Low Input Production Systems: Innovations in Mechanization for
Food Security in Asia by
Gajendra Singh Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi, India and
Peeyush Singh Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Email: [email protected]
Feeding growing population Alleviating poverty Protecting environment Responding to Climate
Change
Feeding growing population Alleviating poverty Protecting environment Responding to Climate
Change
Hunger and malnutrition Reduced economic growth Political instability Damages to environment
Hunger and malnutrition Reduced economic growth Political instability Damages to environment
Globally, 870 M people are chronically hungry (FAO, 2012)
Two-thirds of the World’s under nourished people lived in the Asia and the Pacific region (FAO, 2013)
13% of the population in the Asia and the Pacific region were hungry and malnourished during 2010-2012 (FAO, 2012)
Global Challenges and food security
World need to feed 2 billion more people by 2050
Global food demand would increase by 60% by 2050 (OECD-
FAO, 2012)
Agricultural development is the most effective ways for addressing food security challenges
1% growth in Agricultural Economy fuels a 6% increase in spending by the poorest 10% of population (World Bank, 2008)
• In monetary value terms the agrarian activities of the region have
considerably shifted
• Cereals, fruits & vegetables and livestock production continue to be
the main activities of the agricultural sector
Agricultural Development in the AP Region
Percent Composition of Agricultural Output (constant $) for Asian Countries, 1970 and 2010 (Source: Soni (2014) calculation based on data from Briones and Felipe (2013))
Changing Dietary Habits:
• Asian economies are undergoing major transformation
• Rapid economic growth has led to high growth in individual incomes in most countries in the region
• There is a shift in consumer preferences toward increasingly diversified, safe and high-value food products
• Increasing demand for high-quality packaged and branded foods caused by the phenomenal growth of supermarkets and hypermarkets in the urban centers
are putting pressure on the existing
Agricultural on-farm production and post-production systems in the region
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
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Livestock
Fruits andvegetablesOil crops
Sugar crops
Roots andtubersCereals
Shares in Agricultural Output by Country, Developing Asia, 2010 (Source: Soni (2014) calculation based on data from Briones and Felipe (2013))
Cereal yield Several factors affect national average of cereal yield –
Topography; Climate; Technology; Soil constraints
(2 - 2.5 t/ha) Timor-Leste, Nepal;
(2.6 - 3 t/ha) Pakistan, India, Cambodia, Thailand;
(3 - 4.5 t/ha) Philippines, Sri Lanka, DPRK, Myanmar, Malaysia, Lao PDR, Bangladesh;
(4.5 - 5 t/ha) PNG, Indonesia, Japan;
(5 - 7 t/ha) Viet Nam, China and ROK
3.7 t/ha World average
(2 - 2.5 t/ha) Timor-Leste, Nepal;
(2.6 - 3 t/ha) Pakistan, India, Cambodia, Thailand;
(3 - 4.5 t/ha) Philippines, Sri Lanka, DPRK, Myanmar, Malaysia, Lao PDR, Bangladesh;
(4.5 - 5 t/ha) PNG, Indonesia, Japan;
(5 - 7 t/ha) Viet Nam, China and ROK
3.7 t/ha World average
Many countries of the Asia and the Pacific region continue (esp. lower-middle to low income) to grapple with numerous constraints – Modern technology adoption; Poor infrastructure; Weak human resource capacity
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a Cereal Yield: Decadal average
1960-70 1970-80 1980-90 1990-00 2000-11
Average of cereal yield over decades (Source: Soni (2014) calculation based on data from FAOSTAT and World Bank, 2013)
Cereal yield, measured as kilograms per hectare of harvested area includes:wheat, rice,
maize, barley, oats, rye, millet, sorghum, buckwheat and mixed grains. Production data
on cereals relate to crops harvested for dry grain only.
Agricultural Mechanization in the Asia and the Pacific Region Mechanization is a powerful tool for achieving sustainable
agricultural production
From sustainability perspective the Agricultural Mechanization debate revolves around two aspects:
Impacts of continuous &
improper use of technology
on environment and
natural resources
Impacts of continuous &
improper use of technology
on environment and
natural resources
Feasibility and impact of using higher levels of
farm power
Feasibility and impact of using higher levels of
farm power
The experience of the Asia and the Pacific Region shows higher mechanization of processing and irrigation than the mechanization of crop husbandry and harvesting operations
Countries across the Region differ widely with respect to how they use Farm Power
Since 1990s, the use of Draught Animal Power (DAP) as a power source in Asian agriculture has declined considerably
In India, number of draft animals declined from 85 M (1975) 53 M (2005) 18 M (by 2030) [Singh, 2013]
In Bangladesh, since 1980s cyclones killed huge number of draft animals, they were replaced by 2WT
In China, by 2025 the draft animals will be completely replaced by 2WT and 4 WT [Renpu, 2014]
Draft animals-based designs of tillage implements are still being used on tractors; - the only difference being more number of tines/discs
Tractor (4WT+2WT) use intensity
(Units per 1000 ha of arable land)
Harvesters-Threshers use intensity
(Units per 1000 ha of arable land)
Bangladesh BGD 63.32 2012 38.29 2012
Bhutan BTN 0.90 2000
Cambodia KHM 18.19 2010 3.83 2010
China CHN 195.16 2010 10.45 2010
India IND 36.42 2011 3.03 2008
Indonesia IDN 4.66 2010 16.54 2000
Japan JPN 453.21 2000
DPRK DPRK 27.91 2003
ROK ROK 169.93 2008 58.22 2003
Lao PDR LAO 0.77 2003
Malaysia MYS 62.44 2011 21.50 2011
Myanmar MMR 23.47 2012 3.83 2011
Nepal NPL 27.30 2011 39.07 2010
Pakistan PAK 23.95 2010 0.07 2000
Papua New Guinea PNG 5.89 2002 32.41 2002
Philippines PHL 11.70 2008 14.96 2011
Sri Lanka LKA 17.92 2007 0.01 2003
Thailand THA 186.05 2008 4.80 2008
Timor-Leste TLS 0.77 2003
Viet Nam VNM 76.92 2009 35.69 2003
Machinery use intensity (per 1000 ha arable land)
Source: Soni (2014) calculation based on data from World Bank (2013) and FAOSTAT (2013)
Activity Viet Nam
(2011)
Indonesia
(2010)
Bangladesh
(2010)
Philippines (2009)
Rice and Corn
China 2009
(overall)
India 2008
(overall)
Cambodia
(2011)
Soil preparation upland crops 65
Soil preparation for rice
cultivation 72 38 75 Medium to High
Rice planting ~0 ~0 Low
Rice weeding ~0 20 Low
Rice pest and disease control 100 90
Active irrigation for rice 85 50 60
Transport in agriculture and
rural 66
Rice drying in summer- autumn
season in Mekong River Delta
region
38.7 15
Rice harvesting 15 ~0 10 Low
Rice threshing 84 21 Medium to High
Rice milling 95 100 High
Land preparation, plowing 66 23 63
Sowing 41 21
Harvesting 35
Total Mechanization Level 46
Mechanization rate (%) in agricultural production activities
Sources: Soni (2014) calculations based on: CSAM Country Report – Viet Nam (2012); CSAM Country Report – Indonesia
(2012); CSAM Country Report – Bangladesh (2012); CSAM Country Report – Philippines (2012); CSAM Country
Report – China (2012); CSAM Country Report – India (2012); Soni and Ou (2010); Justice and Biggs (2013); UN-
APCAEM Country Report – Cambodia (2011).
Production of tractors (4-wheel)
1961 880 Tractors
1970 20,000 Net importer upto 1976
1980 71,000 Exports started: Africa
1990 140,000 Exports grew upto 7,000/year
2000 256,000 Exports grew upto 50,000/year
2010 560,000 USA, Malaysia,Turkey, South
2011 630,000 Asian and African countries
2012 579,000 Exports more than 60,000 tractors
2013 690,000 Exports about 65,000 tractors
Of global production of tractors India produces
more than 1/3rd of total tractors and more than
50% of <60 hp category.
India is the biggest producer of tractors in world. Mahindra is #1 company producing tractors worldwide.
Trend in Farm Power Availability in India
Share of agricultural worker & draught animals came down from
60.8% in 1971-72 to 10.1% in 2012-13
Share of agricultural worker & draught animals came down from
60.8% in 1971-72 to 10.1% in 2012-13
Common custom hire services
Transportation: 4WT and 2WT trailer: all countries;
Animal carts: Nepal, Cambodia, Laos
Milling: Engine and motor: all countries
Water pumping: Engine, motor, 2WT pump: most countries
Threshing (Wheat): 4WT thresher: India, China, Pakistan,
Nepal
Threshing (Rice): 4WT and 2WT thresher: most countries;
Threshing (Diesel engines): Thailand
Harvesting (Wheat): Combine harvester: China, India,
Pakistan
Harvesting (Rice): Combine harvester: China, Malaysia,
India, Thailand, Sri Lanka
Common custom hire services
Tillage (Dry): 4WT: most countries
Tillage (Wet): 2WT: most countries
Land leveling: 4WT laser leveler: India,
Pakistan, Cambodia
Seeding: 4WT seed drill: China, India,
Pakistan
Transplanting (Rice): China, India
Maize shelling: India, Bangladesh
Harvesting (Sugarcane): Thailand, India
Examples: In China Combine Service Enterprises(CSEs) in 2011 were operating in 12 provinces. They shifted from Chinese Futian combines to more reliable Japanese Kubota combines. CSEs have evolved in small co-operatives of 5-10 CSEs for maintenance and coordination. Combines are upto 8 months away from home.
In India combine service providers travel upto 600 kms over a period of 2 months to harvest mainly wheat crop.
Technical issues
Decline in Productivity Growth Growth in rice yields has fallen from 2.2% (1970-90) 0.8% (1990-2000) (IRRI)
Land available for rice production is declining as land around urban areas is being converted for other uses such as for housing and industry
Declining water availability for cultivation as demand by industrial and municipal users is growing rapidly
Changing source of farm power: In most countries, rapid change
from animate (animal and human) to mechanical, with increasing use of 2WT/4WT, irrigation pumps (diesel/electric), and post-harvest & processing equipment
Key issue is to plan and facilitate the transition while addressing socio-economic, technical and environmental concerns
Key issue is to ensure that the new power source can be optimally utilized by the farmer on his/her own and/or through rental systems on/off-farm
Some countries are transitioning rapidly from low hp to high hp tractors; technical and socio-economic consequences of this rapid change need to be carefully researched and documented
Food safety and Quality issues: Competitiveness of the agricultural
sector is greatly influenced by the status of its technological developments and food safety concerns.
Key issue is that the Sustainable Agricultural Mechanization will need to go beyond the on-farm productivity, and to include the post-harvest systems and the entire food chain
In a number of cases it favors the use of new and improved technologies: Precision farming; Controlled environment agriculture; Traceability; Bulk packaging and processing equipment
Key issue is also to ensure the safety and health of agricultural workers: Improved hygiene of work place; Ergonomics; GAP
Importance of agriculture in employment and GDP of selected countries in the Asia and Pacific (Sources: Soni (2014) calculations based on: World Development Indicators 2012; The World Factbook, 2012)
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11 12
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35
43
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1960-70 1970-80 1980-90 1990-00 2000-10 2010-
10-years Average Agricultural value added (% of GDP) (Source: Soni(2014) calculation based on data from World Bank, 2013) Note: for 2010- series, data from year 2010 until the recent
available year 2012 or 2013 is used
In general, the agricultural value added (%) has been declining over the years in the
selected AP countries
Most of the Asian farms are SMALL, and getting SMALLER
87% of the World’s 500 M small farms (<2ha) are in the Asia and the Pacific Region
Average size of operated area (actual area cultivated) per holding in the AP Region varies widely from as low as 0.4 ha to 4 ha
Five countries in the Region host about 70% of the small farms globally (China- 198 M, India- 98 M, Bangladesh- 24 M, Indonesia- 22 M, Viet Nam- 10 M)
Secure Land Tenure is essential for successful programs in Agricultural Mechanization, which also enables farmer to get credit/loan for buying machinery
Farm size, Farmers and Farmer capacity
Percent of agricultural holdings Average size of
operated area
per holding (ha)
Under 0.5 ha Under 1 ha Under 2 ha
Number Operated
Area Number
Operated
Area Number
Operated
Area
China (2) 83.2 n.a. 92.9 n.a. 97.8 n.a. 0.7
India 42.7 7.7 62.9 18.7 81.8 38.9 1.3
Indonesia n.a. n.a. 74.82 n.a. 88.73 n.a. 0.79
Bangladesh 76.18 23 86.68 41.2 98.33 83.6 0.40
Viet Nam 67.1 n.a. 84.2 n.a. 94.6 n.a. 0.71
Pakistan 19.5 1.8 36.1 5.8 57.6 15.5 3.1
Thailand (4) 2.64 n.a. 24.05 n.a. 51.8 n.a. 3.16
Philippines 20.2 2.4 40.1 8.7 68.1 25.8 2
Myanmar (1) 14.9 0.7 33.4 5.5 56.6 19 2.5
Nepal 47.3 14.7 74.2 38.9 91.7 68.7 0.8
Sri Lanka (3) 17.3 7.8 33.9 26.3 n.a. n.a. 0.5
Cambodia 35.6 12.7 65.00 37.9 84.40 70.2 4.01
RoK 36 n.a. 62 n.a. 84.1 n.a. 1.43
Lao PDR n.a. n.a. 35.1 12.8 70.4 42.8 1.6
Southeast Asia n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1.36
South and Southwest Asia n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1.27
North and Central Asia n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 19.47
East Asia n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.60
Pacific Islands n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 2.40
Developed Countries n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 156.97
Asia Pacific n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 2.87
Distribution of small farm holdings in Asia and the Pacific
Compiled from information retrieved from: 2000 World Census of Agriculture (2005); APCAS (2010); Department of Agricultural Extension (2001); OAE
(2013); OECD (2008); CDRI (2001); FAO-RAP (2012)
India 1971 1991 1995 2001
2.3 1.6 1.4 1.3 Indonesia 1973 1993 2000
1.1 0.9 0.8 Nepal 1992 2002
1 0.8 Pakistan 1971 1989 2000
5.3 3.8 3.1 Philippines 1971 1991 2000
3.6 2.2 2
Trends in average size of operated farm land per
holding (ha)
Sources: Nagayets (2005); APCAS (2010)
Demographic trends Much of the growth in world population occurs in Asia
By 2025, the AP region would need 20% more than the 2000’s production
equivalent of adding 2-3 Mha/year of new land at current average yield levels
Such land is NOT available, and production should come from increased yields and reduced post-harvest losses
Less labor will be available for farming, esp youngsters migrate to cities
Rising rural-wages will necessitate labor-saving options (i.e. Farm mechanization)
Increasing Feminization of agriculture: More men migrating to cities than women Gender specific interventions in mechanization programs
Ageing Rural Population: Young and educated youth are migrating to cities; several country reports point to an increasing aging rural mass
Futuristic agricultural system would need young, educated and tech-savvy farmers
Urbanization A number of countries in the AP
Region are more than 50% urbanized
By 2030, all the countries with large populations will have crossed 50% urbanization mark
Urbanization presents both an opportunity as well as threat to Ag sector
Opportunity: huge market opportunities for food and Ag products in cities
Threat: Less people to work at rural farms
Region
Urban
population
(2010)
Urbanization
rate, p.a. (2010-
2015e)
World 50.50% 1.85
Bangladesh 28% 3.10
China 47% 2.30%
India 30% 2.40%
Indonesia 44% 1.70%
Korea, N. 60% 0.60%
Korea, S. 83% 0.60%
Malaysia 72% 2.40%
Nepal 19% 4.70%
Pakistan 36% 3.10%
PNG 13% 2.90%
Philippines 49% 2.30%
Sri Lanka 14% 1.10%
Thailand 34% 1.80%
Timor Leste 28% 5%
Viet Nam 30% 3% Sources: World Development Indicators (2012); The World
Factbook (2012)
Environmental issues
Inappropriate mechanization inputs may lead to
Accelerating soil erosion
Soil compaction
Promoting over-use of chemical inputs
Land degradation
Salinization of irrigated areas
Over extraction of ground water
Threat of Climate Change
Agriculture is responsible for about 30% of the total greenhouse gas emissions
Rice-based production systems in most developing Asian countries are highly vulnerable to Climate Change risks
‘Delta countries’ i.e. Viet Nam and Bangladesh being most vulnerable to sea-level rise, floods and erratic weather
Agriculture is considered to be the largest user of the fresh water, which draws about 70% of the available fresh water on earth.
AP Region has only 38% of total world renewable water resources.
Water use in agriculture
Annual Water Withdrawal (<35%) Malaysia; (60-65%) ROK, Japan, China; (75-90%) DPRK, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, India; (90-95%) Timor-Leste, Lao PDR, Pakistan, Cambodia, Bhutan, Viet Nam; (95-100%) Nepal.
Annual Water Withdrawal (<35%) Malaysia; (60-65%) ROK, Japan, China; (75-90%) DPRK, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, India; (90-95%) Timor-Leste, Lao PDR, Pakistan, Cambodia, Bhutan, Viet Nam; (95-100%) Nepal.
Lower water withdrawal, on one side refers to better water productivity, while on the other side it may also indicate relative availability/capacity of irrigation infrastructure and equipment
Electricity used in agriculture in the AP Region include electric pumps for irrigation, electric motor for driving stationery power threshers, tread mills, local artisans in workshop, lighting, fencing, drying, grinding, and processing.
Annual electricity consumption in agriculture per unit of arable land varies widely across the AP Region. Though it is affected by not only the rural-electrification, but also farmers’ choices/convenience in selecting source of power
(15-30 kWh/ha) Indonesia, Thailand, Nepal, Lao PDR; (145-275 kWh/ha) Viet Nam, Malaysia, PNG, Bangladesh, Philippines; (430-875 kWh/ha) Pakistan, India, China;
(15-30 kWh/ha) Indonesia, Thailand, Nepal, Lao PDR; (145-275 kWh/ha) Viet Nam, Malaysia, PNG, Bangladesh, Philippines; (430-875 kWh/ha) Pakistan, India, China;
Electricity use in agriculture
Sustainable Agricultural
Mechanization
Sustainable production
intensification
Optimum use of farm inputs
Environmental friendly
agricultural management
Conclusion
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