M A N A G I N GMUNICIPAL WASTES

ENVIRONMENT &URBAN AFFAIRSDIVISION,GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN

Dr. M. Nawaz Tariq and Dr. Waris Ali

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank Professor Shaukat Hayat and Dr. T. A. Qureshi,Assistant Professor, Institute of Public Health Engineering and Research,for their contribution to the solid wastes, noise and air pollution sections

The sector papers were commissioned from mid-1988 to mid-1990 andprinted in 1992 and 1993

The Pakistan National Conservation Strategy was prepared by theGovernment of Pakistan (Environment and Urban Affairs Division)

in collaboration with IUCN – The World Conservation Union

It was supported by the Canadian International Development Agency

Additional sector activities were supported by the United Nations Development Programme

IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Pakistan1 Bath Island Road, Karachi 75530

© 1993 by IUCN – The World Conservation Union, PakistanAll rights reserved

This material can be copied without the prior permission of the publisher

Editors: Tehmina Ahmed & Yasmin QureshiEditorial Advisors: Dhunmai Cowasjee & Saneeya Hussain

ISBN 969-8141-08-7

Design: Creative Unit (Pvt) LtdFormatting: Umer Gul Afridi, Journalists' Resource Centre for the Environment

Printed in Pakistan by Rosette

Preface v1. Introduction 12. Environment and Development: Status and Requirements 2

Water Supply and Sanitation Sector 2Solid Waste Management and Pollution Control 3Economic and Social Significance 4The Seventh Five-Year Plan 6

3. Assessment of the Physical Impacts of the Economic Sector: Current and Potential 6Water and Human Settlements 6Livestock 12Pesticides and Fertilizers 12Deforestation and Erosion 13Air Pollution 14Noise Pollution 18

4. Current and Potential Interaction with Competing Users 19Surface Water 19

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CONTENTS

Land 20Air 21

5. Achieving Sustainable Use 21Education 21Technology 22Research 23Administration and Legislation 24

6. Conclusions 25Annexures 27

Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage 27International Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, 1981-90: Pakistan's Targets 28Composition of Human Waste 29Self-Purification Ratio 29Approximate Assimilative Capacity at Minimum Flow 30

References 31Tables1. Water Supply Sources 72. Human Waste: Estimated Wet Quantity and BOD for Pakistan 93. Estimated Sewage Quantities 94. Characteristics of Sewage from Various Cities 105 Properties of Solid Waste from Various Cities 116. Area-Wise Generation of Solid Waste, 1988 127. Lahore: Total Emissions, 1986 158. Estimated Annual Vehicular Emissions in Major Cities, 1988 16

iv

This monograph is one of the 29 sectoral and programme papers produced to support thepreparation of the Pakistan National Conservation Strategy. The NCS is a comprehensivereview of the state of the country's environment, and of government and corporate policies,

the voluntary sector, community and individual practices, which support or hinder sustainabledevelopment. The objective of the NCS is to identify strategic initiatives to conserve the country'snatural resources which are the base for lasting improvements in the quality of life.

Environmental impacts do not respect sectoral or administrative boundaries. Yet, conventionaldevelopment planning is frequently focused on narrow performance criteria and associated finan-cial requirements, ignoring huge costs on downstream ecosystems and economic activities depen-dent on them. These costs cannot be avoided and must be paid by society, the only questions arewhen and by which group.

To facilitate an understanding of such 'externalities', one of the first steps of the NationalConservation Strategy was to undertake assessments of cross-sectoral impacts from the point ofview of each major activity sector. In order to facilitate comparison, the reports were preparedaccording to common terms of reference. Subsequently, major programme areas that must begiven priority in the transition to a sustainable society were identified. The list of economic, environ-ment and programme areas is given overleaf.

A paper on each sector was produced by a well recognised expert supported by peer reviewersin related specialities. The key insights have been incorporated into the Strategy. Since the papersare the reference base of the strategy and contain special interest material, a decision was taken topublish them serially in the form of monographs. It is hoped they will be found useful byresearchers of sustainable development in various facets of national life as well as by the interestedlay reader.

The sectors are:

1. Economic sectors:

● Agriculture, forestry, livestock, fisheries.

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PREFACE

vi

● Mining, energy, industries, transport.

● Human settlements and recreation.

2. Environmental impact sectors:

● Soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, and over harvesting of renewable resources.

● Municipal and industrial discharges, environmental health effects, and misuse of waterresources.

● Destruction of cultural heritage.

3. Programme areas:

● Incorporation of environment in education, communication, and research; enforcement oflaws and regulations; improved administration; use of economic instruments to align mar-ket forces with sustainability; promotion of conservation ethics.

● Programmes to promote population planning, women in development, and regional equity.

● Creation of grassroots institutions, with participative management.

1. INTRODUCTION

The discharge of municipal wastes in quanti-ties that surpass the assimilative capacity ofair, water and soil has created serious pol-

lution problems in Pakistan.The insanitary disposal of human wastes

has resulted in the contamination of surfaceand groundwater, used as sources of drinkingwater by communities and cities. This is appar-ent from the high incidence of infectious andparasi t i c diseases in the popu lat ion.Approximately 60% of infant deaths (24), 30%of all reported cases of illness and 40% ofdeaths in the country are attributable to water-borne diseases (4). Soil contamination byhuman excreta causes worm infections, esti-mated to affect over 80% of children by thetime they are two years of age in certain areasof the country (4).

The contamination of food crops through theindiscriminate use of municipal sewage for irri-gation is a source of enteric diseases. Theincreasing use of pesticides and chemical fertiliz-ers to boost food production is bound to causesoil and water pollution, if proper control strate-gies are not adopted.

Insanitary conditions caused by impropercollection and disposal of solid wastes arereadily visible in almost all our cities, townsand villages. Open dumps of refuse on theroadside, streets, walkways and vacant lotsprovide breeding grounds for flies and othervectors and cause serious environmental healthproblems.

The increased use of automobiles in themajor urban centres of the country has givenrise to the problems of noise and air pollution.Vehicles, especially smoke-emitting buses andnoisy rickshaws, pollute the air and are a sourceof public discomfort. Preliminary surveys inLahore and Karachi have indicated that air pol-lution is reaching alarming levels and there is aneed to adopt control measures.

Water, soil and air are natural resourceswith the capacity to assimilate pollution createdby people. It is time to ensure that theseresources are not strained beyond their limit.This paper addresses the interactions of munici-pal waste, urban transportation, agriculturalpractices and deforestation with the assimilativecapacities of water, soil and air and suggestss trategies for the conservation of theseresources in Pakistan.

NCS SECTOR PAPER 1

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MANAGING MUNICIPAL WASTES

2. ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: STATUS AND REQUIREMENTS

T he water supply and sanitation sector hasbeen somewhat neglected and has notreceived the attention it deserves. In

recen t years , fi nancial al locat ions haveincreased and there has been some improve-ment in institutional arrangements. However,much remains to be done to provide safedrinking water and adequate sanitation to peo-ple living in both urban and rural areas. As of1988, water supply facilities were available to80% and 40% of the urban and rural popula-tion respectively, whereas 52% of the urbanversus 10% of the rural population had sanita-tion facilities (18).

WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATIONSECTOR

Systematic planning for the provision of watersupply and sanitation facilities started with

the introduction of the First Five-Year Plan in1955-60. These projects were allocated Rs. 305million, or 3.3% of the gross public sector pro-grammes (21).

The Karachi Water Supply and Sewerageproject was undertaken during this period.Although the cost of the first phase of the projectwas Rs. 270 million, financial limitations meantthat only Rs. 205 million was provided. In addi-tion, Rs. 20 million each was allocated to watersupply, sewerage and drainage schemes inother cities. Actual financial implementation ofthe First Plan was 83% for Karachi and 80% forthe other cities. Another allocation of Rs. 10 mil-lion was also made for drilling tube-wells anddeveloping groundwater reservoirs. However,negligible progress was made in this respect.

By the end of the First Plan in 1960, only ahandful of water supply schemes had beenundertaken in major urban centres while therural areas remained largely neglected. Duringthis period, public health engineering works

remained the domain of the Public WorksDepartment. No significant effort was made totrain people or to develop a local sanitary fit-tings industry — the latter continued to beimported.

An institutional framework was providedduring the Second and Third Five-Year Plans.Separate Publ ic Heal th EngineeringDepartments were set up at the provincial levelin the Punjab, Sindh and the North WestFrontier Province (NWFP). The Second Plan,from 1960-65, allocated Rs. 265 million towater supply and sanitation projects. This wasabout 4.5% of the total outlay in the public andsemi-public sector (21). Allocations included Rs.130 million for the Karachi project, Rs. 85 mil-lion for other towns and Rs. 50 million for ruralwater supply and sanitation schemes. Progresswas not satisfactory, on the whole, because ofthe delay in the start of the programme, adearth of qualified personnel, scarcity of keyconstruction materials and inadequacy of fundsallocated for the purpose.

The allocations came to Rs. 902.5 million,about 2.6% of the planned public sector outlayin the Third Five-Year Plan from 1965-70 (21).Special priority was assigned to comprehensivewater supply, sewerage, drainage and solidwaste disposal projects for the major cities ofKarachi, Hyderabad, Mul tan, Lahore,Faisalabad, Rawalpindi and Peshawar. The Planenvisaged the provision of water supply andsanitation facilities to 35 urban centres and theprovision of water supply facilities to 600 vil-lages. In addition, it was proposed that severalthousand villages be covered by pilot projectsfor rural latrines and sanitat ion. GeneralAdvisory Services were set up for on-the-jobtraining of engineers from 1964-68 under aUnited States government loan. A 5 million gal-lons per day (mgd) sludge plant for sewagetreatment was introduced in Islamabad in 1962.Two trickling-filter plants, each of 20 mgdcapacity, were provided for Karachi in 1963 and1965. In spite of these developments, overallprogress in the water supply and sanitation fieldin the 1960s remained rather limited.

2 NCS SECTOR PAPER

Development planning was on an annualbasis during 1970-78. In this period an alloca-tion of Rs. 1,941 million was made, about2.32% of the total development outlay (21).Major achievements included extending watersupply and sanitation facilities to an additional9.93 million of the urban population, comple-tion of 200 small water supply schemes andinstallation of about 50,000 hand-pumps inrural areas of the Punjab and Sindh (17). By1978, population coverage in terms of watersupply was raised to 61% in urban and 14% inrural areas, whereas sani tat ion faci l it iesbecame available to 35% of the urban andabout 1% of the rural population. (See AnnexTable 1).

The 1970s also saw considerable improve-ment in the institutional framework. SeparateHousing and Physical Planning Departmentswere established in the Punjab, Sindh and theNWFP. At the Federal level, a separate Ministryof Housing and Works was created — with anEnvironment and Urban Affairs Division —which was given the responsibility of water sup-ply and sanitation schemes. Developmentauthorities, on the pattern of the KarachiDevelopment Authority, were created in Lahore,Faisalabad, Multan, Hyderabad, Peshawar,Mardan and Quetta to undertake urban devel-opment in a comprehensive, planned manner.Realising that water supply and sanitation pro-jects constitute a substantial portion of the activi-ties of development authorities, separate Waterand Sanitation Agencies were set up at Lahore,Faisalabad and Multan. These agencies weremade responsible for the development of thesector as a whole, including revenue collection.In 1972, the Insti tute of Public Heal thEngineering and Research (IPHER) was set up atLahore to undertake training, research and advi-sory services in the fields of water supply, sanita-tion and pollution control.

The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1978-83) aimed atfurther accelerating the pace of extending facili-ties. About 3.53% of the total public sector out-lay, or Rs. 5,302 million was allocated for thispurpose (21). Water supply coverage was to be

extended to an additional 8.25 million (81.5%)urban and 14.25 million (36%) rural population.Sewerage and sanitation facilities were pro-posed for an additional 5.86 million in urbanand 2 million in rural areas, increasing the cov-erage to 51% and 4% of the population respec-tively. In terms of actual achievements, watersupply was extended to 77% and sanitation to48% of the urban population. Water supply cov-erage could be extended to only 22% of therural population (17) as the provincial govern-ments concentrated more on taking up costlierpiped water schemes instead of a larger pro-gramme of cheaper hand-pumps.

The United Nations General Assembly, inNovember 1980, declared 1981-90 as theInternat ional Water Supply and SanitationDecade with the goal of providing safe drinkingwater and sanitation to all. Pakistan preparedtargets for the decade, keeping in view financial,institutional and technical constraints. (SeeAnnex Table 2). Under this plan, water was tobe supplied to 66% of the rural and 100% of theurban population by the year 1990; sanitationfacilities were to be extended to 59% of theurban and 13% of the rural population.

The Sixth Five-Year Plan (1983-88) allocatedRs.12,600 million to increase water supply cov-erage to 90% and 56% of the urban and ruralareas respectively, whereas sanitation facilitieswere proposed to be extended to 60% of theurban and 10% of the rural population (17). Aseparate Department of Publ ic Heal thEngineering was established in Balochistan in1986 to improve the institutional framework ofthe water supply and sanitation sector in theprovince.

The enactment of the Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Ordinance of 1983 has paved theway for conservation of the environment and forpollution control.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ANDPOLLUTION CONTROL

Solid waste management is the responsibilityof urban municipalities, which spend 24-26%

NCS SECTOR PAPER 3

of their annual budget on this sector while pro-viding only 40-70% coverage. Part of their loadis shared by suburban farmers who use thewaste as a soil conditioner.

Prevalent systems in the urban areas use cen-tury-old practices. Besides being inadequate,inefficient and insanitary, they are not economi-cally sound.

Recently, with the help of international aidagencies, some steps have been taken toimprove the situation in major cities. In Lahore,a solid waste management component has beenincluded in the World Bank 's UrbanDevelopment Project, with committed foreignfinancing of Rs. 31 million — collection vehiclesare being imported. Even in Islamabad, only50% of the waste is collected by modern collec-tion vehicles. Sanitary landfills have been pro-posed in new projects for Lahore andIslamabad.

No public facilities to collect and dispose ofsolid wastes have been provided in rural areas,nor have such facilities been planned for thefuture. Solid wastes are often dumped haphaz-ardly at every nook and corner of the village.This waste, mixed with animal dung, is allowedto decompose and then transported to farms tobe utilised as compost, in a crude form.

Air pollution is also reaching alarming pro-portions. No attention has been given to thisimportant sector, except recently through thepromulgation of the Pollution Control Ordinance1983 and the establishment of EnvironmentalProtection Agencies (EPAs). The Punjab EPA hasstarted collecting relevant data as have IPHERand the Pakistan Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIALSIGNIFICANCE

Safe drinking water, adequate sanitation,clean air and unpolluted water bodies are

essential ingredients for a healthy and produc-tive society. Improvements in water supply, sew-erage, solid waste management and air qualitycan result in improvements in health, income

and societal well-being. The discharge of munic-ipal wastes beyond the assimilative capacity ofland, water and air affects the productive use ofthese resources. The quantification of socio-eco-nomic and health benefits of improved watersupply and controlled waste discharges are notpossible in the absence of relevant studies, andthese benefits are, therefore, addressed only inqualitative terms.

A large percentage of the population ofPakistan does not have reasonable access tosafe drinking water and adequate means ofwaste disposal. The results are high morbidityand mortality rates. The link between water sup-ply, sanitation and health is well established,although not in quantitative terms, becausehealth statistics are not very reliable. Notifiablediseases are reported only by hospitals andhealth care units. These represent approximately50% of the actual cases because of under-reporting and because of non-reporting by pri-vate practi tioners (24). A World Hea lthOrganization (WHO) study reports that gastro-intestinal diseases are widely prevalent andaccount for 25-30% of total cases in public hos-pitals and dispensaries. Approximately 60% ofinfant deaths in the country are due to infectiousand parasitic diseases. Malaria is still a majorproblem and about 50,000 parasitologicallyconfirmed cases occur every year (25). Stagnantwaste water ponds and solid waste dumps pro-vide breeding places for mosquitoes and othervectors. Ill health has its socio-economic reper-cussions. Those who are sick and unable towork cannot earn, resulting in a drop in familynutritional levels which in turn increases suscep-tibility to disease and death.

Human excreta assumes great importancewhen discussing health for it is the principalvehicle for the transmission and spread of com-municable diseases. It is essential that humanwastes be adequately collected, transported,treated and efficiently disposed of. Human exc-reta in the form of night soil or waste water canbe reused in agriculture or aquaculture and canplay a positive role in supporting economicactivity and food production. For example, a

4 NCS SECTOR PAPER

5-centimetre per week application of municipalwaste water has been reported to provide thecommercial fertilizer equivalent of approximate-ly 233 kilograms (kg) nitrogen, 224 kg phos-phate and 254 kg potash per hectare (7). Bycontrast, untreated human wastes are a threatto public health in Pakistan and indiscriminatefouling of the soil with human excreta is com-mon as people defecate in open fields in therural areas.

The economic loss that results from lack ofsanitation can be high. Farmers, craftsmen,fishermen and others contribute sizeably to thegross national product. Studies in India haveshown that water-borne diseases alone claimsome 73 million work days annually (22). Thiscost, in terms of medical treatment and lostproduction, has been reported at US$ 600 mil-lion per year. A study comparing health andeconomic output across 22 African, Asian andLatin American countries suggests that theinfluence of health on economic output is quitehigh, relative to the influence of other factorsincluding agricultural inputs such as labourand commercial fertilizer (20). Studies regard-ing the costs of typhoid fever, diarrhoea andenteritis in countries like Portugal, Japan,Columbia, Sri Lanka, the Dominican Republicand India have shown that it would be possibleto amortise the cost of water supply and ruralsanitation within a period of 5 years from thesavings that would accrue from the reduction inthese diseases (22). Additional advantageswould accrue from control and reduction in theincidence of cholera, dysentery, ascariasis,guinea worm, hook worm and other entericand parasitic diseases.

There are also the indirect benefits of watersupply and sanitation facilities such as savings intime and energy. Reduced walking distancesthrough the provision of rural water supplies canbe used for other productive activit ies, toincrease economic output and earnings. Even ifthe economic value of the saved labour is zero,there is a social benefit from the time saved anddrudgery eliminated. More time can be spentwith the family or on domestic activities and

leisure. Relieving children from water carryingchores can allow them to attend school moreregularly and to take better advantage of exist-ing investment in educational facilities. Savingsin energy can be measured in terms of the costof calories not needed to carry water. If substi-tute activity results in reduced caloric needs, esti-mates of the value of food not consumed can bemade. Such estimates have been made for sev-eral areas in East Africa (20). One estimatestates that a tonne of sorghum was needed tomeet the energy expended by 360 women fetch-ing water over 60 kilometres for 150 days of thedry season.

Besides use for drinking, surface andgroundwater can be put to other beneficial uses.The indiscriminate discharge of untreatedmunicipal wastes into rivers has resulted inanaerobic conditions near disposal points. Thishas not only resulted in unaesthetic conditionsbut also affected river fish, due to the depletionof oxygen in water. Fish is an important sourceof protein as well as a means of livelihood. Theloss in potential production of riverine fish canbe significant: for example, the discharge of var-ious types of pollutants into the river Ravi and itstributaries has resulted in the loss of over 5,000tonnes of fish per year (10).

Air pollution affects the health of humanbeings, animals and plants. It soils and deterio-rates property, impairs various production pro-cesses and generally makes living things lesscomfortable and healthy. However, most of theseeffects are ill-defined and difficult to measure.

One of the major benefits of air pollutioncontrol can be an improvement in the quality oflife or a general increase in human happiness.Air pollution is associated with respiratory dis-eases of many sorts, including lung cancer.Studies have revealed that lung cancer deathrates are higher in cities than in rural areas,when other variables are taken into considera-tion. In one study a male mortality ratio of 4:1between large cities and rural areas in Swedenand Denmark has been reported. Research hasalso established a quantitative link between airpollution and health. But the benefits of air pol-

NCS SECTOR PAPER 5

lution control — the value of earnings foregoneas a result of morbidity and mortality, and will-ingness to pay to lessen pain and prematuredeath — are more difficult to quantify. Also,benefit estimates are of little use in Pakistan atpresent, at a stage when air pollution problemsare not quantitatively well-defined.

THE SEVENTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN

As of 1988, safe water was available to 53%of the population (80% in urban and 40% in

rural areas), whereas sewerage and sanitationfacilities were available to only 25% of the popu-lation (52% in urban and 20% in rural areas).Access to piped water was limited to large urbancentres with approximately 40% having houseconnections and the balance being served bypublic water taps. This service level ratio willprobably continue during the Seventh Plan,al though the per cent coverage is beingincreased.

The water supply and sanitation targets forthe Seventh Five-Year Plan (1988-93) have beenworked out by the Planning Commission. Inurban areas, by 1993, water supply coverage isto increase from 80% to 95% by serving anadditional population of 13.6 million; and sew-erage and drainage coverage from 52% to 70%by reaching out to an additional 12.4 millionpeople.

Within the overall programme, 100% watersupply coverage has been proposed formetropolitan and secondary cities and about70% for other urban centres. Similarly, sewerageand drainage facilities are to cover 100% ofmetropolitan and secondary cities to match thewater supply programme. However, a coverageof 50% is proposed for the remaining urbancentres. The programme will be financedthrough publ ic sec tor development pro-grammes, special development programmesand funds from local council budgets.

In rural areas, the water supply coverage isto increase to 75% of the population from theexisting 40%, by serving an additional popula-tion of 31.2 million. The current sanitation cov-

erage of 10% is proposed to be increased to30% by serving 17 million more people.

Water is to be supplied through standpostsand hand-pumps, where appropriate. Priorityhas been given to those areas where sweetgroundwater is not available at moderate depthsand where water has to be fetched from distantsources. Treatment facilities for surface watersupplies have been given special consideration.

Sanitation and disposal schemes will receivepriority in those areas where people haveinstalled their own hand-pumps.

3. ASSESSMENT OF THE PHYSICALIMPACTS OF THE ECONOMICSECTOR: CURRENT AND POTENTIAL

The municipal aspects of the pollution ofwater, land and air are directly related toactivities in human settlements, urban

transportation and agriculture.The impact of these activities and measures

to reduce their harmful effects are presented inthis section.

WATER AND HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

Water is needed in human settlements topromote sanitary conditions for health and

various domestic activities. The proper handlingof wastes produced from these activities is ofequal importance to sustain life in human settle-ments and for the life support systems of water,land and air.

Water SupplyWater is required in human settlements fordrinking, personal hygiene and many domestic,industrial and economic activities. The normaldaily requirement for drinking water is abouttwo litres; adequate quantities of water areneeded for washing and personal hygiene; butmuch larger amounts are required for other pur-

6 NCS SECTOR PAPER

poses. The quantity as well as the quality of sup-plied water is important for health, to safeguardagainst water-borne diseases. For a large seg-ment of our population, the unavailability ofreasonable access to safe drinking water is oneof the major causes of infectious diseases in thecountry.

The domestic use of water includes drinking,bathing, washing, kitchen use, flushing toiletsand watering lawns. About 40% of water deliv-ered to homes is used for flushing toilets (wherehuman excreta is disposed of through a water-borne system). In addition, bathing may accountfor upto 37% of in-house water use if water isavailable at the point of use. Water require-ments, therefore, depend mainly on the typeand extent of water and sanitation services.Domestic water demand will increase as thelevel of service is increased from public stand-posts to yards and ultimately to house connec-tions. Other important factors affecting wateruse include climatic conditions, population den-sity, city size, mode of charging and ratescharged, and the type of supply (intermittent ver-sus continuous). Hence, domestic water require-ments can range from 8-50 gallons per capitaper day depending upon community size andwater supply/sanitation levels (19). Industrialand commercial activi ties can significantly

increase water requirements in a community.Lahore and Islamabad, for instance, have anaverage water consumption of about 100 gal-lons per capita per day.

Water supply sources in Pakistan includeground and surface water. Groundwater, avail-able in the form of shallow and deep layers ofwater-bearing strata and springs, is the mainsource in the provinces of the Punjab, the NWFPand Balochistan as given in Table 1. However,where groundwater of acceptable quality andquantity is not available, surface water sourceslike canals and reservoirs have been developed.In Sindh, surface water sources are commonlyused, with water treatment plants serving majorurban centres like Karachi.

Human settlements exert a large demand onwater resources which could be used for otherbeneficial purposes. In large urban communitieswater abstraction is so high that even existingand nearby sources of water cannot meet thedemands of an increasing population. For exam-ple, in Lahore the groundwater level is falling atthe rate of one foot per year in the central part ofthe city. Groundwater sources in Quetta valleyare insufficient and alternative sources are beinginvestigated. Karachi's water supply has beenexpanding very rapidly, tapping various sources,mainly surface water from the Indus and Hub

NCS SECTOR PAPER 7

PROVINCE URBAN AREAS RURAL AREASSurface Groundwater Total Surface Groundwater Total

(million gallons per day)

Punjab (includingIslamabad) 46 454 500 1.9 108.4 110.3

Sindh 420 37 457 2.1 125 127.1

NWFP and FATA — 58 58 9.7 22.7 32.4

Balochistan — 20 20 — 8.5 8.5

Total 466 569 1035 13.7 264.6 278.3

Source: Planning and Development Division. 1987a. Development of Optimal Standards for Water Supply Systems forUrban and Rural Areas, HRH/IL Joint Venture. Lahore: Government of Pakistan.

TABLE 1

WATER SUPPLY SOURCES

rivers. Rawalpindi and Islamabad are also inves-tigating alternative water sources, such as theKhanpur Dam, to meet increasing demand.There is a need to control demand, by reducingwastage which accounts for upto 40% of wateruse in some cases. Metering water supply to con-sumers may also help reduce wastage and lowerconsumption rates.

To promote healthy living in human settle-ments, the water supplied must be free from dis-ease-causing organisms and from chemicalshazardous to health. The settlement itself maybe the cause of contaminated drinking watersupplies, when human wastes are not properlyhandled and water sources are not protected.The aesthetic quality of water is also important,as consumers may switch to other sources whichare aesthetically acceptable, but perhaps con-taminated. Guidelines from WHO can be usedto assess water quality for human consumption.Where treatment of surface waters is needed,appropriate technology suited to local conditionsshould be adopted. For large urban centres,chlorination of water supplies and regular moni-toring are key measures to ensure the potabilityof water. In rural areas, source protection canbe very effective as can the slow sand-filtermethod. The latter is simple in design and oper-ation, and the bacteriological quality of its wateris quite good.

Human WastesExcreta generated in human settlements is theprincipal vehicle for the transmission of commu-nicable diseases in Pakistan. When disposed ofin water, the decomposing wastes consume theoxygen dissolved in water, oxygen necessary foraquatic life, besides introducing inorganic chem-icals and pathogens into waterways. Whenapplied to land as night soil or raw sewage, exc-reta may contaminate the land and the cropsgrown. Their contents can reach the groundwa-ter and cause groundwater pollution.

There are marked differences in the humanwaste produced by different communities. Thecomposition and quantity depends on various

factors such as diet, climate and state of health.(See Annex Table 3 for the chemical con-stituents of faeces and urine). For developingcountries faecal weights of about 250 gramsper capita per day are reported for rural areas(6). The biological oxygen demand (BOD) ofdecomposing faeces and urine is about 20grams per capita per day (12). Using these fig-ures and current population estimates, it wascalculated that 34,370 tonnes of wet humanexcreta with a BOD of 2,265 tonnes are pro-duced per day as given in Table 2. This excretais highly obnoxious and may contain hugequantities of pathogens such as viruses, bacte-ria, protozoa and worms.

Sewerage systems for the disposal of humanwaste are limited to parts of large cities, with theremaining urban population depending on sep-tic tanks, soak pits and overflows into storm sew-ers. Sewage is a mixture of human excreta, urineand water used for flushing toilets, and waterused for personal hygiene, laundry and in thekitchen. Therefore, the per capita BOD ofsewage is greater than that of night soil andranges from 30-40 grams per day (12). Theamount of sewage from human settlementsdepends mainly on the quantity of water sup-plied. Other factors include climatic conditions,the nature of the soil and infiltration. In general,waste water volumes are 60-80% of a communi-ty's water consumption. Estimated sewage vol-umes from major urban centres are given inTable 3 (16).

Domestic sewage from various cities inPakistan shows considerable variations in char-acter as seen in Table 4. BOD varies from 100milligrams per litre to as high as 485 milligramsper litre. These variations are due primarily toindustrial wastes entering municipal sewer sys-tems and to variations in water consumption invarious cities.

Sewage produced in major cities is used forirrigation and the remainder disposed of innearby bodies of water. The use of raw sewagefor growing vegetables and other crops is obvi-ously a health hazard for both farmers and con-sumers. Water bodies are becoming polluted as

8 NCS SECTOR PAPER

they are receiving untreated waste water; treat-ment facilities are available only at Karachi andIslamabad, and even these plants are not per-forming at the desired level. This practice isaffecting downstream beneficial water uses. Forexample, Lahore discharges about 389 mgd ofuntreated sewage into the river Ravi with a mini-mum flow of about 400 cubic feet per second.Even a 1:1 dilution is barely available duringlow flows and the river acts merely as a sewer atsuch times.

Every natural body of water has the capacityto assimilate certain pollutants without upsettingits ecological balance. This is as long as theBOD load of the entering water does not exceedthe river's BOD capacity. When this capacity isoverstretched, sewage treatment becomes nec-essary. Such treatment may also be required toremove floating and sludge-forming materialsfor aesthetic reasons and to kill pathogens toprotect against disease transmission.

The assimi lative capaci ty of r ivers andstreams depends upon their discharge, depth,

NCS SECTOR PAPER 9

PROVINCE URBAN RURAL TOTAL

Wet Quantity1 BOD2 Wet Quantity BOD Wet Quantity BOD

(tonnes per day)

Punjab 4,330 360 14,100 850 18,430 1,210

Sindh 2,690 230 4,800 290 7,490 520

NWFP 570 50 3,900 240 4,470 290

Balochistan 300 25 2,000 120 2,300 145

FATA — — 680 40 680 40

Azad Kashmir 80 6 700 40 780 46

Northern Areas 30 2 190 12 220 14

Total 8,000 673 26,370 1,592 34,370 2,265

1. Estimated using 250 grams per capita per day based on Feachem, R.G., D.J. Brodley, H. Garelick, and D.D. Mara. 1983.Sanitation and Diseases: Health Aspects of Excreta and Wastewater Management. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

2. Estimated using a Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of 20 grams per capita per day based on Mara, D. 1976. SewageTreatment in Hot Climates. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

TABLE 2

HUMAN WASTE: ESTIMATED WET QUANTITY AND BOD FOR PAKISTAN

CITY SEWAGE QUANTITIES

(million gallons per day)

Karachi 300

Lahore 241

Faisalabad 40

Multan 40

Peshawar 18

Hyderabad 15

Rawalpindi 13

Kohat 2.4

Quetta 2

Source: Planning and Development Division, 1987b.Development of Optimal Standards of Quality for Disposalof Sewage. HRH/IL Joint Venture. Lahore: Government ofPakistan.

TABLE 3

ESTIMATED SEWAGE QUANTITIES

velocity, temperature and other physical condi-tions. The dissolved oxygen level in a river is aresult of oxygen uptake by organic matter andnatural reaeration. The magnitude of river flowat any point in time is a dominant factor in itswaste assimilative capacity. This is because thelarger the flow, the more diluted is the effluent,and a greater amount of dissolved oxygen isavailable for the stabilization of organic wastes.Since critical conditions occur during low flow,waste assimilative capacity and degree of treat-ment is determined by minimum flow.

The capacity of a river to recover is generallyrepresented by its self-purification ratio; the lat-ter depends on the nature of the receiving water(5). (See Annex Table 4). Most rivers in the IndusBasin fall under the large stream of low velocitycategory with a purification ratio of 1.5-2. Ariver's assimilative capacity — based on low flowand a minimum of 4 milligrams per litre of dis-solved oxygen for the survival of river fish — isthen calculated using the classical Streeter-Phelps equation. For example, the Indus belowChashma and Guddu can absorb the waste of1.5 million and 1.1 million people respectively.(See Annex Table 5). The variable nature of

assimilative capacity is evident and treatmentrequirements should be according to specific sit-uations, especially as the rivers also receiveindustrial waste water.

There are various methods of waste watertreatment, including activated sludge processes,trickling filters, aerated lagoons and waste stabi-lization ponds, in a decreasing order of sophisti-cation, operation and maintenance require-ments. The method of treatment selected shouldsuit local conditions. Where land at a nominalrate is readily available, the use of waste stabi-lization ponds should be encouraged as theyoffer a simple and relatively cheap solution topollution problems. Their principal advantage isthat they remove pathogens efficiently and aresimple to operate and maintain.

Solid WastesIn the absence of proper collection, storage anddisposal facilities, large amounts of solid wasteslitter streets and find their way into open drainsand sewers, ultimately clogging these facilities.Liquids leaching through open dumps at road-sides lead to food wastes putrefying — a process

10 NCS SECTOR PAPER

P A R A M E T E R1 K A R A C H I L A H O R E R A W A L P I N D I M U L T A N Q U E T T A P E S H A W A R K O H A T

BOD2 220-475 200-215 100-485 220-300 180-380 240-380 280-320

COD3 200-1,400 580-803 160-960 352-480 230-626 390-520 420-510

Chlorides 300-1,200 32-72 65-200 170-490 95-225 60-120 90-160

Dissolvedsolids 1,000-1,800 486-598 370-1,900 695-1,600 384-850 880-1,240 800-1,200

pH 7.0-8.0 7.2-8.3 6.5-8.0 8.3-8.9 6.5-7.1 7.8-8.1 7.6-8.0

Suspended solids 250-900 106-176 143-535 168-480 204-430 300-580 386-576

Sulphates 50-200 — 44-400 316-490 27-287 50-150 65-120

Source: Planning and Development Division, 1987b.

1. In mg/l except for pH.

2. Biological Oxygen Demand.

3. Chemical Oxygen Demand.

TABLE 4

CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE FROM VARIOUS CITIES

which releases odours and breeds disease-caus-ing vectors. Prevalent collection practices bringthe collection crew into direct contact with wastesgiving rise to occupational health hazards. Thereare no proper disposal sites. Hence collectedwastes are transported to low-lying areas in andaround the city and dumped in the open, whichresults in unsightly and unhealthy conditionsalong with groundwater pollution. Uncontrolledopen-air burning also causes air pollution.Limited studies are available for the characteris-tics and quantity of solid wastes produced in thecountry.

Data on solid waste for several cities of theworld is presented in Table 5. Comparison of thecharacteristics of this waste shows that controlmeasures adopted in developed countries maynot be suitable for our conditions. For example,waste densities in Lahore and Karachi are almostdouble those found in industrialised countriesand the use of compactor trucks may, therefore,not be of much benefit. The moisture andputrescible contents are also high. Generally,small communities have low generation ratesand the country-wide average may be about75% that of the large cities alone. On the aver-age, with a generation rate of 0.46 kilogram per

capita per day, approximately 47,920 tonnes ofsolid waste per day are generated in Pakistan.Area-wise generation of waste in the country isgiven in Table 6 (2).

To safeguard against the harmful effects ofsolid wastes, collection and disposal methodssuited to our conditions are required. Collectionsystems need to be reorganised, keeping in viewcommunity development patterns. Sanitary land-filling can be used but resource recovery meth-ods need to be encouraged.

Resource recovery for recyclable materialssuch as paper, plastics, metal and glass isalready practised at source. Other recovery pro-cesses such as incineration and composting canbe practised. Energy-from-waste technology canalso be advantageously applied as the com-bustible content is reasonable enough in certainareas. Incineration to recover heat energy andsteam can reduce the volume of waste to be ulti-mately handled, but it can give rise to air pollu-tion. Composting to recover the organic compo-nents of solid waste may be the most suitabledue to the high compostable content of localsolid waste. Pathogenic organisms and insect lar-vae are killed by the high temperatures that occurduring the decomposition process. Composting

NCS SECTOR PAPER 11

CITY GENERATION DENSITY COMPOSTABLE MOISTURE PAPERRATE CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT

(kg/capita/day) (kg/m3) (per cent) (per cent) (per cent)

New York 1.80 100 26 22 35

London 1.00 150 43 — 37

Singapore 0.87 175 37 40 43

Lahore 0.64 500 73 42 5

Karachi 0.60 500 56 52 6

Jakarta 0.60 250 86 80 2

Calcutta 0.51 500 78 29 3

Source: Cointreau, S.J. 1982. Environmental Management of Urban Solid Wastes in Developing Countires. A Project Guide.Washington D.C.: The World Bank.

TABLE 5

PROPERTIES OF SOLID WASTE FROM VARIOUS CITIES

also conserves plant nutrients in the waste andenhances their availability and value. The com-post can therefore be used as a fertilizer and soilconditioner. Pakistani farmers are well acquaintedwith the utility of compost as a soil conditioner —the use of composting as a recovery processshould also be encouraged in other areas.

LIVESTOCK

Animals which provide milk, meat and othervaluable products, also produce waste.

These wastes are high in organic content andcontain nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorusand potash. About 25 million cattle and buf-faloes in the Indus Basin produce 18 milliontonnes of dry dung each year (8). These wastesalso contain a large number of pathogens, andtheir uncontrolled discharge into surface orgroundwater can create health hazards forhumans and animals. The organic content ofwaste from cattle colonies and concentrated live-stock operations can over-fertilize aquatic plants,which then exert a significant oxygen demand.

Spreading livestock waste on cropland forfertilizer and soil-building value is an economi-

cal method of waste management. This methodhas been in use for centuries by our farmer.Livestock wastes are also utilised as fuel in theform of dried dung pats. The main concern,however, remains the haphazard storage of ani-mal wastes near drinking water sources such ashand-pumps. Guidance is needed to facilitateproper handling and storage siting.

Animals pose a greater health hazard inurban areas. Their wastes remain littered on thestreets and roadsides and proper collection anddisposal methods are not exercised. After rain,these wastes find their way into storm drains andfinally pollute surface waters. To protect publichealth, livestock should be moved away fromurban areas. Detailed requirements for the safedisposal of wastes should be provided at suchlocations. Resource recovery through biogasplants is also viable. Based on a detailed assess-ment of existing plants, the use of this methodmay be considered on a wider scale.

PESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS

The indiscriminate use of agricultural chemicalssuch as fertilizers and pesticides — insecti-

12 NCS SECTOR PAPER

AREA POPULATION GENERATION COMPOSTABLE CONTENT

Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural

(million) (per cent) (tonnes per day)

Punjab 57,672 30 70 26,000 10,380 15,620 20,030 6,750 13,280

Sindh 24,447 44 56 11,000 6,470 4,530 8,050 4,200 3,850

NWFP 13,517 17 83 6,080 1,380 4,700 4,890 900 3,990

Balochistan 6,971 17 83 3,140 710 2,430 2,520 460 2,060

FATA 934 — 100 360 — 360 300 — 300

Azad Kashmir 2,310 13 87 1,040 180 860 850 120 730

Northern Areas 6,540 18 82 300 70 230 240 45 195

Total 112,391 29 71 47,920 19,190 28,730 36,880 12,475 24,405

Note: Estimated using 0.46 kilograms per capita per day.

TABLE 6

AREA-WISE GENERATION OF SOLID WASTE, 1988

cides, fungicides and herbicides — is contribut-ing significantly to pollution of the environment.Pakistan has increasingly relied upon chemicalfertilizers and pesticides to increase agriculturalproduction. Between 1972 and 1978, theamount of cropland sprayed nearly tripled.Fertilizer use also dramatically increased, dou-bling between 1968 and 1977 (4).

Agricultural run-off containing fertilizersincreases the nutrient load of the aquatic envi-ronment leading to algal growth and eutrophi-cation. Certain chemicals, such as excessnitrates, drain into the soil or into shallow wellswhich supply water to villages and cities. Highni trates in drinking water causemethaemoglobinaemia in infants. Fertilizersmust be used in the right proportion to avoidgroundwater pollution.

Pesticides form residues in the soil and in liv-ing organisms, including human beings. Somepesticides such as DDT, 2,4-D, aldrin, anddieldrin are highly poisonous to people, fish andother aquatic organisms. Pesticides reach aquat-ic systems by direct application, spray drift, aeri-al spraying, being washed from the atmosphereby precipitation, and erosion and run-off fromagricultural land. Agricultural run-off from fieldssprayed with pesticides is the main source ofgradual pollution, and often results in fish kill inlarge numbers. Dead fish on the banks of theKabul River in certain seasons of the year areone example (4).

Many pesticides accumulate in the tissues ofaquati c anima ls and plants. In general,organochlorine type compounds, which are rel-atively hydrophobic, accumulate in living tissuemore than other types of pest icides (26).Bioaccumulation is an important tool for waterquality monitoring. Fish are sometimes consid-ered better indicators of pesticide pollution thanwater samples because residues in fish tissue aremuch higher and hence easier to analyse. Interms of pesticide type, persistence in the totalaquatic system is longest for organochlorineinsecticides, intermediate for organophosphateinsecticides and shortest for herbicides (11).

Pesti cide movement from the su rface,

through the soil, into groundwater, is governedby pesticide retention, transformation andvolatilization. No studies have been conductedin Pakistan assessing groundwater contamina-tion from pesticides. There is, therefore, a needfor initiating groundwater monitoring pro-grammes and studying the fate of pesticides ingroundwater.

Pesticides affect the entire food chain, killingthe predators and parasites which normally feedon insects regarded as pests. They simplify thebiotic community and generate instabi lity.Lacking effective enemies, pest species canincrease more rapidly and to higher levels,before the former predator and parasite popula-tion can recover sufficiently to exercise somecontrol. Chemical use thus tends to create acontinuous demand for more potent chemicalsin greater quantities.

Experience in many parts of the world hasshown that with high crop diversity, the need forpest control is greatly reduced, if not eliminated.Biological controls using predatory insects ordisease organisms which attack the pests them-selves have been effective in some cases (3).

The development of alternative and innova-tive technologies to shift from complete relianceon pesticides to other methods of pest control isone answer to the pesticide pollution problem.For example, integrated pest managementcombines various non-chemical techniques withjudicious chemical applications. Advances ingenetic engineering, biological control andplant breeding may also result in the ultimatereduction of pesticide use. At present, legal andregulatory measures are needed to controlexcessive use.

DEFORESTATION AND EROSION

Pakistan falls among the group of countrieswith very low forest cover, with forest area at

less than 0.05 hectares per capita (4). The situa-tion is deteriorating due to the indiscriminatefelling of trees and the resultant deforestation.Tree and vegetation cover loss increases the rateof erosion, and rainfall run-off carries large

NCS SECTOR PAPER 13

quantities of silt and clay into streams. The lossof topsoil not only affects the fertility of the soil,but the increased sediment load raises the sedi-mentation rate of storage reservoirs and reducestheir useful life. Deforestation leads to smalleramounts of water seeping into the soil, reducingunderground sources of water and increasingthe chances of flash flooding.

Water erosion in Pakistan has been estimat-ed to affect 36% of land area. Average annualsoil loss on unprotected land is 1,000 kilogramsper acre in the NWFP and in some critical partsof the Tarbela catchment. In the Punjab, soilerosion has been measured at 2-4 kilogramsper square metre annually (4).

The sediment load in the Indus River is veryhigh. Raw water from the Hyderabad watertreatment plant receiving from the Indus Riverwas analysed to be highly turbid. Turbidities ofupto 3000 JTU (Jackson Turbidity Units) havebeen reported for the year 1986 (9).

Rawalpindi receives a major portion of itswater supply from the Rawal Dam reservoir.Addit ional supplies are to come from theKhanpur Dam, across the Haro River, after itscompletion. During 1980, concentrations of sus-pended solids in the Soan River at Chira and theHaro River at Khanpur reached 3,860 and317,300 parts per million (ppm) during therainy season. Similarly, suspended sedimentconcentrations as high as 12,700 ppm havebeen noted in the Hub River at Karpasaniwatduring 1980 (23). Several slow sand filters forrural water supplies have been reported toreceive water of high turbidity.

Highly turbid water not only fills storagereservoirs at a rapid rate but also requires moreelaborate treatment. Sedimentation tanks needto be cleaned more frequently, and presedimen-tation tanks are sometimes required to reducesediment loads on subsequent treatment units.The cost of treatment therefore increases. Highlyturbid water may also require high doses ofchemicals. Increased alum dosage during peri-ods of high loads of suspended solids havebeen reported at the Simly and Rawal watertreatment plants.

Watershed management should addressitself to preventing deforestation and the result-ing erosion. Improvements should be made incultivation and soil stabi lizat ion practicesthrough crop rotation and contour ploughing,gully plugging and the construction of checkdams for erosion control.

AIR POLLUTIONAutomobile ExhaustFrom an air pollution standpoint, the spark-ignit-ed internal-combustion engine using petrol asfuel is by far the most important polluting agent.The major components of exhaust emissions arethe completely oxidised products of fuel i.e., car-bon dioxide, water and nitrogen. The other con-stituents, regarded as pollutants, include carbonmonoxide, unburnt or partially burnt hydrocar-bons, oxides of nitrogen, and various particulatessuch as lead and sulphur compounds. In 1983,IPHER collected data on the total number of vehi-cles in Pakistan and estimated the total emissionsfor Lahore. In 1986 the Institute conducted asimilar study to assess the emissions of air pollu-tants in and around Lahore, given in Table 7.Both studies indicate that motor vehicles are themajor source of carbon monoxide, hydrocar-bons, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide inLahore. IPHER's estimates of annual vehicularemissions for various cities in Pakistan are givenin Table 8.

Carbon monoxide concentrations in therange of 8-30 ppm and 6-40 ppm have beenreported for Lahore and Karachi respectively.The gas combines with haemoglobin in theblood to form carboxyhaemoglobin (COHB),reducing the oxygen carrying capacity of theblood. A carbon monoxide concentration of 10-15 ppm results in 2.5% COHB over an 8-hourexposure whereas 30 ppm corresponds to 5%COHB. COHB levels of 2-5% can affect the cen-tral nervous system, resulting in impairment oftime interval discrimination and reducing thesharpness of eyesight. Many accidents alongbusy urban streets are attributed to this effect,

14 NCS SECTOR PAPER

although it cannot be proven conclusively.As carbon monoxide is a product of incom-

plete combustion — which may be due to animproper air/fuel ratio or an insufficient reactiontime — corrective measures are aimed atimproving combustion. This may be achieved byimprovements in engine design, by increasingthe air/fuel ratio or by complete oxidization ofexhaust gases before they are emitted into theatmosphere. After-burners and catalytic convert-

ers are two types of devices which may be usedto oxidize exhaust gases. Catalytic convertersare used in countries such as the USA, Japanand Australia; however, unleaded petrol has tobe used in such cars to avoid fouling the cata-lyst. In Pakistan, currently there are no automo-bile emission standards; if standards are to beimposed, the amount of carbon monoxide givenoff by vehicles under idling conditions could belimited to 4.5% and 6% of exhaust gases for new

NCS SECTOR PAPER 15

SOURCE PARTI- SULPHUR CARBON HYDRO- NITROGEN ALDE-CULATES DIOXIDE MONOXIDE CARBONS DIOXIDE HYDES

(tonnes)

Transport

Vehicles 2,013.9 1,377.42 123,053.88 29,536.40 14,564.90 208.70

Railway 171.3 755.50 656.70 447.50 1,877.50 26.40

Stationary sources

Natural gas 53.5 5.42 193.12 50.69 1,552.80 —

LPG, Wood,Coal, Solid Waste 1,119.1 301.88 4,622.10 1,568.90 3,423.53 —

Industrial Units 4,406.0 358.00 285.00 1,010.00 162.00 —

Total 7,763.8 2,798.22 128,810.80 32,613.49 21,580.73 235.10

(per cent)

Transport

Vehicles 26.00 49.20 95.73 90.60 72.70 88.77

Railway 2.20 26.90 0.51 1.37 9.37 11.33

Stationary sources

Natural gas 0.69 0.23 0.15 0.15 7.75 —

LPG, Wood,Coal, Solid Waste 14.49 10.77 3.69 4.79 9.35 —

Industrial Units 57.00 12.78 0.22 3.10 0.80 —

Total 100.38 99.88 100.30 100.01 99.97 100.10

Source: Unpublished data from the Institute of Public Health Engineering and Research (IPHER), Lahore.

TABLE 7

LAHORE: TOTAL EMISSIONS, 1986

and in-use vehicles respectively.Hydrocarbons in automobile exhaust may

be unburnt petrol vapours, low molecularweight hydrocarbons due to incomplete com-bustion, and some high molecular weight com-pounds (polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons)which may be formed by fusion during thecombustion process. Some hydrocarbons arealso emitted through the evaporation of petrolfrom fuel tanks and carburettors or through thecrankcase blowby via the road draught tube.Another source is the incomplete combustion oflubricating (heavy) oil mixed in petrol eitherdeliberately, as in two-stroke motorcycles andautorickshaws, or through leaks into the enginearound worn piston rings in older and improp-erly maintained cars, where it is only partiallyburnt and is then emitted as smoke with theexhaust gases.

Hydrocarbons in ambient air have beendirectly linked to adverse effects on humanhealth. Studies of the carcinogenicity of certainclasses of hydrocarbons do indicate that somecancers appear to be caused by exposure topolynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. The majoreffects of hydrocarbons are indirect. In the pres-ence of oxides of nitrogen and sunlight they pro-

duce photochemical oxidants such as ozone.As hydrocarbons in exhaust emissions are a

result of incomplete or inefficient combustion,measures suggested for the reduction of carbonmonoxide would also be effective in reducinghydrocarbon emissions. Evaporative losses maybe reduced by absorbing the vapours in a suit-able medium like activated charcoal, which islater purged through a control valve and burntin the engine.

Oxides of nitrogen are formed basically byreactions between oxygen and nitrogen con-tained in the air inducted into the engine.Among the oxides of nitrogen, nitric oxide andnitrogen dioxide are acute irritants; they alsosuppress the growth of small plants. Suitablecontrol systems for nitrogen oxides are exhaustgas recirculation and catalytic reduction.

Smoke is generally emitted by autorick-shaws, two-stroke motorcycles, improperlymaintained cars and diesel vehi cles.Autorickshaws are probably the worst offendersbecause their combustion system is very ineffi-cient, producing large amounts of particulatesand carbon monoxide. The particulates in rick-shaw smoke are much smaller than those indiesel smoke, (as apparent from their blackish

16 NCS SECTOR PAPER

CITY PARTI- SULPHUR CARBON HYDRO- NITROGEN ALDE-CULATES DIOXIDE MONOXIDE CARBONS DIOXIDE HYDES

(tonnes)

Karachi 6,175 4,224 377,380 90,584 44,675 640

Lahore 3,243 2,218 198,180 47,570 23,460 336

Islamabad 1,572 1,075 96,090 23,065 11,375 163

Faisalabad 1,344 920 82,130 19,714 9,722 139

Hyderabad 1,148 785 70,160 16,841 8,305 119

Multan 1,094 748 66,880 16,053 7,917 113

Peshawar 1,028 703 62,815 15,077 7,436 107

Quetta 495 338 30,235 7,257 3,579 51

Source: Unpublished data from IPHER, Lahore.

TABLE 8

ESTIMATED ANNUAL VEHICULAR EMISSIONS IN MAJOR CITIES, 1988

compared to bluish diesel smoke) and can thusbe more harmful. This problem has beenresolved dramatically in some countries such asThailand by using low-pressure gas as an alter-native fuel.

Diesel smoke may be substantially reducedby good engine maintenance, the use of qualityfuel, and reasonable operating methods.

Organic lead compounds are added topetrol to prevent premature detonation of fuel. Apart of this lead is emitted in the exhaust at vari-ous rates depending on the mode of operation.Most lead in exhaust is in the inorganic form,which can act as cumulative poison causing liverand kidney damage, gastro-intestinal problems,mental defects in children, and abnormalities infertility and pregnancy. Concentrations of air-borne lead of between 0.024 and 0.13 mil-ligrams per cubic metre have been measured inKarachi. The obvious method of control for air-borne lead is to eliminate its use as an anti-knock agent in petrol, which would require someengine modifications.

Chemicals present in vehicular exhaustundergo physical and chemical transformationwhen released into the atmosphere. Thus theultimate fate of air pollutants is determined bysuch transformations which in turn are gov-erned by a number of factors such as the stabil-ity of the compounds emitted, the quantitiesproduced and the degree of dilution, tempera-ture, intensity of sunlight, meteorological condi-tions, etc.

Natural processes can take care of air pollu-tion upto a certain extent. But when this limit isexceeded, the burden on the atmospherebecomes evident by increases in the concentra-tion of pollutants in the ambient air. The limita-tions of the natural degradation process shouldbe recognised during the town planning stage.Roads with high traffic intensity should be farfrom residential areas and lined by trees andshrubs, which act as biofilters and barriers to airpollutants.

Preliminary surveys conducted in Karachiand Lahore indicate that air quality in theurban areas of Pakistan is fast deteriorating

due to a rapid rate of increase in the numberof vehicles, coupled with poor maintenance.The ideal situation would be to improve thepublic transport system to such an extent thatthe use of private vehicles is no longer neces-sary for routine purposes. This would reducenot only pollution but also petrol consumption,result ing in substant ial savings in foreignexchange. Additional benefits include feweraccidents on the road and reduction in roadmaintenance costs. The second best solution,which is more plausible at this stage, is theadoption and strict enforcement of emissionstandards including regular inspection of motorveh ic les to ensure proper maintenance.Maintenance costs are offset by savings in fuelconsumption and longer vehicle life. Measuresaimed at smoothening the flow pattern canreduce some pollutants like carbon monoxide,because freely moving vehicles produce less ofthis gas than those which constantly stop ands t a r t .

Burning FuelWood (including charcoal) and natural gas arethe two main fuels used for home heating andcooking in Pakistan. Electric heating, which isnon-polluting, is restricted to a small propor-tion of the urban population who can eitherafford to pay the price for this convenience orwho do not have to pay at all, as in govern-ment offices.

Wood Burning

The environmental effects of wood burning gen-erally fall into two main categories. The firstrelates to the impact of increased firewood har-vesting on forest resources, water pollution, soilerosion, nutrient balances, wildlife habitat,recreational activities, etc.; the second includesthe effects of emissions resulting from woodburning. The impact of firewood harvesting hasbeen briefly discussed in relation to deforesta-tion. Since wood is a traditional fuel, not muchattention has been given to the possible ill-

NCS SECTOR PAPER 17

effects of burning wood on human health.Research studies have identified over one hun-dred different chemicals and compound groupsin wood smoke, including priority pollutants,carcinogenic, citra-toxic, mucus coagulating andco-carcinogenic (cancer initiating or promoting)agents. It also contributes to a number of clinicaland subclinical respiratory and non-respiratoryeffects such as the common cold, chronic andacute bronchitis, pneumonia, emphysema andasthma. In the literature it has been reportedthat villagers in the highlands of New Guinea,who are constantly exposed to high levels ofsmoke from fires in small enclosed huts, developobstructive lung diseases by the time they reachthe age of 40.

The problem of wood smoke can be handledeither by adopting some basic changes in thedesign of dwellings or through technologicalmeans. The latter option is preferred in industri-alized countries where air-tight controlled com-bustion heaters and cookers are used and woodsmoke vented to the exterior through appropri-ately designed flue systems. In developing coun-tries, stress has been placed on improving thedesign of conventional appliances so as toincrease efficiency and reduce direct exposure tosmoke by installing a flue pipe. This is coupledwith the kitchen (which is well ventilated) beingdetached from the living area so as to minimiseexposure to smoke.

Combustion of Natural Gas

Natural gas is the most common indigenous fuelin Pakistan. There are large known reserves ofthis resource in the country which are, however,not unlimited. It is available in most cities ofPakistan and because of its convenience andlow cost, is the most popular fuel for heatingand cooking.

Natural gas consists of methane and minutequantities of other constituents. Methane is asimple gas which when mixed with adequatequantities of air and provided sufficient combus-tion time, burns completely to carbon dioxideand water. However, the ideal combustion of

natural gas is not achieved in the range ofappliances available in the market. Many of theappliances are manufactured in 'garage work-shops' and small factories where due attention isnot paid to efficiency and safety factors. Thesefactors are neglected in an effort to keep pricesdown resulting in a large range of applianceswhich are not only inefficient but potentially dan-gerous. These inefficient appliances waste theresource and cause air pollution. The flue gasfrom such appliances contains unburnt methanealong with the products of incomplete combus-tion. When such appliances are located in poor-ly ventilated kitchens and rooms they can causeheadaches, lethargy, inability to concentrateand, in extreme cases, death.

It is important to regulate the gas appliancemanufacturing industry. Only licenced manufac-turers, whose products have been tested in alaboratory and conform to prescribed standards,should be allowed to sell their appliances. Theindustry should be encouraged to redesignspace heaters (room heaters) so that combustionoccurs in an enclosed firebox from where thecombustion products, including any unburnt orincompletely burnt gas, is vented directly to theatmosphere, without polluting indoor air. Somesafety features must also be specified such asautomatic shut-off in the event of any interrup-tion in gas supply.

NOISE POLLUTIONUrban AreasNoise is described as sound without agreeablemusical qualities or an unwanted sound, and isas much of an environmental pollutant as nox-ious gases and the chemicals and wastes thatbefoul our air, water, soils and crops. If thenoise is loud enough, the ear may suffer tem-porarily, but if it occurs consistently the damagemay become permanent. Noises which are mostdangerous are those which are loud, highpitched, pure in tone and long in duration.Sharp, loud impulse noises like gunfire are alsovery dangerous.

18 NCS SECTOR PAPER

Noise directly affects the ear; it also indirectlyaffects other parts of the body, specifically thecardiovascular system. It increases the level ofartery-clogging cholesterol in the blood andraises blood pressure. Headaches are one com-mon effect. Medical researchers have also indi-cated that noise has profound effects on unbornchildren, including developmental malforma-tions. It affects the nerves, emotions, and per-sonality of people working in noisy conditions. Aconsensus of medical opinion places the dangermark at 85 decibels, above which continuousexposure to noise beyond specified periods oftime poses a serious threat to the ears and therest of the body.

Noise is basically an occupational hazard towhich workers in some industries are exposed ora big city problem. The worst general source ofdisturbance in cities is the noise of vehicular traf-fic. Road traffic in Pakistani cities is considerablynoisier than that in most other countries of thedeveloping world. The concentration of vehicleson city roads is one reason but other factors,which are far more important, are the conditionof these vehicles and the attitude of the drivers.Private as well as government buses are improp-erly maintained and very often produce a highlevel of noise. However, by far the worst offend-er is the autorickshaw which is ubiquitous inmost of our cities.

Driver attitudes in our cities also leave muchto be desired. Bus and wagon drivers, especial-ly, are impatient, have no sense of road cour-tesy, and show scant regard for traffic regula-tions. During morning and evening rush hours,there is a complete breakdown of discipline onmost city roads and chaos prevails. Hornsblare frequently and needlessly. There is noconcept of 'silent zones', or reduction in thenoise level outside schools and hospitals. Inthis context a vigorous public education pro-gramme should be launched. Rule 158 in theMotor Vehicles Rules of 1969 on noise —which states that every motor vehicle shall beso constructed and maintained as not to causeexcessive noise when in motion — should bestrictly followed.

4. CURRENT AND POTENTIAL INTERACTION WITH COMPETING USERS

Surface water is used for community watersupplies and for the disposal of municipaland industrial wastes. Air and land

resources are utilised for the same purpose.These resources are also exploited for other activi-ties. Identification of competing users and optionsfor reducing conflicts are described in this section.

SURFACE WATER

Surface water in Pakistan has several benefi-cial uses. These include the use of water for

irrigation, hydroelectric power generation,domestic and industrial supplies, fish rearing,and for the disposal of municipal and industrialwastes. Competition among various users existsin terms of water quantity and quality. The max-imum use of water is for agricultural irrigation.During an average year, the canal system in thecountry delivers 65 million acre-feet (MAF) inthe Kharif and 37 MAF in the Rabi season (1).These quantities are considered insufficient forthe growing needs of the agriculture sector.Surface water is also used for domestic watersupplies — for many small towns and villages,as wel l as for major c i ties like Karachi,Hyderabad, Islamabad and Rawalpindi. Anestimated 466 mgd of surface water in urbanareas and about 14 mgd in rural areas is in usefor domestic water supplies (15). The waterused for municipal supplies is not available forirrigation. Although water is needed for foodproduction, water for drinking is even moreimportant. About 80% of the amount of waterdrawn for domestic supplies appears as wastewater and can be returned to surface waterafter treatment. The treated waste water couldbe safely used for agriculture. Therefore, incase of competition between agriculture anddomestic use, the latter should get preference.

Hydroelectric power generation, irrigationand waste water disposal also compete for sur-

NCS SECTOR PAPER 19

face water. Since the assimilative capacity ofsurface water increases directly with flow, largequantities diverted for irrigation or held forpower generation can conf lic t with waterrequirements for waste assimilation, particularlyfor downstream communities. In certain cases,hydroelectric power generation and irrigationcan complement waste water disposal. Damsstore water during high flows and regulatedreleases are made during low flow periods tomeet agricul tural and power generat ionrequirements. Augmentat ion of low f lowsincreases the assimilative capacity of the riverand waste water treatment requirements arereduced. The releases can be adjusted to opti-mise the overall use of surface water for multi-ple purposes. The regulated release of wastewater in proportion to the flow available in theriver can also be beneficial, especially for thedischarge of industrial wastes.

Competition also exists among various userswith respect to the quality of water. The dis-charge of waste water can affect the quality ofreceiving water to the extent of making it unsuit-able for subsequent beneficial uses. It limits aes-thetic benefits, reduces or eliminates fisheriesand results in a quality which is less acceptablefor municipal and agricultural use. Since themajor use of water in the Indus Basin is for irri-gation, water quality suitable for agriculturemust be maintained at the point of use. Anyother use which makes the water unfit for irriga-tion must be banned.

LAND

Land is put to various uses — residential,industrial and agricultural — besides provid-

ing a means of municipal waste disposal. Landis required for waste water treatment facilitieseven where waste water is disposed of throughsurface water. Land requirements vary accordingto the treatment method and disposal, and mar-ket pricing may help in selecting a disposalmethod which can compete economically withother uses. However, waste disposal is so impor-tant from the health point of view that the land

needed for treatment plants should receive dueconsideration.

Competition between land for waste disposaland agriculture can be reduced if waste water isused for growing crops. It is beneficial in threeways: it complements canal water supplies;nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus andpotash in the sewage stimulate plant growth;and it serves as a method of sewage disposal.Pakistan is short of irrigation water and as such,municipal sewage has its value as a potentialresource — in some cities it is being used towater municipal parks and private garderns. Onthe other hand, there are two kinds of healthhazards associated with sewage irrigation: occu-pational hazards of those employed to work onthe land so irrigated and the risk that contami-nated products will infect humans or animalsthrough consumption or handling. Such risksdepend largely on the type of product. Theproduct may be food for direct human con-sumption, food for animal consumption or agri-cultural products put to other uses.

The use of sewage for the production of foodfor direct human consumption should be discour-aged, due to the health risks involved. Untreatedwaste waters contain pathogens and if these arenot removed by treatment processes, will reachthe fields and, ultimately, the crops. The survivaltime of pathogens on crops can be about 15days, and viable pathogens have a chance ofinfecting those who handle or eat the crop. Thehealth risks associated with the use of sewage forpasture or fodder crops are relatively small. Whensewage is used for tree cultivation for timber pro-duction, for the cultivation of commercial cropssuch as cotton, and for the control of desertifica-tion, health hazards are further reduced althoughfarm workers can still be at risk. To protect thehealth of workers, sewage treated through wastestabilization ponds should be used. The options ofwaste water treatment and crop restriction can becombined to reduce health risks and get maxi-mum benefits from the reuse of sewage.

On-site excreta disposal facilities such asbucket latrines, pit latrines and septic tanks useland as the receptor. The prevention of soil con-

20 NCS SECTOR PAPER

tamination and groundwater pollution areimportant considerations in such systems.Pathogens move into the soil by liquid beingleached or rainwater. The extent of bacterialpollution depends on several factors, amongwhich porosity of the soil is most important. Inareas where there are pit latrines and soakagewells, there will be the risk of pathogens reach-ing the groundwater. In addition, elevatednitrate levels may also occur in the groundwater.Strict vigilance is required in areas wheregroundwater is the source of the community'swater supply. If groundwater quality monitoringdemonstrates significant groundwater pollution,the excreta disposal system should be changed.

AIR

Air is finite and limited by the troposphereboundary layer. As human activity increases,

increasing amounts of pollutants are being dis-charged into a fixed quantity of air.

In cities, human activities and high popula-tion densities lead to air pollution. When consid-ering pollution levels, it is useful to think of thecity as enclosed in a 'bubble' with a fixed amountof available air. Within the 'bubble', sources ofair pollution include motor vehicles, industries,heating and cooking appliances and burning oftrash. To ensure that the available air does notget polluted to a point where it starts to have anadverse effect on a significant portion of thehuman population, it is essential to have aviable pollution control strategy. For this pur-pose, ambient air quality standards that definethe maximum permissible limits, at source, ofcommon pollutants are needed; these are gen-erally based on wha t can be practicallyachieved. Regular monitoring of ambient air aswell as of pollution sources is required to ensurestrict compliance.

In the absence of any proper air quality mon-itoring programmes, as in Pakistan, it is impor-tant to adopt at least minimal controls on anad hoc basis. Such measures could include plac-ing new industries with air pollution potentialoutside city limits; encouraging the use of air

pollution control equipment in new industries byproviding financial incentives, such as taxrebates; banning trash burning; mandatoryinspection of public as well as private transportvehicles (buses, wagons and rickshaws) at leasttwice a year; and educating the public about thecauses and dangers of air pollution. At the sametime the Environmental Protection Agenciesshould monitor the pollution level in theprovinces and develop sound air quality man-agement programmes.

5. ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE USE

In Pakistan, the realization of the necessity forsustainable use of natural resources can bestbe described as poor at various levels of soci-

ety. Recently, some awareness of the importanceof a clean environment has been discerned inthe problem areas of municipal water supply,waste water treatment and disposal, air pollu-t ion and solid waste management. S lowprogress or the lack of progress in certain areascan be attributed to economic, technical, cultur-al, social and administrative factors.

EDUCATION

The process of integrating environmental con-cerns into formal education has been a grad-

ual one. Environmental engineering, for exam-ple, has undergone an evolutionary processguided by the needs of the time. In most situa-tions, sanitary engineers played the traditionalrole of providing water supply and waste waterdisposal systems. Sanitary engineering laterbecame part of the broader field of public healthengineering. With industrialization, the need forpollution control technology in industrial wastemanagement began to be felt. Therefore theareas of municipal water supplies, waste watertreatment and disposal, water and air pollutioncontrol and solid waste management are nowamong the essential courses which need to beincorporated into traditional programmes ofundergraduate and postgraduate degrees.

NCS SECTOR PAPER 21

University Education

To highlight the impact of various engineeringactivities on the environment, all undergraduateprogrammes should address basic environmen-tal issues relating to their field of activity. Thereis also a need to develop interdisciplinary post-graduate programmes to offer balanced train-ing in the scientific, engineering, social and eco-nomic aspects of environmental protection andmanagement.

Continuing EducationThe most common and urgent need for continu-ing education is that of the non-specialist engi-neer, whose job now includes handling environ-mental problems. Additionally, many engineersmay have entered the profession at a time wheninteraction between engineering work and theenvironment was considered less important thanis the case now. In the years ahead, many ofthese men will continue to dominate engineeringactivity. They will be working in environmentalmanagement, with or without formal training forsuch a role. Their work will have a direct impacton the environment. Continuing education canincrease their awareness of environmental issuesas well as their competence, so that they canforesee problems, rather than react defensivelywhen secondary effects become apparent. Theneed for increasing environmental awarenessamong practising engineers is thus urgent.Professional engineering societies, training insti-tutions and employers can play an important rolein continuing education by organising in-servicetraining courses, seminars and lectures on specif-ic aspects of the environment for their engineer-ing personnel.

General AwarenessIn addition to continuing education for specialists,it is necessary to emphasise three important areaswhich relate to the creation of general awarenessand appreciation of the environment in society.The first of these is some form of education at the

school level. This will help instill a concern for theenvironment in the minds of the coming genera-tions. The second area relates to the effort direct-ed at the group consisting of people holdingimportant positions in government, politics, thebusiness sector and other fields. This could takethe form of lectures especially organised for suchgroups. The third area relates to the use of mediato promote and spread the message of environ-mental preservation. Television, radio and nation-al newspapers are formidable tools which couldbe used to greater effect in this effort.

TECHNOLOGY

Appropriate technology, the use of local man-power and materials, and the avoidance of

unnecessary sophistication and automation cancontribute to the sustainable use of the environ-ment with regard to municipal water supplies,waste water disposal, air and water pollution,and solid waste management.

Appropriate TechnologyAppropriate technology is often mistakenlyassumed to mean simple or 'low' technology.The key requirement for appropriate technologyis that it be selected in the light of local circum-stances, with particular attention to the human,material and financial resources available forinstallation, operation and maintenance (13).The type of technology selected should be suchthat it serves reliably and economically, underlocal conditions, over a long period of time. Itshould not be directly copied from a very differ-ent situation. The degree of automation mustalso take into account the lower cost of locallyavailable labour. In Pakistan, labour-intensivemethods can be many times lower in cost —there is a 30-fold disparity in many situations(14) — than automated devices. In addition,equipment for mechanization and automationmust generally be manufactured in the industri-alised world, so that spare parts and mainte-nance skills must also be imported, usually athigh cost with long delays.

22 NCS SECTOR PAPER

Local Resources and Skills

Mechanization and automation may be appro-priate when the task to be carried out cannot bereadily performed by labour, no matter how low-cost. For example, the pumping of water in largequantities is a mechanical process, not easilyreplaced by labour. On the other hand, the intro-duction of automatic filter washing, in a watertreatment plant, to save labour hardly seemsappropriate. The automation required for auto-matic filter washing is quite complex, and its pur-chase and maintenance, even if it could be suit-ably maintained in Pakistan, would be veryexpensive. An operator could readily wash a filteron the basis of head loss or a time schedule.Precise timing is not required. If a simple andlabour intensive option is so clearly preferable,why are so many examples of sophisticated tech-nology to be seen in Pakistan? High technologyis often the only technology familiar to mostengineers, whether local or expatriate. They aretherefore unable to identify themselves with prac-tices that appear 'backward'. That the technologyis not appropriate does not appear to matter. Itmay be pointed out that London's water supply,drawn from the Thames River, is treated throughslow sand-filter plants, some of which have beenbuilt over the last few years, despite the fact thatthis represents the oldest technology in watertreatment — it was chosen since it was the mostappropriate. In Pakistan, on the other hand, fail-ure to use the latest technology may be attributedto ignorance, so every attempt is made tobecome up-to-date. Turnkey arrangements withhighly complex provisions for push-button opera-tions and the option for operation from a controlroom are mistakenly considered desirable.

The greatest need in the environmentalhealth engineering field is to increase the num-ber of people served. Not only does the use ofinappropriate technology divert funds away fromhigher priority needs, but investment in this typeof techno logy becomes a heavy l iab ili ty .Sophisticated facilities are often allowed to fallinto disrepair and ultimately into disuse. Somewaste water treatment facilities such as trickling

filters and activated sludge plants installed atgreat cost are obvious examples of suchwastage. Their presence is a constant reminderthat we must opt for simple technology which islow-cost and labour-intensive rather thanautomation-oriented. Waste stabilization pondsmust, therefore, be given their due place inwater pollution control programmes. Similarly,air pollution control, industrial effluent and solidwaste management programmes should takedue cognizance of these guiding principles.

RESEARCH

Research in natural resource conservationmust be in a systematic manner. To be effec-

tive, it is important to carry out baseline surveys,monitoring programmes, project evaluation andplant performance studies in the areas of watersupply and waste water engineering, water andair pollution control and solid waste manage-ment. For example, in the area of developingcommunity water supplies, traditionally therehas been an emphasis on the design and con-struction of new works. The financial constraintsof recent years will soon lead to a change in pri-orities so that an increasing number of projectswill aim at improving the effectiveness of existingfacilities, enhancing management skills andupgrading technical staff. This will help in pro-longing the life and improving the operationand maintenance of existing facilities throughinstitutional strengthening, rehabilitation andtraining. The role of research in this and otherareas related to the environment would be toinvestigate and identify the technological optionmost suitable for local condi tions, and toimprove on those already in use.

Baseline Surveys and MonitoringProgrammesResearch has been done in the area of environ-mental conservation and protection. Now, how-ever, it is necessary to evolve a systematic andcomprehensive plan at the national level, to helpcollect and compile information on the existing

NCS SECTOR PAPER 23

state of the environment. This would include ini-tiating monitoring programmes for natural watersources; municipal and industrial effluents;ambient air quality studies; and the collectionand compilation of data on solid wastes inmajor urban centres. Such investigations cantake the form of regular baseline surveys ormonitoring programmes.

DatabasesThis information can help generate databases,useful when deciding on the parameters of envi-ronmental engineering projects e.g., demandprojections for municipal water supplies, pollu-tion loads in the case of waste water treatmentplants, and ambient air quality in the case of airpollution control.

The lack of an adequate database is acutelyfelt, for instance, in designing water supply sys-tems. The demand for water in a particular situ-ation depends on local conditions such as cli-mate, traditional water use practices and thelevel of service provided (stand-pipe, yard-tap orhouse connection). In our country, the engineeris almost always faced with having to guess atpresent and future demand, without knowinghow much more water will actually be usedwhen the level of service is upgraded. The engi-neer generally designs a system to meet anoverestimated future demand. But the cost ofundertaking a water demand survey is far lessthan the additional cost of building an overde-signed system. All that is needed is foresight andthe allocation of funds for the demand surveyduring the project preparation phase. The samecan be said for demographic information, wherethe target population is exaggerated and thesystem is overambitious. Similarly, there is sel-dom adequate information on leakage/wastagefrom piped water systems.

Project Evaluation and PlantPerformance StudiesWith the exception of community water suppliesand municipal sewer systems, projects have rarely

been built to protect the environment. Even whensuch projects are undertaken there is little evalua-tion, despite the need for documentation whichcould provide feedback for future projects. It isindeed unfortunate that performance data relat-ing to existing waste water treatment plants, con-structed at great cost in major urban centres, isnot to be found in the engineering literature in thecountry. Evaluation of the beneficial impact ofthese facilities on the environment, on the well-being of the population, and their socio-econom-ic status is rare. Government departments, orga-nizations and industrialists all have an obligationto arrange, organise, compile and disseminateinformation on these aspects. For this purposethere should not be any hesitation, particularly onthe part of the industrialist, to commit resources interms of both finance and manpower.

ADMINISTRATION AND LEGISLATION

In order to establish a firm foundation for anenvironmental conservation strategy, it is

important to formulate plans and policies at theorganization and department level. This could beachieved by the creation of environmental plan-ning and control organizations. With the promul-gation of the Pakistan Environmental ProtectionOrdinance of 1983, a legislative basis hasbecome available "to provide for the control ofpopulation and preservation of [the] living envi-ronment" in Pakistan. The ordinance has fulfilleda long standing need for provision of an admin-istrative and legislative basis for environmentalconservation in the country. It provides for theestablishment of a powerful Pakis tanEnvironmental Protection Council (chaired by theprime minis ter), as well as EnvironmentalProtection Agencies at the Federal level and ineach of the four provinces. The council, in associ-ation with the agencies, shall establish a compre-hensive national policy for environmental conser-vation, ensure integration of environmental con-siderations into national development plans, aswell as ensure enforcement of the environmentalquality control standards (which have started tobe framed). A provincial Environmental

24 NCS SECTOR PAPER

Protection Agency (EPA) was established in thePunjab in July 1987, while the Sindh EPA cameinto being in 1989.

Role of Subsidies and IncentivesWater supply and sanitation services have beenincreasing gradually in major urban centres andtowns. Due to the lack of political will, a corre-sponding rise in charges has not materialised.Thus, present services are heavily subsidised,leaving the water agencies in debt. These agen-cies are unable to operate efficiently and main-tain delivery systems. The deeper in debt theagency falls, the more dependent it becomes ongovernment subsidies. A loss of freedom is theprice paid for government bailouts, and munici-pal agencies have become increasingly subjectto pol it ical prior i ties and intervent ions.Ultimately, water agencies function as de factogovernment departments, and are caught in thedownward spiral of not being able to collectadequate revenue, attract high-calibre motivat-ed staff or provide efficient service. The way outof this vicious circle is to provide water and sani-tation services which the community can affordand pay for. This would ensure long-term oper-ation and maintenance on an efficient basis.Similarly, incentives can play a significant role inthe control of environmental pollution in respectof municipalities and industries.

6. CONCLUSIONS

The conclusions are:1. The discharge of untreated municipal wastes

into water bodies and dumping on land hascreated serious pollution problems. The pro-vision of safe drinking water and adequatesanitation facilities need to be extended to amuch larger section of the population, espe-cially in rural areas, to protect public health.

2 . The increased use of chemicals to enhanceagricultural production is a potential source ofchemical pollution of surface and groundwa-ter. To reduce pesticide pollution, biological

control measures along with judicious chemi-cal applications need to be investigated.

3. Effective measures are needed to protectwater supply sources from chemical and fae-cal pollution. The use of slow sand filtersshould be encouraged in rural water supplyschemes as they remove pathogens mostefficiently.

4. Waste disposal methods that incorporateresource recovery should be encouraged.The use of municipal waste water for irriga-tion, after adequate treatment through wastestabilization ponds, needs to be promoted.This would supplement irrigation water, pro-vide nutrients for plant growth, and reducethe pollution load on surface water.

5. The use of composting as a means ofresource recovery and solid waste disposalshould be encouraged, as it conserves nutri-ents and kills pathogens.

6. The use of a stream classification systemshould be made for the optimal use of sur-face water.

7 . Enforcement of legislative measures isneeded to control air and noise pollutionproblems from motor vehicles in urbanareas. Adequate town planning measuresfor smooth urban traffic flow patterns arealso needed to control automobile exhaustp o l l u t i o n .

8. The mass media should be used to promotegeneral awareness and appreciation of theenvironment. Besides formal education,there is also the need for continuing educa-tion for professionals.

9 . There is a need to initiate monitoring pro-grammes for water sources and air, to buildan adequate environmental database.Research should be undertaken to identifyand develop appropriate technology to con-trol pollution and promote resource recovery.

10. Government agencies and autonomousbodies involved in water supply, sanitationand pollution control should commit man-power and financial resources to appliedresearch, project evaluation and plant per-formance studies.

NCS SECTOR PAPER 25

1 1 . The process of evolving environmentalquality control standards should receivedue consideration by the concerned gov-ernment agencies.

12. National planning must take into accountthe environmental dimensions of develop-ment projects, for effective implementationof a National Conservation Strategy.

26 NCS SECTOR PAPER

NCS SECTOR PAPER 27

PROVINCE COVERAGE

Urban Urban Sewerage Rural Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Water Supply Sanitation

(per cent)

Punjab 56.41 33.44 14.86 1.64

Sindh 70.02 45.09 9.68 0.84

NWFP 45.33 8.67 17.14 —

Balochistan 90.00 2.00 11.35 —

FATA — — 11.03 0.04

Overall 61.12 34.91 13.96 1.11

Source: Shah, A.A. 1984. Progress made in Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Pakistan and Sectoral Positionin Development Plans. In Proceedings of the National Conference on Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation, 16-19November 1981. Islamabad: Ministry of Planning and Development, Government of Pakistan.

TABLE 1

WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION COVERAGE

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

ANNEXURES

28 NCS SECTOR PAPER

NCS SECTOR PAPER 29

CONSTITUENT FAECES URINE

(per cent of dry weight)

Calcium (CaO) 4.5 4.5 - 6.0

Carbon 44 - 55 11 - 17

Nitrogen 5.0 - 7.0 15 - 19

Phosphorus (P2O5) 3.0 - 5.4 2.5 - 5.0

Potassium (K2O) 1.0 - 2.5 3.0 - 4.5

Source: Feachem, R.G., D.J. Brodley, H. Garelick, and D. Mara. 1983. Sanitation and Diseases: Health Aspects of Excretaand Wastewater Management. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

TABLE 3

COMPOSITION OF HUMAN WASTE

NATURE OF RECEIVING WATER SELF-PURIFICATION RATIO AT 20°C

Sluggish streams 1.0 - 1.5

Large streams of low velocity 1.5 - 2.0

Large streams of moderate velocity 2.0 - 3.0

Swift streams 3.0 - 5.0

Source: Fair, G.M., J.C.Geyer, and D.A. Okun. 1968. Water and Wastewater Engineering Vol. 2. New York: John Wiley andSons.

TABLE 4

SELF-PURIFICATION RATIO

30 NCS SECTOR PAPER

RIVER MINIMUM FLOW APPROXIMATE ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY

(cubic feet per second) (in terms of persons)

Indus below Chashma 2,265 1,500,000

Indus below Guddu 1,770 1,150,000

Indus below Sukkur 76 50,000

Jhelum at railway bridge, Jhelum 1,796 1,170,000

Jhelum at Khushab bridge 345 224,000

Chenab at Alexandria bridge 117 76,000

Chenab below Khanki 202 130,000

Chenab at river bridge, Jhang 1,153 750,000

Ravi at Shahdara 400 260,000

Sutlej below Suleimanki 96 60,000

Source: Planning and Development Division, 1987. Development of Optimal Standards of Quality for Disposal of Sewage.HRH/IL Joint Venture. Lahore: Government of Pakistan.

TABLE 5

APPROXIMATE ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY AT MINIMUM FLOW

1. Ahmad, S.J., S.N. Gillani, and T.M. Khan.1986. In Towards a National ConservationStrategy for Pakistan, Proceedings of thePakis tan Workshop, August 1986.Islamabad: Environment and Urban AffairsDivision-Government of Pakistan, CanadianInternational Development Agency and theInternational Union for the Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources.

2. Cointreau, S.J. 1982. E n v i r o n m e n t a lManagement of Urban Solid Wastes inDeveloping Countires. A Project Guide.Washington D.C.: The World Bank.

3. Dasmann, R.F. 1976. E n v i r o n m e n t a lC o n s e r v a t i o n. New York: John Wiley andSons.

4. Environment and Urban Affairs Division.1987. Environmental Profile of Pakistan.Islamabad: Government of Pakistan.

5. Fair, G.M., J.C.Geyer, and D.A. Okun.1968. Water and Wastewater EngineeringVol. 2. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

6. Feachem, R.G., D.J. Brodley, H. Garelick,and D.D. Mara. 1983. Sanitation and

Diseases: Health Aspects of Excreta andWastewater Management. New York: JohnWiley and Sons.

7. Gloyna, E.F. 1985. Wastewater ReuseThrough Land Application. Journal of thePakistan Society of Public Health Engineers8, no. 1.

8. Hashmi, Z.A. 1986. Livestock Developmentand Conservation. In Towards a NationalConservation Strategy for Pakis tan,Proceedings of the Pakistan Workshop,August 1986. Islamabad: Environment andUrban Affairs Divis ion-Government ofPakistan, Canadian Internat ionalDevelopment Agency and the InternationalUnion for the Conservation of Nature andNatural Resources.

9. Hyderabad Development Authority. 1986.Annual Laboratory Report for the Year1986. Hyderabad: HDA.

10. Javaid, M.Y. 1988. Losses in Fish Productionin River Ravi due to the Disposal of Sewageand Industrial Effluents. Lahore: PunjabEnvironmental Protection Agency LectureSeries.

NCS SECTOR PAPER 31

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

REFERENCES

32 NCS SECTOR PAPER

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