MA thesis

Kurdistan Regional Government-Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education

and Scientific Research

University of Koya

Mood in English and Kurdish:

A Comparative Study

A Thesis

Submitted to the Council of the College of Languages University of

Koya in Partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts in

English Language and Linguistics

BY

Rashwan Mahmood Mustafa

(B.A. in 2002- 2003/ Salahaddin University)

Supervised by

Dr. Hussein Ali Wali

January 2007 Thul-Hija 1427 (Hijri) Bafranbãr2706 (Kurdish)

I

I certify that this thesis was prepared under my supervision at the

University of Koya as a partial requirement for the degree of Master

of Arts in ENGLISH LANGUAGE and LINGUISTICS.

Signature:

Supervisor: Dr. Hussein Ali Wali

Date: / / 2006

In view of the available recommendations, I forward this thesis

for debate by the Examining Committee.

Signature:

Name:

Head of the English department:

Date: / / 2006

II

We certify that we have read this thesis as an Examining

Committee, examined the student in its content and that in our

opinion it is adequate with the standing of…… ………. as a thesis

for the degree of Master of Arts in ENGLISH LANGUAGE and

LINGUISTICS.

Signature: Signature:

Name: Name:

Chairman Member:

Signature: Signature:

Name: Name:

Member: Member and supervisor

Date: / / 2007

Approved by the council of the college of Languages

Signature:

Name:

Dean of College of Languages

Date: / / 2007

III

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In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most MercifulIn the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most MercifulIn the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most MercifulIn the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful

O mankind! We have created you male and female, and have made

`you nations and tribes that ye may know one another, the noblest of

you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct. Allah is Knower,

Aware

(Qur’an; Al-Hujurat: verse12)

IV

Dedicated

To:

�� My Parents,

�� My Sisters and Brothers,

�� And My lovely Nephews

V

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to record my thanks to the Regional Government

of Kurdistan-Iraq, Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific

Research, and College of Languages English department.

My best acknowledgments and deepest gratitude are due to

my supervisor Dr. Hussein Ali Wali, for his valuable help

through providing me with excellent sources and constructive

notes.

My everlasting thanks to Dr. Himdad Abdul-Qahar for his

ongoing help and cooperation for providing me with necessary

sources.

Thanks are also due to central libraries of Sulaimania and

Salahaddin University for providing me with important sources.

Finally, my thanks are to my parents, brothers and sisters for

their patience and help during my study.

VI

Abstract

This thesis is a comparative study of Mood in English and Kurdish.

Kurdish students and some of the foreigners who come to Iraqi

Kurdistan can make use of such a study. The thesis consists of five

chapters.

Chapter one is an introduction which includes clarification of the

title, the hypothesis, the aim, the procedure, delimitation of the study

and the data which are used as basis for this thesis.

Chapter two is a presentation of the concept of Mood in the

English language. It is divided into six sections. At the beginning an

introduction to mood in English is given. In the second section, a set

of terminologies have been defined and explained. The meanings of

mood are given in the third section and in the fourth section the

classification of mood is presented. The fifth section is an illustration

of the relation between mood and the tenses and in the final; the sixth,

section the relation between modality and negation is clarified.

The third chapter deals with the mood in the Kurdish language.

The steps followed in this chapter are the same as those followed in

the previous chapter. At the beginning mood is introduced. Then the

second section sheds light on the previous studies. The third section is

a presentation of the meanings of mood in the Kurdish language. The

fourth section illustrates the classification of mood. The fifth section

presents the interaction between modality and tense and the last

VII

section is a presentation of the relation between modality and

negation.

Chapter four is a comparison between English and Kurdish with

respect to mood. It includes the most important points of similarity

and difference which are found in dealing with mood.

The final chapter contains the most important findings of the study.

It has been concluded that the use of subjunctive forms in the English

language is fading out while in the Kurdish language subjunctive

forms are used in a wide range.

The list of the sources consulted are found at the end.

VIII

Key to Abbreviations and Symbols

� becomes or changes to

* ill formed sentence

1st pl. first person plural

1st sing. first person singular

asp aspect

BC before Christ

i.e. that is to say

ID identity Card

Pres present

IX

Key to Kurdish Phonetic Symbols

/p/ voiceless bilabial stop as in pãra ‘money’

/b/ voiced bilabial stop as in bãrãn ‘rain’

/t/ voiceless dental stop as in trě ‘grape’

/d/ voiced dental stop as in dãr ‘wood’

/k/ voiceless velar stop as in kãny ‘spring’

/g/ voiced velar stop as in garim ‘warm’

/f/ voiceless labio dental fricative as in firměsik ‘tear’

/v/ voiced labio dental fricative as in mirov ‘human being’

/s/ voiceless alveo-dental fricative as in sãrd ‘cold’

/z/ voiced alveo-dental fricative as in zu: ‘soon’

/š/ voiceless alveo-palatal fricative as in šěr ‘lion’

/ž/ voiced alveo-palatal fricative as in žãn ‘pain’

/č/ voiceless alveo-palatal affricative as in čiya ‘mountain’

/j/ voiced alveolar affricative as in jwãn ‘beautiful’

/m/ voiced bilabial nasal as in mom ‘candle’

/n/ voiced alveolar nasal as in nãn ‘bread’

/h/ voiceless glottal fricative as in hawir ‘cloud’

/ĥ/ voiceless pharyngeal fricative as in ĥaft ‘seven’

/l/ voiced dental lateral as in mil ‘neck’

/ĺ/ voiced velarized lateral as in saĺ ‘year’

/r/ voiced alveolar flap as in kar ‘donkey’

/ř/ voiced alveolar trill as in kař ‘deaf’

/x/ voiceless velar fricative as in xěrã ‘quick’

/xˇ/ voiced velar fricative as in xˇãr ‘gallop’

/q/ voiceless uvular stop as in qaĺaw ‘fat’

/?/ voiceless pharyngeal fricative as in ?aib ‘shame’

X

/y/ voiced palatal glide as in yãri ‘game’

/w/ voiced labio-velar rounded glide as in wara ‘come’

Vowels

/a/ low central unrounded, short vowel as in mař ‘sheep’

/ã/ low central unrounded, long vowel as in mãr ‘snake’

/ě/ mid close front unrounded long vowel, as in čěĺ ‘cow’

/i/ high close front unrounded short vowels, as in firměsik ‘tear’

/i:/ high close front unrounded long vowel, as in ši:r ‘milk’

/u/ high open back rounded short vowel, as in kuř ‘boy’

/u:/ high close back rounded long vowel, as in du:r ‘far’

/o/ mid open back rounded short vowel, as in toř ‘net’

XI

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Table of Contents

Dedication………………………………………………………..

Acknowledgements ………………………………………………

Abstract…………………………………………………………..

Key to Abbreviations and Symbols……………………………

Key to Kurdish phonetic symbols……………………………….

Table of Contents…………………………………………………

Chapter One Preliminaries

1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………

1.1 Problems……………………………………………………….

1.2 The Aims…………………………………………………

1.3 The hypothesis …………………………………………………

1.4 The procedures…………………………………………………

1.5 Delimitation …………………………………………………..

1.6 Data……………………………………………………………

chapter Two Mood in English

2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………

2.1 Basic concepts (terminology)………………………………….

2.1.1 Propositional Modality…………………………………….

2.1.2 Epistemic and Evidential Modality……………………….

2.1.3 Deontic and Dynamic modality…………………………..

2.2 Meanings of Mood……………………………………………

2.2.1 Possibility…………………………………………………

2.2.2 Necessity…………………………………………………..

2.2.3 Prediction…………………………………………………

2.2.4 Permission………………………………………………..

2.2.5 Obligation……………………………………………….

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2.2.6 Volition………………………………… . . .………………

2.2.6.1 Volition of Intention………………… . . . …………..…

2.2.6.2 Volition of Willingness………………………………..

2.2.6.3 Volition of Insistence ……………………………………

2.3 Classification of Mood…………………….. .…………………..

2.3.1 Indicative……………………………………………………

2.3.2 Imperative………………………………………………….

2.3.3 Subjunctive…………………………………………………..

2.3.3.1 Mandative…………………………………………………

2.3.3.2 The Formulaic…………………………………………….

2.3.3.3 The were-subjunctive……………………………………..

2.4 Expressions of Modality…………………………………………

2.4.1 Modal Auxiliaries……………………………………………..

2.4.2 Lexical Means………………………………………………

2.4.2.1 Modal Adverbs……………………………………………

2.4.2.2 Modal Tags………………………………………………

2.4.2.3 Modal Particles……………………………………………

2.5 Modality and Tense…………………………………………….

2.5.1 Modality and Future . .……………………………………

2.5.2 Modality and Past Tense……………………………………

2.6 Modality and Negation………………………………………….

Chapter Three Mood in Kurdish

3.0 Introduction………………………………………………………..

3.1 Previous works ………………………………….. .. .……………..

3.2 Meanings of Mood…………………………………………………

3.2.1 Possibility ………………………………………………………

3.2.2 Necessity ………………………………………………………

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3.2.3 Prediction………………………………………………………

3.2.4 Permission…………………………………………………….

3.2.5 Obligation………………………………………………………

3.2.6 Volition……………… …… …… ……………….… ………..

3.3 Classification of Mood………… ……… …………………………

3.3.1 Indicative Mood…………………………………… . . . . .……….

3.3.2 Imperative Mood………………………………… . . . . ………..

3.3.3 Subjunctive Mood…… …… … …… …… ……. . . … ………

3.4 Expressions of Modality……………………………………………..

3.4.1 Modal Auxiliaries………………………………………………….

3.4.2 Lexical Means……………………………………………………..

3.4.2.1 Modal Adverbs…………………………………………………….

3.4.2.2 Modal Tags……………………………………………………….

3.4.2.3 Modal Particles……………………………………………………

3.5 Modality and Tenses………………………………………………..

3.5.1 Modality and Future……………………………………………….

3.5.2 Modality and Past Tense……………………………………………

3.6 Modality and Negation……………………………………………….

Chapter Four Comparative Study

4.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………..

4.1 Meanings of Mood……………………………………………………

4.1.1 Possibility…………………………………………………………

4.1.2 Necessity ………………………………………………………..

4.1.3 Prediction………………………………………………………..

4.1.4 Permission………………………………………………………..

4.1.5 Obligation…………………………………………………………

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4.1.6 Volition…………………………………………………………..

4.2 Classification of Mood……………………………………………….

4.2.1 Indicative Mood……………………………………………………

4.2.2 Imperative Mood…………………………………………………

4.2.3 Subjunctive Mood…………………………………………. . ……

4.3 Expressions of Modality…………………………………. . .…………

4.3.1 Lexical Means……………………………………………………...

4.3.1.1 Modal Adverbs………………………………………………

4.3.1.2 Modal Particles…………………………………………..

4.4 Modality and Tense……………………………… …. .. . . . . ………..

4.4.1 Modality and Future…………………………………………

4.4.2 Modality and Past Tense……………… . . ……………………….

4.5 Modality and Negation……………………………...…………………

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Suggestions for further researches

Bibliography……………………………………………………………..

Kurdish Abstract . . . . . . .. .. . . ….. …. …. .. .. .. .. … .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . . .

Arabic Abstract. … ….. ………… …………. …………… …… . …. .. ..

Chapter One Introduction

1.0 Introduction: The structure of any sentence in many languages, including the

English and the Kurdish languages, contains a verb. A structure is a

sentence when it has a verb. The verb is regarded as the most influential

and important element in the sentence structure. It is that element which

can show the morphological contrasts of tense, aspect, voice, mood,

person, and number. Crystal (1991:372) sates that “In many grammatical

theories, accordingly, the verb is considered the most important element

in sentence structure”.

A verb can have more than one feature. It can be in past or non-past

tense. It can express an action, which is in a simple, perfect, or a

progressive aspect. Or it can be either passive or active. More than one

mood can be expressed by a verb.

Traditionally, verbs had to refer to action words. Verbs deal with

actions. Verbs can again be divided on the basis of being either stative or

dynamic. (Crystal, 1991: 371)

1.1. The Problem:

There is a factor make it necessary for a thesis to be done in this field

of syntax. The factor is that many Kurds try to learn English, and a

noticeable number of foreigners who come to the region want to learn

Mood in English and Kurdish; A Comparative Study 2

Kurdish. That is why the researcher sees it necessary to make a

comparative study of mood in the English and the Kurdish language.

1.2. The Aims:

The study aims at finding the features of mood in the Kurdish and

English languages. It also attempts at finding the points of similarity

and difference between the two languages through a comparative

study.

1.3. The Hypotheses:

It is hypothesized that the two languages under study share some

points of similarity and difference in what concerns mood. It is also

hypothesized that each language has its own rules which govern the

subject.

1.4. The Procedures:

The study follows a descriptive analytic procedure in dealing with the

subject. In the first place, an accurate and precise description will be

presented of mood in English depending on the data found in the sources

available. In the second step, mood in the Kurdish language is presented

in a precise and detailed way. The central Kirmanji dialect, or what is

known as Sorani dialect, is studied. The third step, is a presentation of a

comparative study of mood in English and Kurdish. Finally, the summary

and the conclusion are presented.


1.5. Delimitation:

Tense, aspect, voice, person, number and mood are syntactic features

of verbs. This thesis is only dealing with mood, and not with any other

feature because it is impossible to take all these syntactic features within

the limitation of a thesis.

1.6. The Data:

The data depended on in this study for mood in the English language

are from the books available in the libraries in the region and also on

some electronic magazines and internet websites. What concerns the

sources for the subject in the Kurdish language, the available books in the

libraries are used. Most of the examples are the researcher's own.


Chapter Two

Mood in English

2.0 Introduction:

This chapter talks about mood in English. It begins with an introduction

to mood in English, then meanings of mood and classification of mood

will be presented.

The term “Mood” is widely used in literature of language and it has

got its usage and definitions in different ways.

The word Mood is of Latin originates from "Modus" that means

manner, way, method when it is applied to verbs, it means the way of

convincing and expressing action. (Baskervill and Sewell, 1895: 91)

Lyons (1968: 307) defines mood by stating that "Mood, like tense, is

frequently realized by inflecting the verb or by modifying it by means of

auxiliaries. It is best defined in relation to "unmarked" class of structures

which express simple statements of facts, unqualified with respect to the

attitude of the speaker toward what he is saying". According to this

definition mood is viewed as the process of verbal inflection or the effect

of helping verb. There is concentration on the speaker's attitude toward

the meaning of the sentence that he utters.

Verb phrases are used to show the features of mood and modality. It

shows in a precise form the way in which the verb indicates the viewpoint

of the speaker toward what is being communicated, whether the


communicated message being emphasized, questioned, ordered or wished

for. (Finch, 2000: 103)

Mood can be defined as “that grammatical systems of the verb or verb

phrase whose terms are differentiated semantically primarily in the

contrast between factual assertion and various kinds of non-factually

and/or non-assertion.” Here in this definition the focus is stressed on the

semantics of the sentence, it is the meaning ,which decides whether a

sentence is asserted or not, real or unreal. (Huddelston, 1984: 164)

From these definitions it can be concluded that mood is a structure in

which the speaker's viewpoint toward the utterance he/she made is

expressed. The utterance might be viewed as a piece of news, a

command, or a desire wished for.

2.1 Basic Concepts (terminologies):

There are some terms needed to be explained:

The two terms mood and modality are frequently used in grammatical

and linguistic subjects. In most of the grammar books they are defined as

one thing, but it is necessary for a distinction to be made between the two.

There are two ways in which languages grammatically deal with an

overall category of modality. They are to be distinguished in terms of: -

modal system and mood.

Both may be present in a language, that is to say a language has a

modal system of modal verbs and mood. In some of the European

languages the subjunctive seems to be no longer used, while in English it

has essentially disappeared; as a result of this a modal system of modal

verbs has been created. (Palmer, 2001:4)


Another important distinction to be drawn is between epistemic and

deontic modality. Epistemic modality refers to the degree of certainty the

speaker has while saying a sentence that it is true(Lyons, 1995:254), for

example:

1- Jane must have been at school.

The sentence number one shows the speaker's confidence in his speech

that Jane must at school not at home or somewhere else. While deontic

modality refers to the degree of force imposed by the addresser on the

addressee for carrying out an action, for example:

2- Jane must go to school.

This force is always from the addresser and it is possible to be from a

third unspecified source. (De Haan, 2004: 8)

3- Jack may be at his office now.

The sentence number three means "It is possible (possibly the case)

that Jack is at home now."

4- Jack must be at his office now. means

"It is necessarily the case that Jack is at home."

5- Jack may come now. It can be interpreted as:

"It is possible for Jack to come in now."

6- Jack must come now. It means, "It is necessary for Jack to

come."


The two words "that" and "for" are essential for making the difference

between these of sentences. It can be noticed that three and four are about

the speaker's judgment of the proposition that “Jack is at work”, while

five and six are concerned with the speaker's attitude, a potential future

event, that of "Jack who is to come." (Palmer, 2001: 7)

2.1.1 Propositional and Event Modality:

What is important to be clarified here is the term "proposition". It

refers to the unit of meaning which constitutes the subject matter of a

sentence in the shape of a simple declarative statement. In linguistics, the

focus of using the term is on the way in which different forms can be

shown to express the same proposition, for instance:

7- The cat ate the meat. � The meat was eaten by the cat.

In sentence number seven, we can see how a single statement can be

analyzed in terms of different propositions. (Crystal, 1991: 282)

2.1.2 Epistemic and Evidential Modality:

These are two head kinds of propositional modality. The main

difference between Epistemic and Evidential is that the former is that

speakers express their judgment about the factual status of the

proposition, while the latter deals with the evidence that the speaker has

about factual status of a proposition.


2.1.3 Deontic and Dynamic Modality:

Palmer (2001: 9) states that the difference between deontic and

dynamic is that "with deontic modality the conditioning factors are

external to the relevant individual, whereas with dynamic modality they

are internal. Thus deontic modality relates to obligation or permission,

emanating from an external source, whereas dynamic modality relates to

ability or willingness which comes from the individual concerned."

The following examples are helpful to show the distinction:

8- Jessica can leave now. (permission) Deontic

9- Jessica must leave now. (Obligation) Deontic

10- Jessica can speak English. (ability) Dynamic

11- Jessica will do it for you. (willingness) Dynamic

The first two, eight and nine show the category of deontic permission

and obligation. The last two ten and eleven clarify the category of

dynamic ability and volitive. It can be noticed that in deontic modality the

authority is the speaker who gives permission to or lays an obligation on

the addressee. Dynamic modality may indicate not only ability but also

the possibility in a general sense as in:

12- The nightingale can escape. (A dynamic meaning that the door

is not locked.)

Another term to be distinguished and defined here is commissive

modality. This type refers to the speaker when he commits himself to do

an action, as in:

13- You shall have it tomorrow.


It is considered as a type of Deontic Modality because the action's

conditioning factor goes with the addressee not the subject of the

sentence. (Palmer, 2001: 10)

2.2 Meanings of Mood:

In dealing with meanings of mood, Leech and Svartvik (1975:128)

state that

Instead of thinking of truth and falsehood in black-and-white

terms, we can think in terms of a SCALE OF LIKELIHOOD.

The extremes of the scale are IMPOSSIBILITY and

CERTAINTY or (LOGICAL NECESITY), other, intermediate

concepts to be considered are POSSIBILITY, PROBAIBLITY,

IMPROBABILITY, etc.

(1) Modality is to be understood as a semantic category which covers

notions like possibility, probability, necessity, volition, obligation

and permission. (These are basic modalities)

(2) Recently the concept of modality has been extended to cover other

notions such as doubt, wish, regret, and desire, and temporal

notions such as usuality.

(3) In very general terms modality may be taken to express a relation

with reality, whereas a non-modal utterance treats the process as

reality.

Means of expressing modal meanings


(1) Lexical verbs such as: allow, beg, command, forbid, guess,

suggest, warn (performative verbs)

(2) The verbs like wonder, wish

(3) The modal auxiliaries

(4) The lexico-modal auxiliaries composed of be or have + infinitive:

have (got) to, be bound to, etc.

(5) Modal disjuncts: possibly, obviously…

(6) Modal adjectives like: likely, probably, possibly…

(7) Modal nouns such as: possibility, probability

(8) Certain uses of if-clauses

(9) Certain types of intonation (fall-rise)

(10) The use of hesitation in speech.

(11) The use of non-assertive items such as any

Modal verbs are used in a very wide range for expressing meanings

of mood, their uses are divided into two types:-

A) Those that express permission, obligation and volition involve

some kind of intrinsic human control over events.

B) Those expressing possibility, necessity and prediction which do

not primarily involve human control of events, but they involve

human judgment of what is to happen or not to happen.

(Quirk et al, 1985: 219)

Palmer (2001: 100) lists a set of points which he labels English modal

verb properties:-


1- They don’t co-occur; that is to say it is impossible to find two

modal verbs occurring one after another.

14* He will can come.

15* You may shall leave.

2- Modal verbs do not have ~s forms for their third person singular

forms: as exemplified in:

16* He oughts to go.

A point that must be noted here is that when the modals will and dare

are used as lexical verbs, they take third person singular ~s, for

example:

17- He dares to say no.

18- He wills to leave.

3- They do not have non-finite forms; they cannot be preceded by to

as in:

19 * to can come.

20* I hope to can come tomorrow.

1- There is no way for deriving imperative forms from modal verbs,

for instance:

21* Can lift!

22* Must come now.

2- The modal must has no morphological past tense form. While the

other modals like (can, shall, may…) have past tense forms.

Among these past tense forms just could is used to refer to past

time. (Palmer, 2001: 100)


The following is an attempt to show various meanings

represented by modal verbs:

2.2.1. Possibility:

Epistemic possibility makes use of may, might and could.

- They {may/ might/ could} be real friends, you know.

It means "It is possible…………"

The modals might and could are historically past forms but do not refer

to past time. They refer to present states of affairs. They could be used to

refer to future events.

23- It {may/might/could} snow tomorrow.

The modal "can" is not used in positive declarative clauses which

express epistemic possibility:

24 * It can snow tomorrow.

The modal 'can' replaces other modals in the negation of possibility

25- They cannot possibly be real friends.

And in the interrogatives, but it is less common in extrinsic possibilities.

26- Can they be real friends?

They can all be intensified by "very" well, which heightens the

possibility, or "just", which lowers it.


27- They might just be real pearls.

28- They could very well be real pearls.

The choice of modal is influenced by:

(1) The speaker's age,

(2) The dialect,

(3) the degree of formality of the situation.

It is suggested that

may (formal)

might (neutral)

could (assertive)

It is important to distinguish intrinsic possibility (expressed by can and

paraphrased by "It is possible to …… to ……." Or "It is possible for …..

to ……" (extrinsic) possibility, which is expressed by may, might and

could and paraphrased by "It is possible that ……."

29- I can be there by 10:00. "It is possible for me to be there

….."

30- I might be there by 10:00. "It is possible that I will be there

….."

The modal verbs which are used to express possibility are “can”,

"may", “could”, and “might”. The meanings of possibility are mainly

divided into two types:

Factual possibility is the first type of possibility in which the speaker

expresses possibility of a real and existing matter in the real world, for

instance: (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 128)


31- a) The streets may be improved.

Here the addressee expresses possibility of a subject which is

improving streets, and these streets are objects in the real life not

imaginary things.

The second meaning of possibility is theoretical possibility. In this

type of possibility the addressee shows possibility about a matter which is

not fact, but just imagination for example:- (Leech and Svartvik, 1975:

128)

31- b) The streets can be improved.

Here the sentence 20b can be interpreted as "It is possible for the

streets to be improved." If we make a distinction between 26a and 26b

sentences, we can see that the theoretical possibility which is

expressed by "can" is weaker than factual or real possibility

expressed by "may". The sentence 26b declares that the streets are

not perfect and there are not any plan for improving them, while 26a

can suggest that, there are definite plans for improvements.

It is worthy to be mentioned that the use of “can” in general

statements of possibility has the same meaning as “sometimes”, for

example:

32- Lightning can be dangerous.


This sentence is equal in meaning to:

33- Lightning is sometimes dangerous.

The meaning of hypothetical possibility is expressed by the use of

the modal verbs “could” or “might”, for example:

34- If Jack were to make a mistake, the whole project could be

ruined.

The modals “could” and “might” in their hypothetical state are often

used for expressing tentative possibility, that is to say talking about

something, which is possible, but unlikely to be so, for example:

35- He could be telling lies.

This can be paraphrased as "It is just possible that he is telling lies."

(Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 128)

2.2.2 Necessity and Obligation:

The term necessity is sometimes preceded by the word logical, so it is

called logical necessity. In English, the meaning of logical necessity is

expressed by the modal verbs “must” and “have to” "have got to" and

to a lesser degree "shall" and they are paralleled to the use of “may” in

the sense of possibility. The term indicates that the speaker judges the

proposition expressed by the clause to be necessarily true, or at least to

have a high likelihood of being true. In this respect the modal “must”

means that the speaker can conclude from things already known or

observed (Quirk et al, 1985: 224), for instance:


36- The Jacks must be rich.

The speaker of this sentence has observed that "The Jacks" live in a large

house, travel in an expensive car etc. and therefore reaches the conclusion

that they are rich.

To negate the modal "must" in the notion of logical necessity "can

not" is used, especially when "can" gives the meaning of possibility, for

example:

37- You must be joking.

Here the sentence 35 means, “It is necessarily the case that you are

joking." This sentence is equivalent in meaning to:

38- You cannot be serious.

Alternatively, the sentence: "The baby must be asleep", is equal in

meaning to:

39- The baby cannot be awake.

(Quirk et al, 1985:225)

Root necessity is another meaning of the modal “must”. To clarify the

term, the following exemplifications will be useful:

40- For a plant to grow faster, it must receive a good supply of

sunshine and moisture.

Here in 39 no human control is implied, the meaning is that of intrinsic

necessity.


The interpretation of “must” here is “It is essential for … . Or It is

necessary for … .”. In sentence 40 there is no implication of human

control. (Quirk et al, 1985: 225)

For expressing necessity, the modal “have to” can also be used . In

some cases both modals “must” and “have to” are interchangeable, and

in some other cases each one has its own use. Murphy (1994: 62) states

that

" “Must" is personal; we use "must" to give our personal feelings. While

"have to" is impersonal. We use "have to" for facts, not for our

personal feelings.” In the example: "You must come at 8:00 am."

expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary for the hearer to do, but

the sentence "You have to come at 8:00 am." does not express the

speaker’s feeling or thought, but it expresses what is a rule uttered by the

speaker for the hearer to perform.

There is no past form for “must”, but when it is used in the sense of

necessity, the form “had to” is used to express the past form of ”must”.

(Murphy, 1994: 62)

2.2.3 Prediction:

For expressing the meaning of prediction or predictability in the

English language the modals “must”, “will” and “would” are used.

What should be explained here is the use of the modal “must”. The

modal “must” often expresses a certainty about an action which we don’t

notice or observe, but we assume a conclusion from a hint about the

action; for instance, while hearing the phoning, a person present in the

situation may say:


41- That must be John.

When the speaker utters this sentence, it is a conclusion that came

from previous knowledge. He/she depends on the knowledge that “John”

is due to make a phone call. (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 131)

Three different uses of the modals “will” and “would” are to be

distinguished under the heading of prediction. The most common way in

the English language for expressing futurity is by the use of the modal

“will” and “shall”. Predictive “will” is particularly common in the

clauses of super-ordinate of conditional or temporal clauses (Quirk et al,

1985: 228), for instance:

42- You will feel better if you take this medicine.

In some cases it is not necessary for a conditional clause to be present,

but there is an implication that the future event or state of affairs will

come from or rely on the fulfillment of certain future conditions which

might not be specified as exemplified in:

43- Take this medicine. You will feel better in an hour or so.

The corresponding prediction in the past sense is expressed by would for

example:

44- I was told I would feel better after this medicine.

The present predictive sense of “will”, which is rare, is similar in

meaning to “must” in logical necessity sense, for instance:


45- She will have had her dinner by now.

46- That will be the postman. (in case of hearing the doorbell ring)

The meaning of these two sentences 43 and 44 can be interpreted as “It is

very likely that…”

In conditional sentences it is often the habitual predictive meaning

which occurs:

47- If blue colour is mixed with yellow, it will turn green.

Or in timeless statements of predictivity

48- Oil will float on water.

In addition to these cases, it often occurs in descriptions of personal

habits or characteristic behaviour, for example:

49- He will talk for hours, if you let him.

This sentence 49 is said about a person who is very talkative.

In past tense narratives, “would” in this sense is a known means of

describing habitual behaviour, for instance:

50- In the spring, the birds would return to their nests, and the

wood would be filled with their music…


Using “would” in this sense is rather more formal than the equivalent use

of “used to”, because “would” unlike “used to” needs to be related to a

time indicator such as “in the spring” in the above sentence. (Quirk et al,

1985: 228)

2.2.4 Permission

For asking permission for doing something in the English language the

two modal verbs “can” (with its past form could) and “may” (with its

past form might) are used. The modal “can” is regarded as an informal

way when used in the sense of permission . “May” and “can” are also

used in the sense of "be permitted". In this sense the past forms “might”

and “could” express only past time. (Frank, 1972: 93)

As an auxiliary of permission “may” is more formal and less common

than “can”. Just in few cases the modal “may” can be substituted by

“can” as in the fixed phrase “If I may (can)”. The modal “may” is

specifically related to permission given by the speaker. There is a

difference between a permission given by the speaker and another one

given by a third authority, as exemplified in the following sentences:

51- You may leave when you like.

52- You can leave when you like.

The sentence 51 means that “I permit you to leave.” In which the

authority belongs to the speaker, while the sentence 51 means, “You are


permitted to leave” which means giving permission in a more general and

impersonal sense. (Quirk et al, 1985: 223)

To clarify further the difference between a permission asked by “can”

and “may”, the following examples will be helpful.

52- Johnny: Can I go now?

Mother: Not can, May?

Johnny: O.K may I go out?

Mother: Sure you can.

It is clear from the dialogue above that in such a situation between a

mother and her small kid the modal “may” must be used not “can”,

because the permission is given by the mother not another authority.

(Marino, 1973:320)

In some cases hypothetical “could” can be used in the situations of tactful

requests for permission as in:

53- Could we ask you what your opinion is?

It can be noticed from the above sentence how questioning about

someone’s opinion is preceded by requesting his permission first.

Another different way for asking permission is by using “mind”, for

instance:

54- A- Would you mind if I opened a window?

B- No, not at all.


Here the response means that the speaker is permitted to do what he

asked for.

A point to be noted about the use of the modal verb “shall”, in the

sense of giving permission, is that it is used in the second and third

person, for example:

55- You shall do exactly as you wish.

The modal shall in this sense means “allowed to”. So the sentence

means “You are allowed to do as you wish”. (Leech and Svartvik, 1975:

143)

2.2.5 Obligation:

The term obligation or compulsion refers to one of the meanings of

mood expressed by a set of modals in the English language. The first

modal verb to be mentioned here is “must” which in some cases

expresses the meaning of obligation (Quirk et al, 1985: 225), for

example:

56- You must be back by nine o’clock.

Inescapable (duty, obligation, requirement) is expressed by "must" and

"have got to" and "shall"

57- You must try harder.

It is a command, its strength directness is the result of many factors:


a. The subject is you.

b. The authority resides in the speaker. (the speaker has

authority over the addressee)

c. The verb is agentive.

d. The verb is active.

The force is diminished if any of these factors is modified.

58- I must work harder. (The subject is I)

It is clear that in this example 58 that the modal “must” means

“obligated to”. It is obvious in the above sentence that there is the

implication that the speaker is advocating a certain kind of behaviour, so

in this way “must” unlike “have to” suggests that the speaker is

exercising his authority. An exception occurs in the case when the subject

is in the first person form, for example:

59- I must write to my friend.

It must not be forgotten that this is entirely consistent with “must”

when it gives the meaning of obligation, because the meaning is one of

self-admonishment, that is to say the speaker in this case exercises his

authority over himself, appealing to his own sense of duty. (Quirk et al,

1985: 225)

Another point to be explained is about the modal "have to". When it

is used in the sense of obligation it is often felt to be more impersonal


than "must", in that "have to" lacks the implication that the speaker is

the authority.

Both have to and have got express obligation: have to is objective, have

got to is subjective.

60- I have got to go now. (Internal obligation)

61- I have to see the Dean. (External obligation)

62- I am afraid I have to go now.

This example 62 might be used where, for instance, another appointment

forces the speaker to leave at a particular time. Especially where 'must'

implies “self-obligation” “have to” shows obligation by an external

source. (Quirk et al, 1985: 225)

The modals “should” and “ought to” both express the meaning of

obligation, but it is not necessary for this obligation to be carried out by

the addressee or addressees, for instance:

63- All the students should attend the meeting.

What can be taken from this sentence is that the students might perform

what is asked, but some students might not attend the meeting that they

were asked to attend.

Another modal verb, which has the meaning of obligation, is “need

to”. It occurs in sentences when it acts as a main verb and it indicates


internal obligation caused by the state of the person referred to as

clarified in the coming example:

64- The player needs to practice more.

The meaning of “need” in 56 is clear that it is required from the person

referred to in the sentence to do much more practice; so the obligation is

internal. In case of having a direct object we can use “need” without

“to”(Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 144), as exemplified in:

65- The plant needs water.

The last point about the meaning of obligation is concerned with the

modal “shall”. In the sense of obligation the modal “shall” is normally

limited to official regulations and other formal documents, for example:

66- Every citizen shall have his ID when traveling to another city.

The sentence 64 clarifies what is a rule or a governmental regulation that

the people of a region be aware of and apply , which is holding personal

IDs. (Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 145)

Unfulfilled obligation: the modals should, ought, must, express an

obligation not binding or unfulfilled.

67- You ought to cut down on smoking.

The motivation for using these modals instead of must include the lack of

authority on the part of the speaker to impose the obligation, or tact, or

politeness.


With {should/ought + have + V.en}, the speaker implies that the

obligation was not fulfilled:

66- He should have driven more carefully.

2.2.6 Volition:

The term volition is defined as " the process of using one's will in

choosing something, making a decision, etc." (Oxford Dictionary,

1999:1333)

The modals “will” and “would” are used in the English language to

express the meaning of volition. In this type of modal meaning three

different sub-senses can be distinguished. The volitional range of “will”

extends from the weak volition of willingness to the strong volition of

insistence. A more usual sense of volition is volition of intention, which

occurs between the weak and the strong volition. Volition of intention has

the combination with a sense of prediction. (Quirk et al, 1985: 229)

2.2.6.1 Volition of Intention:

Using “will” and “would” and "shall" in the sense of intention is

often substitutable by the verbs "intend" and "aim", for example:

68- He will write me a letter.

Its illocutionary force is that of a promise or a threat according to whether

the intended action is beneficial to the addressee o otherwise.


The sentence 68 can be interpreted as “He intends to write me a

letter”. The modal "will" in this sense is fully interchangeable with the

verb (intend).

2.2.6.2 Volition of Willingness:

In expressing willingness the use of “will” and "shall" is often mixed

with the meaning of futurity. The following example declares what has

been proposed here:

69- The teacher will help you if you ask him.

In this sentence the modal verb, “will” has two meanings; the first one

is the willingness of the subject of the sentence in doing an action but it

may also coincide with speech time or even to a repeated event; and the

second is that “will” indicates future time.

a. Will you marry me?

b. The key will not go in the lock.

c. He will not eat anything but rice.

For expressing willingness in the past, the past form “would” is used, as

in:

70- During his youth he was so poor that he would do anything for

money.

(Leech and Svartvik, 1975: 145)


2.2.6.3 Volition of Insistence:

The use of “will” which is heavily stressed and “would” in this sense

is somewhat rare which implies willfulness on the part of the subject. The

modals “will” and “shall” are always stressed when used in the sense of

insistence, for example:

71- He �'will try to fix the electricity himself.

Here “will” can be substituted by “insists on”, in this case the sentence

can be paraphrased as “He insists on trying to fix the electricity himself”.

(Quirk et al, 1985: 229)

2.3 Classification of Mood:

The term mood is defined in the beginning of this chapter as the

speaker's attitude toward the speech uttered by the speaker, and surely,

this is done by the use of verb or verb phrase in an utterance. It focuses

on the speaker's attitude whether it is being asserted, questioned,

commanded or wished for. What is agreed upon and not controversial is

that in the English language there are three broad types of mood, which

are indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. (Finch, 2000: 103)

The two subjects sentence types and mood are related to each other.

These are characteristics of the grammatical structure of the sentence.

The two terms declarative and interrogative must be distinguished and not

confused. Lyons (1995: 177) states “A sentence can not be


simultaneously interrogative and declarative; but in many languages it

can be both interrogative and declarative … i.e. it can be interrogative in

sentence type and contain as its sole or principal clause one that is

indicative in mood.

2.3.1 Indicative:

"A term used in the GRAMMATICAL CLASSIFICATION of

SENTENCE types, and usually seen in contrast to IMPERATIVE,

SUBJUNCTIVE, etc., MOODS. It refers to VERB forms or

sentence/CLAUSE types used in the expression of STATEMENTS and

QUESTIONS." (Crystal, 1991: 175)

The word is from the Latin (indicare) which means declare or assert.

(www.m-w.com/dictionary/indicative ) The sentences having indicative

mood represent something as a fact. This fact is either affirmed or denied.

(Baskervill and Sewell, 1895: 112)

The indicative structure is used for indicating factual meaning.

Indicative mood comprises two subtypes, declarative and interrogative

structures. The function of declarative sentences is to state things, while

the function of interrogative sentences is to question about things, for

example: (Finch, 2000: 103)

72- We are going to London next week. (Declarative)

The sentence 72 states a fact about the subject of the sentence who has

already made the decision for traveling. Another example:


73- Are we going to London next week?

This sentence shows how the speaker questions about doing an action.

(Finch, 2000: 103)

The interrogative and declarative sentences are not traditionally

regarded as modal but they indicate mood because in English the

syntactic distinction between these two subjects is related to the

employment of various interrogative particles or pronouns with a

difference of verbal inflection or the selection of a particular auxiliary.

(Lyons, 1968: 307)

The indicative represents something as a fact. This is done in three

ways:

1- The indicative structures are used for declaring something as a fact

or denying this fact, for example:

74- I remember every word that you told me.

75- The man who was arrested yesterday is guilty.

These sentences show facts expressed by the speaker. In the first

one the speaker expresses a truth. In the second it shows a fact, which

is that the arrested person mentioned in the sentence is guilty.

2- The second way of representing something as a fact to assure that

something is true but without declaring it. This type of indicative

clause is usually introduced by if giving the meaning of "admitting

that, granted that," though, although …etc. What is worthy to be


mentioned here is that the action is closer to a fact rather than

giving the meaning of possibility, for example: (Baskervill and

Sewell, 1895: 191)

76- If the country was without army, still people will think of

defending their government.

It is obvious from the sentence that if can be interpreted as "admitting

that". .

3- The third way of presenting indicative is by asking a question to

find out some facts, for example:

77- Is the man guilty?

It is clear that in this sentence a question has been asked about a fact,

or how the speaker is seeking a fact.

The indicative mood is used in factual statements. All intentions in

speaking that a particular language does not put into another mood use

indicative. It is the most common used type of mood and is found in all

languages. (Baskervill and Sewell, 1895: 193)

Declarative sentences present facts and questions or interrogative

sentences seek information or knowledge. In general, questions can be

divided into three major classes according to the type of reply they

anticipate:

1- Questions that anticipate affirmation or negation. This type is

called yes-no questions, for instance:

78- Have you done the job?

The reply to this utterance is either yes or no.


2- The second type typically anticipates a reply from an open range of

replies. This type of question seeks information and it is called wh-

question, for example:

79- What is the distance between Arbil and Duhok?

The reply to this question is a piece of information which is a

number. So the reply may be "The distance between Arbil and Duhok

is 280 km."

3- The third type expects a reply that can be selected among two or

more options. It is called alternative questions, for example:

80- Would you like to go for a walk or stay at home?

The reply to this question is choosing between either “I like staying at

home” or “I like going for a walk”. (Quirk et al, 1985: 806)

What illocutionary act are performed questions (interrogative clauses)

(1) Eliciting information,

(2) Is not it a lovely day (exclamation)

(3) Do you expect me to wait have all day (Equivalence to a negative

statement)

(4) Directive:

81- Can you pass me the salt? (request)

82- Will you have some more ice cream. (Offer)

83- Won't you help yourself. (invitation)

84- Why don’t you apply for the job. (Suggestion)


2.3.2 Imperative:

The second type is imperative mood. Crystal (1991: 171-172) defines

imperative as: "A term used in the grammatical classification of sentence

types usually seen in contrast to indicative mood. It refers to verb forms

or sentence types typically used in the expression of commands."

In most languages of the world there is a specific form that can be

identified as imperative. In the English language where the modal

systems are marked by modal verbs, the imperative is quite

independent of the modal system, in English being indicated by the

simple form of the verb. (Palmer, 2001: 80)

“Imperative construction is closely associated with deontic

modality. It is clearly directive and usually portrayed as indicating a

command.” (Ibid) It is supposed to be the structure of directives, one

that emanates from someone in authority, therefore, does not expect

non-compliances. However, there are two points to be noted about the

relationship of imperatives to the modal verbs.

The illocutionary acts performed by the imperative are multiple:

a. Help! (emergency)

b. Do not worry. (Hearer's interest)

c. Cheer up. (Hearer's interest)

d. Guess who ……….(Discourse initiator)

e. Quick march. (command)

f. Don’t pick flowers. (injunction)

g. Don’t tell me you have passed. (Disbelief)

h. See a doctor. (advice)

i. Try one of these. (offer)


j. Let's go. (suggestion)

k. Don’t cry. (encouragement)

l. Suppose he does not answer. (consider a possible happening)

m. Let's say. (example)

The first point is that, its use is not only to give commands, but also

simply to give permission or advice, for instance:

85- Come in!

This utterance might be interpreted as either "You may come in"

denoting permission or as "You must come in", that it is said in a rainy

situation and the addressee is advised to go in.

The second point is that imperative is performative and in the sense

that the speaker actually gives the command in the act of speaking.

(Palmer,2001: 81)

The imperative sentences are different from declarative ones in two

points:

1- The imperative sentences have no subject (In the surface structure).

2- The imperative sentences have either a main verb in the base form

or less commonly a helping verb in the base form followed by an

appropriate form of the main verb.

In imperative constructions the main verb lacks tense distinction and

does not allow modal verbs. The progressive form is rare.

86- Be listening to our radio station the same time tomorrow

morning.

87- Start the work and have it finished before Friday.


In negative imperative statements, a passive form is used with “be”,

for instance:

88- Don’t be deceived by her attractive looks.

The structure of this sentence is (Don’t+ be + P.P). It can be interpreted

as "Don't allow yourself to be…"

Another group of passive sentences occur with the verb “get”, for

example:

89- Get washed!

Imperative sentences refer to a situation in the immediate or more

remote future and are therefore incompatible with time adverbials which

refer to a specific time in the past or that have habitual reference, for

example:

90* Come yesterday!

91* Usually drive your car!

These sentence structures can not be found in the English language.

Comment adjuncts can not be used with imperative sentences, since these

disjuncts comment on propositions, for example:

92* Unfortunately, pay your rent now!

This sentence is semantically ill-formed, because using the disjunct

“unfortunately” in this sense with imperatives is not proper. (Quirk et al,

1985: 828)


It is obvious that the meaning of an imperative implies that the omitted

subject is the second person pronoun you. This can be easily proved by

the occurrence of you as subject of the following tag question, for

example:

93- Be quiet! Will you?

Or the use of the reference pronoun your as in:

94- Clear your mind!

Beside this, still there is a type of imperative in which the stressed subject

is added. In most of the cases it is for emphasis, for instance:

95- 'You be quiet!

In this example, the addresser emphasizes directing his command to the

addressee, which is keeping or being quiet.

There is another type of imperative in which a subject is used that can

be 3rd person singular, for example:

96- Somebody open the door!

In some imperative constructions “let” is used. The verb “let” can be

used in imperatives. First and third person imperatives can be formed by

using “let”, followed by a subject in the objective case, for example:

97- Let’s all work hard!


98- Let each one do his duty!

(Quirk et al, 1985: 829)

Imperative sentences used for expressing commands, direct questions

and prohibitions, in many circumstances directly using the imperative

mood seems rude, it is often used with care. By introductory phrases like

“please” is used for avoiding rudeness, for example:

99- Please, open the door!

(wikepedia.com)

The imperative sentences don’t make statements at all, but they express

commands or instructions. An example of giving instructions:

100- Put your coat on!

It is clear from example 100 that the imperative structure is in the form

of advice or instruction and there is no indication of forcing the hearer to

carry out something. Since commands or instructions are generally

directed to the hearer, the central class of imperative sentences are

associated with the second person, and it is a rather clear fact that in most

Indo-European languages, including the English language, which inflects

the verb for persons, number and tense, the form of the verb which occurs

in second person singular imperative statements is uninflected for all

these categories, that is to say it is identical with the stem. Many linguists

have taken this fact as evidence that giving commands rather than making

statements is the more basic function of language. The distinction

between giving commands and making statements cannot be sharply

made, for example:


101- I want you to come here.

This sentence is syntactically classed as a declarative sentence, but

sententialy it can be interpreted as “Come here!” (Lyons,1968: 307)

For the aim of getting someone to do something a direct command can

be used. A negative command has the effect of forbidding someone doing

an action. With a second person subject the form expressing obligation

and prohibition can have almost the same effect as a command, for

instance:

102- You mustn’t smoke!

In this sentence, the force of forbidding is the same as obliging or

commanding.

The structure (Be + to + infinitive) can refer to a command given either

by the speaker or in a more usual way by some official authority:

103- John is to return to Germany.

This sentence can be interpreted as “He has been given orders to

return to Germany”. Therefore, the order is official. An example of a

personal order:

104- You are to stay home until I return.

This sentence can be paraphrased as “I tell you to stay at home until I

return”.


2.3.3 Subjunctive

The third type of mood is subjunctive. It is defined as "A term used in

the GRAMMATICAL classification of SENTENCE types, and usually

seen in contrast to INDICATIVE, IMPERATIVE, etc., MOODS. It refers

to VERB forms or sentence/CLAUSE types used in the expression of

many kinds of SUBORDINATE clause, for a range of attitudes including

tentativeness, vagueness, uncertainty." (Crystal, 1991: 334)

Or it can be defined as that form or use of the verb which express action

or being not as a fact but as merely conceived of in the mind. (Baskervill

and Sewell, 1895: 189)

The word subjunctive means subjoined or joined as dependent or

subordinate to something else. This lexical meaning of the word is

misleading, because according to the meaning of the word it shows that

every dependent clause has its verb in subhunctive mood. There are some

dependent clauses with indicative and some other independent clauses in

subjunctive mood. (Ibid)

The formal mark of the subjunctive in the non-past is the absence of

inflection for the third person singular. In other words, the verb base is

used unchanged in all present forms for the non past subjunctive.(Quirk et

al, 1985: 155)

The subjunctive in the English language mainly has three categories

and uses, which are mandative, formulative and were-subjunctive. (Ibid)

Types of Subjunctive:


2.3.3.1 Mandative:

“This type is the most common one of subjunctive mood. It occurs in

subordinate that-clauses and consists of the base form of the verb only.

There is a lack of regular concord of the indicative between subject and

finite verb, and there is no difference between past and present.” (Quirk et

al, 1985: 156) For instance:

105- The committee proposed that oil prices be raised.

106- My requirement is that the system work.

It is clear that instead of writing (to be) just the base is used. In the

second instead of saying (works) only the base work is used. (Quirk et

al, 1985: 156)

When the main clause of a subordinate that-clause contains a verb like

(recommend, demand, propose, intend, order, require…etc) the sentence

will be in mandative subjunctive mood, for example:

107- They recommended that the president be re-elected.

(Quirk and Sidney, 1973: 51)

2.3.3.2 The Formulaic

This type of subjunctive like the mandative one consists of the base

form of the verb. This kind is used in a certain set of expressions, mainly

in independent clauses, for example


108- God save the Queen.

109- May God bless Iraqi people.

110- Heaven forbid.

The force which subjunctive conveys of an expression of will may also

be done by "let" or "may". This type tends to be formal and rather old

fashioned, in style, for example:

111- Be as it may, we have nothing to lose.

A type of subjunctive which is used for expressing wishes is called

Optative formulaic which may occur within Formulaic. (Lyons, 1968:

308). An example of optative:

112 - The Lord bless you.

2.3.3.3 The were-subjunctive:

This type is also called past subjunctive. It is hypothetical or unreal in

meaning, being used in adverbial clauses. It is introduced by conjunctions

such as “if, as if, as though, though” and in nominal clauses after verbs

like “wish” and “suppose”. This type is restricted to one form which is

(were), and breaks the rule of concord of the indicative verb (be) in the

first and third person singular of the past tense, for example:

113- If I were rich, I would buy you a doll.

114- Students wish the lesson were over.

(Quirk et al, 1985: 158)


2.4 Expressions of Modality:

In any language, there is a set of expressions used for expressing

modality. In this sense the categories tend to be defined semantically.

This means that a morpheme is classified as modal if it has a modal

meaning (epistemic, deontic). Since modal meanings are expressed by

various morphological, syntactic and lexical categories. (De Haan, 2004:

10). The following will be an attempt for listing the categories used in

expressing modalities.

2.4.1 Modal Auxiliaries:

The best known means of modal expression for speakers of English is

the modal verbs. In English modal verbs are auxiliary verbs as they are

used in addition to the main verb of the sentence, for example:

115- John must go to school.

116- John must be at school.

The modal verb "must" is used to show necessity on the (deontic

modality) and strong conviction of the speaker. The examples mentioned

above are instances of strong modality.

In the English language, there are expressions for weak modality too,

for instance:

117- John may go to school.


118- John may be at school.

The modal verb “may” denotes permission or possibility. These

examples are considered to be weaker in force in comparison to the

previous sentences in which the modal “must” is used. (De Haan, 2004:

11)

2.4.2 Lexical means:

There are less grammaticalized means and more lexical means of

expressing modality. In English these means are subdivided into the

following parts:

2.4.2.1 Modal adverbs:

In the English language, in some cases, modality can be expressed by

means of adverbs. The typical examples of modal adverbs are "probably,

possibly, necessarily and maybe". Some examples are:

119- John is probably at home.

120- Maybe John is at home.

121- John is supposedly at home.

What is to be noted here is that all modal adverbs in the English

language are mainly epistemic in nature. (Perkins, 1983:89)


2.4.2.2 Modal tags:

In the English language modal tags can be used for expressing

modality. Modal tags are "I think”, “I guess”, and “I believe.", for

example:

122- It is just your point of view, you know what you like to do in

your spare time I think.

Tags like "I think" are derived from clauses. They behave more like

modal adverbs. These tags can occur in all sentence positions. (Thomson

and Mulac, 1991: 313)

2.4.2.3 Modal particles:

In general modal particles are considered to be a common means for

expressing modality. But this method is not very common in English.

Modal particles are rarely found in British English but seem to become

more popular in American English, for instance:

123- Affective is too a word.

124- There is so a Santa Claus.

In these examples the words "too" and "so" can be paraphrased as

"contrary to what you thought". The first sentence can be interpreted as

"Affective is a word, contrary to what you thought" and the second

example as "There is a Santa Claus contrary to what you said." (De Haan,

2004: 31)


2.5 Modality and Tense:

This section deals with the relation and interaction between modality

and tense. Tense is commonly defined as the grammaticalized expression

of location in time. There are clear interactions between the area of tense

and that of modality. Since events in the future have not (yet) happened,

it is easy to see that there is a certain amount of uncertainty surrounding

them; hence, there is a connection between future and epistemic modality.

The future events are sometimes a category of real events and sometimes

a category of unreal events. There is a similar connection between

modality and the past tense. This seems at first to be somewhat

counterintuitive. The events happened in the past and one can be certain

about past events. Nevertheless the past tense is routinely used to express

notions of modality such as hypothetical and conditional notions of

modality. (Ibid: 34)

2.5.1 Modality and future:

Despite the fact that future events have not come to pass and the

speaker cannot know for certain that the events will occur there are

languages in which these considerations either do not play a role or in

which there is a choice between various future tense forms to denote

various shapes of certainty. The connection between modality and future

is that quite often future morphemes develop from modal (deontic) form.

This has happened in English when the modal verbs “will” and “shall”

were originally modal verbs. (Ibid: 35)

The relation between obligation/volition and future is that one can

only impose an obligation on someone to do something in the future.


125- You must go to school.

The sentence indicates that the action of going to school is necessarily

subsequent to the moment at which the obligation was uttered. (Bybee

and et al, 1994: 247)

2.5.2 Modality and past tense:

Hypothetical uses of modals, the past tense modals could, might, would

can be used in a remote or hypothetical sense in both main and

subordinate clauses.

a. I would help you if I could.

b. She might pass if she tried hard.

To refer to the past event; have + en is used.

c. I would have helped you if I had been able.

"There is one further feature that affects modal systems – the use of

past tense forms to express "uncertainty", "tentativeness", "potentiality",

etc. This often functions independently of mood, but may interact with

it." (Palmer, 2001: 13). These modal verbs have present and past forms:

Will; would

Can; could

May; might

"All three past tense forms can be used with past time reference, but

past time reference is not the most common function of the past tense

form. Rather they are used to express greater tentativeness." (Ibid:14), for

example:

126- He would be there now.


The English language is one of the languages that make a distinction

between real and unreal conditionals, for example:

127- If the children are here, John will be happy.

128- If the children were here, John would be happy.

The second example 128 expresses an unreal event or thing. While the

first one 127 refers to present situation, where the facts are known there is

a clear implication that the children are not there. So that John will not be

happy (the first sentence).

In the second 128 sentence, the implication is that it is unlikely that

John will be happy because it refers to a past condition. (Ibid)

2.6 Modality and Negation

This section looks at the interaction that exists between modality and

negation. It has been claimed by some scholars that negation by itself is

considered to be a part of modality. The reason for such a claim is that

negative constructions related to unreal events or states. (De Haan, 2004:

39)

In English there are two distinct methods (Palmer, 2001:90). The

following examples show the forms for epistemic possibility:

129- Jane may be at school.

130- Jane may not be at school.

131- Jane cannot be at school.


"With the use of the notions of possibility and necessity, it is easy to

explain the difference between the two types of negation. One is to be

intererpreted in terms of "possible not" the other in terms of "not

possible". With "possible not" it may be said that there is negation of

proposition, whereas with "not possible" there is negation of the

modality." (Ibid) So each sentence can be interpreted as:

132- It is possible that Jane is not at school. (may not) proposition

negated

133- It is not possible that Jane is at school. (can't) modality negated

In the previous examples 132 and 133 the distinction has been made

and it can be done by changing the verb for "not possible" using “can” in

place of “may”.

A similar distinction can be made between "necessity not" and "not

necessity." For example:

134- John must be at his office. (Necessity)

135- John can't be in his office. (Necessary not)

136- John may not be in his office. (Not necessary)

These are the same explanations used for epistemic possibility, but in

a reversed range.

This can be explained in terms of logical relation between possibility

and necessity, that "not possible" gives the same meaning as "necessary

not". Also "not necessary" gives the meaning of "possible not". In logical

terms:


- not possible = necessary not

- not necessary = possible not

So for expressing "necessary not", English uses the form for "not

possible" (can't) and for "not necessary" it uses the form "possible not"

(may not)." (Palmer, 2001:91)

In this way, in the English language, the negative for epistemic

possibility and necessity is made available by "may" and” can" forms.

In the same way the epistemic possibility forms supply the negative

forms for epistemic necessity.

"There are then, two characteristics of these negative forms, the use of

a different verb (CAN for May) and suppletion. These two features are to

be found with the deontic modals too, but in rather different way." (Ibid)

The possibility forms are illustrated by:

137- Jane may/can come tomorrow. Possible

138- Jane needn't come tomorrow. Possible not

139- Jane may not/ can't come tomorrow. Not possible

Examples of the necessity forms are:

140- Jack must come tomorrow. (necessary)

141- Jack mustn't come tomorrow. (necessary not)

142- Jack needn't come tomorrow. (not necessary)

What to be noticed here is that necessity is "primitive" in the deontic

modality. Not the same verb is used (NEED in place of MUST) for the

necessity forms and the form (Not necessary = needn't) the form (Possible

not) is used.


In case of having dynamic modality what is negated is only the

modality, for example:

143- He can't write two essays a day. "is unable"

144- He won’t leave. "is unwilling"

The notions of "is able not" and "is willing not" can be interpreted as

"able not to" and "willing not to".

"Why is that (may not) and (can't) have distinct analysis?" This is a

significant question to be asked. For (must not) and (needn't) the same

matter can be questioned. Modality is linked with modals, and these are

negations of modals. The analysis of the first pair is "not possible" and

the second pair can be interpreted as "not necessary". . (Palmer, 2001:

92)

Although there does not appear to be a consistent overall pattern for

negation in English, some scholars have looked for an explanation.

Cormack and Smith argue that the split between negation of the modality

and negation of the proposition, correspond mainly, but not entirely to

possibility and necessity.

While Coates (1983: 237) argues that it depends on the deontic

/epistemic distinction, with only deontic "mustn't" being exceptional. In

fact, the contrasts between epistemic “may not” and “can't” and

between deontic “mustn't” and “needn't” provide exceptions to both

views. The first view fails to account for “may not” (possibility with

modality). The second is contradicted not only by the exceptional

“mustn't” (deontic with negation of the proposition) and the same is true


of “shouldn't” but also by cannot (epistemic with negation of the

modality).


Chapter Three

Mood in Kurdish

3.0 Introduction:-

This chapter is devoted to mood in the Kurdish language. It is mainly

divided into five sections; the first section is an introduction to mood in

Kurdish. The second section focuses on the meanings of mood. The third

section is a presentation of a classification of mood. The fourth section

deals with the relation between modality and tense and the final section is

devoted to modality-negation relations.

The Sorany dialect is the official, literary, and journalistic language in

Iraqi Kurdistan region.

"The Kurdish language belongs to the north-western sub-group

of the Iranian languages, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Iranian

branch of the Indo-European family. Kurdish may have borrowed

heavily from Caucasian and Aramaic languages given certain

peculiarities which make it distinct from other Iranian languages.

Most of the ancestors of the Kurds spoke various languages of the

Indo-European family.

The original language of the Kurds was Hurrian, a non Indo-

European language belonging to the Caucasian family. This older

language was replaced by the Indo-European around 850 BC, with

the arrival of the Medes to Kurdistan .Nevertheless, Hurrian

influence on Kurdish is still evident in its ergative grammatical

structure and toponyms"

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_language)


It seems that studies about mood in the Kurdish language are few and

there are little works dealing with the subject. That it is why there are still

some controversy about the topic.

3.1 Previous Works:

Up to now, there are two works about mood in Kurdish. The first one

is an MA thesis entitled "Subjunctive Verbs of Suleimani Kurdish". It is

done in 2001 at Sulaimania University. The second one is a PhD

dissertation entitled "Mood in the Northern Kurdish/Bahdinany sub

dialect". It is done in 2005 at Saladdin University. The first one deals

with the subject semantically while the second one concentrates on the

subject syntactically.

3.2 Meanings of Mood:

To express meanings of mood in the Kurdish language, the speaker

has to resort to modal verbs. Here a question arises "Does the Kurdish

language possess modal verbs?" To answer this question one can consider

the following sentences:

145- Damawět bi-či-m bo bãzãr.

want I go (pre) I to marketr.

- I want to go to market.

146- Da-twan-im be-m bo lat.

able I come (pre) I to you

I can come to you


Or : Can I come to you?

147- Lawãnaya bitwãn-im sardãn-it bika-m.

May can I visit (pre) you I

- Is it possible for me to visit you.

From these examples it becomes clear that in the Kurdish language

there are not modal verbs.

In order give much more explanation about meanings of mood, the

features of modal auxiliary verbs in the Kurdish language must be

explained.

1- Modal verbs in the Kurdish language can co-occur in some cases, for

example:

148- Agar bikrět bitwan-im talafon-akat bakarběn-im

if possible …..

- I wonder if it is possible for me to use your phone.

These are verbs in the subjunctive mood, any verb in Kurdish can be put

into subjunctive mood.

In the if-clauses, a modal can be used in an imperative sense, as in:

149- Agar ziraki-t, bitwãn-a sarkaw-it.

If clever you, can you success you

- If you are clever, try to succeed.


2- All modal verbs in the Kurdish language have past forms; (wistim:

damwist, lawanayã lawãnabu:, dabe:t. dabuãya…etc)

Besides using the modal verbs in the Kurdish language for expressing

modality, adverbials like ( bagumãnawa “doubtfully”, řanga “may be”,

baškim “may be”) are also used, for example:

150- Řanga la mãĺ bět, bã bič-i:n bo sardan-i.

May be at home be he, let go us to visit him

-He may be at home, let’s pay him a visit.

(Bomba, 2000:79)

The meanings will be divided on the basis of intrinsic and extrinsic

modality. The meanings like possibility, necessity and prediction which

involve human control of events are classified under the title extrinsic

modality. The other meanings like permission, obligation and volition

which involve some kinds of human control over events are classified

under intrinsic modality. (Quirk et al, 1985:219)

3.2.1 Possibility:

There are different ways for expressing the meaning of possibility in

the Kurdish language, for instance:

151- Dakrět ěstã la maĺ bět.

There is possibility now at home be he

- It is possible that he is at home now.


152- Wãbizan-im la maĺ niya.

I think at home not be he

- I think that he is not at home.

Two kinds of possibility can be distinguished: factual and theoretical.

For expressing factual possibility in the Kurdish language ( lawanya,

ranga, daše ) “may be” are used.

153- Lawãnaya qutabxana-yak-man bo drust bik-an.

May school a us for build (pre) they

- They may build a school for us.

It is clear in the sentence that there are some intention for carrying out

some projects and the speaker has a hope that a school may be built for

them, so there is a strong possibility.

For expressing theoretical possibility in the Kurdish language

(datwanrět) is used, for example:

154- Datwanrět Qutabxana-ka nožan bikrět-awa.

School the can be renovate (pre)passive

- The school can be renovated.

Here the speaker just expresses what he thinks to be done without having

any plan in advance.


3.2.2 Necessity:

For expressing the notion of necessity in the Kurdish language, the

verbs (pěwista) and (dabět) are used. Here in this sense the speaker

(addresser) is confident of what he is saying. He thinks his sentence is

true or that it has a high degree of possibility to be true. After having

some information and observing some facts the speaker concludes

something and gives his feelings considering them to be facts. (Quirk et

al, 1985:224)

155- Pěwista Ãzãd la maĺ bět.

Must Azad at home be(pre) he

- Azad must be at home.

In this sentence the speaker might have seen Azad's car in front of his

house, or seeing that the lights are on at his house, concludes that Azad is

at home.

The verbs "dabe:t" and "pe:wista" can be used in sentences when there

is nothing to be mentioned about human control of an action, for

example:

156- Bo away draxt-aka jwan gaša bikãt, dabět řunãki la xor

warbigrět.

- For the plant to grow well, it must get light from the sun.


In the Kurdish language the use of "pěwista" is formal and used in

official documents while "dabět" is informal, for instance:

157- Pěwista gišt kirěkãrakãn katžiměr hašt bigan.

Must all workers o'clock eight arrive(pers)3rd pl

- All workers must arrive at 8:00 o’clock.

158- Dabět katžimer hašty bayãni bigai:t.

Must o’clock eight morning arrive (pres) you

- You must arrive at 8:00 o’clock am.

3.2.3 Prediction:-

In the Kurdish language there are some expressions used for

expressing prediction, such as “twãnin, lawãnaya, wã hast kirdin, wa

ba bi:r dãhatin, wa hãtina bar čaw, lawa ču:n, pěšbini:kirdin”

(Bomba, 2001: 158)

159- Barazil datwaně-t yari-aka bibãtawa.

Brazil can it match the win

- Brazil can win the match.

Here in this example “datwãnět” which means “can” shows the

speaker’s prediction about the match.


159- Wã hast dakam taqi kirdinaw-aka bibře.

I think exam the pass he

- I think he will pass the exam.

160- Lawa dačět bira bi-n.

It seems brothers be (pre) they

- It seems they are brothers.

The meaning of prediction can also be found with future forms,

for example:

161- Lawãnaya dway du: řoži:-tir bigařětawa.

May after two day other come back (pre) he

- He may come back after two days.

Here the verb (bigařětawa) which means (come back) used in the future

form and it expresses a kind of prediction which is expressed by the

addresser.

In some cases, an utterance may contain the meaning of prediction

especially when the speaker has some advance knowledge about the

sentence which has been uttered, for example:

162- Lawa dačět Zana bět. (Zangy talefon)

It seems Zana be (pre) he

- It seems to be Zana. (phone ring)


Here, the speaker has some knowledge in advance about the case that

Zana will call at that time.

3.2.4 Permission:

This notion of modal meaning in the Kurdish language can be

expressed by the modal ‘twani:n”. There are some other expressions

used to denote this kind of meaning such as “moĺat habun, řěgadãn,

moĺat dan”, for example:

163- Datwani-m walam bidamawa?

Can (pre) I answer (pre) I

- Can I answer?

Or another example:

164- Datwãni:-t katžiměr du: biroi:tawa.

Can (pre) you o’clock two go back

You can (are allowed to) go back at 2:00 o’clock.

165- Rěga haya běma žu:rawa?

Can come (pre) I inside

-Can I come in?

There is a point which must be mentioned here; in case of asking

permission in a polite way the past form of the verb is used preceded by

“agar” which means “if”. (Bomba, 2000:157), for example:


166- Agar řuxsat habuãya wala-m bidamawa čak bu:.

If could answer(pre) I good be (past)

- If there had been permission for me to answer, it was

something good.

In most of the cases just one expression which is "farmu:" is used for

giving permission in the Kurdish language, for example:

167- A) Datwan-i:n běina žu:rawa?

Can(pre) we come (pre) we inside

Can we come in?

167- B) Bale, farmun.

Yes, please.

3.2.5 Obligation:-

This sense of modal meaning shows how the addresser exercises

his/her authority over the addressee for carrying out an action. The

addresser obliges the addressee to do an action. (Quirk et al, 1985:225)

In the Kurdish language when the speaker tries to oblige the addressee

to do an action there will be the possibility of doing or not doing the

action. The process of attempting to oblige the addressee to perform an


action is to affect his/her feeling. Sometimes it reaches a threat that is

why it involves swearing and threatening, for instance:

168- Har dabět taqi kirdinawaka anjam bida-n.

No way must (pre) exam the do (pre) you

- No way, You must do the exam.

(Bomba, 2000:171)

The only modal verb which is used in the Kurdish language for

expressing obligation is “dabět”. When the speaker shows that he obliges

himself to do an action, he is exercising an authority over himself, for

example:

169- Dabět la du: rožda řaportaka tawaw bika-m.

must in two day report (the) complete (pre) I

- I must write the report in two days.

In some cases the speaker is not the authority, there are some other

external factors which oblige the addresser to act in a special way, for

example:

170- Dabet bayani zu: la xaw haĺstim la bar away dačim bo

Dihok.

must tomorrow morning early from sleep wake up (pre) I

because travel (pre) I to Duhok

- I must wake up early, because I am going to travel to

Duhok.


The factor which, obliges the speaker to wake up early is not from the

person, but it is from the fact that he is travelling somewhere.

3.2.6 Volition:

The process of using someone’s will in choosing something or making

a decision is called volition. In the Kurdish language the modal verb

(wistin), which means (want), is used for expressing intention, for

instance:

171- Damawět sardani-t bika-m.

want (pre) I visit (pre) you -~I

- I want to visit you.

The particles “ba tamãm and ba niyazim” which mean “intend” are used

to show or express intention, for instance:

172- Baniyazim ĥaftay dãhatu: sardãni-t bika-m.

intention I week next visit (pre) you (Obj) -~I (subj)

- I intend to visit younext week.

173- Batama-m zu: bigarěmawa maĺawa.

intend (pre) I soon go (pre) I home

- I intend to go home soon.

Willingness and intention are both expressed in the same way in the

Kurdish language.


For expressing insistence the particle (har) is used, for example:

174- Har dãbět běi-t.

Must come you

- You must come.


Mood in the Kurdish language is divided into three types. This

classification can be found in the recent linguistic studies such as "A

Generative Grammar of Kurdish" a PhD dissertation by Muhammad

Maruf Fatah in 1997 at Amsterdam University, and "Syntactic-Semantic

levels of language and Translation with Reference to English and

Kurdish" by Hussein Ali Wali in 2004 at salahaddin University and

"Mood in the northern Kurdish/Bahdinany sub dialect" by Baiz Umar

Ahmad in 2005 at Salahaddin university. The main types of mood are;

indicative, imperative and subjunctive. In some of the old sources like old

versions of Kurdish grammar textbooks for preparatory schools, there

was the fourth type which was "conditional" while in the new sources

conditionals are put within subjunctive.

3.3.1 Indicative mood:

Indicative mood is used either to declare or convey a logical meaning.

This type of mood is divided into two parts; declarative and interrogative.

The declarative sentences are used to declare events and things, while the


interrogative sentences are used to question about things. Indicative mood

is more common than other kinds of mood. (Ahmad, 2005; 3)

The interrogatives are classified within the closed system of

grammatical items. By using interrogatives the subject, object,

complement or the adverbial of a sentence can be questioned. "Ke" which

means "who" and "Chi:" means "what" are included within this system of

items. (Fattah, 1997; 181)

175- Ĉi: daka-y?

What do(pre) you

- What are you doing?

According to tense, indicative mood is divided into past and non-past

tense. The present tense declares an action which takes place during

speaking or will take place in the future. To form the structure of a

present tense the prefix (da) is put before the stem of the verb followed by

a personal ending (bound pronoun) (Ibid), for example:

176- Da-nus-im.

Asp-write-I

- I write.

The present tense of indicative can be used for the following purposes:

1- For an action happening during the time of speaking, for instance:


177- Ĉãwařwãn-ka wã dagařěm.

wait (imp) you now search (pre) I

- Wait, I am searching.

2- It can be used to denote a habitual activity. As in:

178- Aw yari topi pě dakãt.

He football play (pre) he

- He plays football.

3- This tense can be used for showing a scientific fact or truth, as

exemplified in:

179- Draxt-aka-n ba aw gaša dakan.

trees the by water grow (pre) they

- The trees grow by water.

4- To talk about an action that started in the past and is continuous

until now, for example:

180- Bist sãĺa la Halěr daži:m.

twenty year in Arbil live (pre) I

- I have been living in Arbil for 20 years.

5- It can be used to denote an action which will happen in future:

181- Bayani na-či-m bo kar.

Tomorrow not go (pre) I to work

- Tomorrow, I won’t go to work.


Non-past tense is divided into two times; present and future. In central

Kirmanji (Sorani) dialect of the Kurdish language, according to form,

there is no difference between the present and future forms. Both types

are expressed by using the same form of the verb. The distinction

between the two is made within a sentence or throughout using a set of

words. The adverbs are mainly used to make such distinctions. "In

Badinani dialect of the Kurdish language there are dissimilar forms for

each type. The prefix (di or da) is used with the future forms." (Haji

Marif, 2000: 197)

Since there is no morphological distinction between present and

future tenses, some expressions are used during speaking for making

emphasis on the present time, some of these expressions are "wa, awa,

esta, and hanu:ka, which mean 'now’ or ’soon’ ". These expressions are

mostly adverbials or adverbs, for example:

182- Ěsta děm.

Now come (pre) I

- I am coming soon.

For performing an action in the future the following expressions are

used " sibaině, bayãni, "tomorrow", du:sbai, or du:bayani "a day after

tomorrow", sãĺaki di:, "following year" hãwi:ne:, "in summer", "paš

mãwayak", "after a period of time". (Ibid: 198)

for example:


183- Saĺi dãdě taxaruj daka-m.

Year coming graduate (pre) I

- I will graduate next year.

Indicative past tense is used to express an action that happened

before the time of speaking. (Murphy, 1994:11) In the Kurdish language

there are four types of past tense:

1- Simple past (Immediate past): in which the past stem of the verb is

used followed by a suitable pronominal clitic, for instance:

184- Xwãr-d-im.

eat-past-I

- I ate.

185- Zor bãš-i xwěnd.

Very good he study (past)

- He studied well.

Simple past is multiple-purpose.

A- It can be used to denote an action that took place in the past, for

example:

186- Diz-aka-y kušt.

thief the kill he (past)

- He killed the thief.


B- It can refer to a future action in a subordinate clause, as in:

187- Katěk ka hati:, talifoni-m bo bika.

When come (past) you, phone (pre) you me

- When you come, phone me.

(Fattah, 1997:149)

2- Imperfect Past: this type of past tense is used to denote an action

that was continuous for a duration of time in the past. The structure

of past imperfect is formed by the prefix (da) added to the past

stem of the verb followed by a suitable personal ending, for

example:

188- Katěk ba sar pird-akada da-roiš-t-im, to-m bini:.

When on bridge the Asp-go-past-I, you I see (past)

- I saw you, when I was going on the bridge.

3- Relative past: this kind of past is used to denote an action that

happened in the past which still has result in the present moment.

This kind can be formed by using the stem of the verb followed by

the suffix "u:", for example:

189- Min la dast to řãmkirdwa.

I from you escape (past)

- I have escaped from you.


4- Past perfect: this kind of past tense has the meaning of a time

further in the past. That is why it is called (distant past) in the

Kurdish language. It can be formed by using the past stem of the

verb followed by the stem (bu:), for example:

190- Katěk to gaišti, min řoištbu:-m.

when you arrive (past), I go (past) I

- When you arrived, I had already gone.

"Word order is fixed in Kurdish declarative and interrogative

sentences. In "Wh" questions like that of English a question word comes

at the beginning of the sentence. In yes, no questions Kurdish uses "Ãyã"

and even the subject is optional". (Wali, 2004:83)

In the Kurdish language the order of interrogative sentences is the

same as declarative ones. There is no reversion of subject and modal

verb. Interrogative sentences in the Kurdish spoken language are shown

or expressed by intonation and pitch, (Bomba, 2000:84) for example:

191- Ãzãd hãtuwa?

- Has Azad come?

3.3.2 Imperative Mood:

The general meaning of imperative is to command or ask someone or

a group of people to do something. According to time, there are just two

types which are present and future. Imperative mood does not have a past


tense form. According to person it has just the second plural and singular

person and it does not have first and third person forms. (Haji Marif,

2000, 238)

The structure of imperative verbs is formed by using the stem of the

verb with the prefix (bi) and the suffix (a) for singular and (n) for plural

subjects, for example:

192- Bi-kiř-a.

Sub-buy-you(all)

- Buy it!

193- Bi-kiř-in.

sub-buy-you (plural)

- Buy! (= You "plural" buy)

There are some expressions used with imperative forms to do what have

been ordered in a polite way. Some of these expressions are "zahmat

nabět, gar ba ark na bět…etc", for instance:

194- Zaĥmat nabět am panjaraya dãbix-a.

please this window close (imp) you

- Please, close this window!

3.3.3 Subjunctive Mood:

Fattah (1997:146) states that subjunctive is "…. The degree of the

speaker's commitment to the truth of the proposition. …, those that

signal epistemic modalities range from certainty to possibility."


195- Xozga la tãqi:kirdnawaka sardakauti.

wish I in exam the successful be

- I wish you passed the exam.

Subjunctive mood in central Kirmanji dialect of the Kurdish

language is widely used. It is found in all tenses.

Present Subjunctive:

It can be used for expressing wishes, intention, ability, begging,

supplication, emphasis, encouraging, threatening, accepting, doubt,

hesitation, fear, condition …etc. The marker of present subjunctive is

the prefix (bi) which is attached to the present stem of the verb. (Haji

Marif, 2000:216)

The subjunctive form differs from the previous type of imperative

mood in the respect that it can be used with all persons, unlike

imperatives which can be used only with 2nd person singular and

plural. In this type of mood a sentence has to contain two verbs, in

which the second verb will not happen unless the first one happens.

That's why this mood needs two simple sentences to be expressed.

(Ahmad; 2005, 90)

196- Gar bixwěnit sardakawi:t.

if subjunctive marker study (pre) you succeed you

You would succeed, if you study.


The following are examples of the uses of present subjunctive in Kurdish:

197- Xwa bitparězě-t. (Supplication)

God (bi) subjunctive marker keep (pre) you

- May God protect you!

198- Xozga daxwazim Bařazi:l yãriyaka bibãtwa. (Wish)

wish (pre) I Brazil match the (bi) subjunctive marker win (pre)

- I wish Brazil won the match!

199- Yãxwã ba drěžãyi: žiyãnit har kamarãn bit.

- May you be happy all your life.

200- Har biži: sarok.

Long live the president.

The present subjunctive in most of the cases is used to refer to something

wished for to happen in the future. (Haji Marif, 2000: 221)

Past subjunctive: Fattah (1997:154) refers to four types of past

subjunctive:

1- Past simple subjunctive: this type of subjunctive is formed by using the

past stem of the verb preceded by the subjunctive marker (ba) with a

proper personal ending. It refers to an action in hypothetical situations, in

which a wish, or hope or an improbable event is presented, for example:


Past stem + ba + personal ending (pronominal clitic)

Xwend ba m = xwendbam

201- Gar xwěndiba-m dardaču:-m.

If study (past) subjunctive marker 1st sing

- If had studied I would have passed.

2- Imperfective past subjunctive: it can be formed by the past stem of the

verb preceded by (bi) and followed by (ãya).

Řambikirdbaya

Warmbigirtbaya

Bimkiři:bãya

202- Xozga kitěbaka-m lě warbigirtba(ya).

Wish book the form get(past) subjunctive marker

- I wish I had got the book from him.

The past imperfective subjunctive can be used to denote hypothetical

action, a situation continuous in past or hypothetical habitual actions, for

example:

203- Agar dwěně bimxwěndaya , ěsta ba tom na dawt pěm blě.

If yesterday (bi) subjunctive marker I study (past), now to

you not tell (past) I

- If I had studied yesterday, I would not have told you to tell

me.

(Ibid)


3- Relative past subjunctive: This type of past subjunctive is formed by

using the past stem with the subjunctive marker (bi) followed by a

suitable personal ending, for example:

Past stem + bi + personal ending

Xwend bi m

xwardibim

This type of subjunctive mood is used to denote hypothetical situations in

which a past event is still operative at the present time. (Fattah; 1997,

156)

204- Agar min xwãrdibi-m bo wanãlěm.

if I eat (past) subjunctive marker I why say (pre) I so.

- Why shall I not tell if I had eaten it?

205- Gar min birdib-im, Xwa siza-m bidãt.

if I take (past) subjunctive marker I, God punish (pre) I

-If I have stolen it, May God punish me!

4-Past perfect subjunctive: this type of subjunctive is formed by using

the verb stem with the stem of the verb be (bu:) with the affix (ba)

followed by a proper personal ending and then the optional suffix

(ãya) respectively.

Past stem + bu: + personal ending + ãya

This type of mood is used to refer to hypothetical situations in which the

action takes place at a time farther in the past in comparison to the


perspective of a known point of time already established in the past. It has

a closer relation to subordinate clauses. (Ibid)

206- Birya la bandixana azãd bu:waya, ja min diĺm xoš dabu:.

Wish in prison free (past) he , then I happy be (pre)

- I wish he had been freed from the prison, and then I would

have felt happy.

Past continuous subjunctive is used more than other forms of mood in

the Kurdish language and after that the relative past subjunctive. The

simple past is used rarely. (Haji Marif, 2000: 233)


Any morpheme holding a modal meaning can be classified as a

modal. The modal meanings are expressed through various

morphological, syntactic and lexical categories. (De Haan, 2004: 10).

These various means are as follows:

3.4.1- Modal auxiliaries:

One of the well-known ways for expressing modality is the use of

modal auxiliaries (De Haan, 2004: 12). In the Kurdish language there are

not ‘pure’ modal verbs because they act in conjunction with the

subjunctive mood of the verb, but still they contribute a lot to modal

expressing. A single auxiliary verb gives more than a modal meaning

depending on the situation they are used in, for example:


207- Dabět katžměr hašt la qutãbixãna bi:-t. (Obligation)

Must o'clock eight in school be (pre) you sing

- You must be at school at eight o'clock.

208- Ěsta dabět gaištběta qutabixana. (Prediction)

now must (pre) reach (pre) he school

- He must have reached school by now.

The meanings of modal auxiliary verbs and their contribution to modal

meaning have been illustrated in 3.2.

3.4.2 Lexical Means:

De Haan (2004:18) refers to a set of terms which he explains as less

grammaticalized and more lexical means for expressing modality. These

means can be found in the Kurdish language as they are in the English

language. These items are means other than modal verbs. The most

important types of these lexical means are:

3.4.2.1 Modal adverbs: In the Kurdish language modal adverbs are

used in some cases to give a modal meaning. Time adverbials are used in

a wider sense. Some adverbial modal expressions are (Injã, i:tir, aw ja,

paŝan, la dwãya). (Bomba, 2001: 137), for example:

209- Bã nãny ni:wařo bi-xoi:n pãšãn biro-i:n.

Let's lunch the subjunctive marker eat (pre) we then leave

(pre) we

- Let's have our lunch, then we will leave.


Some other modal adverbs are "běguman, ba diĺniaiyawa" (surely) and

"ba lãyani kam" "at least", for example:

210- Běgumãn datwani-m la du: rožda tawawy bika-m.

surely can (pre) I in two day complete (per) I

- Surely I can finish it in two days.

3.4.2.2 Modal tags:

According to De Haan (2005:19) there are some modal expressions that

show the speakers confidence about a subject. He calls these modal

expressions modal tags. These expressions are few in number and rarely

found.

Such kind of tags can not be found in the Kurdish language.

211- Wa-bizani-m du:šamay dahatu: dagarětawa.

I think Monday next come back (pre) he

- I think he will be back next Monday.

212- Way bo dači-m kobunaw-aka zu: tawaw na-bět.

I think meeting the soon not finish (pre)

- I think the meeting will not end soon.

3.4.2.3 Modal Particles:

Modal particles are considered to be a common means for expressing

modality. They contribute a lot to the subject of Mood in the Kurdish

language. The modal particles in the Kurdish language are in a very wide

range and that is due to the fact that these expressions are more lexical


than being grammaticalized i.e. they are other items rather than being

modal verbs (De Haan:2005:21). The most common modal particles in

Kurdish are " Aji:na, (otherwise), baĺku, baĺky, baĺka (probably), be:

away (without), xozga, birya, (wish), ta (until), da (let), nawak (lest),

harči: (whatever)." (Bomba, 2001: 134)

213- Palaka! Agi:na dařo-m.

Hurry up otherwise go (pre) I

- Hurry up! Otherwise I will go.

214- Ta bam šěwaya bi:r bikaitawa, har daidořěni.

Since in this way think (pre) you sing., lose (pre) you sing.

- Since you think in this way, you will lose.

215- Ja min či: bika-m aw xoy tambaĺa.

What shall I do (pre) I himself lazy be (pre)

- What shall I do, he himself is lazy.

3.5 Modality and Tenses:

Both modality and tense are two features of verbs in many language.

There is an interaction between the area of modality and tense. As tense is

divided into past and non-past tenses, future forms come first in this

interaction.

The future events have not happened yet, so there is uncertainty about

their occurrence. A future event might be real or unreal. Past events have

taken place and finished, there is no doubt about them. But in some cases


past tense can be used for denoting hypothetical and conditional notions.

(De Haan, 2005: 34)

3.5.1 Modality and Future:

In the Kurdish language there is no difference between present and

future in the morphological form of the verb. There are some lexical

means for distinguishing these two. Some adverbs of time like "wa ,

awa, ěsta" (now) are used to denote that an action is taking place during

the time of speaking. While others like " bayani, (tomorrow), dahatu:

(next), dwayi: (later), sãlakidi (next year) are used to denote future, for

example:

216- Kitěb-aka dakiřim.

Book the buy (pre) I

-I will buy the book

-or I buy the book.

There is no indication of when the action will take place; will it take place

now or in the future? Examine the following sentences after adding the

adverbs to them:

217- Wa kitěbaka dakiři-m. (Present)

now book the buy (pre) I

-I am buying the book now.


218- Bayani kitěbaka dakiři-m. (Future)

tomorrow book the buy (per) I

-I will buy the book tomorrow.

(Haji Maif, 2000: 197)

3.5.2 Modality and Past Tense

Kurdish modal verbs have both past and present tense forms such as:

"Damawět > wistim (want), twani:m > datwanim, (can), kirdim >

dakam (do)." Kurdish makes a difference between real and unreal

events.

219- Gar Karzan lera bet, dilxoŝ dabi-m. (Real)

if Karzan here be (pre) he, happy be (pre) I

- If Karzan is here, I will be happy.

220- Gar Karzan lera bu:aya, dilxoŝ dabu:-m. (Unreal)

if Karzan here be (past), happy be (past) I

-If Karzan had been here, I would have been happy.

3.6 Modality and Negation:

Modality and negation share some points i.e. there is a clear

interaction between them. Negation occurs in the Kurdish language as a

verbal category and has relation with modal meaning, because its scope

can extend to cover the whole sentence. (Fattah,; 1997, 149)


In the Kurdish language there are four negation markers (nã, na, ma

and ni). These negating markers always precede the verb stem.

The negative marker (nã) is only used with indicative past forms. In all

the cases whether the verb is simple or complex, transitive or intransitive

the negating marker precedes the verb stem, for instance:

-dakawim ----neg� nãkawim

-dařom ----neg� nãřom

Here we notice that the indicative marker (da) is left out when the

negating marker is added.

221- Min nãči-m bo qutabixana.

I not go (pre) I to school

- I don’t go to school. (or I'm not going to school.

(Haji Marif; 2000, 295)

The negative marker (na) is used to negate all forms of past and

present subjunctive forms. This marker replaces the conditional and

the subjunctive prefixes if they were present in the verb. (Fattah; 1997,

271)

Bixwěnim ----neg � naxwěnim

222- Gar naxwěni-m čon sardakawim.

if not study (pre) I how succeed (pre) I

- How can I succeed, if I don't study?


223- Gar na-m-xwend-ibe čon dem bo taqikirdinawa!

If not I study (past) how come (pre) I to exam

- How can I come to exam, if I hadn't not study.

In most Kurdish dialects (na) like (ma) can be used to negate

imperative sentences, for instance:

224- Naxoy.

not eat (pre) you sing.

- Don't eat!

225- Nakay!

not (do) pre you sing.

- Don't do it!

The negating marker (ma) is used to negate imperative sentences, which

means prohibition. This marker always replaces the imperative marker,

the prefix, (bi), for example:

bixo ----neg-� maxo

eat (pre) you sing. ----�� Don’t eat!

226- Kitab-akan ma-kiři-n!

books the not buy (pre) you pl.

- Don’t buy the books!


The last negating marker is (ni) which means (not). This marker

negates copular sentences and replaces "ha" which is equivalent to

(have) in a sentence in which there is verb to hhave (habu:n). (Fattah;

1997, 271)

227- Tananat ãwi:ŝ-man nia bi-xoinawa.

even water we haven't drink (pre) we

- We don’t have even water to drink.


Chapter Four

A Comparison between Mood in English and Kurdish

4.0 Introduction:

This section deals with a comparative analysis of mood based on the

information presented in chapters two. This chapter will try to focus on

the points of similarity and difference.

4.1 Meanings of Mood

There is a universal linguistic fact that both languages divide modal

meaning on the basis of human control over events. In case when there is

human control over events, there would be intrinsic modality. In other

cases when there is not human control over events, extrinsic modality

exits.

In English language the modal verbs do not co-occur. (see 2.2)

In the Kurdish language all modal verbs have past tense forms but the

same thing can not be true with the modal verbs in English language. The

modal verb must has no morphological past tense form. Another point is

that only the modal could is used to refer to past events, while the past

forms of the modals in English do not refer to past though they have past

forms.


4.1.1 Possibility:

In the English language there is a clear cut distinction between factual

possibility, and theoretical possibility. Factual possibility is expressed by

the modal verb (may) and the theoretical possibility is expressed by the

modal verb (can), and sometimes (could and might). (Leech and

Svartvik, 1975: 128)

4.1.2 Necessity:

This notion of modal meaning of necessity is expressed by the modals

(must and have to) in the English language and (pěwista) which means

(it is necessary) in the Kurdish language. In both languages, this notion of

modal meaning expresses a conclusion of what the speaker has in mind

about a specific subject or state.

In both languages a sentence expressing necessity can not be negated

by adding negative markers to the verbs. The negative marker (not)

cannot be added to (must) to negate the sentence because this will cause a

change in meaning and the same thing is true with the sentences in the

Kurdish language. Adding negative marker (nã) to the verb will not

negate the sentence nor maintain its modal meaning. Both 'cannot' in

English and 'nãkrět' in Kurdish are used to retain the modal meanings

and negation.

In the sense of being formal “pěwista” is equivalent to “have to” that

expresses a formal necessity, while “dabět” like “must” is more personal.

(see 2.2.2 and 3.2.2)


4.1.3 Prediction:

In the English language the modal “will” is used for indicating futurity

and in most of the cases futurity holds the meaning of prediction. Since in

the Kurdish central Kirmanji dialect there is no indicator of future time or

future and present forms are expressed by using the same verb form.

Prediction will not be expressed by future verb tense. (see 2.2.3)

4.1.4 Permission:

It can be noticed that in English the modal “can” which is used for

asking permission is equivalent to the Kurdish modal “twãni:n” which

has the same function asking permission. (See 2.2.4 and 3.2.4)

In the Kurdish language in case of asking permission in a polite way

the past form of the modal (twãni:n) is used. While in the English

language the use of (could) as the past form of the modal, “can” does not

make the same sense.

In the English language the modals “may” and "might" are also used

to express permission. While in the Kurdish language there are some

particles used to express the same sense, some of these modal particles

are; “molat haya” and “ruxsat haya” “Is there permission?” (See 2.2.4

and 3.2.4)


4.1.5 Obligation

In the English language the modal “must” is equivalent to the verb

“dabět” in the Kurdish language to denote obligation. The modals

“must” in the English language and “dabet” in the Kurdish language

give the meaning “obliged to” “načari:t”.

In the English language there is a difference between what is personal

and impersonal obligation. That the modal “have to” is used to denote a

formal and impersonal form of obligation. While no modal verb or modal

particle in Kurdish can be found to make such difference. (see 2.2.5 and

3.2.5)

4.1.6 Volition

It can be noticed that in both languages understudy the meaning of

volition is expressed. Volition is divided into three sub categories while

in the Kurdish language such a classification does not exist.

In the English language the modal verb “will” is used to express all the

senses of volition, while in Kurdish the modal verb “wistin” which means

“want” is used to express the meaning of intention. (See 2.2.6 and 3.2.6)


In the English language there are three broad types of mood;

“indicative, imperative and subjunctive”. The same types are in Kurdish.


4.2.1 Indicative Mood:

In both languages, indicative mood is classified into declarative and

interrogative.

The two languages share the point that they use interrogatives to ask

about subject, object, complement or adverb of a sentence.

In the English language there is a difference between the structure of a

declarative and an interrogative sentence. In an interrogative sentence and

especially a yes-no question the place of subject and auxiliary verb is

reversed. While in the Kurdish language, the structure of both sentences

is identical. Intonation and pitch play a significant role in forming yes no

questions.

In the English and the Kurdish languages the indicative structure,

according to tense, is divided into past and non-past constructions. The

non-past includes present and future.

While in the Kurdish language, the present and future are not distinct

through the form of the verb. There is not any modal verb to indicate

future meaning. That is why some adverbials are used to denote future

time.

4.2.2. Imperative:

It is a known fact that imperative constructions are used to make

commands or prohibitions. In both languages imperative sentences can

only be used with non-past tenses and it cannot be used with past tense.


According to person, imperative mood can only be used with the

second person. In the Kurdish language it can be used with both singular

and plural second person. There are some affixes that are attached to the

verb and make the distinction between the singular and plural. (see 2.3.2

and 3.3.2)

While in the English language, the subject of an imperative sentence is

not present but it is implied. The commands are directed to the second

person and in the English language; only one person i.e. which indicates

both plural and singular can be used.

In the English language, in some cases an auxiliary verb precedes the

main verb as in: “Be listening to our radio station the same time

tomorrow evening”.

While in the Kurdish language such a form does not exist.

In both languages there are exceptions in that the subject of an

imperative sentence can be the third person singular, as in:

(See 2.3.2and 3.3.2)

4.2.3 Subjunctive Mood:

The use of subjunctive mood is still preserved in both languages. It is

used in the two past and non past tenses. But it has a wider use in the

Kurdish language and there are lots of forms and structures for expressing

it. While in the English language it is used in a narrower range.

In the English language subjunctive mood is divided into past and

present. The present one is subdivided into mandative and formulative.

The past subjunctive is also called the were-subjunctive. The present


mandative subjunctive is used to express recommendation, demand,

proposal, intention, order and requirement. The formulative subjunctive is

used for making supplication and prayers. The past subjunctive is used to

give unreal or hypothetical meaning. (see 2.3.3)

The same classification of subjunctive mood is found in the Kurdish

language that it is divided on the basis of past and present subjunctive.

What can be noticed is that there is a wider use of subjunctive in the

Kurdish language. The present subjunctive is used to express wishes,

intention, ability, begging, supplication, emphasis, encouraging,

threatening, accepting, doubts, hesitation, fear, condition…etc.

The past subjunctive is used to denote hypothetical events, situations

an conditions in the past or hypothetical habitual actions. Or it can be

used to denote hypothetical situations in which a past event is still

operative at the present time.


The two languages under study make use of a set of syntactical and

morphological items to express modality.

4.3.1 Lexical Means:

In both languages under study, there is more than a way for using

lexical means in expressing modality. (See 2.4.2 and 3.4.2)


4.3.1.1. Modal Adverbs:

The modal adverbs used in the English language are adverbs of

frequency, while those used in the Kurdish language are time adverbials.

(see 2.4.2 and 3.4.2)

4.3.1.3 Modal Particles:

Modal particles are rarely used in English. While in the Kurdish

language, they are used in a very wide range.

4.4 Modality and Tense:

As a grammatical fact, in both languages the two areas of modality

and tense interact with each other. The future events are described to be

real or unreal since they have not occurred yet. The past actions are

described as hypothetical or conditional sense of modality.

4.4.1 Modality and Future:

In the English language, the interaction between modality and future

can be noticed but it is not something outstanding. When the modal verb

“must” used to give the meaning of obligation, its meaning extends to

cover future time.

In the Kurdish language the lexical means play a vital role in the

interaction between the two areas of modality and tense. The use of some

adverbial to denote future time makes the interaction between modality

and future much more clear. (See 2.5.1 and 3.5.1)


4.5.2. Modality and Past Tense:

Both languages share the point that their modal verbs have past forms,

except for the English modal verb “must” which does not have past form

tense.

In both languages, past tense can be used for describing hypothetical and

conditional events. The two languages also make distinction between real

and unreal conditionals. (See 2.5.2 and 3.5.2)

4.6 Modality and Negation:

What is obvious in this field is that there is an interaction between

modality and negation in both languages under study.


Chapter Five

5.0 Conclusions

Throughout the study these points have been concluded:

1- In the English and the Kurdish languages mood is divided into

three main types, which are; indicative, imperative and subjunctive.

2- Modality is expressed via modal auxiliary verbs in both

languages under study.

3- In both languages studied, modal meanings are divided on the basis

of human control over events.

4- In both languages the notion of necessity can be expressed when

the speaker gives a conclusion of what he has about a specific

subject or state.

5- Modal verbs are used to express the meaning of permission in the

English language, but in the Kurdish language along with the

modal verbs there are some other modal expressions used to

express the meaning of permission.

6- The modal meaning of obligation is used in case when the

addresser obliges the addressee to do an action. The English

language makes difference between personal and impersonal

obligation while in the Kurdish language these kinds of obligation

cannot be realized.

7- The use of subjunctive constructions is fading out in the English

language and they are used just in a limited set of formal

expressions, but in the Kurdish language it has still preserved its

usage in a wider range.

8- There is an interaction between the area of modality and tense on

one hand, and between modality and negation on the other hand.


5.1 Suggestions for Further Studies:

The researcher suggests for further studies to be done on the related

topics to mood. Making further studies on subjunctive will be of great

importance because it is widely found in the Kurdish language.

Further studies can be done on other verb features like tense and

aspect.

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Bomba, Runak M.Ali. (2001). (Kirdãry Wist w Ãrazu la Zmãny …………………….Kurdy) "The Subjunctive Verbs ". Unpublished ……………………..M.A. thesis Sulaimania …………………….University. Boyd, Julian and J.P. Thorne. (1969) “The Semantics of ……………………………….Modal Verbs”, Journal of ………………………………Linguistics 5 pp(57-74.

Bybee, John, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. (1994). ………………………….The Evolution of Grammar: Tense …………………………..Aspect, and Modality in the ………………………….Languages of the World. Chicago: ………………………….University of Chicago Press.

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De Haan, Ferdinand (2004). Typological Approaches to …………………….Modality. Unpublished dissertation, University …………………….of Arizona.

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