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LSM2251
Ecology & the Environment
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LSM3251Ecology & Environmental Processes
Part I: Introduction to biomes
& The Terrestrial environment& The Terrestrial Environment
Part II: The Aquatic Environment
Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: conceptsand applications, 3rdedition. McGraw-Hill.
Chapters 2 & 3: Life on Land, Life in Water
Most general biology or ecology textbooks
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To learn about the terrestrial environment by
understanding the factors that affect theirgeographic distribution and
briefly surveying the diversity ofterrestrialbiomes
Objectives
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Tundra
Boreal forest (Taiga)
Temperate forest
Temperate grassland
Mediterranean woodland & shrubland
Desert
Tropical savanna Tropical dry forest
Tropical rain forest
Mountains
Increasinglatitude
Terrestrial biomes
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Questions
What changes would you experience when movingnorth of south of the equator?
Temperature?
Seasonality?
Precipitation?
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Pattern?
1. Tropical Rainforest
2. Tropical Dry Forest(Monsoon Forest)
3. Tropical Savanna4. Desert
5. MediterraneanWoodland &Shrubland
6. Temperate Grassland
7. Temperate Forest
8. Boreal Forest
9. Tundra
10. Mountains
Which are thewarmest biomes?
Which are the coldest?
Which are the wettest?
Which are the driest?
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Scope
Part I: Introduction to biomes& The Terrestrial Environment
1. What is responsible for climatic variation?
2. A brief look at soil.
3. What are biomes?
Terrestrial biomes & Ecoregions
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There are predictable large-scale climatic patterns, e.g.: Average temperature lower & more seasonal in
temperate zones compared to tropics.
Precipitation more constant in some regions, moreseasonal in others.
Large-scale spatial and temporal variation in climate arefundamental to terrestrial ecology.
Terrestrial biomes influenced by climate, especiallytemperature and precipitation.
1. What is responsible forclimatic variation?
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Whittaker, R.H., 1975.Communities and EcosystemsMacmillan, New York, p. 385.
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What affects patterns of climatic variation?
Uneven heating of earths surface by the sun.
Atmospheric circulation
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Uneven heating of earths surface by the sun.
Spherical shape of earth + Tilt of earths axis (23.5)
= Regular shift in latitude where sun is directlyoverhead leads to the seasons.
Leads to variation in temperature & day length. Significant at middle to high latitudes (temperate).
Slight at lower latitudes (tropics).
1.1 The Earth is tilted (axial tilt)blame Theia (impactor on proto-Earth)!
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Wikipedia:Axial Tilt
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N
S
Southernsummer
Northernwinter
N
S
Southernwinter
Northernsummer
Variation in temperature & day lengthSignificant at middle to high latitudes (temperate).
Slight at lower latitudes (tropics).
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! Heating of earths surface andatmosphere.
! and rotation of the earth.
Leads to variation in precipitation.
! Warm, moist air rises -condensation - cool, dry air sinks
! Heavy rainfall in tropics nearequator.
! Desert formation in subtropics atca. 30 latitude.
! Heavy precipitation in temperateregions at ca. 60 latitude.
Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts and applications, 3rd edition. McGraw-H
2.2 Atmospheric circulation.
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Three atmosphericcirculation cells:
Low latitudes: air circulatingbetween equator and 30atitude
Middle latitudes: aircirculating between 30 and60 latitude
High latitudes:! air circulatingbetween 60 latitude andpoles
Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts andapplications, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill
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Observed winds do not move directly north/south.
! NE & SE tradewinds - Tropics! Westerlies - Temperate region! Polar easterlies - High latitudes
! Coriolis effect - phenomenon caused by the rotation of the earth, whichcauses deflection of winds clockwise in Northern Hemisphere andanticlockwise in Southern Hemisphere.
Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts and applications, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill
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Whittaker, R.H., 1975.Communities and Ecosystems.Macmillan, New York, p. 385.
Predictable large-scaleclimatic patterns
influenced by climate,especially temperature
and precipitation.
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Complex mixture of living (organic/biotic) and non-living (inorganic/abiotic) material.
Soil profile based on
vertical layering
(soil horizons) that
merge into one
another at
transition zones.
O
A
B
C
Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts and applications, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill
2. Soil
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O horizon (organic layer) (litter layer)
Freshly fallen organic matter + fragmented/partiallydecomposed organic matter (action of macro/micro-
decomposers). Absent in?
A horizon (mixed mineral/organic matter) (topsoil)
Mixture of inorganic matter (minerals, clay, silt and sand)and organic matter (from O horizon; burrowers).
B horizon (depositional layer)
Distinctive banding from deposition/leaching of materials(e.g., mineral nutrients, humus) from A horizon by water.
C horizon (parent material) (deepest layer)
Weathered parent material (action of water, frost, roots). Source of smaller fragments from bedrock below.
Soil horizons
Biologicalactivity
plant roots
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A biotic community characterised by the distinct life forms ofthe important climax species (plants).
Major divisions of the terrestrial environment (14) Distinguished by predominant plant formations and soil
types.
Associated with different climates.
3. Biomes & Ecoregions3.1 What are biomes?
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Biomes: distinguished primarily bythe predominant plants, and areassociated with particular climates.
Occur in different geographical regions.
How many?
Lets see - Google Images, world biome
What is a Biome?Glossary (back of Molles)
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http://www2.kpr.edu.on.ca/cdciw/biomes/research.htm
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http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/world_biomes.htm
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How many Biomes?(Molles, Solomon)
1. Tropical Rainforest
2. Tropical Dry Forest(Monsoon Forest)
3. Tropical Savanna
4. Desert5. Mediterranean
Woodland &Shrubland
6. TemperateGrassland
7. Temperate Forest
8. Boreal Forest
9. Tundra10. Mountains
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14 biomes
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Terrestrial Biomes of the World1. Tropical & subtropical
moist broadleaf forests
2. Tropical & subtropical
dry broadleaf forests
3. Tropical & subtropicalconiferous forests
4. Temperate broadleaf & mixedforests
5. Temperate coniferous forests
6. Boreal forests/Taiga
7. Tropical & subtropicalgrasslands, savannnas andshrublands
8. Temperate grasslands,savannnas and shrublands
9. Flooded grasslands, and
savannnas
10. Montane grasslands, andsavannnas
11. Tundra
12. Mediterranean forests,woodlands and scrub
13. Deserts & Xeric shrublands
14. Mangroves
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3.2 Terrestrial Ecoregionsof the World
8 biogeographic realms 14 biomes
867 ecoregions
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e.g. Papua New Guinea
Previously - a single bioticregion
New map: 12 ecoregions 4 lowland, 4 montane
alpine scrub, mangrove,freshwater swamp,savannah-grassland
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Ecoregions
Olson et al. (2001) defined the biogeographicunit "ecoregions" as
relatively large units of land, containing a distinct assemblage of natural
communities and species,
with boundaries that approximate theoriginal extent of natural communitiesprior to major land-use change.
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Helpful , how?
More accurately reflects the distribution of speciesand communities. It provides:
a map with enough detail global and regional conservation increase biogeographic literacy
illustrate conservation issues around theworld
framework for strategies and analyses
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Part II. Aquatic environments
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Objective & ScopeTo learn about the hydrologic cycle and
selected representative aquatic biomes.
1. Hydrologic cycle
2. Aquatic environments
2.1Characteristics
2.2 Oceans
2.3 Littoral shores
2.4 River, streams & Lakes
3. Tides
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1. Hydrologic cycle Cycling of water across the
biosphere.
Over 71% of the earthssurface is covered by water:
Oceans: 97%. Polar ice caps; glaciers:
2%.
Lakes; rivers; streams;
! ground water:
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1. Hydrologic cycle =water cycle
Distribution of water is dynamic, not static: Heat from the sun (solar energy)
Evaporation
Clouds
Precipitation
Evaporation
Consumed by organisms
Groundwater
Surface water
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USGS: US De t Interior 4
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2.1Aquatic Environments:Characteristics
Go through Molles (2007),tabulate characteristics
of each type of water body
Easiest parameter to remember,
= salinity
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2. Aquatic Environments:Characteristics
Heterogenous - diverse in character orcontent
Specific areas have specific influences
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How does theWest and East
Coast of Malaysiadiffer from each
other?
What ecosystemsdominate in each?
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2.2 Oceans
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Intertidal Zone, then:
Distance from shore/continental shelf:
Neritic Zone: Coast to edge of continental shelf (up to 200m depth).
Oceanic Zone: Beyond continental shelf (beyond 200m depth).
Depth beyond continental shelf:
Epipelagic (0-200m) Mesopelagic (200-1,000m) Bathypelagic (1,000-4,000m) Abyssal (4,000-6,000m) Hadal (>6,000m)
Habitat:
Benthic: Habitat on ocean bottom. Pelagic: Habitat off the bottom in water column. Neritic: within the water column
Oceans: Structure
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w York Times
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Salinity between 34 ppt to 36.5 ppt; lowest near equator;
highest in subtropics.Why?
Lower oxygen concentration (cf. aerial environments).Oxygen concentration highest near ocean surface, anddecreases with depth to a minimum at < 1,000m.
Photosynthetic organisms limited to upper epipelagic zone(euphotic zone).
food only from above?
Chemosynthesis occurs near deep sea hydrothermal vents -chemoautotrophic bacteria making use of hydrogen sulphide
Oceans
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! 80% light absorbed in first 10 m.! Which colour light is least quickly absorbed
by water?
! Quality of underwater photos?
! Most of ocean is dark
Oceans: Light
BBC Blue Planet: Bioluminescence
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! Warm surface water floats ontop of cooler water below.
! Thermocline separates the twolayers = thermal stratification(300-400 metres).
! Permanent feature of tropicaloceans - seasonal feature oftemperate oceans (summer)
! Temperature variation anrequator = 1C
Oceans: Temperature
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!
Wind-driven surface currents transport! nutrients
! oxygen
! heat
! organisms
! Where does this energy come from?
Oceans: Water Movement
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Oceanic Circulation
Molles, M. C. Jr., 2007. Ecology: concepts and applications, 4th edition. McGraw-Hill
Currents exist throughout the world.
Warm equatorial waters transported to the poles
E.g. Gulf Stream
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! Warm equatorial waters transported to the poles createmoderate climates in temperate areas.
Oceans: Water Movement
Canada
http://www.welt-atlas.deNOAA (Wikipedia)
Gulf Stream
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Kuroshio CurrentApr - May 1998Remote sensing systemshttp://www.ssmi.com/
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pheniscus humboldti,Per: Islas Ballestas
Peter (zug55) on Flickrhttp://www.flickr.com/photos/zug55/4796491016/
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Currents cause upwellings.
Oceans: Water MovementUpwelling - wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usuallynutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the
warmer, usually nutrient-depleted surface water.
NOAA
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Currents cause upwellings.
Oceans: Water Movement
Deep water is nutrient-rich.No light; Energy source?
What is marine snow?Dead or dying animals and plants (plankton), protists (diatoms)
faecal matter, sand, soot and other inorganic dust.
What is the significance of marine snowto the twilight and midnight zones?
What is the significance of upwellingto fisheries and humans?
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Deepwater currents cause upwellings.
Oceans: Water Movement
Rutgers COOLhttp://marine.rutgers.edu/coolroom/education/upwelling.htm
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Normalconditions
Warmerwater in
W Pacific
Coolerwater in E
Pacific
Upwelling
El Nioconditions
Warmerwater in E
Pacific
Absence ofupwellingRelatively
cooler waterin W Pacific
Source:www.elnino.noaa.gov/
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Oceans: Water MovementWhat is the significance of EL Nino to upwelling?
During normal conditions:
Cool, W coastal waters off S America rich in nutrients due to upwelling.
During warm episode (El Nio):
Stratification!thermocline
!upwelling shut off! reduced nutrient supply
! reduced phytoplankton primary production
! reduced food supply to consumers.
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Salinity between 34 ppt to 36.5 ppt;lowest near equator; highest in
subtropics.Why?
Lower oxygen concentration (cf. aerialenvironments). Oxygen concentrationhighest near ocean surface, and decreaseswith depth to a minimum at < 1,000m.
Photosynthetic organisms limited toupper epipelagic zone (euphotic zone).
food only from above?
Chemosynthesis occurs near deep seahydrothermal vents - chemoautotrophicbacteria making use of hydrogen sulphide
Oceans
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2.3 Inter-tidal shores
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2.3 Inter-tidal shoresVarious systems of vertical zonation of the sea shore.
Example:
Supralittoral (=splash zone) Zone: > HHWST Always exposed, i. e. Never covered even by the highest tides.
Littoral (= intertidal) zone: HHWST < Littoral > LLWST
Daily exposure (air) and immersion (seawater), 1-2x/day.
Sublittoral Below LLWST mark
Always covered by water even during lowest tides.
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Sea shores
Waves and tides affect distribution and abundance ofintertidal organisms.
Semidiurnal tides: Two periods of low and high tidesdaily.
Diurnal tides: Single low and high tide each day.
Intertidal zone organisms adapted to amphibiousexistence.
Differential tolerances to periodicity of air exposureleads to zonation of species.
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Inter-tidal tropical forest communities, 30-35 latitude of the Equator.Along protected/sheltered coastlines and estuaries.
Temperate zone equivalent: salt marsh (no trees, dominated by herbaceousvegetation).
(2.3) Mangrove forests
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Open ecosystem:
autochthonous (inside) and allochthonous (outside) inputs.
Challenging environment:
High and fluctuating salinity (physiologically dry environment)
Unstable and anoxic substratum Mangrove plants and animal adaptations (structural,
physiological, reproductive)
Low plant species diversity
(2.3) Mangrove forests
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Low plant species diversity Zonation parallel to shoreline, defined by dominant
tree species or topography
Keystone species:. Mud lobster, Thalassina anomala
Keystone species: Sulphur bacteria, Desulfovibriospp.
(2.3) Mangrove forests
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Image: www.freeimages.co.uk
2.4: Rivers, streams and lakes
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2.4 LimnologyLSM4264 Freshwater Biology
Study of freshwater habitats. Lakes Rivers, streams Freshwater swamps
Peat swamps Freshwater marshes Peat bogs
"Freshwater ecosystems
have lost a greaterproportion of their
species and habitat thanecosystems on land or
in the oceans,and they face increasing
threats from dams,water withdrawals,pollution, invasive
species, andoverharvesting."
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2.4 Lakes ~ small seas
Littoral zone: Shallows Limnetic zone: Open lake Lakes become thermally stratified as they warm forming
three layers:
Epilimnion: Warm surface layers. Uppermost stratum. Oxygen-rich - higher concentration of fauna.
Metalimnion: Temperature changes rapidly with depth(=Thermocline).
Hypolimnion: Cold dark waters. Lowest stratum. Oxygen-poor - lower concentration of fauna.
Most of the worldsfreshwater resides ina few large lakes;
ca. 60% of the
worlds freshwaterare in three majorlakes
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Lake Structure
= (Thermocline)
Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts and applications, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill
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Classified by trophic (nutrition) state
Well nourished = eutrophic (hyper-eutrophic)
mesotrophic
Lowly nourished = oligotrophic
Classification of Lakes
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Dependent on:
Nutrient supply - bedrock geology, soils, vegetation, humanlanduse and management
Climate - sunlight, temp, precipitation, turnover
Shape of lake basin (morphometry) - depth, vol.,watershed: lake surface area
Classification of Lakes
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Oligotrophic: Nutrient-poor; lowbiological production; well oxygenated.E.g. Lake Toba (rock base)
Organisms requiring high oxygenconcentrations
Cooler, well mixed increased oxygensolubility and concentration
Low in phytoplankton reduced oxygenconsumption by respiration at night
Lakes
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Eutrophic: Nutrient-rich; highbiological production; depleted ofoxygen. E.g. Seletar reservoir (mud/claybase)
Organisms tolerant of low oxygenconcentrations
Warmer, stratified reduced oxygensolubility and concentration;accumulation of decomposing matterbelow thermocline consumes oxygen
High in phytoplankton increasedoxygen consumption by respiration atnight
Lakes
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Wind-driven mixing of the water column is ecologicallyimportant.
oxygenation of bottom waters replenish nutrients in surface waters
Temperate context: Summer mixing limited to above thermocline
Spring, autumn, winter (if no ice) mixing throughout breakdown of thermal stratification
Local (Tropical) context: No seasonality, but breakdown of thermal stratification may occur
at night due to lower temperatures and strong, night winds.
Lakes
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Mangroves
Sand bar
Seagrass lagoon
Rocky shore
Coral rubble
Straits of Johor
Coastal Hill forest
ntations
1km= 0.63 miles0.7km = 0.43 miles
Quarry
3. Tides
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Chek Jawa - why a hidden eden?
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0.3m
Where are the barnacles?
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See http://tides.sivasothi.com for links
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What will the tide be like onthe Pulau Ubin field trip?
How will affect your travel there?
what you will see there?
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What time to do thecoastal cleanup briefing?
ICC falls on the third Saturday of September= Sat 17th September 2011: 9am.
Is the tide suitable for a cleanup?
The Kranji Mangrove briefing is conducted on theSaturday one week before the cleanup.
The organisers take a walk through the site andexamine the mangrove and must see the conditionsof the actual day.
At what time should the briefing be held?8
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