p 113
44
Negative responsibility
we are responsible
not only
for the consequences
of our actions (doing),
but also
for the consequences
of our non-actions (allowing)Pojman p 114
45
3 kinds of consequences
consequence good, bad, indifferent
actual absolutely
expected objectively
intended subjectivelyPojman p 117
46
The strengths and weaknesses of utilitarianism
strengths:• an absolute system with a single priciple with a
potential answer for every situation;• morality has the substance: promoting human
flourishing.weaknesses:• there are two superlatives in one principle -
either the greatest pleasure or to the greatest number;
• the problem of knowing the comparative future consequences of actions. Pojman p 115-117
47
External objections to utilitarianism
1. no rest
2. absurd implications
3. violates integrity
4. neglects justice
5. contradicts notion of publicity Pojman p 118-120
48
Man and morality
Is morality
made for man,
or
is man
made for morality? Pojman p 124
49
Deontological systems
act- norm-
deontologism deontologismintuitionism decisionism
(illumination)(existentsialism)
norm- norm-
intuitionism rationalism
Pojman p 131-133
50
Weaknesses of act-deontologism
1. There is no way for any arguments with an intuitionist.
2. Rules are necessary also to moral reasoning.
3. Because different situations share common features, it is inconsistent to prescribe different moral actions. Pojman p 131-132
51
Prima facie
principles duties
conditional actual
self-evident the intuition
a plural set decides
not absolute in context Pojman p 1133/145
52
Prima facie duties
» Promise-keeping» Fidelity» Gratitude for favors» Beneficence» Justice» Self-improvement» Non-maleficence Pojman p 133-134
53
Intuition
is internal perception
that both
discovers
the correct moral principles
and
applies
them correctlyPojman p 133
54
Influences on Kant’s ethical thinking
• pietism:
the good will as the sole intrinsic good in life
• Rousseau:
human dignity as the primacy of freedom and autonomy
• rationalism versus empiricism
innate ideas versus tabula rasaPojman p 135-136
55
Kant on morality
Morality
is ground on our rational will -
reason
is sufficient for establishing
the moral law as transcendent and
universally
binding on all rational creatures.Pojman p 137
56
Empiricism
moral principles
feelings and desires
human nature
All knowledge and justified belief
is based in experience.Pojman p 136
57
The categorical imperative
Act only according
to that maxim
by which you can
at the same time will
that it would become
a universal law”.Pojman p 139
58
The Golden Rule
Do unto others
as you would have them
do unto youPojman p 106
59
The Principle of Ends
So act as to treat humanity,
whether in your own person
or in that of any other,
in every case as an end and
never as merely a means”.Pojman p 146
60
The Principle of Autonomy
Every rational being
is able to regard
oneself as a maker
of universal law.Pojman p 149
61
Kant and religion
the unconditional worth and equal dignity of humanity, and natural purposes in nature and human nature guarantees the ultimate justification of morality
but that presupposes the ideas of• God,who enforces the moral law and rewards moral persons in
proportion• immortality,since "ought" implies "can“ there must be an afterlife in
which we make progress. Pojman p 150-151
62
Mixed deontological ethics
the principle of beneficence
• One ought not to inflict evil or harm.
• One ought to prevent evil or harm.
• One ought to remove evil.
• One ought to do or promote good.
the principle of justice
• Treat every person with equal respectPojman p 152-153
63
Critique of Deontic ethical systems
1. they lack a motivational component
and morality is reactive.
2. they are founded on a theological-legal model that is no longer appropriate.
3. they ignore the spiritual dimension of life and morality is just calculation.
4. they overemphasize the principle of autonomy and neglect the communal context of morality.
Pojman p 159-162
64
The virtues
are
excellences of character,
trained behavioral dispositions
that
result in habitual actsPojman p 163
65
Virtue ethics
Realizing Imitating
the ideal type the ideal individual
Pojman p 163
66
Virtues by Aristotle
intellectual moral
(may be taught (must be lived directly) to be learned)
Pojman p 163
67
Happiness by Aristotle
Moral virtues
(education)
and
proper social institutions
(health, wealth, good fortune)Pojman p 164
68
the Golden Mean
virtues are a mean
between
excess and deficiency
at the right time,
toward the right objects,
for the right reason,
in the right mannerPojman p 164
69
Types of Relationships between Virtue Ethics and Deontic ethics
1. Pure Aretaic Ethics
2. The Standard Deontic View
3. Complementarity Ethics
Pojman p 166-167
70
The Paradox of Morality
Why should I be moral?1. For the harmony of your soul.2. God will reward or punish people.The Ultimate Question:Is the commitment to live by moral principles a decision grounded on reason or is it an arbitrary choice?
Pojman p 183-184
71
Morality and Self-Interest
When reason to be moral
is based on self-interest,
then the rational person
will be an egoist and
promote morality for everyone else
but will violate it
whenever he or she can
safely do so.Pojman p 184
72
The Prisoner's Dilemma
1. Both cooperate - both benefit
2. Both cheat - both loose
3. You cooperate and I cheat - I benefit
4. I cooperate and you cheat - you benefit Pojman p 186
73
The Entropy Principle
Because of limitations in resources, intelligence, knowledge, rationality and
sympathy, the social fabric tends to become chaos.
Morality is antientropic: it counters the set of limitations, expands our sympathies, and
contributes to the betterment of the human predicament
Pojman p 231
74
The benefits of the moral life
• friendship• mutual love• inner peace• moral self-esteem• freedom from moral guiltA human life without the benefits of morality
is not fulfilled life.The more just the political order, the more likely self-interest and morality will
converge.Pojman p 188-189
75
Religion and Ethics
1. Does morality depend on religion?
a. morality depends on divine will
b. reasons for action are independent
2. Is religious ethics essentially
different from secular ethics?
a. religion is irrelevant (Kant) or
inimical to morality (secularists)
b. religion enrich moralityPojman p 193
76
The Divine Command Theory
1. Morality originates with God.
2. Moral rightness means “willed by God”.
3. Therefore no further reasons
for action are necessary.
Pojman p 194
77
Criticism of religious morality
1. If good means "what God commands,"
then it is merely the tautology:
"God commands us to do what
God commands us to do."
2. Religious morality is arbitrary:
if there are no constraints on what
God can command, then
anything can become a moral duty.Pojman p 196
78
Humanistic Autonomy
is higher-order reflective control
over one’s life:
rational beings can discover
objective moral principles
which enable human beings to flourish
independently of God or revelation
by using reason and experience alone.Pojman p 198
79
Religion enrich morality
1. If God exists, then good will win out over evil. 2. If God exists, then cosmic justice reigns in the
universe.3. If theism is true, then moral reasons always
override nonmoral reasons.4. If theism is true, then God loves and cares for
us – his love inspires us. 5. If God created us in his image, then all
persons are of equal worth. Pojman p 202-204
80
Religion and motive
1. God is holy
2. God rewards
3. God loves us
81
Weaknesses of religious morality
1. Religion may be used as a powerful weapon for harming others.
2. The arguments for God's existence are not obviously compelling.
Pojman p 204-205
82
Civil religion
• scientism
• capitalism
• nationalismW. Beach
83
Is Ought Fact Value
refer to what refer to whatis signified is signifiedby empirically by anverifiable evaluativestatements sentence
(some object (we are evaluatingor state of affairs or apprisingexists) something)
Pojman p 208-209
84
The Naturalistic Fallacy
1. Fact
2. Therefore, value.
Pojman p 212
85
Moore’s intuitionism
1. The Humean Thesis(Ought statements cannot be derived from is statements)2. The Platonic Thesis(Basic value terms refer to nonnatural properties)3. The Cognitive Thesis(Moral statements are true or false; they are objective
claims about reality, which can be known)4. The Intuition Thesis(Moral truths are discovered by the intuition; they are self-evident upon reflection)
Pojman p 216
86
Logical Positivists
the meaning
of a sentence
is found in its method
of verification
Pojman p 216
87
Noncognitivism
moral statements
are without
cognitive content –
emotivism, prescirptivism.
Pojman p 218
88
Emotivism
1. Moral language is expressive of
emotions or feelings,
without cognitive content.
2. Moral language is imperative,
not descriptive.
3. Moral language aims at persuading – influencing another person’s actions.
Pojman p 218
89
Prescriptivism
• moral judgments
(1) are prescriptive judgments that
(2) exhibit logical relations and
(3) are universalizable -
• involve principles that
allow a rational procedure
in cases of conflict.Pojman p 220
90
The Logic of Moral Reasoning
A valid moral argument
must contain at least
one ought (imperatival) premise
in order to reach
a moral conclusion.Pojman p 222-223
91
Criticism of Prescriptivism
1. is too broad
2. permits the trivial
3. misses the point of morality
4. no constraints on altering one's principlesPojman p 227-230
92
Fact-Value Positions Problems of Meaning Problems of justification
Cognitivism [Ethical claims have truth-value and it is possible to know what it is]
A. Naturalism Ethical terms are defined in factual terms; they refer to natural properties.
Ethical judgments are disguised assertions of some kind of fact and thus can be justified empirically.
1. Subjective Their truth originates in individual or social decision.
2. Objective Their truth is independent of individual or social decision.
B. Nonnaturalism Ethical terms cannot be defined in factual terms; they refer to nonnatural properties.
Ethical conclusions cannot be derived from empirically confirmed propositions.
1. Intuitionism Intuition alone provides confirmation.
2. Religious revelation Some form of divine revelation provides confirmation.
Noncognitivism [Ethical claims do not have truth-value.]
A. Emotivism Ethical terms do not ascribe properties, and their meaning is not factual but, rather, emotive.
Ethical judgments are not factually, rationally, or intuitively justifiable.
B. Prescriptivism Ethical terms do not ascribe properties, and their meaning is not factual but, rather, signifies universal prescriptions.
Ethical judgments are not factually, intuitively, or rationally justifiable, but are existentially justified. Pojman p 228
93
Neonaturalism
values can sometimes
be derived from facts –
certain facts
entail values.Pojman p 227
94
Moral objectivism
moral judgments
are not truths about the world,
but judgments about
how we ought
to make the worldPojman p 235
95
Cognitivism versus Noncognitivism
Cognitivism Noncognitivism
Realism Naturalism Nonnaturalism (intuitionism) Supernaturalism
Error TheoryMoral Skepticism Antirealism Emotivism Prescriptivism Projectivism
Cognitivism: Moral principles (or judgments have truth values (they are propositions that are true or false)
Error theory: Realism is the correct analysis of moral principles, but we are in error about them. There are no moral truths. This is a form of moral nihilism.
Noncognitivism: Moral principles (or judgments) do not have truth values (they are pro attitudes or con attitudes, not essentially proportional).
Realism: Moral facts or properties exist, hence moral principles (or judgments) are proportional and true – part of the fabric of the universe. Examples of realism are naturalism, nonnaturalism, and supernaturalism.
Moral Skepticism: There may or may not be moral truths, but even if they exist, we cannot know them.
Pojman p 240
Antirealism: Moral principles (or judgments) do not have truth values. There are no moral facts. Examples of antirealism are emotivism, prescriptivism, and projectivism (the view that, in making moral judgments, we project our attitudes or emotions onto the world).
96
Direction of fit
A proposition is true word to world
A moral prescriptipon
is universally valid
world to word
Pojman p 251
97
Moral properties
are functional:
to fulfil the purpose of morality –
to promote human flourishing
and ameliorate sufferingPojman p 244
98
Moral realism
thought experiments
as well as
anthropological and sociological data
confirm
our moral theory
which principles
are objective guidelines
for our actionPojman p 252
99
A moral minimalism
calling us to adhere
to a core of necessary rules
in order for society to function
morality is
social control
and
defensivePojman p 255
100
Virtue ethics
The duty to growas a moral person
to take onmoral responsibility,
to increase competencein making moral choices
to develop moral capacities
to experience happiness.Pojman p 257
101
The moral hero
experiences a sense of aesthetic ecstasy
at accomplishing moral deeds
that are out of the realm of possibility
for the average moral person. Pojman p 258
102
Suggestions 1. Identify the problem you want to analyze.2. As clearly as possible, state the problem and what you intend to show.3. Set force your arguments in logical order, and support your premises with reasons. It helps to
illustrate your points with examples or to point out counterexamples to opposing points of view.4. Consider alternative points of view as well as objections to your own position. Try to meet these
charges and show why your position is more plausible.5. Apply the principle of charity to your opponent’s reasoning. That is, give his or her case the
strongest interpretation possible, for unless you can meet the strongest objections to your own position, you cannot be confident that your position is the best.
6. End your paper with a summary and a conclusion. That is, succinctly review your arguments and state what you think you’ve demonstrated. In the conclusion it is always helpful to show the implications of your conclusion for other issues. Answer the question “Why does it matter?”
7. Be prepared to write at least two drafts before you have a working copy. Make sure that your arguments are well constructed and that your paper as a whole is coherent.
8. Regarding style: write clearly, and in an active voice. Avoid ambiguous expressions, double negatives, and jargon. Put other people’s ideas in your own words as much as possible, and give credit in the text and in bibliographical notes whenever you have used someone else’s idea or quoted someone.
9. Include a bibliography at the end of your paper. In it list all the sources you used in writing your paper.
10. Put the paper aside for a day, then read it afresh. Chances are you will find things to change.
When you have a serious problem, do not hesitate to contact your teacher.Pojman p 269-270