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Chapter 2
Sociological Investigation
Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence• “Poor people are far more likely than rich
people to break the law.”• “The US is a middle-class society in which
most people are more or less equal.”• “Most poor people don’t want to work.”
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Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence• “Differences in the behavior of females
and males are just ‘human nature.’ ”• “People change as they grow old, losing
interests as they focus on their health.”• “Most people marry because they are in
love.”
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Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation• Scientific sociology
– The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior
– Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with our senses
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Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation• Interpretive sociology
– The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world
• Critical sociology– The study of society that focuses on the need
for change
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Causation
• Cause and effect– A relationship in which change in one variable
causes change in another• Types of variables
– Independent: variable that causes the change – Dependent: variable that changes (value
depends upon the independent variable)
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Causation
• Correlation– A relationship by which two or more variables
change together• Spurious correlation
– An apparent, false, relationship between 2 or more variables caused by some other variable
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Scientific Sociology Terminology
• Concepts–Mental construct; represents some part of the world in a simplified form
• Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case
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Scientific Sociology Terminology
• Measurement–Procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
• Operationalizing a variable– Specifying what’s to be measured before
assigning a value to a variable
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Scientific Sociology Terminology
• Reliability–Consistency in measurement– Does an instrument provide for a consistent
measure of the subject matter?• Validity–Precision in measuring exactly
what one intends to measure– Does an instrument actually measure what it
sets out to measure?
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Correlation Does Not Mean Causation• Conditions for cause and effect to be
considered– Existence of a correlation– The independent (causal) variable precedes
the dependent variable in time.– 3rd variable is not necessarily responsible for a
correlation between 2 original variables
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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Scientific Sociology Terminology
• Objectivity– Personal neutrality in conducting research
• Value-free research– Sociologists as dispassionate & detached
• Replication– Repetition of research by other investigators– Limit distortion caused by personal values
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Limitations of Scientific Sociology
• Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions
• The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied
• Social patterns change• Sociologists are part of the world they
study, making value-free research difficult
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Gender and Research
• Androcentricity– Approach topic from a male-only perspective
• Gynocentricity– Approach topic from female-only perspective
• Overgeneralizing– Using data collected from one sex and
applying the findings to both sexes
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Gender and Research
• Gender blindness– Failure to consider the effect of gender at all
• Double standards– Different standards to judge males & females
• Interference– Occurs when a subject reacts to the sex of
the researcher, interfering with research operation
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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ethical Guidelines for Research
• Must strive to be technically competent & fair-minded
• Must disclose findings in full without omitting significant data – And be willing to share their data
• Must protect the safety, rights, and privacy of subjects
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Ethical Guidelines for Research
• Obtain informed consent; subjects aware of risks and responsibilities and agree
• Must disclose all sources of funding & avoid conflicts of interest
• Must demonstrate cultural sensitivity
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Sociological Research Methods
• Experiment–Research method for investigating cause & effect – Under highly controlled conditions
• Hypothesis–Unverified statement of a relationship between variables – An educated guess
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Sociological Research Methods
• Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment
• Hawthorne effect–Change in subject's behavior – Caused by the awareness of being studied
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Steps in the Ideal Experiment
• Specify dependent/independent variables• Measure the dependent variable• Expose dependent variable to
independent variable• Re-measure dependent variable to see if
predicted change took place– If no change, modify hypothesis & re-test
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Control
• Be certain the change in the dependent variable was due to the exposure to the – Independent variable, the researcher must
keep constant other factors that might intrude• Make experimental & control groups
– Experimental: exposed to independent variable; Control: is exposed to a placebo
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Survey Research
• Population– The people who are the focus of the research
• Sample– Part of the population represents the whole
• Random Sample– Draw sample from population so every
element has an equal chance of selection
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Questionnaire
• Closed-ended & Open ended:– Closed: A series of fixed responses; easy to
analyze but narrows range of responses– Open: Free response; broadens responses;
harder to analyze• Most surveys are self-administered; pre-
testing can avoid costly problems.
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Other Research Methods
• Interview– A series of questions that a researcher
administers in person• Participant observation
– Investigators systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities
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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Interplay Between Theory and Method• Inductive logical thought
– Transforms specific observations into general theory; “increases” from specific to general
• Deductive logical thought– Reasoning that transforms general theory into
specific hypotheses suitable for testing• Deduction “decreases” from general to specific
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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ten Steps In Sociological Investigation• Select and define topic• Review the literature• Develop key questions to ask• Assess requirements for study • Consider ethical issues
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Ten Steps In Sociological Investigation• Select a research methodology• Collect the data• Interpret the findings• State conclusions• Publish the findings
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.