Macross 2050 RPG: Sourcebook 3 - Galaxy

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ourcebook 3

Galaxy



About this book

This is the third sourcebook for Macross 2050. This book contains the

information about any groups not covered in the previous two sourcebooks, as well asinformation to create new star systems to explore and colonie.

Chapters!reface

"hapter # $ "ivilians

"hapter 2 $ %aw &nforcement"hapter ' $ The (nti)*+

"hapter $ "riminals - The lack Market

"hapter 5 $ The /alaxy +etwork

"hapter $ "ompanies and Manufacturers"hapter 1 $ ports - &ntertainment

"hapter 3 $ !lanets and "olonies

"hapter 4 $ estiary

"hapter #0 $ The a6ra"hapter ## $ /alactic 7aards - %iving in pace

"hapter #2 $ ol ystem"hapter #' $ tar ystem "onstruction

"hapter # $ (liens

PrefaceThe Milky 8ay /alaxy is very large, and filled with billions of stars. &ach of

those stars has the potential for planets, and those planets the potential for signs of life.8hether such a planet has active life or 6ust the ruins of past civiliation, many lessons

may be learned. 7umanity was brought to the brink of extinction in the blink of an eye,

and now with their 9entraedi brethren, they will spread out into the stars to form a newtellar :epublic. ;nly this time, pray we learn from the mistakes of the !rotoculture.

Chapter 1 – Civilians&ven in a game of mecha combat, the average civilian is still a ma6or part of the

story. "ivilians fill the role of providing services, manufacturing goods, coloniing

worlds or 6ust living. ometimes a civilian is forced into the role of becoming a hero

<7ikaru =chi6yo started as a civilian stunt pilot after all>. /ood examples of civiliansinclude %ynn Minmei, (kiko 7o6o, Myung ?ang %one, /uld /oa owman, heryl

+ome, :anka %ee, (lto aotome and +ekkei asara.

ome civilian templates can still work with a military group by buying the

Membership perk. This can represent such characters as a stellar archaeologist whoworks with the *+ pacy, members of a private military contractor, or a mechanical

engineer that is willing to do repairs for an anti)*+ group. !rivate military contractors

fall into this group.

"ivilian $ asic "olonist@Aoe (verage

This includes the multitudes of non)s pecialied colonists and civilians found throughout



the galaxy.

SkillsB Crive, "omputer ;peration, Mathematics, choose skills to represent their

profession <only # skill may be DdifficultE>

"ivilian Media $ =nvestigative :eporter@8ar "orrespondent

The media will always be a part of humanity. This includes all types of credible reporters

as well as shady individuals who write for the trash tabloids.

SkillsB "redibility, (wareness@+otice, "omposition, 7uman !erception, ocial, !hoto -

?ilm, =nterview

"ivilian /ang Member $ ikers@!unks@&tc.

This group includes a lot of 6uvvies who donFt fit well into societyG bikers, gangs,

boosters, dealers, etc.

SkillsB treetwise, Motorcycle, Melee or 7andgun, =ntimidation, !ick !ockets or

%ockpicking, rawling, (wareness@+otice

"ivilian $ tellar (rchaeologist

tellar archaeologists study ancient !rotoculture ruins as well as other ancient planetary

phenomena to learn more about the ancient past. Many work alongside the ;?.

SkillsB 7istory, (rchaeology, (nthropology, :elicology, (wareness@+otice,

Mathematics, :esearch

"ivilian $ Mechanical@&lectrical &ngineer

This includes civilian contractors such as iggers@"hrauler, "entinental "orporation andhinsei =ndustries as well as the average Aoe running a car repair shop.

SkillsB Aury :ig, Mathematics, "omputer ;peration, choice of T&"7 skills

"ivilian $ cientist

This includes members of the scientific community. They could work with the *+

government or be individual researchers.

SkillsB Mathematics, :esearch, "om puter ;peration, choice of =+T and@or T&"7 skills

"ivilian $ Medic

!rivate physicians, hospital staff and other specialists.

SkillsB Med Tech, (wareness@+otice, Ciagnose =llness, !athology, :esearch,!harmaceuticals, 7uman !erception

"ivilian $ !ilot

This includes anyone from commercial shuttle pilots, delivery drivers and even flight tour



guides.

SkillsB (stro)+avigation, Mathematics, :adio "ommunication, !ilotB pacecraft,

+avigation, (stronomy

"ivilian $ :eligious

Mainstream religious leaders, cult leaders and the like.

SkillsB :eligion, &xpert <choice based on religion>, 7istory, "harismatic %eadership,

ocial, !ersuasion, =nterrogation

"ivilian $ !rivate Military "ontractor

*se appropriate templates from ourcebook ;ne, but apply Membership or :ank

to the military provider group rather than the *+. Heep in mind most civilian military providers have &xception "lause that states Dwhen the parent government enters into

war, members may not refuse orders to fight nor may they resign their commissionE.

Chapter 2 – Law EnforcementThis chapter covers law enforcement groups and has a listing of typical

punishments for various crimes. Military police are covered in ourcebook #.

Galax Patrol

The /alaxy !atrol is a 6oin venture of the &arth *nited +ations and its allied

planets to patrol the space surrounding the colonies. The /alaxy !atrol searches for rogue9entraedi@Meltrandi fleets, smugglers, ships in distress or any other threats and@or

problems. Members of the /alaxy !atrol receive training in basic mecha skills and

military@police protocols and tactics.ecause the planet of 9ola is so peaceful, the branch of the /alaxy !atrol

stationed on 9ola has the primary duty of stopping poachers from killing the galacticwhales that pass by the planet every year during their migratory cycle.

The /alaxy !atrol draws its members from *+ pacy military as well as civilians

who want to 6oin. /alaxy !atrol mecha are almost always armed with non)lethal weapons

<see Tech Manual>. (lthough the /alaxy !atrol is a subsidiary of the *+ pacy, it hasenough autonomy to perform its functions without needing much supervision.

There are approximately '5 /alaxy !atrol fleets in service as of 20, each being

roughly the same sie. &ach fleet has approximately (rk :oyal &scort "arriers,

"lemenceau "lass tealth ?rigates and #0 +orthampton "lass tealth ?rigates. (lso, 20of these fleets are lead by a +ew Macross "lass attle "arrier. <y 2050 increase the

number of fleets to 0, with 2' lead by +ew Macross carriers.>

%aw &nforcement $ /alaxy !atrol

The /alaxy !atrol often works with the *+ pace +avy to protect *+ controlled and

allied space from criminal activity and minor 9entraedi disruption.

SkillsB (uthority, 7andgun, (thletics, 7and)to)7and, =nterrogation, treetwise, choice of

Mecha !ilotB ? or !ilotB pacecraft



Police ! S"A#

(lmost all colonies, Megaroad@Macross class colonial ships, and space stations

have a local police force. These police are not much different than those of the late 20th

"entury, although they have access to better technology and they have the power and

authority to do their 6ob without fear of being sued for every little thing.

( subsection of the police is 8(T, who receive anti)terrorist training and useheavier weapons and armor than standard police. 8(T personnel are typically

authoried to use deadly force to bring down terrorists.

%aw &nforcement $ !olice

This includes the standard police force, plain clothes cops and private security forcesmaintained by large companies.

SkillsB (uthority, 7andgun, 7uman !erception, (thletics, 7and)to)7and, =nterrogation,treetwise

%aw &nforcement $ 8(T

8(T and other anti)terrorist groups receive extensive training for the purpose of taking

down rebel 9entraedi and other violent criminals.

SkillsB tealth, (thletics, &xpertB "ounter)terrorism, Tactics, (utomatic 8eapons, 7and)to)7and, choice of 7andgun, :ifle - hotgun, 7eavy 8eapons

Police $ank <' ;! per rank>

:ank # $ !oliceman

:ank 2 $ enior !oliceman:ank ' $ !olice ergeant

:ank $ (ssistant =nspector :ank 5 $ !olice =nspector :ank $ uperintendent

:ank 1 $ enior uperintendent

:ank 3 $ "hief uperintendent

:ank 4 $ uperintendent upervisor :ank #0 $ uperintendent /eneral

+ote that any given police organiation will not have more than one person of

each rank above 3. !layers shouldnFt advance beyond :ank 5.

"rime - !unishment

( listing of typical crimes and their suggested punishments. (ll punishments referto a #st offenseG increase the duration@fine by 25)50I for each additional offense <except

in cases of life incarceration or death penalty>, excluding Minor "rimes.

"rime !unishment

Minor "rimes# #) weeks 6ail time and@or a fineTheft, Ma6or 2 )2 months 6ail time

Theft, /rand2 #0)'0 months 6ail time

=llegal ?irearm !ossession )3 months 6ail time



Criving *nder =nfluence <C*=> 2)3 weeks 6ail, fine, license revoked

Manslaughter, *nintentional ')2 months 6ail time

Manslaughter, =ntentional %ifetime sentenceiolent "rime' 5)#5 years 6ail time <#dJ>

iolent "rime with a warmachine' )0 years 6ail time

?inancial "rime

2)3 years 6ail time and@or fineTreason5 Ceath by firing sKuad or spacing

&cological "rime 5)'0 years 6ail time and fine

"ybernetics3 ariable/alactic 8hale !oaching )# months 6ail time

muggling, lack Marketeering1 )20 years 6ail time and fine

Theft, *se, or ale of :eaction 8eaponry5 Ceath by firing sKuad or spacing

# $ =ncludes such things as vandalism, traffic violations, public indecency, shoplifting of

minor ob6ects and most other gang mischief related crimes. =nstead of incarceration, the

sub6ect may be fined an amount from #00 to 2000 credits. Minor theft <less than 500

credits value> may be fined up to five times the value of the stolen goods, either in placeof or in addition to incarceration time.

2 $ Ma6or theft includes all properties with value from 500 to #0,000 credits. (nythingabove this amount goes into grand theft.

' $ iolent crimes include, but are not limited toB armed robbery, taking a hostage,

assault with a deadly weapon, rape, assault - battery, DdomesticE terrorism <drive)byshootings and such> and attempted homicide. *se of a mecha or other combat)capable

vehicle increases the length of incarceration.

$ ?inancial crimes include embelement, fraud, and other crimes involving finances

other than direct robbery. Typically these crimes face a time of incarceration as well asrestitution of up to ten times the amount of credits in Kuestion.

5 $ This includes being a member of an (nti)*+ group. This may be reduced to lifetime

incarceration if the defendant is proven to have been a non)violent member or pressedinto service unwillingly. ome colony fleets space criminals instead of using a firing

sKuad.

$ 8ith the importance of terraforming and coloniing a new world, environmentalissues become very important. The illegal dumping of toxic substances, planetary debris,

and scrapped mecha@capital ships is highly prohibited outside of designated sites. This

carries a heavy fine of up to millions of credits as well as a mandatory period of

incarceration.1 $ *nless it pertains to reaction weaponry, then it becomes Treason.

3 $ "ybernetic legality varies between colonies and fleets. The penalty for breaking local

law will usually include a fine and banishment from said colony@fleet or removal ofimplants if it not extensive.

Chapter % – #he Anti&'(8hen the =nspector (rmy gunship crash landed on outh (taria =sland, the

governments of the &arth were locked in a civil war. The realiation that humans are not

the only life in the galaxy, and obviously not the most advanced, made many of thegovernments 6oin together to form the &arth *nited +ations. +ot everyone liked the idea.





together in an asteroid belt. They are big enough of an outfit to actually distribute a

catalog of what they have or can get.

"ivilian $ muggler@Cealer

This includes individuals who deal in contraband of one form or anotherG either moving itor selling it.

SkillsB treetwise, "oncealment, =ntimidation, !ersuasion - ?ast Talk,

(wareness@+otice, 7andgun or Melee, Codge - &vade

( longstanding tradition from before pace 8ar = survived and was rebuiltG the

Mafia. Through use of the /alaxy +etwork, the mafia families are able to maintain

communications and conduct business as normal. The DmodernE mafia includes remnantsof the old yakua and triad groups that were preserved on the C?)# from Macross =sland

as well as those who rebuilt the =talian families. The mafia does dealings with various

smugglers and black marketers as well as maintaining legitimate business fronts.

"ivilian $ Mafia usinessman

This includes any of the DgentlemenE of the family and those who have authority within

the Mafia.

SkillsB (uthority mafiaN, treetwise, 7uman !erception, =ntimidation, (ccounting,

?orgery, &xpertB "riminal /roups

"ivilian $ Mafia Thug

This group includes the drivers, leg)breakers, bodyguards, assassins and cleanup experts

that work for the Mafia.SkillsB 7andgun, Crive, (wareness@+otice, Codge - &vade, :ifle - hotgun or

(utomatic 8ea pons, =ntimidation, "oncealment

Chapter , – #he Galax (etwork The /alaxy +etwork started out as an information network established by *+

pacy to keep all of the colonies and fleets in contact with each other for Kuicker

distribution of information. &ventually it evolved to include a civilian broadcasting

network for music, news and entertainment $ not unlike cable T of the late 20th century.Many bands and singers try hard to make it on the /alaxy +etwork "hart <think

MT Top #0>. (fter the rapid rise of popularity for the band known as ?ire omber, the

music scene has been almost overrun with bands trying to grab their #5 minutes of fame.There have also been some copycat bands trying to imitate ?ire omber <such as ritish

omber and ?ire omber (merican> $ and becoming popular regardless.

=n 205)20 there are many bands and singers regularly broadcast on the /alaxy +etwork $ ?ire omber, amboo)road &xpress, (lice 7oliday, ?laschakaya, !ower of

Tower, ?ascinate Miles, Metarism, Tomo "herry pring, 8ild 7oney, Hamal 7aaar,

%ark kybeauty, !anther, Caniel (kkerman ;rchestra, Hing and Oueen, and Mosaic $

and of course classics like %inn Minmei and haron (pple. &ven the distant world of



9ola broadcasts its 99+HO 9ola radio station on the /alaxy +etwork. =n 201, both

ritish omber and ?ire omber (merican get their songs on the /alaxy +etwork

despite being copycats.The irtual +et is a part of the /alaxy +etwork, broadcasting educational

material to the colonies and fleets so the children of the colonists can receive schooling.

The /alaxy +etwork also has many of the same features and uses as the =nternet of thelate 20th "entury.

Galax (etwork Chart #op 1- <on #@2#@20># $ (lice 7oliday </alaxy>

2 $ ?ire omber <weet ?antasy>

' $ %ynn Minmei <(ngelFs !aints>

$ ?laschakaya <ecause that is the ?uture>5 $ !ower of Tower </roove (long>

$ Metarism <Crive the (9 7ighwayP>

1 $ haron (pple <anti)*>

3 $ Tomo "herry pring <Cebut &arthB irthplace>4 $ Caniel (kkerman ;rchestra <Mark TwainFs %overs>

#0 $ ?ire omber <!lanet Cance>

Galax (etwork *est Selection

# $ ?ire omber <:ock Qn :oll ?ire>2 $ ?ire omber <Hoi no Mahou>

' $ Hamal 7aaar <Meditation>

$ 8ild 7oney <lack)8hite>

5 $ %ark kybeauty <Luureisen ( !hantom hip> $ ?ire omber <%ove ong>

1 $ !anther <;re /a ubete Ca>

3 $ Milky 8ay </alaxy reee>4 $ ?ire omber </oodbye>

#0 $ ?ire omber <!illow Cream>

## $ %ark kybeauty <7alation>#2 $ ?ire omber <7ello>

"ivilian &ntrepreneur $ !roducer@Manager

This includes individuals such as (kiko %ips and others who either promote, maintain or

otherwise back a singer or band.

SkillsB (wareness@+otice, 7uman !erception, "omposition, ocial or eduction,

!ersuasion - ?ast Talk, 8ardrobe - tyle, !ersonal /rooming

"ivilian &ntertainer $ inger@and Member@=dol@(ctor

This includes those who perform either as amateurs or as professionals. This includes

singers, bands, actors and dancers.

SkillsB "harismatic %eadership, (wareness@+otice, !erform, 8ardrobe - tyle,



"omposition, !lay =nstrument, Cance or (cting

.amous *an/s0Siners

%ynn Minmei $ &ven 0 years after her debut, several of MinmeiFs songs remainfamousG Co Lou :emember %ove and (ngelFs !aints in particular <the song that stopped

the 9entraedi and her last song, respectively>. Cr. "hiba was inspired by MinmeiFs songsto create his sound energy theory.

haron (pple $ Cespite the fact she was a virtual idol, and that she tried to take

control of Macross "ity, a few of haronFs songs remained popularG particularly = 8ant

to be an (ngel, anti)* and =nformation 7igh.

Hing and Oueen $ ( lesser known band that is reminiscent of the 20 th century band Oueen or R Aapan.

Mosaic $ (nother lesser known band that specialies in techno.

(lice 7oliday $ he is well known for her love ballads. efore the rise of ?ireomber, (lice held the S# spot on the /alaxy +etwork "hart for several months.

?ire omber $ Their fame and songs will be well known for ages. (fter the

arauta@Macross 1 war, there were several copycats, such as ?ire omber (merican.Milky Colls $ This is a group consisting of five female idol singers. They were

captured by anti)*+ forces on Auly 2', 201 and then rescued by *+ special forces.

heryl +ome $ The Dgalaxy fairyE is a #1 year old singer on the Macross /alaxyfleet in 2054. he maintained the S# spot for fifteen weeks straight.

:anka %ee $ ( young girl on the Macross ?rontier fleet who earned the nickname

of D/alactic "inderellaE by becoming a rival to heryl +ome from out of nowhere.

.amous +anaers

%ynn Haifuun $ (ctor and cousin of %ynn Minmei. 7e worked as her promoter

and manager during the rebuilding in 20#0)20##. 7e then later went on to become

manager of ?ire omber (merican aboard the Macross ## fleet.(kiko 7o6o $ he works under the moniker of (kiko %ips. he promoted ?ire

omber, officially./race ;F"onnor $ Manager responsible for DcreatingE heryl +ome.

&lmo Hridanik $ Manager and owner of ector !romotions. 7e brought :anka

%ee into the spotlight.

Chapter – Companies ! +anufacturersThis chapter details some of the companies and manufacturers of the destroids,

variable fighters and other technologies. eing mostly democratic, the +ew *nitygovernment allows free enterprise and business, although they do have more control over

costs for commodities that are essential to life <such as medical care> and place severerestrictions on technology that is too dangerous for the open public. Many corporationscater specifically to the *+ government.

"ivilian &ntrepreneur $ "orporate@=nvestor

These are the leaders of big money corporations and industriesG those who makeexecutive decisions and deals with potential customers.



SkillsB tock Market, 7uman !erception, :esearch, ocial, !ersuasion - ?ast Talk,

8ardrobe - tyle, (wareness@+otice

+a3or Corporations

%isted here are some of the largest and more well known companies in the

Macross saga. eing associated to one of these big companies costs 2 ;! per :ank.

;T&" $ This was the original group founded in #444 to reverse)engineer the

!rotocultureFs gunship that landed on outh (taria =sland. =t was ;T&" that designed the

thermonuclear reactor engine, the pinpoint barrier system and the hyper)alloy materials

for their armor. They also developed reaction weaponry.

tonewell)ellcom $ Ceveloped the ?)0@?)#, ?) and the Cestroid M: - 78:

series.

hinnakasu $ "o)develops the ?)5000 with tonewell)ellcom. efore merging with

tonewell)ellcom, hinnakasu was the leading manufacturer of thermonuclear turbineengines.

( heavy =ndustry Manufacturer that managed the reaction engines in the ?)#s

development. The core products are wide ranging, from aircraft and space ships up untilautomobiles. !opularity is high among old car enthusiasts for such things as hinakasus

sports cars and the :ed =mperial, which were released before the ?irst =nterstellar 8ar.

There is a theory that this enterprise was incorporated during the reorganiation of

Aapans main domestic industries in the confusing period of the falling of the ()#, the*nification 8ar and so on.

/eneral /alaxy $ ?ounded by ex)science officer of the 9entraedi oddole 9er fleet,

(lgus elaa, their first pro6ect given to them by *+ pacy was the design anddevelopment of the ?)4 "utlass, and later the ?)#1 +ightmare. Curing !ro6ect uper

+ova, they offered the L?)2#. /eneral /alaxy specialies in developing stealth fighters.(n enterprise that was born from the amalgamation several companies with

;T&", who had born the burden of implementing ;vertechnology. /eneral /alaxy

developed the L?)2#, which had fought against the L?)#4 to be the next version of the

main craft. /eneral /alaxy is the rival of hinsei =ndustry.

hinsei =ndustries $ This company was formed from the merging of hinnakasu and

tonewell)ellcom in 20#2. Ceveloped the ?)## Thunderbolt and ?)#. Curing!ro6ect uper +ova, they offered the L?)#4 designed by Lang +eumann. They went on

to create the L?)2. They are sometimes listed as hinsei 7eavy =ndustries.

+orthrom /rumman $ Ceveloped the ()' =nvader. "o)developed the ) with

hinnakasu. pecialies in heavy bomber technology. (lso developed the Masamune

battroid.

Mikoyan $ This company co)developed the ()2 with +orthrom /rumman, and the

()# with /eneral /alaxy. pecialies in stealth bomber technology.



Messer $ This company co)developed the ?)# with /eneral /alaxy.

iggers - "hrauler "orporations $ Manufactures of heavy destroid and heavy weaponry

technology. Cesigned the 78: technology.

(fter the ()# fell, the human race who knows of the existence aliens, startedthe development of anti)giant humanoid weapons. Curing that, even though a lot of

enterprises were participating, iggers existed centrally among them. The Monster, as

well as such things as the Tomahawk, Cefender and so on, which were put into the ?irst=nterstellar 8ar, were developments of this company. iggers is considered to have

originally been the military vehicles department of an armaments development enterprise

that became an independent business.

"entinental "orporations @ Hransman /roup $ (nother destroid manufacturer

conglomerate. Cesigned the parta and partan. "o)develops the Cehawk and Monster

with iggers@"hrauler. pecialies in M: robotics.

( manufacturer that 6ointly developed the 78:)00)Mk.== Monster. The partanwas also developed by this company. &ven though it seems to have originally been an

automobile parts manufacturing industry, "entinental also had something to do with thedevelopment of the ?)#.

7ughes "orporation $ !rimary manufacturer of /* <gun unit> weapons for variablefighters.

:aytheon =ndustrial $ This is one of the leading manufacturers of missile technology,

sometimes working with ifors and &rlikon.

ifors "orporation $ (nother producer of missile technology.

&rlikon $ (nother producer of missile technology as well as high)power ballistic

weapons for mecha.

Mauler =ndustries $ ( company that produces energy weapon technology, including

lasers and particle beam cannons.

:amington $ ( company that primarily makes mecha ballistic weapons, and someexplosive components for missile warheads. !roduced the mecha)scale hand grenade

used by the ?)# /! unit.

(stra 8eaponry =ncorporated $ This group exclusively deals with multi)weapon modules

used by various destroid units.

;rguss Manufacturing "onglomerate $ This group designed the ?);)#( ;rguss

alkyrie as a heavy combat mecha that combined the roles of the variable fighter and the

destroid. *nfortunately the design had inherent flaws and not many units were made.



C?)# ;nboard 8eapon ?actory $ +ot truly a company, the onboard factory produced

the !halanx and Maverick, and made designs for the !C)# tampede.

Macross "onsortium $ 8hile not truly a company, the Macross "onsortium is the *+Fs

own science group, composed mostly of civilian contractors. They have been involved in

the development of many different pro6ects, including the virtual idol haron (pple.

Macross 1 cience /roup $ (gain, not a true company. %ead by Cr. /adget "hiba, they

devised the sound energy theory and developed the ound &nergy ystem, oundooster, and ound uster "annon technologies.

Macross /alaxy ariable ?ighter Cevelopment (rsenal </uld 8orks> $ The Macross

/alaxy designed and produced the ?)21 and had extensive research into cybernetics.

%.(.=. $ This group has a hand in the Macross ?rontier fleet, and funds the .M.. group.

They developed the ?)25 and ?)24, 'rd generation space fold booster, MC& warheads

and anti)a6ra particle beam weapons. =t is headed by a macronied 9entraedi named:ichard irla. The .M.. originated as a private escort service for his merchant ships,

and was around before 200 <date they received ' ) units>.(n integrated mechanism manufacturer whose location is placed in the Macross

?rontier ?leet. The company works with such things as the ?)use &R)/ear /)proof suit

and the fold Kuart using inertia control system, =". %.(.= is bound to the +ew *nified?orces with a licensing agreement in the armament manufacturing field, and it also

performs such things as the specification change and production of every kind of

armament. The ?)25, the next version main ?, is due to %.(.= development.

The acronym appears to stand for %uca (ngeloni =nstitute.

kylab $ (n emergent interstellar food service enterprise that deals with an extensive

range, from biotechnology to family restaurant management. =t came up out of a coffeeshop on &den.

istula - ;der $ ( well)established interstellar transportation company whose parent body was an ;T&" ;TM research public corporation. istula - ;der is known strongly

in such things as shipbuilding aimed at civilians and the passenger realm. They serve as

the primary banking institute onboard the Macross ?rontier.

Tachyon - &xpress $ ( 9entraedi enterprise whose business was expanded from an

express home delivery company by Hwadoran after the ?irst =nterstellar 8ar. They have

an established reputation in high)speed transport of small)sied cargo.

8itchcraft $ This is a restricted medical company on the Macross /alaxy that caters to

the /alaxys military forces. They produce the drug that heryl takes to suppress herType) infection.



Chapter 4 – Sports ! Entertainment +ot all entertainment in the 2#st "entury is virtual. Many traditional sports remain

popular, such as baseball, soccer and basketball. ( new sport was developed onboard the

Macross 1 fleetG Tornado "rush.

#&Crush 5#orna/o Crush6=n late 205, onboard "ity 1, a new form of sports was created. T)"rush was

developed as a DgladiatorialE style sport, combining track racing with hand to hand

combat.=n T)"rush, two teams of ## members, wearing air blades <hover boots> race

around a track. !oints are earned by the number of runners of the opposite team behind

the D(E runner <(ce :unner>. ;vertaking #0 at a time will double the score to 20, lappingthem twice will double the score further. 7owever, the main attraction is really the

fighting between the two teams.

!ositionsB

# $ (ce :unner, typically specialies in sprinting2 - ' $ :unners, typically specialies in marathon running

$ %ead (ttacker, has the best speed and combat balance5 - $ (ttackers, typically the stronger fighters

1 $ %ead locker, has the best endurance and defense

3)## $ lockers, typically specialies in grappling or tripping

:ough !lay attle $ the opponent is in a suit of armor, which uses the Mind ystem that

causes stun damage, for the purpose of H;Fing the opponent for a #0 count, while thechallenger has light armor and air blades. The player can also lose if his air blade

batteries die.

The Truth about T)"rushThe cover is that T)"rush is a competitive sport reKuiring endurance, hand)eye

coordination and lightning reflexes. The sport was presented to recruit potential pilots

with those traits. =n reality, the 9entraedi, even to this day, are having trouble coping withcertain human emotions. This Mind ystem is actually DstealingE emotions from the

players by taking spiritia from the players.

The 9entraedi were created to unemotionally fight any opposition that theircreators told them to fight. 8ith the culture shock induced by the humans, with great help

from Minmei, the 9entraediFs innate emotions were awakened. ecause they did not have

emotions for so many thousands of years, they donFt have the full range of emotions that

humans have, or at least they donFt recognie them as such. y taking spiritia from T)"rush players $ full of excitement, competitive need, and the thrill of victory $ the

9entraedi are attempting to get back in touch with their militaristic history, believing the

have become DsoftE and incapable of fighting an enemy force properly. This spiritia has proved addictive to the 9entraedi.

=n March of 205, 9entraedi blooded arauta soldiers infiltrated the Macross 1

fleet. =n late 205, with the help of collaborators in the fleet, they present the T)"rushgame as a way to collect the desired DtypeE of spiritia.



"ivilian $ T)"rush !layer

T)"rush players have a good mix of endurance, speed and agilityG supposedly traits that

make them potential ? pilots.

SkillsB 7and)to)7and or rawling, (wareness@+otice, Codge - &vade, :unning,/ymnastics, (thletics, !ersonal /rooming

lades $ !rovide a flight speed up to M( 5 <Mekton)scale>. The batteries provide '0minutes of flight time. The air blades can also be used for leap dodging, granting a J5 to

their defend roll to dodge. &ach use for dodging uses # minute of battery power.

/)8rists are wrist bracers that produce electrical resistance directly to the muscles tomake it as if the runner is wearing weights over his whole body. <)' to all C&R rolls>

7an8uish

=n 205#, the racing of restored@overhauled variable fighters became a popularsport, combining precision flight handling with battroid combat. Thus was anKuish

racing born.ehind the scenes, several large producers of variable fighter technology,

including the +*+, participate in anKuish racing through proxy racers, to test out the

newest technology in Ucontrolled practical combat situationsU. This is done to gather data

for the further development of their fighters, and incidentally falls into Ublack marketUclassification.

=n 2053, the 1th anKuish race for the 7oshiten "up is held onboard the Macross

/alaxys :iviera)class ocean ship.

"ivilian ) anKuish :acer

This template is for anKuish racers who do not come from a military background. Those

who are@were military pilots should use their original template.

SkillsB Mecha !ilotB ? eries, Mecha "ombat, Codge - &vade, (wareness@+otice,

Mecha 8ea ponry, &ndurance, +avigation

Many traditional sports remain popular. (mong these are baseball, basketball, pro

bike racing and swimming@diving. (fter pace 8ar =, many macronied 9entraedi pickedup interest in sports as an outlet for their need for physical competition. 9entraedi

naturally gravitated to boxing and wrestling, and macronied Meltran pro)wrestling

gained a great deal of popularity. The 9entraedi also have an underground full)contactcompetition for macronied warriors known as u)Cai <while this term originates in

:obotech, Macross 1 showed effidas and another macronied 9entraedi Ustreet

fighterU>.

(nother relatively new <revised> sport is "osmo ike :acing. This is much liketraditional motorcycle races except it uses hoverbikes in space.



Macronied Meltran !ro 8restling

"ivilian $ !ro ports

This includes all other professional athletes, both micronied and macronied.

SkillsB (thletics, !ersonal /rooming, (wareness@+otice, &ndurance, ?irst (id, 7uman!erception, choice of ports, trength ?eat, /ymnastics, Crive or 7and)to)

7and@8restling@Martial (rts <pick>

(side from sports, many other venues of entertainment exist, ranging from

traditional to modern. Movies and concerts are still Kuite popular. Macross CL:% showsa type of holographic amusement where people stand on platforms to have pre)

programmed holograms of various clothing displayed over their bodies.

Macross ?rontier shows that many Aapanese cultural arts are still around,including kabuki, noh, origami and iaido. =t also seems that every colony fleet has at least

one "hinese restaurant, complete with waitresses in short)skirted "hinese dresses.

Chapter 9 – Colonies an/ Planets&arth was nearly annihilated in 20#0 by /org oddole 9erFs fleet, being reduced

to a little over 100,000 people <including survivors on the moon base and orbital colony

clusters>. *+ pacy implemented a human preservation plan through coloniation ofnearby planets, launching one or two coloniation fleets per year.

(ll together, there are somewhere between '0 to #00 colonies, and several

hundred *+ bases spread throughout the galaxy. &ach colony or colonial fleet isconsidered to be an independent sovereign political body under the *+ charter, and will

have their own local laws in most cases. (ncient ruins, believed to belong to the

!rotoculture, have been found on # planets by 2054.

#he Last #ransmission from Lnn +inmei: +earoa/&-1 .leetURL

minmei l (g)megaroad 1.ga.un/ >>>>> ACCESS COSMONET MAIL NAVIGATOR

To everyone on dear Earth,



In the sea of stars that dazzles the eye, there's a vast, deep,

open jet black hole. A beautiful, yet heartrending enigmatic melody

flows from the depths of the dark hole that fills the center of the

galaxy. Is this music merely a natural development, or does intelligent

life live on the other side of that dark hole? In order to confirm

what's causing it, we who boarded the Megaroad, after wavering in the

center of the galaxy, have decided to start on a risky journey into

unknown space. What really waits in the darkness of this dark hole?

Nobody knows if we'll be able to return to this galaxy again.

However, as long as there is "something" there, I think I'll

change songs of hope into light, and will willingly go.

July 7, 2016 AD (Thurs)

With love, from the center of the galaxy,

Lynn Minmei

minmei l (g) 1.ga.un/

"olony ?leet "lassifications

Short-Distance Colony Fleet $ Megaroad classG used to find colonies within #00 light

years of their planet of origin

Long-Distance Colony Fleet $ +ew Macross classG used to find colonies beyond #00 lightyears of their planet of origin

Super Long-Distance Colony Fleet $ pecialied fleets used to find colonies at extreme

ranges and near the galactic core <Macross ?rontier, Macross /alaxy>

;nown Colon .leets

Megaroad # $ "ommanded by Misa =chi6yo)7ayase, launched in 20#2 from earth and

reported lost in 20#. +o trace of the fleet is ever found, and the loss of the fleet is kept

secret from the public for almost four years. (lso lost with this fleet are 7ikaru and Miku



=chi6yo, %ynn Minmei and rlitwhai. The Megaroad # mission was to explore and

colonie near the galactic core, despite &xsedolFs warnings to stay away from that area of

the galaxy. ?ootage in the opening of Macross ?rontier clearly shows the Megaroad #fleet going rim)ward until 20#, then turning core)ward until 2020)ish, and then turning

towards the galactic west. The last letter from Minmei <above> implies they found a

wormhole and traveled well beyond communications range, or were destroyed by thegalactic cores supermassive black hole.

Megaroad 2 $ %aunched in 20#2 from earth and heads directly galactic east.

Megaroad $ %aunched in 20#2 from earth and colonies planet &den later that year.Megaroad $ %aunched from earth and heads into the galactic west, deep into what is

believed to be the tellar :epublic core systems.

Megaroad 4 $ %aunched from earth and heads towards the galactic rim.

Megaroad #' $ %aunched in 20#4 from earth to investigate the planet :ax as a possiblecolony <see below>. The fleet arrives in the arauta system in 2025 and are sub6ugated by

the barely)aware /epernich.

Megaroad 2 $ Cestroyed during construction in May 2024.

Megaroad 25 $ Cestroyed during construction in May 2024.Megaroad 23 $ uccessful coloniation in 20'.

Macross # $ %aunched from earth and heads towards the galactic rim in eptember 20'0.Macross $ "olonies the planet ephira, 5th planet of the %aramis star system in 20''.

Macross 5 $ %aunched in 20' from earth to investigate the arauta system and to

colonie :ax. The fleet arrives in the arauta system in 20' and are defeated by thearauta &mpire and then sub6ugated by the !rotodeviln after awakening /epernich and

/igile. The Macross 5 fleet has a large percentage of 9entraedi colonists <all 9entraediV>.

%isted as destroyed in eptember 205 along with the planet :ax.

Macross 1 $ This is the '1 th colonial fleet, launched in 20'3 from earth to find a suitable planet near the galactic core despite warnings from their advisor, &xsedol ?orma. The

fleet encounters the arauta &mpire in 205, and after the first few battles discovers the

truth of their enemy and the fate of the previous fleets. The !rotodeviln@arauta aredefeated in 20. The Macross 1 fleet is commanded by Maximillian Aenius, with Miriya

Aenius as "ity 1Fs mayor. This fleet has the secondary duty of expanding the /alaxy

+etwork in that region. %ast seen active in deep space near 9ola in 201.Macross 4 $ %aunched from &den and heads towards the galactic +&. %ocation of

Macross /eneration storyline.

Macross ## $ %aunched in 20# from &den and heads towards the galactic &. The

Macross ## fleet is completely &nglish speaking. 7ome of ?ire omber (merican andtheir manager %ynn Haifuun, claiming that ?ire omber stole all of their songs, despite

their obviousness as a copycat band. The Macross ## fleet is mentioned in the radio

dramas played on 99+OH 9olan :adio +etwork in the M1 Cynamite ;( and showsup in the last episode of Macross ?rontier. %ast seen active in deep space in 2054.

Macross #' $ %aunched in 20' from &den and heads towards the galactic +&. 7ome to

ritish omber, a cover band who translated many of ?ire omberFs songs into &nglishand receive a good amount of fame. %ater, the flagship is captured by the lack :ainbow

terrorist group and modified for an assault on *+ main headKuarters in 205# <attle #' is

destroyed ?ebruary #, 205#>.

Macross #5 $ %aunched from &den and heads towards the galactic core.



Macross #1 $ %aunched from &den and heads towards the galactic east.

Macross #4 $ %aunched from &den and heads towards the galactic 8.

Macross 20 $ %aunched from &den and heads towards the galactic east.Macross 2# <Macross /alaxy> $ %aunched from &den in 20'# as part of the 4th large)

scale coloniation fleet, and heads towards the galactic core near the Macross ?rontier

fleet. They have no 9entraedi population. They are the leaders in cybernetic technology by 2054. The fleet is virtually destroyed by the a6ra, with their battle carrier destroyed

over the a6ra homeworld by attle ?rontier and Macross Ouarter. %isted as destroyed in

eptember 2054 over the a6ra homeworld.Macross 2' $ %aunched from &den and heads rim)ward towards the galactic 8.

Macross 25 <Macross ?rontier> $ %aunched in 20# from earth as the 25 th Macross class

colonial fleet, and the 55th super long)distance coloniation fleet. &ncounters the a6ra

near the galactic core and barely makes it to land on the a6ra homeworld. ?rontierstands out as having a completely natural environment within the main island ship.

uccessful emigration to a6ra homeworld in eptember 2054.

WW Les, according to all of the official Macross information the Macross 2# <Macross/alaxy> launched )before) even the Macross , 1, ##, 25 and so forth. The Macross 25

<Macross ?rontier> launched the same year as Macross ##.

Colonies an/ Places of <mportance

Many of these colonies and places are only mentioned in passing in the Macrosssaga, and others are from the various Macross console games. (s such, there is minimal

information regarding many of them.

Local Group

The local group consists of those colonies and bases within #00 lightyears of

&arth. =t includesB

/roombridge #3# 7elios &denN(cheron

(valon

(vemariaanipal

ellfan

eneb tar ystem

"ristraniaCahan

7ydra

=ota +eo Lork

+ew (sia

alvationusia

*eon/ the Local Group

#02. %LG ase Magic Mirror



?)R2 Mission

##1.# %LG 7urt system!rotoculture :uins <huge empty cave full of blue !rotoculture gack>

#23.1 %LG (rea (:323'200?)R2 Mission

#1.1 %LG 7yde "ity?)R2 Mission 2,

Earth

&arth hosts a series of colony clusters in orbit. The planet earth still has someareas that remain inhospitable after the bombardment of the oddole 9er fleet in 20#0.

Macross !lus showed that the earth has a veritable defense grid of killer satellites

and capital ships to protect the homeworld of humanity from further invasion fleets. (s

such, there are approximately '000 capital ships and over '000 automated attacksatellites surrounding earth <as of 200>, including several rebuilt 9entraedi capital ships

armed with heavy particle beam cannons.(laska is the location of the main headKuarters of the *+, in Macross "ity where

the C?)# remains as the central office. The /rand "annon remains a slag pit.

&agle +est (erial Tactics "enter is located on earth as well. &agle +est is themost prestigious flight training center, and produces many ace pilots each year. Curing

the late 20'0Fs to early 200Fs, ace Meltran pilot Miriya Aenius was the head instructor of

this instillation.

Macross "ity



"onstruction of the city started in 20#0 after the defeat of oddole 9er, and

continued to expand over the next couple decades. (t the core of the city is the Macross

which sits in Macross %ake <a heavy particle beam cannon crater that filled up with waterfrom the ocean>. The old Macross was overhauled in 20#2 and left in torm (ttacker

configuration for use as the main *+ /overnment headKuarters. The city is easily the

largest city on earth, and possibly the largest in *+ controlled space.=t is from here that all other *+ bases on earth are coordinated. Macross "ity is

the hub of all commerce, technology and information on earth.

Mayan

Mayan was where the ancient !rotoculture artifact was discovered on the ocean

floor near the island in 2003. The people of the island lived a peaceful life free from

disease, shame, poverty, or most problems found in large cities. The people themselvesare believed to be the most pure)blooded descendants of the original !rotoculture

colonists that visited earth long ago. The tribe passes down a position of the high priest@priestess who maintains the oral tradition of telling the legends of the Dbird manE

and protects the island from kadun <spirits of anger and fear>.

Mayan is a solitary island in the outh !acific ;cean, near (ustralia.

outh (taria =sland



This was the original island to the south of Aapan where the ()# originally

landed and was rebuilt. ;ver the ten years of research and rebuilding of the spacecraft, a

large city grew up around the construction site. The entire island and city was left in orbitaround !luto in 2004 when the C?)# attempted to space fold while in earthFs

atmosphere. =t sits in the same location as outh =wo =sland near Aapan in the real world.

+oon

The moon has 2 ma6or military landmarks $ the (pollo ase and the /rand

"annon =. There is also Moon :iverside "ity located here. The moon also has severalshipyards and mecha production facilities.

(lso in orbit is the !rotoculture automated weapons factory that was captured

from the 9entraedi late in 20#0. =t has been refitted to build ?)##s <and eventually the

?)#4>, automated weapons satellites and other capital ships. ;ver the last decades, ithas been rebuilt and refitted, and is home to a good portion of macronied 9entraedi

workers who are uncomfortable on earth. =t is located at the %unar %agrange !oint.

7enus The heat, pressure and acidic content of the atmosphere prevents current

coloniation on the planet itself. "olonists live in orbiting colonies such as 7enry eggstation.

+ars

The Mars base ara was eventually rebuilt and is now fully functional again. 7./.

8ells "ity is also located on this planet. Mars remains a largely military industrial colonythroughout the saga.

=upiter

The actual planet cannot support any settlements, however, there are severalheavily radiation shielded colony clusters in far orbit around the planet, including 8hite

?lora tation, Miranda tation and rangogne tation. There are also military bases on

several of the moons, particularly on &uropa 1. ?ollowing suit from other sci)fi :!/s, the



Aovian region is likely to be a heavy industrial and mining area with facilities having

heavy radiation shielding.

Saturn

(s with Aupiter, any settlements are orbiting colonies such as :ed 8oods tation.

(eptune

(gain, orbiting colonies such as /rande avoie tation.

Pluto

!luto has no real bases, but has several long distance sensory arrays for early

warning of invading fleets. The remains of outh (taria =sland remain in orbit and are

sometimes visited as a historical site.

E/en

&den was the first planet outside of the ol system colonied by humans after

pace 8ar = by the Megaroad fleet. The planet was named &den for the fact it wasnearly perfect, having no ma6or deserts or wastelands. Most of the planet is lush plains

and forests. &den is located ##.1 light years from the olar ystem in the /roombridge#3# tar ystem. irtual =dol haron (pple held her debut concert here in 200. &den

has 2 small moons.

This colony is home to the +ew &dwards Test ?light "enter, a military testingground for prototype variable fighters. =t is here that the !ro6ect upernova of 200 was

held.

>ola

The planet 9ola is a verdant planet in the ega Ouadrant. The northern

hemisphere is mostly mountains and barren, rocky wastelands covered with overlappingcraters. The southern hemisphere, however, is lush forests and oceans. 9ola is an

agricultural planet, and the 9olan people are in touch with nature. There is virtually no

pollution, and the technology is roughly the eKuivalent of earth in the #410Fs. The planet

has no moons, but rather has a crude ring of asteroids around it, being closer to a north tosouth ring instead of near the eKuator <approximately 5 degrees tilt from the eKuator>.

9olan architecture appears semi)organic in design, not unlike 9entraedi.



The core of the planet contains a very powerful life energy <possibly a spiritia

storage planet>, which affects the planet in two ways. ;ne is that the group of galactic

whales pass close to the planet every year to draw off some of the energy of the systemFssun to continue their migratory cycle across the galaxy. econd is that there is a series of

hot springs that tap that energy, healing anyone who bathes in them.

(nother interesting feature is the whale graveyard, where every 5,000 years thegalactic whales pass by to deposit their dying into the graveyard $ which may be what

gives the planet its life energy. Those whales who live to 1,000 years of age enter the

atmosphere and circle the graveyard to be absorbed into it, restoring the energy reservesand causing new whales to be created. <More information about the galactic whales in the

bestiary section.>

=ronically, only a very small handful of 9olans are even aware of either the hot

springs or the graveyard. &ven after the discovery, the 9olans took great precaution not tocommercialie either, so that neither would be defiled nor overrun with tourists.

;n the down side, because of the galactic whales, there is a high concentration of

bacteria that is lethal to those that arenFt immune. 9olans are naturally immune, but any

9entraedi or humans visiting must be immunied <takes about 2)1 hours to take effect>.The bacteria causes a high temperature in a victim within 3)12 hours, with

accompanying weakness <)2 T: and ;C> and extreme drowsiness and vertigo. (fteranother 12 hours or so, the victim will die unless treated and immunied. (nyone born on

the planet is inherently immune. The inoculation itself, an herb called teptramiracine, will

also cause the same weakness and vertigo for the same duration, but wears off with nofurther ill effects.

9ola possesses a full range of animal life that is relatively close to those found on

earth, with many seeming to be hybrids of two different earth creatures. The one animal

of note are the 9olan snakes. These creatures are passive and friendly with the 9olan people, who typically have one draped around their neck. The 9olan snakes are

intelligent and have their own language as well as being able to understand 9olan and can

read the ancient !rotoculture writing. <More information about them in the bestiarysection.> ( large amount of the creatures on 9ola are marsupials or have pouches for their

youngG including the avian species.

The 9olan branch of the /alaxy !atrol consists almost exclusively of ?)5000units, armed with non)lethal weapons. The force does eventually get a single ?)#4! in

the year 201.



the galactic whale graveyard

ased on the craters on the planet, it is possible that 9ola was assaulted during the

war with the =nspection (rmy. ?ollowing the storyline, it is logical that if the

!rotoculture had the same interference in the 9olanFs background as they did with thehumans, the !rotoculture may have seen 9ola as a spiritia storage planet. The !rotodeviln

no doubt discovered 9ola and tried to take the planet for their own. The resulting

destruction may have drained the reserves of the time period. This also makes sense forthe 9olan people to only be in the technological level they were in by the time they allied

with the *+ if they had to rebuild their technology. The ring of asteroids orbiting the

planet may be the rubble of one or more moons 9ola may have possessed 500,000 yearsago. The 9olan snake may have been created as messengers or possibly even translators

for the !rotoculture.

7arauta

The arauta system is located near the center of the galaxy around a star

designated as (lpha ##0#, in the ega Ouadrant. =t was originally used as a testing

ground for the 9entraedi series, and later, the &vil series prototypes. The bulk of thetesting was carried out on the first planet of the system, and this is where the sub)

dimensional energy beings came through and possessed the &vil series prototypes.

The third planet of the system, named :ax, was set to be colonied by theMegaroad #' fleet in the late 2020Fs. (t the same time, *+ pacy lost all contact with

the fleet. %ater, the Macross 5 fleet, containing a large 9entraedi population, went to :ax

to colonie it and also to investigate the missing Megaroad #' fleet, and are alsosub6ugated into the arauta &mpire. :ax is destroyed by /igile in 205 when he

overcharges his gravimetric field to kill algo. The !rotodeviln refer to :ax as !lanet

//T.



:ax

The fourth planet of the system, officially designated as arauta '#43R&, is an

icy world incapable of supporting most life forms. "onstant bliards and howling winds

on a continental scale ravage the planet, making it hostile to all but the most hardy ofspace travelers $ which is most likely why the !rotoculture decided to seal the

!rotodeviln on this planet, deep in a network of tunnels and massive underground

caverns.

arauta '#43R&

Cristriana

This colony planet is home of the +ew +ile weaponry base, until it was destroyed

in 20#3. +ew +ile developed the variable /laug fighter to replace the old 9entraedimecha.

(ew Asia

There are !rotoculture ruins on this world, and *+ pacy built a biological

weapons base nearby. *+ pacy sent the Cancing kulls unit to destroy the base in 2022,

after it was deemed a biohaard.

(eo ?ork

There is an *+ pacy resupplying base here. This was the testing site of the ?)5000. The ?ree Lork %iberation %eague makes two attempts to capture the ?)5000

prototype in 2020.



<ota

VV

Sephira

ephira is the 5th planet of the %aramis star system. =t has around million

inhabitants in 2050.

En/ebal/

&ndebald is the 'rd planet of the Lork star system.

7ulcan

ulcan is the 'rd planet of the harma star system. ulcan gains an autonomous

government in 200.

@/ra

ite of 7ydra civil war.

Salvation

ite of alvation war.

Avemaria

VV

*ellfan

Max and Miriya rescue *.+. /overnment "hairperson %awrence Lun Hemal

from here in 20'0.

E/en %

=nvestigation into possible coloniation begins in 202. &nvironmentalmodification begins in 205. ;ver 40I of the surface is covered with oceans.

7eil

This snowy planet is home to a small mining colony. =t is also home to &miria

Aenius, who moved here to practice her singing as a macronied 9entraedi. =t supports a

small mining town, searching for arnageum Mineral. upposedly, this planet was a lush,

forested world around 2,000 years ago. The colonists are primarily of 7ispanic stock.Curing the *+ pacy@arauta war, +ekkei asara visited the planet <due to a

space fold accident>. Through his spiritia powers, seeds that were buried in the ice for

ages began to sprout.

*anipal

"oal mining planet. This colony was mentioned in the Macross !lus ;( as a possible place to reassign =samu Cyson.



ahan

Max and Miriya battle 9entraedi terrorist group truggle in orbit over this planet

in 2024.

Susia

*+ pacy weapons research base.

Elsium

This colony is in the /)!+ 33 area in the agittarius (rm of the galaxy."oloniation begins in 2024 and the planet is abandoned in 20#.

*arnar/Bs Star Sstem

ite for planetary fragment disposal. This location was mentioned in the Macross!lus ;( as a possible place to reassign =samu Cyson.

Gallia )

?ourth planet of a binary star system. ince the solar revolution cycle corresponds

to rotational period, it is divided into day and night)sides. The /allia binary star systemconsists of a large main star and a large companion, and thus a strong solar wind blows in

the system. /allia has a single moon.

"olony with minimal atmosphere, and home to the rowdy ''rd 9entraedi marinefleet. They demand a concert from heryl +ome in 2054 or they would rebel. The planet

is ripped apart by a dimension eater device that dissolves approximately X of the

planetary mass.

=n 203 this planet was studied by the ##1th large scale research fleet and wasattacked by the a6ra and wiped out when :anka Mei unintentionally drew their attention

by singing aimo.The planet itself hosts large 6ungle areas full of various animals and even

butterflies. *p until 2054, a sieable a6ra colony was living under the wrecked C?)0

/lobal.

7a3ra @omeworl/



The a6ra homeworld, which becomes the new colony for Macross ?rontier fleetin 2054. The planet has least three moons, and an artificial solid ring around it. =t is a lush

verdant planet with vast oceans. %ittle other information is known other than it is UcloseU

to the galactic core.

Chapter – *estiarThis chapter covers some of the more interesting creatures of the Macross saga.

tandard earth creatures are not covered here.

Galax "hales 57ahla Ena6

The /alactic 8hales, officially referred to as the ahla &na are massivespacefaring creatures comprised of energy and flesh all in one creature. These creatures

are presently being studied by the /alactic (cademy on &arth, and from research posts

on the planet 9ola where they migrate to every year. !ink in color, and glowing withstored energy the galactic whales are capable of not only travel in space at sublight

speeds, but are also capable to 6ump to hyperspaceG a feat impossible to any other livingcreature in the galaxy. /alactic whales appear in many ways to resemble and respond likethe whales of &arth, even emitting whale song.

7owever, for a beast that is over a kilometer long, the whale song of the ahla

&na can be devastating to the electronics of nearby ships and mecha causing them to

short out or even explode, although a pinpoint barrier will shield a mecha or ship fromtheir song. <(ll mecha and ships within 20 7exes suffer #H every round to each servo

from the song unless they have an active !! system.> ?urthermore, the song shorts out

all combat computers and sensors while in range. They are intelligent and candifferentiate between friend and foeG protecting allies from their damaging song.



The planet 9ola holds a special significance for the whales as they travel their

every year drawing energy from 9olas sun as they leave orbit. Traveling in a large herd

with an enormous, even by galactic whale standards, white galactic whale leading theherd the sight is awesome to behold. %ittle was known as to the reasons behind the

8hales traveling to 9ola every year until it was discovered that a 8hale cemetery exists

on the planet where whales that have lived for 1,000 years go to die. (lthough it would

appear that the whales die in a swirl of energy and color the truth is that they areachieving rebirth by giving their energy so that new young 8hales are born into the herd.

The only whale that doesnt go to the cemetery to die@be reborn, is the white whale which

is believed to be millions of years old, and 3 times the sie of the other whales, it also isaesthetically different from the others as well.

adly the whales are a target for poachers who crave the bodies of the whales to

use for starship fuel and for use in fold drives, as they create a smoother and moreefficient engine. 7owever, on the flipside the whales have healing properties. (s they

pass the planet 9ola bacteria from the whales enters the atmosphere of 9ola. To a non)

native of 9ola this would be a bad thing if the bacteria got into a wound of somedescription unless it was properly healed, however near to the whale cemetery the springs

and river nearby have minor healing abilities due to the whales bacteria and energy. (sthe whales are fold capable they can potentially be found anywhere in the galaxy, but theone place they are always guaranteed to be seen is 9ola.

(ative @ome B pace

SiDe 5Lenth6 B #200 meters

SiDe 5@eiht6 B #00 meters

(umbers B '0J <travel as part of a herd>

+ovement B ublight - ?old capable

$elevant StatsB Hills 5000, ! 50 <pink>G Hills 50,000, ! #00 <great white>onic (uraB The song of the galactic whales inflicts 5H to everything within

500m, even in space <apply this damage to each servo>. The great white inflicts #5H to a

2km radius. The great white appears to be able to shield individual targets within its areaof effect.

Giant Sauro *ir/

+ative to &den, the giant wing auro ird is the larger relative of the morecommon auro bird, which populates the planet akin to the seagulls of &arth. The bird is

Kuite friendly, although reclusive and lives in the 6ungles of &den high in the mountains

where it nests. ?ew people have seen this white feathered pterodactyl)like creature.



(ative @ome B &den <"olony 8orld>

SiDe 5"inspan6 B 20 meters

"eiht B 30)#20 kg

(umbers B # <rare>

+ovement B ?light <air>

$elevant StatsB 7its #20, ! 5

Sauro *ir/

The auro bird is &dens eKuivalent of &arths seagulls and pigeons. auro birdsresemble a cross between a feathered pterodactyl and a cockatiel. The auro bird is white

in color and found commonly around &den cities docks, tar 7ill, and the further inland

6ungle@swamp regions. =t is friendly, but easily startled, however it is not afraid ofhumans.

(ative @ome B &den <"olony 8orld>

SiDe 5"inspan6 B #cm

(umbers B ?locks of #0 to #00 or so

+ovement B ?light <air>$elevant StatsB 7its ')5

Gararashi

The /yararashi are small creatures roughly the sie of a small kitten. They

resemble a ball of fur with a long prehensile tail, and small feet, <usually only seen when

they are running.> They emit sKueeking and chittering sounds akin to mice of &arth. ;ntheir home planet, the 5th planet of the !ukirases system they are at the bottom of the



food chain and are preyed upon by large creatures. These animals feed upon the

/yararashi doens at a time to sate their hunger, as the /yararashi travel in groups of

thousands across the desolate landscape of the planet. The only notable /yararashi is/uvava, the pet of Mylene Aenius. 7er father Max Aenius rescued /uvava from !ukirases

5 in 20' during a *+ pacy :econnaissance Mission there. ince Mylene has had

/uvava for over #0 years now, it is apparent that the gyararashi have a much longerlifespan than terran rodents.

/yararashi can form an empathic bond with someone, allowing them to sense and

emulate the emotions of the person they share their bond. They also seem to be veryspiritia sensitiveG /uvava was used a couple times to trace asaraFs song.

(ative @ome B !ukirases ystem <5th !lanet>

SiDe 5Lenth6 B 25)'0cm including tail

(umbers B Thousands

+ovement B /round

$elevant StatsB 7its 2)'

>olan Snakes

(lmost all 9olans can be seen to have wrapped around their necks a strange three)

eyed snake. These snakes are light tan in color and feature a large central eye, and tworegular eyes beneath them. They are intelligent and speak their own language, which

most 9olans can understand. They are friendly and are generally asleep around the neck

of the 9olan carrying them. =ncidentally, these creatures can read and understand theancient writings on 9ola <ancient !rotoculture script>.

(ative @ome B 9ola

SiDe 5Lenth6 B #.5 ) 2 feet

(umbers B ?reKuent

+ovement B /round



$elevant StatsB 7its )

E/en Chickens

+ative to &den these chickens are genetically related to and closely resemble &arth

chickens, with the most obvious differences being that they have a pair of thick

feathers on their heads that resemble horns, and their feathers have color patternsresembling &arth cows. They are however, for all intents and purposes, chickens.

(ative @ome B &den

SiDe 5@eiht6 B # ) #.5 feet

(umbers B +umerous

+ovement B /round

$elevant StatsB 7its 3)#0

@/ra

These beasts donFt resemble the multi)headed serpents they are named after.They resemble a blue)furred panther with feathered wings and large fluffy ears. They are

predators, but normally shy away from humans. 7owever, they are Kuite powerful andcan trash a car easily when provoked. Lounger@smaller hydras are often domesticated and

kept as pets similar to cats. They appear to be rather tame unless infected by Type parasites.



(ative @ome B &den

SiDe 5@eiht6 B V <appear to be the sie of large lions>

(umbers B assumed to form feline packs

+ovement B /round@(ir

$elevant StatsB T: #, ;C #2, (/=% #0, =+T #, 7its '0, ! , ite #d, "laws #d3,

7its #20, !

Chapter 1- – #he 7a3ra( bio)mechanical race whose existence had been kept secret by the +ew *.+.

pacy. These creatures began to be encountered near the central core of the Milky 8ay

/alaxy in 200, and again, roughly 3 years later by the ##1th %ong Cistance :esearch

?leet on /allia . The species can survive in the vacuum of space and grows throughvarious stages of metamorphosis. Most of the evolved states appear to have large insect)

like bodies <with exoskeletons> with the warrior)types growing as large as human mecha.

The a6ra can produce destructive super)dimension energy which can overwhelm

7uman@9entraedi starships and their +.*.+.. variable fighter forces.=n the early part of the television series, a6ra drones <roughly small)mecha sied>

are difficult to destroy due to their thick hides as well as their powerful super)dimension

weapons which shattered a number of the +ew Macross ?leets large warships. ;nly thelatest +ew *+ pacy eKuipment, such as the new ?)25 Messiah variable fighters, are

able to fend off the increasing attacks by an enemy that is later revealed as being able to

adapt to every encounter. They appear to thrive in hives, such as in asteroid fields as wellas on planets.

The a6ra have a connection with the )Type microorganisms which was first

seen as a fatal brain disease. ##1 th %arge cale :esearch ?leet scientists were known to beresearching this virus at time of its disappearance. ;nly one member of research team

survived, /race ;"onnor, who later 6oined the Macross /alaxy "olony ?leet.



%ater episodes showed that the a6ra have Oueens which act as thinking@guiding

intelligences for their race, themselves linked to their children through special crystals

<fold Kuart> found in a6ra drones.The final episodes have revealed that the a6ra communicate using a fold network

activated by the fold Kuart in the )Type microorganisms that they carry inside the

organs of their body. 8hile each creature is of an elementary <simple> mind by itself, thewhole races fold communication network creates a large collective consciousness that

has an advanced level of intelligence. This collective mind is coordinated by a single

Oueen.=t is learned that the a6ra collective live on an &arth)type world near the center

of the galaxy. The planet has three moons and a large artificial ring which encircles its

eKuator with a spiral emblem on its main superstructure. The planet is defended by a

large a6ra war fleet which hides in super)dimension space. This world seems to berelated to the !rotoculture, which was a civiliation that created all humanoid life in the

galaxy.

=t was also explained that the a6ra produce the mysterious fold Kuart using

interstellar matter and raw materials from fixed stars. This fold Kuart allows themaintenance of a real)time intergalactic communication system which allows the

collective mind of the a6ra coordinate drones as one entity who act as the collectives body.

The a6ra possess the ability to adapt themselves to new threats. (s all a6ra are

linked by the races fold communication network, information is instantly shared acrossthe species, even at the moment an individual a6ra is killed. Through this the a6ra can

eventually develop defenses to any enemy weapons that it constantly faces. This is

evidenced by the a6ra becoming immune to +.*.+. reactive weapons of which the

+.*.+. repeatedly deployed in their battles against the a6ra.=t is explained in end of the series that the original !rotoculture knew of the a6ra

and that they feared, adored and deified their power to the extent of imitating its form,

!rotoculture technology being an example of this with their pace fold devices, uper)Cimension weaponry and the UirdmanU mecha from Macross 9ero, which itself

resembles a a6ra Oueen.

The a6ra are considered collectively as a uper Cimensional %ife ?orm due totheir ability to travel through uper)Cimension space. =t was speculated in the series

finale that they had been living for hundreds of thousands, if not of millions of years. The

a6ra Oueen, a super giant life form and main node of their intergalactic hyperspace

communication)link <real)time>, actively sought out other a6ra life forms to cross breed by using the song U(imoU, which was a a6ra love song according to :anshe Mei.

7umanoid alien races were the first independent)individual thinking races the a6ra

encountered and since first contact could not understand how to communicate with them.The Oueen had actively sought out humans like :anka %ee whom were able to

communicate via fold waves and tried to rescue them as part of their cross breeding

mentality. =t was through heryl +ome and :anka %ees songs that the a6ra finallyunderstood the truth of humanoid method of communication and the nature of

individuality.

The )Type infection was revealed to be part of the a6ra method of

communicating but it ended up being fatal in most humanoid life forms except for :anka



%ee, who was infected in)utero causing the a6ra infection to settle in her abdominal area

where it would not be fatal for her.

/race ;"onnor briefly compromised the Oueen, taking over her physical bodyand overriding the a6ra fold communication network. 7owever, after recovering :anka

%ee, both hers and heryl +omes singing connected to the a6ra communication network

freed the a6ra and allied them to Macross ?rontier to rescue the Oueen and put an end to/race ;"onnors dreams of galactic domination at cost of the a6ra race existence.

The a6ra Oueen and her race are finally seen leaving their home world for parts

unknown. ;nly :ankas pet (i)Hun remained with her. 7er pet does appear to have itsown elementary mind thus suggesting that drones have some degree of individual

intelligence that contributes to the overall intelligence of the a6ra hivemind.

#pe&7 <nfection

=n the intestinal tract of the a6ra exists a microorganism parasite that produces

and enhances fold waves for super long)distance communication in near real)time. To the

a6ra, this is natural. *nfortunately, this DvirusE does not mesh well with humans and

their cousins. ecause the infection is spread via the blood and fluids of a a6ra, there has been minimal human contamination.

;nce a human is infected, the virus gestates in the sub6ectFs intestinal tract. =ntime, the virus moves to the brain of the sub6ect, and becomes untreatable and lethal at

this point. (s a side effect, once the disease enters the brain, the sub6ect can transmit and

receive space fold waves as the a6ra do.The Type) infection is capable of infecting non)humanoid life as well, causing

such animals as hydras to become DrabidE and attack people with no regard to their own

safety.

.ol/ uartD ! @ive +in/

=n the body of every a6ra is a 2cm x 0.5cm <approximate> shard of purple crystal

called fold Kuart. This material allows for near)instantaneous communication across thegalaxy, which gives the a6ra their hive mind. 8hen killed, this crystal may be removed

and used by other races, such as in heryl +omeFs earrings.

This fold Kuart links the minds of all a6ra to their Kueen in a massive neuralnetwork. Through this network, the Kueens intellect guides the lesser a6ra. 8hile the

individual a6ra possess virtually no brain capacity <=+T # or less>, the neural network

provides them with effectively =+T .

A/aptation

y use of their hive mind via fold Kuart, the a6ra have the ability to adapt to

hostile environmental conditions and even damage. &very time a a6ra is damaged by aweapon but not killed <at least # damage gets past their armor>, there is a chance they

transmit that information to the entire swarm. =f the a6ra is killed outright, do not roll

this chance. :oll #d#0G on a #)4 the a6ra did not adapt to that attack, but on a #0 ittransmits that information to the swarm. =f this happens, the entire swarm becomes

immune to that attack form in 2d#0 rounds.

This does not apply to green type larva or 6uvenile forms, as they do not have the

hardened carapace.



+echa&like ualities

a6ra shells are composed of materials almost identical to the *+ energyconverting armor. They can also generate missile and ballistic ammunition internally.

a6ra are also capable of initiating space fold individually. (ll a6ra of Mekton scale or

larger are considered to be regenerating techno)organic units <servos regenerate #H perround, armor regenerates #H per day, )# to all rolls for each system other than armor that

is destroyed, J# M and regenerate #0I of their ammunition every 5 minutes>.

Aimo

The a6ra possessed a single song, a love song, that they sang to attract mates.

The song itself has words, and may or may not be in the language of the !rotoculture.

Macross ?rontier movie rewrites this to a song that Mao +ome discovers, presumably in!rotoculture language with some Aapanese to fill in missing linesN

7a3ra Stats

/reen Type %arva

This is the starting point of all a6ra, presumably tage #. =t is roughly the sie ofa housecat, having a long tail and six small legs.

tatsB =+T #, ";;% ', !:& 2, &M! 2, (/=% , T&"7 0, T: #, ;C 2, (TT: ', M( 5, &C* 0, %*"H '

econdaryB &+C 20, 7*M )), :un #5m, %eap #.25m, (nime %eap 1.5m, wim 5m, TM )0, :&" ', :&4, T*+ #0, 7=T 20, %ift 2 kg, Throw Vm, CM/ V, & V.

killsB (wareness@+otice ', Codge - &vade , +avigation '

/reen Type Auvenile

:eferred to as UdandiformU a6ra or tage 2. This is the adult green type.

tatsB =+T #, ";;% ', !:& 2, &M! 2, (/=% 5, T&"7 0, T: ', ;C , (TT: 2, M( , &C* 0, %*"H '

econdaryB &+C V, 7*M V, :un Vm, %eap Vm, (nime %eap Vm, wim Vm, TM V, :&" V, :& V,

T*+ V, 7=T V <V>, %ift V kg, Throw Vm, CM/ V, & V.



killsB (wareness@+otice ', Codge - &vade , +avigation

/reen Type (dult

(dult green type. =t seems to be used primarily as a UharvesterU unit since it can

carry one or more human)sied captives in the orange sphere area of its abdomen.

tatsB =+T #, (/=% , T: # <mecha>, %*"H 5killsB Melee , Codge - &vade , (wareness@+otice 1

HillsB 7ead 'H, Torso 3H, (rms <x2> 5H, %egs <x2> 5H, 8ings <x> 2H

(rmorB ody@7ead@(rms@%egs H ! , 8ings 2H !2

M(B #00

8eaponsB

cything ladesB J0 8(, H, (!, Hills

;therB 7as eKuivalent of 8)(/ armor, granting J# ! as long as the armor is not depleted.

Lellow Type

This is the standard combat type, and most likely the most common.

tatsB =+T #, (/=% 1, T: VV <mecha>, %*"H 5

killsB Melee , Codge - &vade , (wareness@+otice 1HillsB 7ead H, Torso H, (rms <x2> 'H, Tail 2H

(rmorB ody@7ead@(rms H ! , Tail 2H !2

M(B #00

8eaponsB


:ed Type



7eavy combat type, larger than a ?)25 in full armor. =t mounts a heavy cannon

capable of firing variable output beams.

tatsB =+T V, ";;% V, !:& V, &M! V, (/=% V, T&"7 V, T: V, ;C V, (TT: V, M( V, &C* V, %*"H V

killsB Melee , Codge - &vade , (wareness@+otice 1

econdaryB &+C V, 7*M V, :un Vm, %eap Vm, (nime %eap Vm, wim Vm, TM V, :&" V, :& V,

T*+ V, 7=T V <V>, %ift V kg, Throw Vm, CM/ V, & V.killsB Melee , Codge - &vade , (wareness@+otice 1, :anged 8eapons 5

HillsB 7ead 'H, Torso #H, (rms <x2> H, %egs <x> 3H, :etractable 8ings <x> 2H

(rmorB ody@7ead@%egs 5H ! 5, (rms H ! , 8ings 2H !2

M(B 3

8eaponsB

"lawsB J0 8(, 5H <includes bonuses>

M/B J# 8(, :ange 2, 2H, ', (!, (ll)!urpose, 2 Hills, "lip 50

eam "annonB J# 8(, :ange #200, #5H, 8armup #, #5 Hills


:ed Type ==

VV

tatsB =+T V, ";;% V, !:& V, &M! V, (/=% V, T&"7 V, T: V, ;C V, (TT: V, M( V, &C* V, %*"H V


HillsB 7ead 'H, Torso #H, (rms <x2> H, %egs <x2> H, 8ings <x> 2H


M(B

8eaponsB

V




ub)Oueen Type

The sub)Kueen represents the smaller command a6ra that control fleets.tatsB =+T V, ";;% V, !:& V, &M! V, (/=% V, T&"7 V, T: V, ;C V, (TT: V, M( V, &C* V, %*"H VkillsB Melee , Codge - &vade , (wareness@+otice 1



M(B8eaponsB cything lades <J0 8(, H, (!, Hills>


Oueen Type

The Kueen is the UrulerU of the entire planet of a6ra. =t is she who the Macross

/alaxy attempts to take control of to gain power over the a6ra and their galactic neural

network.tatsB =+T V, ";;% V, !:& V, &M! V, (/=% V, T&"7 V, T: V, ;C V, (TT: V, M( V, &C* V, %*"H V




M(B8eaponsB cything lades <J0 8(, H, (!, Hills>


Chapter 11 – Galactic @aDar/s ! Livin in SpaceTraveling and living in space presents some uniKue challenges and haards that

should be addressed <aside from rogue 9entraedi fleets and biarre alien lifeforms, that

is>.

.ol/ Sickness

?old sickness is similar to 6etlag. The process of entering and exiting space fold

can cause disruptions to the sensitive functions of the human body, resulting in nausea,

vertigo and fatigue.Most people arenFt affected by fold sickness. Those who are can take a 5 point

ulnerability flaw. ?old sickness imposes a )' penalty to all rolls, and they cannot move

more than half their M( per round without suffering vertigo and vomiting. These penalties vanish after the character rests for #0 ) ;CN hours. !ure)blooded 9entraedi

are not affected by fold sickness.

"eihtlessness

%ong periods of weightlessness occur in a spaceship outside a planets

atmosphere, provided no propulsion is applied and the ship is not rotating. This is the

case when orbiting the earth <except when rockets fire for orbital maneuvers>, but notduring atmospheric re)entry. 8eightlessness does not occur in a rocket ship that is

accelerating by firing its rockets. &ven if the rocket accelerates uniformly, the force is

applied to the back end of the rocket by the escaping gas and that force is transferredthroughout the ship via pressure or tension, precluding weightlessness. 8eightlessness in

a spaceship or space station is achieved by free)fall. The ship and all things in it are

literally falling toward the &arths surface, but their speed in orbit around the &arth allowsfor almost perpetual falling.



The myth that satellites remain in orbit because they have Uescaped &arths

gravityU is perpetuated further <and falsely> by almost universal use of the ingy but

physically nonsensical phrase Uero gravityU <and its tech)weenie cousin, UmicrogravityU>to describe the free)falling conditions aboard orbiting space vehicles. ;f course, this isnt

trueG gravity still exists in space. =t keeps satellites from flying straight off into interstellar

emptiness. 8hats missing is UweightUG the resistance of gravitational attraction by ananchored structure or a counterforce. atellites stay in space because of their tremendous

horiontal speed, which allows them <while being unavoidably pulled toward &arth by

gravity> to fall Uover the horion.U The grounds curved withdrawal along the &arthsround surface offsets the satellites fall toward the ground. peed, not position or lack of

gravity, keeps satellites up, and the failure to understand this fundamental concept means

that many other things people UknowU 6ust isnt so.

Space Adaptation Syndrome

The most common initial condition experienced by humans after the first couple

of hours or so of weightlessness is known as space adaptation syndrome or (,

commonly referred to as space sickness. The symptoms include general Kueasiness,nausea, vertigo, headaches, lethargy, vomiting, and an overall malaise. :oughly 5I of

all people to experience free floating under ero gravity have also suffered from thiscondition. The duration of space sickness varies, but in no case has it lasted more than 12

hours.

;n your first trip into outer space <within the first ' hours>, roll #d#0. =f the resultis #)2 on your first flight you are permanently immune to (, otherwise you 6ust donFt

get it this trip. ;n a ' you are slightly Kueasy for #d#0 hours )# to all rollsN. ;n a )4 you

suffer ( for #d@' J half your roll in days <'.' to .5 days> )' to all rollsN. ;n a #0

you will never fully recover from ( until you are back in a #/ environment orsub6ected to a centrifuge or similar method of coping. =f you were born in space you get a

) modifier. =f you got ( on your first flight, you have a J# modifier <you tend to get it

again>. =f you didnFt get ( on your first flight, you have a )# modifier <you tend not toget it if you didnFt before>.

DeteriorationThe most significant adverse effects of long)term weightlessness are muscle

atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, or spaceflight osteopeniaG these effects can be

minimied through a regimen of exercise. ;ther significant effects include fluid

redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red bloodcells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. %esser symptoms

include loss of body mass <the body gets rid of DexcessE blood, leading to dehydration>,

nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, excess flatulence, and puffiness of the face. The bodycan grow up to 5cm taller in height.

=n practical terms, characters will lose one rank of ;C for the first two months,

no loss on the third, one rank on the fourth, sixth, ninth, etc <increases by one month perinterval>. (s all *+ capital ships have artificial gravity, and most &( work doesnFt

exceed a day in length, this is usually not a concern.

There are five ma6or ways to combat this deterioration.



#> Crugs such as calcium tabs, water retention aids and vascoconstrictors <to raise

blood pressure> can help for a short time but lose effectiveness and can lead to

additions.2> &xercise with devices and restraints to simulate a proper #.0/ environment. The

amount needed to combat the deterioration varies depending on the amount of

gravityG in weightless environments four hours per day is needed, on the moontwo hours per day, and on a Mars)sied planet # hour per day. +ote that strenuous

activity such as combat or chasing someone counts as exercise.

'> "entrifuges. This includes rotating tables up to rotating habitation blocks. =nsmaller environments this can lead to nausea and vertigo.

> "lothing with elastic or other devices to force the muscles to work to counteract

the pressure.

5> "ybernetics and biotech. (ugmentation or replacement of atrophied body partscan restore lost muscle@bone mass. ;r you can 6ust replace things beforehand and

not go through the problem to begin with.

Return to Gravity:eturning to a #/ environment doesnFt 6ust magically fix things. Typically a

person will reKuire one month per month of weightlessness to adapt back to gravity <halfthis if they maintained a proper exercise regimen while weightless>. %ost fluids are

replaced in about a week and lost muscle mass within #)2 months, regardless of the

duration of weightlessness. one loss is harder to replaceG a person will recover one rankof ;C every #d' weeks, although one rank of ;C is permanently lost for every year

of weightlessness.

&xampleB Mike was stationed on a small space station with no artificial gravity

for a year. 8hen he first set foot on the station he had ;C 4. The labor was not verytaxing, and he wasnFt smart enough to remember exercising every day. (t the end of the

first month his ;C drops to 3G end of the fourth month it drops to 1G after six months it

drops to G and at the end of the ninth month it drops to 5. 7e returns to &arth at the endof the #2th month. =t will take him between #2 to days to recover his ;C stat,

although it is permanently reduced to 3.

ecompression

This is a particular nightmare of any spacer. ?ortunately the capital ships and

mecha of Macross are constructed of hyper carbon alloy, which isnFt penetrated by most

handgun weapons <all firearms are still highly restricted in space>. 7owever there are plenty of overtechnology)based beam weapons that can rip holes in hulls. +ow, in pre)

;T vessels such as the antiKuated space shuttle, even a 4mm handgun is a scary thing.

(s a general rule, for every 2 points of damage that penetrate, a 2cm diameterhole is opened up. &very 2cm diameter of a hole will vent out m' of air per turn. ?or

example, an 3cm diameter hole will vent 2m' of air per turn <xm>.

7ow much air is in a typical habitatV (ssume the following formula as aguidelineB '.# x length x <radius sKuared>. This volume is typically written on the hull

on the inside and outside of every hatch, mecha bay and window. ?or example, a '0m

cylinder with a #0m diameter has 4,20m' of air.



!ressure is necessary for people to live. The fluids inside a personFs body are

eKualied to the pressure of the fluids <gasses such as the air we breathe are fluids>. 8hen

the pressure outside the body drops, it causes their blood to boil all of the nitrogen out.8hen pressure is lost, people must make checks at Y, X and 0 pressure.

7alf !ressureB (t Y pressure, air becomes thin and hard to breath. "haracters

must roll ;C J#d#0 at C #5 each round or pass out until pressure is restores.Ouarter !ressureB (t X pressure, the oxygen in the area is less than is reKuired to

remain conscious. "haracters must roll ;C J#d#0 at C 25 each round or pass out.

(fter three minutes in such low pressure, the character loses # rank of =+T and anadditional rank every three minutes thereafter due to hypoxia)induced brain damage.

8hen pressure is restored, all but #d@2 <round down> =+T can be restored with proper

therapy. ?urthermore, characters suffer #d' damage from Dthe bendsE as nitrogen boils

out of their blood per round until the area reaches ero pressure. ;nce pressure isrestored, characters have their ;C permanently reduced by #d'. <+ote that in a

helium@oxygen atmosphere characters do not suffer damage from the bends.>

9ero !ressureB (t ero pressure, there is no oxygen left. =f a character is still

conscious, he has 5d seconds to remain conscious to watch his life flash before his eyes.They suffer #d damage per turn as the last bits of nitrogen burn out of their blood, and

an additional #d =+T loss per turn as their brain cells die off en masse. (fter #d#0 turnsat 0 =+T, the character is dead with a capital C and their player should start making a new

character. (t this point, their organs are no longer viable for transplant as most of them

have ruptured.

$a/iation

tars put out a lot of radiationG so do gas giants and thermonuclear reactors and

reaction weapons. :adiation causes mutation of healthy cells or even causes them tonecrotie. There are two primary forms of radiationB electromagnetic and particle.

W &lectromagnetic radiation includes thermal@infrared, radio, microwave and

visible light <non)ioniing>G and ultraviolet, R)ray and gamma <ioniing>. =oniingradiation is more dangerous to life than non)ioniing.

W !article radiation includes alpha and beta radiation, and neutron radiation. This

is energy in the form of moving particles.

isible %ight

isible light in itself is usually not a haard. !articularly intense light can cause

eye damage and blindness. Transparent visors in mecha and capital ships are polaried to protect crew from blindness from all but the most intense light sources, such as being too

close to a starG in which case blindness is the least of their worries.

%ight amplified to a certain degree becomes a laser and is capable of cuttingthrough even hyper carbon alloy or penetrating energy shields.

:adio:adio is used for communication without wires. :adio ranges from ' 7

<extremely low freKuency> to '00 /7 <extremely high freKuency>. ?or reference, ?M

radio is '0)'00 M7 while modern (&/= radar is ')'0 /7.



(s far as = know, radio has no real direct haard. ome gas giants and some types

of stars <pulsars, Kuasars> and radio galaxies emit natural radio waves. They donFt form

anything coherent, but could cause interference with radio communications or cause falsereadings on some instruments.

Thermal @ =nfraredThermal radiation is heat transference, such as from a household radiator or

electric heater, and the light from an incandescent light bulb. The obvious immediate

haard from thermal radiation is overheating and being cooked.

Microwave

This includes electromagnetic waves with freKuencies ranging from '00 M7 to

'00 /7. (s the name implies, microwaves have wavelengths in the micrometer range. =tis used in telephone communications, radar, wireless %(+, cable T and global

positioning systems.

Most households are familiar with another application. ( microwave oven passes

<non)ioniing> microwave radiation <at a freKuency near 2.5 /7> through food, causingdielectric heating by absorption of energy in the water, fats and sugar contained in the

food. Microwave emissions of sufficient strength will have a similar effect on people.

*ltraviolet

*ltraviolet is of a wavelength shorter than visible light at the violet end, butlonger than that of soft R)rays. * radiation is well known for causing suntans, and if

exposed too long, sunburns. * also provides Dblack lightE, which is at the soft near

ultraviolet range with little visible light <*( rangeG safe>. (nother common use is

ultraviolet germicidal irradiation <*/=>, which uses *" range ultraviolet radiation thatis very harmful to micro)organisms. */= is used to purify water of molds, viruses and

bacteria. * radiation contact on skin causes the production of vitamin C, but increases

the chances of skin cancer by causing C+( components to bond to each other instead oftheir opposite pairs.

%uckily, earthFs atmosphere blocks most ultraviolet radiation <43.1I of *

radiation is *(>. The catch)22 of * is that humans need some *, but too much cancause sickness and death.

R):ay

R)rays have wavelengths of #0 to 0.0# nm and freKuencies of '0 !7 to '0 &7<petahert #0#5 to exahert #0#3>. R)rays are basically created by accelerating electrons

hitting metal atoms. They are also created by some types of compact stars, particularly

pulsars. R)rays are used extensively in medical scans as they can detect broken bones,cancer and tumors. =n large Kuantities, R)rays can cause cancer. They are blocked by lead

and other similarly dense metals.

&xtreme levels, such as the DbeamE from a pulsar, can cause mass ioniation of anatmosphere and superheat a planet to cause planetary extinction.

/amma



/amma rays <denoted as Z> are a form of electromagnetic radiation or light

emission of freKuencies produced by sub)atomic particle interactions, such as electron)

positron annihilation or radioactive decay. /amma rays are generally characteried aselectromagnetic radiation having the highest freKuency and energy, and also the shortest

wavelength, within the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. high energy photons. Cue to their

high energy content, they can cause serious damage when absorbed by living cells./amma radiation is used to irradiate medical eKuipment to sterilie it of all

microorganisms.

/amma rays can be blocked by mass with high atomic counts, such as gold andlead. ?or example, gamma rays that reKuire # cm <0. inches> of lead to reduce their

intensity by 50I will also have their intensity reduced in half by cm <2Y inches> of

concrete or 4 cm <'Y inches> of packed dirt.

The natural outdoor exposure in /reat ritain is in the range 20)0 nv@h. +aturalexposure to gamma rays is about # to 2 mv a year, and the average total amount of

radiation received in one year per inhabitant in the *( is '. mv. y comparison, the

radiation dose from chest radiography is a fraction of the annual naturally occurring

background radiation dose, and the dose from fluoroscopy of the stomach is, at most,0.05 v on the skin of the back. ?or acute full)body eKuivalent dose, # v causes slight

blood changes, 2)5 v causes nausea, hair loss, hemorrhaging and will cause death inmany cases. More than ' v will lead to death in less than two months in more than 30

percent of cases, and much over v usually causes death <see ievert>. ?or low dose

exposure, for example among nuclear workers, who receive an average radiation dose of#4 mv, the risk of dying from cancer <excluding leukemia> increases by 2 percent. ?or a

dose of #00 mv, that risk increase is at #0 percent. y comparison, it was '2 percent for

the (tom omb survivors.

(lpha

(lpha decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an

alpha particle <two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to ahelium nucleus> and transforms <or decays> into an atom with a mass number less and

atomic number 2 less. (n alpha particle is the same as a helium) nucleus, and both mass

number and atomic number are the same. (lpha decay is a form of nuclear fission wherethe parent atom splits into two daughter products. (lpha decay is fundamentally a

Kuantum tunneling process. *nlike beta decay, alpha decay is governed by the strong

nuclear force.

=n general, external alpha radiation is not harmful since alpha particles areeffectively shielded by a few centimeters of air, a piece of paper, or the thin layer of dead

skin cells. &ven touching an alpha source is usually not harmful, though many alpha

sources also are accompanied by beta)emitting radiodaughters, and alpha emission is alsoaccompanied by gamma photon emission. =f substances emitting alpha particles are

ingested, inhaled, in6ected or introduced through the skin, then it could result in a

measurable dose.The largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is radon, a naturally

occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock. =f the gas is inhaled, some of the radon

particles may attach to the inner lining of the lung. These particles continue to decay,

emitting alpha particles which can damage cells in the lung tissue. The death of Marie



"urie at age from leukemia was likely caused by prolonged exposure to high doses of

ioniing radiation. "urie worked extensively with :adium, which decays into :adon,

along with other radioactive materials that emit beta and gamma rays.

eta

=n nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle <an electron or a positron> is emitted. =n the case of electron emission, it is

referred to as Ubeta minusU <[\>, while in the case of a positron emission as Ubeta plusU

<[J>. eta particles move at a speed of #30,000 km@s, around 0.c.eta radiation, composed of electrons, can be stopped by a thin sheet of

aluminum. eta particles are used to treat eye and bone cancer, and as tracers. trontium)

40 is typically used to produce beta particles for these uses. %ike many other radiation

types, it can cause mutations in C+(.

+eutron

+eutrons may be emitted during either spontaneous or induced nuclear fission,

nuclear fusion processes, very high energy reactions such as in the pallation +eutronource and in cosmic ray interactions, or from other nuclear reactions such as the

historically significant <], n> reaction. +eutron radiation was discovered as a result ofobserving a beryllium nucleus reacting with an alpha particle thus transforming into a

carbon nucleus and emitting a neutron, e<], n>".

+eutron radiation protection relies on radiation shielding. =n comparison withconventional ioniing radiation based on photons or charged particles, neutrons are

repeatedly bounced and slowed <absorbed> by light nuclei, so a large mass of hydrogen)

rich material is needed. The most effective materials are eg. water, polyethylene, paraffin

wax, or concrete, where a considerable amount of water molecules is chemically boundto the cement. +eutrons also degrade materialsG intense bombardment with neutrons

creates dislocations in the materials, leading to embrittlement of metals and other

materials, and to swelling of some of them. This poses a problem for nuclear reactorvessels, and significantly limits their lifetime <which can be somewhat prolonged by

controlled annealing of the vessel, reducing the number of the built)up dislocations>.

"osmogenic neutrons, neutrons produced from cosmic radiation in the earthsatmosphere or surface, and those produced in particle accelerators can be significantly

higher energy than those encountered in reactors. Most of them activate a nucleus before

reaching the groundG a few react with nuclei in the air. The reactions with +itrogen #

lead to the formation of "arbon #, widely used in radiocarbon dating.

&$a/iation Simplifie/&

!rotection against radiation7ardware can be DhardenedE against radiation. Microchips can be manufactured

on insulating substrates such as silicone oxide <;=> and silicone on sapphire <;>, and

further shielded with lead or other radiation blocking materials such as boron)#0. :(Mresists radiation better than capacitor)based C:(M even though :(M is larger and

more expensive. oftware can use redundant elements and error correcting memory.

!lanets with proper oone layers largely shield against cosmic radiation <see

below>. 7eavily shielded colony structures on planets without such oone also protect at



this level. The magnetic shields of most large)scale capital ships will provide similar

protection as a shielded colony.

maller spacecraft, including Mekton)scale mecha, have very thin armor for areason. 8hen cosmic radiation, particularly alpha radiation, passes through metal, the

damage is negligible. =f the radiation only passes partially through the material, the

radiation breaks down into nastier secondary radiation <see ioniing radiation above>. oit is best to either block it completely or to let it pass through relatively harmlessly.

eing =rradiated:adiation is measured in rads, although doses are usually measured in milirads

<#@#000th of a rad>. ( typical human can withstand up to 50 rads of radiation before

serious damage occurs. This value is over the personFs lifetime. ( person on &arth

absorbs around 250 milirads of cosmic radiation per year, meaning he would live to be200 years old before reaching his 50 rad limit <50,000 milirads>.

Cosmic Radiation

This covers most of the above list. The hulls of most fighters and spacesuits donot provide sufficient protection against cosmic radiation while in outer space, and such

exposure accumulates #d milirads per hour.

Nuclear Reactors

+uclear powerplants, exposed nuclear waste or cracked reaction warhead casingscan sub6ect a person to deadly radiation. uch exposure accumulates #d#0 rads per turnG

yes rads, not milirads. ( ten)minute exposure can easily expose a person to enough

radiation to kill them <remember how fast Mr. pock went down in tar Trek ==B 8rath of

HhanV>. :adiation suits are lined with lead and gold and typically offer ! to !#0against radiation <:! $ radiation stopping power>, each :! blocks # rad per turn. =

guess pock should have put one on.

Nuclear Weaponry

+uclear ordinance is one of the Kuickest ways to get irradiated to a golden crisp.

The basebook covers the immediate effects of a nukeG big explosions and &M!, but thelingering nasty effects of a nuke are covered here.

=nitial radiation generated by a nuclear weapon blast is calculated this wayB

W*p to x2.0 of the last rating generates Hills x#00 rads

W*p to x.0 of the last rating generates Hills x50 radso a 20H last #0 nuclear missile will generate 2000 rads out to 20 hexes

<#000m> and #000 rads out to 0 hexes <2000m>.

:esidual radiation is the lingering radiation in the crater. The crater need not bevisually obvious, particularly in the case of air)burst explosives. :esidual radiation is

calculated this wayB

W <(@L> x5 ^ :!T <rads per turn>G ( ^ months since blast, L ^ Hills of initial blastWThe above covers the craterG half of this intensity out to 2x of the crater radius <initial

last>



*sing the same missile as above, having it gone off 1 months agoG the base crater

will radiate #.15 rads per turn out to 500m <last #0> and 0.315 rads per turn out to

#000m.

Solar Flare

olar flares are a pain in the butt, what with a star being a massive nuclear reactorat the center of every star system. olar flares disrupt communications, interrupt power

sources, corrode solar panels and make pretty lights. ;h yeah, they can also give out

several lifetimesF worth of radiation in a six)hour period. Curing a solar flare you want to be on an oone)shielded planet, behind a colony wall with sufficient shielding, or deep

underground. ?ortunately solar flares are not terribly common and most colony or ship

sensors will usually give at least 2)' hours warning to get to shelter. This is why almost

all smaller ships will have a small heavily shielded Dstorm shelterE for 20)'0 people<sufficient supplies for a couple weeks>.

To determine if there is a solar flare, roll 2d#0 each month and subtract # for

every month since the last flare. =f the total is 2 or less, there is a solar flare that month. (

solar flare lasts for #d#0 days <roll #d#0 to determine the hours on the last day of theflare>. ( solar flare has a trength rating which determines the number of d#0 rads of

radiation absorbed per hour <yes again rads, not milirads>. Thus a strength solar flarewill generate d#0 rads per hour.

d#00 trength

0#)2' #

2)2 2

')54 '

0)12

1')3' 5

3)40

4#)45 1

4)43 3

44 4

#00 #0

;n the plus side, when traveling near a planet in the an &llen belts, the damage

of a solar flare is reduced by the average strength of the radiation belts <count the

strongest one twice>. The downside of this is that the ship is likely moving Kuickly andwonFt be in the radiation belts long, and there is a chance of getting more radiation from

the radiation belt than the solar flare itself.

:ealistic :adiation &ffects

(ny temporary decreases in stats without a duration will return proportionatelyover the same duration as they were lost. (ll radiation absorbed over the last week is

added to the immediate dose. ( person is more sensitive to radiation the more he hasabsorbed, and adds half of his lifetime total radiation to the immediate dose.

&xampleB ( 25 year old person on &arth has absorbed ,250 milirads of radiation

from cosmic sources <250 per year>. 7e then gets exposed to '00 milirads of radiationfrom a close source. 8hen determining his immediate dose effects, he is treated as

having exposed to '00 milirads. Three days later he is exposed to another #50 milirads



and is treated as being exposed to 50 milirads. 7is lifetime total is now ,100 milirads

<the 250 per year is over a long period and not included in the immediate dose formula>.

(ll stat losses below except for temporary ;C loss are cumulative. ?or deathchances, reroll at the new I when the immediate dose reaches the next threshold.

=mmediate

Cose<milirads>

I

tat:educe

I

Temp;C

I

!erm;C

C&R

:&?

(TT:

W

=+T ";;% uscept.

Cisease

Camage

<lethal>

"hance

Ceath

_50 )) )) )) )) )) )) )) )) )) ))

50)#00 5I )# for 2d#0J

hours

)) )) )) )) )) )) )) ))

#0#)200 0I )# for

2d#0J

hours

)) )# )) )) )) J#0I )) 2IJTM2 months

20#)'00 10I )2 for2d#0J

hours

)) )# )) )) )) J'0I )) 1IJTM

2 months

'0#)00 40I )2 for

#d'days

)# )# )2

patchy hair

loss

)) )) J0I #d '0IJTM

#d)#weeks

0#)500 #00I )# for

#dJ#

days

)# )) )#

total

hair

loss

)) )) J#00I #d 50IJTM

'd#0 days

50#)150 #00I )# for

#d#0

days

)# )# )) )) )) J#00I #d3 15IJTM

'dJ2

days

15#)#000 #00I )# for

2d#0J

# days

)# )# )) )) )) J#00I #d#0 40I#d#0J

days

#00#)5000

#00I )2 for'd#0

days

)# )# )# )2 )2 J#00I 2d 45I#dJ#

days

`5000

<5 rads>

#00I )# per

3 hours

)# )2 )# )' )' J#00I 2d#0 #00I5d#0hours

W This also decreases the eautiful !erk if the individual has it.

7eroic :adiation &ffects

8hen exposed to large doses of radiation, in rads, the victim must make a ody

Type <;C> check <#d#0 and roll under ;C stat with modifiers below> for each one ofthese three effects, starting from right column to left. !rogression will start with slight

illness to serious illness to death. :olling a # will always succeed regardless of modifiers."haracters must make this roll every time more rads are accumulated. 8hen making a

check, round down to the nearest #00 rads they have received.

$a/s eath Serious Sliht

50 +@( +@( +@(

#00 +@( +@( +@(

200 +@( +@( +@(

'00 +@( +@( T



00 +@( T T)#

500 T T)# T)'

00 T)# T)' T)

100 T)' T) T)4

300 T) T)4 (uto

400 T)4 (uto (uto

#00 (uto (uto (uto

Slight ymptomsB nausea, vomiting, headache

&ffectB halve ;C, :&? and C&R

;nsetB #d hours after exposureCurationB #d days

Serious

ymptomsB incapacitation, severe bloody vomiting, bloody diarrhea, spotting ofthe skin from internal lesions, bleeding gums, hair loss

&ffectsB incapacitated

;nsetB immediately after UslightU duration endsCurationB 2d days

Death

ymptomsB heart stops beating, lungs stop moving air, brain activity drops to

ero, soul vacates the body&ffectsB player needs to roll up a new character

;nsetB immediately after UseriousU duration ends

CurationB in most cases this is permanent, although cloning could be an option

%ong)Term :adiation &ffects

This table assumes a full body dose. =f only a portion of the body is exposed, the

/M should ad6ust the effects accordingly.Total

Cose

!hysical &ffects /ame &ffects

_50 +one +oneG sure someone will get cancer, but this is sci)fi, not a medical 6ournal

#00 Mutation ee below

200 Minor cancers ee below

'00 "ataracts =ndividual will eventually be rendered blind

tillbirths ?emales becoming pregnant will be increasingly more likely to have

stillbirths

00 %eukemia # in '00 chance of getting leukemia in #dJ' yearsG I doubles per

additional 50 rads

Moderate cancers ee below

500 terility #0I chanceG increases to 25I at 500 rads, 50I at 550 rads, 40I at 00

rads, 44I at 50 rads, #00I at 150 or more rads00 evere cancers ee below

`100 ?atal cancers ee belowG death in 2d#0J months

Ospring !utation

:oll #d#0 for each childB # $ favorable, 2)' $ weird but harmless <extra finger,

etc>, )1 $ deformed <)#d from #d' stats of /M choice>, 3)#0 $ stillbirth.



Cancer

:ules for cancer are very vague because if a person takes such large doses of

radiation, they usually donFt live to worry about the long)term effects. The /M shouldfeel free to impose any penalties to a character with cancer as they see fit. ;f course,

medical technology has advanced to almost magical levels by 2050. "onsidering that by

the 2020Fs they can clone entire people, treating cancer should be fairly simple if itscaught in time. ?urthermore, if a character gets cancer, roll a d#0G on a # the cancer goes

into remission.

"ybernetics

Aust because cybernetics arenFt meat doesnFt make them immune to radiation.

7owever, they are much more resilient. :oll on the following chart for every #00 rads the

cybernetics are exposed to. =f results #, ' or are rolled more than three times, the effectsare permanent. The characterFs lifetime dose does not apply to cybernetics, only the

immediate dose. :adiation shielding on cybernetics effectively reduces the immediate

dose by 500 milirads for determining when to roll on this chart.d

# "yberoptics cut out for #d turns.

2 +eural pulse. (/=% reduced by #d' until the implants are repaired.

' "yberaudio cuts out for #d turns.

:andom cyberlimb cuts out for #d#0 turns. :eroll this if the character has no cyberlimbs.

5 Total neural breakdown. The character is reduced to a twitching epileptic fit for #d' rounds.

%ucky, no effects.

:adiation CamageThis is the actual damage from radiation, on both people and on electronics.

Camage is reduced by tempest hardening, armor and structure to a minimum of 0.# rad

<#00 milirads>. ?or computers, partitions count as 0.# armor and bulkheads count as '

armor. ?or every #0 full points of armor, the effects are reduced by one rank.:oll

d3

!eople

&ffect

"omputer &ffect

0 0.# x#d#0

rads

Cown for # turn on a <d>

# #d' rads Cown for #d' turnsG &asy Aury :ig or &lectronics to fix

2 #d#0@2

rads

Cown for #d turnsG &asy Aury :ig or &lectronics to fix

' #dJ2

rads

Cown for 2d turns, sensors blind for #d' turnsG (verage Aury :ig or &lectronics to fix

#d#0J2

rads

Cown for 2d turns, sensors blind for #d turnsG Cifficult Aury :ig or &lectronics to fix

5 'd rads Cown indefinitely, sensors blind for 2d turns then )#0 for 5d#0 turns, 'd#0I memory

erasedG ery Cifficult Aury :ig or two consecutive Cifficult &lectronics to fix 'd#0J5

radsCown indefinitely, sensors blind 'd#0 turns then )20 for 20d#0 turns, d#0J20Imemory erasedG +early =mpossible Aury :ig or two consecutive ery Cifficult

&lectronics to fix

1 5d#0 rads Cown indefinitely, sensors blind d#0 turns then )0 permanently, all memory erasedG

+early =mpossible Aury rig and two consecutive +early =mpossible &lectronics to fix

3 3d#0 rads "omputer fried, all memory erased, sensors destroyed.

*ein Space/



8hile the above covers the specifics of various space haards, being spaced is a

particularly nasty way to die, as it combines multiple nasty ways to die. =n short a person

who gets spaced will sufferB#> &xplosive decompression. 7is lungs burst from the uneven pressure <2d damage>

unless he is smart enough to exhale before hitting vacuum <#d damage instead>, and the

nitrogen UboilsU out of his blood, rupturing blood vessels, causing #d' damage per turn.%uckily he will be dead long before brain damage occurs, although if he survives he will

still lose his eyes and most likely his eardrums.

2> :adiation. eing within a stellar system unshielded can yield 50 to 500 rads per turndepending on the star type and distance away the victim is.

'> &xtreme 7eat. The side facing the parent star will be bathed in infrared and other

UheatU radiation, inflicting 2d burning damage per turn to that side.

> &xtreme "old. The side facing away from the parent star will be sub6ected to the balmy outer space temperature 'o warmer than absolute ero.

5> Micrometeorites. =f the /M is feeling particularly nasty, each turn there is a # on a d#0

chance the poor victim gets tagged by micrometeorites and takes additional damage <roll

the chart below under micrometeorites>.(ll damage is lethal. The average human wont last more than '0 seconds <'

turns> in space./etting spaced is pretty much a death sentence. 7owever, on fleets where

cybernetics are standard <such as Macross /alaxy>, the brain can be transferred into a

cybernetic body.

7an Ellen *elts

!lanets with active cores generate a radiation field around themselves. :ocky

planets like the &arth will usually have 2)' belts, gas@ice giants like +eptune will usuallyhave ') belts, and large gas giants such as Aupiter have nearly a doen. These ratings are

largely approximated for game play and may not reflect the actual radiation strength of

the belts, particularly for Aupiter.( number of times per day on the chart below, a roll is needed on the above

radiation damage table. !assing through multiple belts reKuires a roll for each belt passed

through. Thus leaving or landing on &arth reKuires ' rolls. This only applies to those notsufficiently protected <as outlined above>.

&xampleB ( variable fighter pilot spends a day patrolling in orbit around a

+eptune)like planet, mostly in the S belt. The player will have to roll times on the

above radiation damage chart. 7e could absorb as much as '20 radsP <3d#0 max 30 xrolls ^ '20> ?urthermore, the player would need to make rolls on the computer effect to

determine the effects on his variable fighters computer system.elt :ad T: elt :ad T:

Aupiter #

Aupiter 2

Aupiter '

Aupiter

Aupiter 5

Aupiter Aupiter 1

Aupiter 3

Aupiter 4

5

#0W

4

1

5

'

2

&arth =nner

&arth ;uter

aturn@+eptune@*ranus #

aturn@+eptune@*ranus 2

aturn@+eptune@*ranus '

aturn@+eptune@*ranus aturn@+eptune@*ranus 5

2

#

'#



Aupiter #0 #

W This rating should actually be 22, but is reduced for game play value. The /M is free to use the more

realistic rating if they wish.

.ol/ .aults

?old faults are DripplesE in space that prevent superdimensional folding, which

blocks space fold travel and communications. ( ship traveling in superdimensional spacethat crosses a fold fault is violently thrown back into realspace and suffers an automatic

engine hit and the space fold engine is damaged.

+icrometeorites

pace isnFt as clean and empty as everyone thinks. pace is full of debrisG parts

from mecha and ships from old battles, small chunks of rock and ice, and all kinds of 6unk. =mpacts with paint flecks and other particles happen many times a day and do little

more than scratch your paint6ob. "ollisions with sand grain)sied 6unk can happen, at a

cumulative 0.#I per day <cumulative 0.'I per day in the main asteroid belt>. =f acollision occurs, roll on the following chart. Micrometeorites travel so fast that all armor

is halved. %uckily the hyper carbon alloy used on the hulls of ships and stations willshrug off anything that doesnFt inflict Hills of damage.d#00 Camage

0#)50 # hit

5#)15 #d' hits

1)40 #d hits

4#)45 #d#0 hits

4)43 2d#0 hits

44 'd#0 hits

#00 5d#0 hits and roll again

Asteroi/s ! +eteors

(nything the sie of a small car or bigger. Most autopilots have navigation programs to avoid asteroids as they are big enough to pick up on even the lowest ratingsensors, and they are luckily Kuite rare outside of asteroid belts. =f a mecha, ship or

installation is hit by an asteroid, there is little point in worrying anymore. =f the /M

really wants to figure damage, treat asteroids as nuclear warheads <minus the radiation>that inflict 25H per ton.

Planetar $ins ! Comets

!assing through rings of ice, dust and rock can be haardous. o can passing

through the tail of a comet. :ings and comets have a haard rating which indicates the

number of d to roll each hour. ome rings have less than # for 7:G in these instances

you roll each interval where the 7: reaches # and resets to 0. These haard ratings areapproximations for game play and may not reflect the true dangers of the rings. ome

example rings and haardsB:ing 7aard :ating

aturn :ing (aturn :ing

aturn :ing "

aturn :ing C

aturn :ing &

50

2

2

0



aturn :ing ?

aturn :ing /

0

0

*ranus :ings 0.#

8hen passing through the rings of *ranus, the haard rating reaches # every ten

hours.8hat this haard rating means is the /M rolls that many d in damage. Thus,

passing through aturn ring ( is 5d damage per hour.

Planetar Environments

+ot all planets are nice like &arth or &den. ome are downright inhospitable.

+o (tmospherehould your mecha or suit be breached, you suffer decompression, radiation and

space exposure. ee Ugetting spacedU above for all the gory details.

7igh /ravity - !ressure

(s shown in the basebook, humans can only take 6ust so much gravity before

becoming crushed. ( persons weight is increased based on the gravity of the planet. (human who weighs 40kg <200lb> on &arth would weigh twice that much on a planet with

2/, and triple that on a planet with '/. uch weight makes it difficult or impossible to

move, as their muscles and bones arent strong enough to withstand the increase inweight, the lungs strain to draw breath, and the heart overworks trying to move blood

through the body. %ikewise, a planet with a heavy atmosphere such as enus causes

similar problems.

Temperature &xtremes

ome planets are extremely hot while others are extremely cold. Mecha reKuire

the desert or arctic environmental package to function on such planets. Cepending on the

temperature, characters could take anywhere from # hit up to #H per turn. ome planetsare so hot that even mecha cannot survive for more than a few minutes, or so cold that

even hyper carbon alloy becomes too brittle and shatters under its own weight.ome &xamplesB <material examples assume # earth atmosphere standard>

(bsolute 7eat %imit 2.5'3 x#0'2?

25',300,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000?N

ol core #5,444,12.5" <232,544,50.''?>lue upergiant surface '4,12.35" <1#,50.''?> )average

Aupiter near core '5,12.35" <53,40.''?>

Aupiter interior 4,12.32" <#1,50.23?>)"ity 1 thermal limitW ,000" <#0,3'2?>

ol surface 5,50.35" <4,40.1'?>:ed upergiant surface ',12.35" <,10.''?> )average)tungsten melts ',00" <,#50?>

)lead boils #,14" <',#30.2?>

)titanium melts #,10" <',00?>:eentry to &arth atmosphere #,50" <',000?>

)iron melts #,5#0" <2,150?>

)steel melts #,'10" <2,500?>



)aluminum melts 0" <#,220?>

enus surface 0" <30?>

+uclear reactor critical point '1" <105.2?>)lead melts '21.5" <2#?>

)gasoline ignites 230" <5'?>

Mercury surface .35" <#52.''?>)water boils #00" <2#2?>

&arth heat record <%ibya> 51.3" <#'?>

)water freees 0" <'2?>&arth cold record <ostok> )34.2" <)#23.?>

Aupiter surface )#03.#5" <)#2.1?>

&uropa surface )#1#.#5" <)21.01?>

)liKuid nitrogen )2#0" <)'?>)liKuid oxygen <%;R> )222.5" <)'3.11?>

!luto surface )224.#5" <)'15.#?>

)liKuid hydrogen )252.31" <)2'.#1?>

;uter space <average> )210" <)5?>(bsolute 9ero )21'.#5" <)54.1?>

There are no hard and easy rules for how much damage at what temperature range, so the/M should assign a damage per time period based on how extreme the temperature is

and what kind of protection is being used.

W The +ew Macross "lass armor can withstand up to ,000" maximum, but it showedsigns of damage at 5,000".

(bsolute ero means that the temperature is so cold that even subatomic particles

<neutrons, electrons, etc> stop moving. The absolute heat limit is the temperature at which

all currently understood laws of physics simply no longer apply and the effects cannot becalculated. uch staggering temperature only existed <theoretically> shortly after the ig

ang.

"eat

( human will take heat damage if his body temperature is increased above normal

<'1o">. (t '4o" a human will become feverish and diy <)# to all skills, #C T*+damage per minute>. ?or every 2 degrees above this, there is an additional )# to all skills,

and the target takes J#C T*+ damage per minute <that is, at ' o", he will be taking

C T*+ per minuteP> .

(t 'o", the sub6ect will also take #C killing damage, lose # one point in =+T<unrecoverable brain damage>. (t o" he will take another #C killing damage, and lose

# one more point in =+T, and so on, for every # degree thereafter. *sually, the sub6ect

will die from brain damage when his =+T reaches 0.This is assuming a gradual increase. =f the sub6ects temperature is instantly raised

to 52o" instantly, he will take #'C T*+ hits, 4C killing damage <and thus 4C more

T*+>, and lost 4 =+T, at that instant. This is usually fatal. :emember, however, mostadult males mass 10 ) 30 kg.

Cold



( human will take chill damage if his body temperature is taken below normal

<'1o">. ?or every degree below 'o", the will be at )# to all skills and take #C T*+

damage per minute. (t '2o" he is in hypothermia, and takes #C killing damage everyminute, and should be severely incapacitated with shivering. Thus at '0o" he is taking

both T*+ and killing damage simultaneously.

=t is also possible to damage or weaken ob6ects by cooling them to a brittle point."hilling most metals down to )'0o" will lower its ! and C! by half <it will return to

normal when its temperature returns to normal>. 7alve the ! and C! again for every

)'0o" thereafter, down to (bsolute 9ero. (ssume all mecha, vehicles and ships havesufficient internal heating to keep them from (bsolute 9ero naturally.

"orrosive (tmosphere

!lanets such as enus have acidic atmospheres. They rain various types of acid,and the clouds are composed of corrosive droplets. Most mecha and capital ships can

withstand passing through these clouds to land or take off, but will suffer damage from

prolonged exposure.

Cepending on the concentration of the corrosive elements, mecha and capitalships are unharmed for a number of intervals eKual to their armor C". (fter this, they

will suffer #H <at mekton scale, scale up@down as needed> to all exposed locations perinterval. ;nce half of their armor ! is gone, they begin taking eKual damage to the servo

underneath at the same interval, and possibly risking critical hit location rolls.

?or example, a ?)# on a strongly corrosive planet can go for one hour safely.(fter that, it loses #H to all armor locations per hour. ;nce the armor ! is reduced to

half, it takes #H to all armor and servo locations per hourG at this point the internal

systems can be damaged.

Chapter 12 – #he Sol Sstem

This chapter includes a combination of real)world stellar information combinedwith information particular to the Macross aga. This serves as a guide to our homesystem as well as an example of a star system fit for human coloniation. This section is

liable to become outdated as more discoveries are made.



Sol;ur sun is classified as a /2 starG the /2 signifying an average surface

temperature of 5,500 degrees Helvin, and the indicating a main seKuence star <nuclearfusion of hydrogen into helium, and the star is not changing sie>. The sun has a white

color, but due to atmospheric scattering it appears yellow on earth. =t accounts for more

than 44I of the star systemFs mass. The sun is also sometimes called 7elios.

• CiameterB #.'42#0 km

• "ircumferenceB .'1'#0 km

• urface (reaB .04#0#3 m <##,400 &arths>• olumeB #.##021 m <#,'00,000 &arths>

• MassB #.433 '5#0'0 kg <''2,4 &arths>

7ulcanoi/ Asteroi/s

• between 0.03 and 0.2# (* from ol

+ercurMercury has no atmosphere to speak of, and if it had one, it was blown away by

the strong solar wind long ago. ome current theories now say that current day Mercury

is nothing more than the core of the planet after the sun evaporated the rocky surface and blew it into space.



• 0.'4 (* from ol.

• &Kuatorial diameterB ,314. km

• ;rbit timeB 33 terran days

• urface temperatureB 100 degrees Helvin in the sun to 40 degrees Helvin in the

shadow <'0 to )#30 "elsius>

• +o confirmed natural satellites

+ercur&Crosser Asteroi/s

• 2#0# (donis ) 0.5#.2 kmG 0.# (* to '.'01 (*

7enusenus has no magnetic field and thus gets baked by solar radiation. The

atmosphere is 45I carbon dioxide with traces of nitrogen, and the surface pressure is 15

to #00 atmospheres. urface temperature ranges from 355 to 335 degrees ? <55 to 15

">. The clouds form a layer, ending 22 miles above the surface. This cloud layer isactually three distinct layers. The two upper layers are primarily sulfuric acid and

chlorine droplets, while the lowest layer is phosphoric acid <7'!;> solution. There is

strong lightning activity as well, although no high)freKuency <0.#25 to # M7> radio

waves were detectedG this is common to lightning. The surface has some unusually hugeshield volcanoes and arachnoids, and seismic activity has been detected in the crust. (

huge double atmospheric vortex exists at the south pole.

(t 50km above the surface the atmospheric pressure is # ar <eKual to earth>, 0.4/ and temperatures of 0 to 50 degrees ". =t is argued the resources for life are abundant

at this height and suitable for coloniation.

• 0.12 (* from ol

• &Kuatorial diameterB #2,#0'.1 km

• +o confirmed natural satellites



2002 &3 ) Kuasi)satellite, this asteroid is also a Mercury) and &arth)crosser. ee

enus)crosser (steroids for more information

7enus&Crosser Asteroi/s

•

#3' "uno ) )4 km in diameter

Earth• # (* from ol

• CiameterB &Kuatorial #2,15.210 km, !olar #2,1#'.500 km, Mean #2,15.54# km

• # confirmed natural satelliteo Africa

/rand "annon === <ictoria (utonomous :egion> ) construction

began in 200, ;ctober. "onstruction was incomplete.o Eurasia

"entral :ussia (dministrative :egion

• t. !etersburg %eningradN ) the (nti)*+ (rmy usesstrategic tacticalN thermonuclear reaction weaponry and

destroys the city in 200, ;ctober as a demonstration of

their capability and willingness to use such weaponsagainst the *+.

Haakh (utonomous :egion ) location of rioting in 2005, Aanuary. Hirghi (utonomous :egions ) location of rioting in 2005,

Aanuary.

/aralia /reat ritainN ) %iverpool 6orn "ity <%ocated in the Canube (rea>

o =apan *+ ?ar &ast "ommand 7eadKuarters Lokohama

o (orth America

(laska

• <&arth> *+ Military 7eadKuarters <for anti)stellar)warfare>

) "onstruction began in 2002, May.

• /rand "annon = <ame site as *+ Military 7eadKuarters> )

"onstruction began in 2002, May with completion on 20#0,

Aanuary #0. =ntact but nonfunctional ruins.

• Macross "ity ) reconstruction begins and is completed in

20#0, May. %ocated near the /rand "annon = site. y farthe largest and best city in the *+. Macross city is home to

the Macross, *.+. /overnment and Military 7O.

• Macross %ake

• C?)# Macross "alifornia <%os "upid, Mo6ave Cesert>

/ante "ity



7ighlander "ity ) %ocated a few hours from Macross "ity <by air>.

This city was a thriving pretty good 6ust after the 8# and

attracted a lot of show business types. %onesco "ity ) ( city best known for being the city that Ham6in

took Minmei hostage.

;nogi "ity ) ( ma6or industrial city <:eaction &ngines> located notfar from Macross "ity. ;nogi is on a coast and is possibly located

east of Macross "ity. ;ntario outh "oast "ity ) "ity most likely located on a southern coast

line. =n 20#2 the "ity had become self)sufficient enough to leave

direct *.+. control and be self)govern. Trad "ity ) Trad "ity is located in old (merica and has high

9entraedi presence <50I population is 9entraedi.>

o Fceania /rand "annon == <(ustralian (utonomous :egion> ) construction

began in 200, March. The under)construction "annon isdestroyed in 2005, +ovember during an (nti)*+ (rmy retaliatory

attack on *+ ?orces Mayan =sland <outh !acific ;cean> ) site of !rotoculture

phenomenon and a dispute over the discovery of it, which resulted

in the secret deployment of the ?)0 and )5# by the *+/overnment and (nti)*+ forces in 2003, eptember. <The events

are kept secret for at least five decades.>

outh (taria =sland +ew (nderson ase ) /uam. ?irst mentionedB 20 <??

stationed at the base ) though could be on another planet, a la +ew

&dwards of &den.>

o South America /rand "annon <railian (utonomous :egion> ) construction

began in 2001, May. "onstruction incomplete.

o Location & unknown &agle +est (erial Tactics "entre ) in 2024 "aptain Milia Aenius is

appointed as an instructor at the centre.

+ew Mirimar ase

Earth Frbit

• an (llen :adiation elts

•

?actory atellite ) in &arth orbit at %5 point from 20##, +ovember.• &arth Cefense ?orce <;n 20'1, Aanuary 2'rd, =samu (lva Cyson is assigned to it.>

• pace "olony "lusters unches N ) survived 8= unscathed. %ocation unknown

Earth&Sun Larane Points

• %o &arths %agrange space unitB uie +ewtlet ends her test pilot

assignment and relocates to the unit in 204



!oon

• &Kuatorial diameterB ',1.2 km

• (pollo %unar ase "olony <=n the ea of TranKuility on the %unar surface> ) =n afactory beneath the ase, using feedback from restoration work on the ()#,

construction begins on C?)2, a stellar space warship entirely of &arth origin in200', +ovember. "onstruction of the large)scale permanent base began in 2000,;ctober. !atrols of the olar ystem begin in 20#0, Aune, using uper alkyries

based at (pollo ase

• Moon :iverside "ity <%unar surfaces civilian sector, &arths Moon>

• /rand "annon = <+orth !olar :egion> ) construction began in 200, March."onstruction incomplete.

• Test site of the first thermonuclear reaction bomb <%unar urface> ) detonationoccurred in 200, ?ebruary

+oon&Earth Larane Points

• %o Hordylewski cloud ) at % and %5G they could be at least #,000 km

across, about the sie of the &arth

• %5

o Manufacturing tation <in %unar orbit> ) %arge)scale station andconstruction site of (:MC "arriers and ;berth Cestroyers from 200',

(pril. tation presumably damaged during 8=. "onstruction of the

station began in 200#, Mayo +ew ?rontier <hip Lards and pace "olony> This could be the

manufacturing station post 8=

Earth&(ear Asteroi/s• &arth)"rosser (steroids

o '15' "ruithne ) &arths second MoonP 5 kmG 0.443 (* from ol

• (r6una (steroids

• (mor (steroids

o #22#( (mor ) #.5V kmG #.03 (* to 2.15 (*o '' &ros ) #'#''' kmG #.#'' (* to #.13' (* from ol

o '403 +ix ) CiameterB # ) 2 km

• (pollo (steroids

o #32 (pollo ) #.1 kmG 0.1 (* to 2.245 (*

o 42'0 7ermes ) radar observations showed it to be a binary asteroid with

two eKual)sied components almost in contact with one another. &achcomponent is about '00$50 meters in diameterG has passed within 0.005

(* of the &arth <approximately #.5 the distance of the Moon.>

o #5 =carus ) #. kmG 0.#31 (* to #.44 (*o 25#' =tokawa ) 50 x 210 x 2#0 metersG 0.45' (* to #.45 (* from ol

• (ten (steroidso 202 (ten ) 0.4 kmG 0.140 (* to #.#' (*



+arsMars is an arid desert)like planet. Massive sandstorms are freKuent. There are

gullies and channels in the terrain, suggesting the existence of water at some pointG andthe (res allis is believed to be an ancient flood plain. =t is further believed that at one

point Mars was much warmer and wetter, with a thicker atmosphere. The Meridiani

!lanum has large deposits of hematite, further indicating the presence of water at some point. :esearch conducted in 2003)2004 have indicated large Kuantities of water ice

buried under the surface.

• #.5 (* from ol

• &Kuatorial diameterB ,30.4 km

• 7./. 8ells "ity <?irst mentioned as birthplace of /amlin Hiaki in 202, Aanuary

• (%%( ase ) permanent base. "onstruction began in 200#, Auly. Manned by *+

pacy personnel from 200', +ovember until 2005, (ugust, with withdrawal from

Mars ase led by 7arry Miler. The return fleet from Mars is destroyed at #3B00

on eptember 3 by the (nti)*+ hi6acked ;berth class space destroyerTsiolkovsky with a loss of ',055 *+ ?orces personnel. ase is destroyed in 2004

when the Macross escapes from a 9entraedi trap.

• 2 confirmed natural satellitesG both in degrading orbits

#ho$os

• 2.3 2# #3. Hm

• ;rbitB 4,2'5. to 4,5#3.3 km from Mars

• =ts low orbit means that !hobos will eventually be destroyedB tidal forces arelowering its orbit, currently at the rate of about #.3 meters per century, and in

about 50 million years it will either impact the surface of Mars or <more likely>

break up into a planetary ring. ecause of its ellipsoidal shape alone, the gravityon !hobos surface varies by about 2#0IG the tidal forces raised by Mars more

than double this variation <to about 50I> because they compensate for a littlemore than half of !hobos gravity at its sub) and anti)Mars poles. (s seen from

!hobos, Mars would be 00 times larger and 2500 times brighter than the fullMoon as seen from &arth, taking up a full #@ of the width of a celestial

hemisphere

Deimos

• #5.0 #2 #0. Hm



• Mean orbital radiusB 2',0 km

• (s seen from Ceimos, Mars would be #000 times larger and 00 times brighter

than the full Moon as seen from &arth, taking up a full #@## of the width of a

celestial hemisphere. Ceimos moves away from Mars at a rate of ' inches peryear, and will eventually be thrown out of orbit and into space.

+ars #ro3ans

• %

o 52# &ureka ) 2) km =t trails Mars at a distance varying by only 0.' (* during each

revolution. =ts minimum distances from the &arth, enus and

Aupiter are 0.5, 0.3 and '.5 (*, respectivelyo #444 *A1

• %5o #443 ?'#, 200# C71, 200# ?/2, - 200# ?: #21

+ars Co&Frbitals• These are not destined to remain as Tro6ans as theyll be perturbed away by Mars

within the next 500,000 years or so.

o #443 O75 - #443 C

+ars&Crosser Asteroi/s

Asteroi/ *eltCespite popular imagery, the asteroid belt is mostly empty. The asteroids are

spread over such a large volume that it would be highly improbable to reach an asteroidwithout aiming carefully. +onetheless, tens of thousands of asteroids are currently

known, and estimates of the total number range in the millions. (bout 220 of them arelarger than #00 km. The total mass of the (steroid belt is estimated to be 2.' #,02#kilograms, which is #@'5th that of the &arths Moon. (nd of that total mass, one)third is

accounted for by "eres alone.



• "eres ?amily

o ( group of asteroids with a semi)ma6or axis of about 2.1)2.30 (* and an

orbital eccentricity of approximately 0.03)0.#1

o There are some indications that the "ererian surface is relatively warm

and that it may have a tenuous atmosphere and frost. The maximum

temperature, when the un is overhead, has been estimated to be 2'5 H<about )'3 ">. ( more recent study suggests the presence of a rocky core

overlain with an icy mantle. This mantle of thickness from #20 to 0 kmcould contain 200 million cubic kilometers of water, which is more than

the amount of fresh water on the &arth # "eres ) 415404 kmG 2.5 (* to 2.433 (*

• "eres is under much debate to its status whether it is a

planet, dwarf planet or asteroid. =t is spherical, unlike theasteroids of similar or lesser gravity. (s of 2004 it is

classified as a dwarf planet.

• 255 ;ppavia ) 51.0 kmG 2.52' (* to 2.4 (*

•'1 urgundia ) 5.0 kmG 2.5 (* to '.002 (*

• &ros ?amily

o This is a prominent family of asteroids that are believed to have formed as

a result from an ancient catastrophic collision between asteroids. Membersof the family share similar orbits between 2.44 and '.0' (*. "urrently

there are about 30 members known. 22# &ros ) #0.0 kmG 2.10# (* '.'22 (* from ol

• Auno "lump



o ' Auno ) 24020 kmG #.413 (* to '.'51 (* from ol

The maximum temperature on the surface, when the sun is

overhead, has been estimated to be about 24' H, or about J20".=nfrared images reveal that it possesses an approximately #00 km

wide crater or e6ecta feature, the result of a geologically young

impact.• 7irayama ?amilies

• 52 Aena ) VV HmG 2.32 (* to '.55# (* from ol

• 3 %ipperta ) VV HmG 2.5'1 (* to '.105 (* from ol

• 3 %ina

• Themis ?amily ) mean distance of '.#' (* from ol

o 2 Themis ) 223 kmG 2.1#5 (* to '.55 (* from ol

o 2 &rato ) 45. kmG 2.52 (* to '.3# (* from olo 40 (ntiope ) ##0# kmG 2. (* to '.3 (* from ol

o #0 Hlymene ) #2'.1 kmG 2.3 (* to '.25 (* from ol

o #1# ;philia ) ##.1 kmG 2.1'2 (* to '.5'2 (* from ol

• 2 !allas ) 510525500 kmG 2.#'5 (* to '.#0 (* from ol• esta ?amily ) about 2'5 members are currently known

o esta ) 3.' kmG 2.#52 (* to 2.51# (* from ol. =n #44 the 7ubble

pace Telescope <see image below> detected a huge estian crater, '0

kilometers across and perhaps a billion years old. =t is thought that thiscrater may be the source of the small )type asteroids <or estoids>

observed today

o 444 raille ) =ts shape is highly elongatedG it measures 2.2 by 0.kilometers.

• "ybeles ?amilyo 5 "ybele ) 2'1.' km, '.011 (* to '.14 (* from ol

( hint of a possible ## km wide satellite orbiting "ybele has beendetected

• 31 ylvia ) '3 x 2 x 2'2 kmG '.2#' (* to '.13 (* from ol

o :omulus ) #3 J@) kmG orbits at #,'5 J@) 5 kmo :emus ) 1 J@) 2 kmG orbits at 10 J@) 5 km

?rom the surface of ylvia, :omulus and :emus would appear

roughly the same sie. ?rom :emus, the inner moon, ylvia

appears huge, roughly '0 x #3 degrees across, while its view of:omulus varies between #.54 and 0.50 across. ?rom :omulus,

ylvia measures ##0 across, while :emus varies between 0.2

and 0.#4

=upiterAupiter is the largest planet in our solar system. The outer layers are composed of

33)42I hydrogen and 3)#2I helium, with some other trace elements such as sulfur,

methane, carbon, ethane, water vapor, ammonia, neon and phosphine to name a few. This

gas layer extends down #,000km where it has a smooth gradation into liKuid metallichydrogen. This liKuid layer is believed to comprise 13I of the diameter of the planet.

%iKuid metallic hydrogen forms at a temperature of #0,000H and a pressure of 200 /!a.



8hile currently unconfirmed, it is generally accepted that Aupiter does indeed have a

solid rocky core with a core boundary temperature of ',000H and a pressure of ',000)

,500 /!a. This makes the interior of Aupiter hotter than the surface of our sun.

• .45 (* to 5. (* from ol

• %&uatorial diameter' #2,43 km, #olar diameter' #'',104 km

• :ings of Aupiter ) 'B 7alo, Main :ing, - /ossamer :ing

• ' confirmed natural satellitesG 1 of these have retrograde orbitsG the largest arereferred to as /alilean moons, named after /alileo.

o =o ) ',0.0 ','1. ','0. Hm =o is a volcanically active body, with over #00 mountains and over

0 active volcanoes. =t is believed to be composed of silicate rockwith a molten iron or iron sulfide core. =t has an extremely thin

atmosphere of sulfur dioxide.o &uropa ) ',#2#. Hm

&uropa is believed to have a #00km deep ocean of water covered

in a #00km thick layer of water ice. &uropa hosts a number of *+ /overnment mining bases <for

water, amongst other minerals>.

• &uropa ase # through

• &uropa ase 1 <first mentioned on ?ebruary 4, 20'3>

o /anymede ) 5,22. Hm /anymede is a composite of smooth terrain mixed with rocky

terrain. The moon is composed of silicate rock with a saltwater

ocean nearly 200km below the surface. =t has a faint atmosphere of;, ;2, ;' <oone> and molecular hydrogen.

*+ /overnment water and mining colony

o "allisto ) ,320. Hm



=t is believed that there may be an ocean of fresh water at depths of

more than #00km. =t has an extremely thin atmosphere of carbon

dioxide and possibly molecular oxygen.o 8hite ?lora atellite "ity

=upiter #ro3an Asteroi/sThe Tro6an asteroids lie between 5.05 (* and 5.0 (*, and lie in elongated,

curved regions around the two %agrangian points 0 ahead and behind of Aupiter.

• /reek "amp

o 533 (chilles ) #'5.5 km

o 2 7ektor ) '10 #45 km.

• Tro6an "amp ) orbits the %5 %agrangian point of the un)Aupiter system.

• #1 !atroclus ) #05km

Centaur Planetoi/s

( class of icy planetoids that orbit ol between Aupiter and +eptune. "entaurs are not

in stable orbits and will eventually be removed by the giant planets. "entaurs are dark incolor, because their icy surfaces have darkened after long exposure to solar radiation and

the solar wind. 7owever, fresh craters excavate brighter, more reflective ice from belowthe surface.

• 305 (sbolus ) kmG VV (* from ol

• 200 "hiron ) #'2 ) #2 kmG 3.5 (* to #3.34# (* from ol.

o =nitially classified as an asteroid, later dispute arose as to whether it wasan asteroid or actually a comet.

• 5#5 !holus ) #35 # kmG 3.124 (* to '2.#' (* from ol.o ?ound to be the reddest ob6ect observed to date in the olar ystem, for

which it has been occasionally nicknamed Uig :edU. The color has been

speculated to be due to organic compounds on its surface. !holus hasshown no signs of cometary activity.

SaturnCue to a combination of its lower density, rapid rotation, and fluid state, aturn is

an oblate spheroidG that is, it is flattened at the poles and bulges at the eKuator. =ts

eKuatorial and polar radii differ by almost #0I0,23 km versus 5,' km. The other

gas planets are also oblate, but to a lesser extent. aturn is the only planet of the olarystem that is less dense than water. (lthough aturns core is considerably denser than

water, the average specific density of the planet is 0.4 g@cm due to the gaseous

atmosphere. aturn is only 45 &arth masses, compared to Aupiter, which is '#3 times the

mass of the &arth but only about 20I larger than aturn.



• 4.02 (* to #0.05 (* from ol.

• &Kuatorial diameterB #20,5' km, !olar diameterB #03,123 km.• :ings of aturn ) aturn has #5 rings.

• 5 confirmed natural satellitesG 21 have retrograde orbits

o Mimas ) #3.2 '42. '32.3 km. Mimas low density <#.#1> indicates that it is composed mostly of

water ice with only a small amount of rock. Cue to the tidal forces

acting on it, the moon is not perfectly sphericalG its longest axis isabout #0I longer than the shortest. Mimas most distinctive

feature is a colossal impact crater #'0 km across, named 7erschel.

7erschels diameter is almost a third of the moons own diameterG

its walls are approximately 5 km high, parts of its floor measure #0

km deep, and its central peak rises km above the crater floor.o &nceladus ) 5#2 4 34 km

/iven its position in aturns & ring, the youthful appearance of portions of &nceladus surface, the recent discovery of a short)lived

atmosphere, and a hot spot near the south pole, it is likely that

&nceladus is geologically active todayo Tethys ) #,01#.2 #,05. #05#. km

=t is composed almost entirely of water)ice.

The western hemisphere of Tethys is dominated by a huge impact

crater called ;dysseus, whose 00 km diameter is nearly 2@5 ofthat of Tethys itself. The crater is now Kuite flat <or more precisely,

it conforms to Tethys spherical shape>, like the craters on "allisto,without the high ring mountains and central peaks commonly seenon the Moon and Mercury. This is most likely due to the slumping

of the weak Tethyan icy crust over geologic time The second ma6or feature seen on Tethys is a huge valley called

=thaca "hasma, #00 km wide and ' to 5 km deep. =t runs 2,000 km

long, approximately '@ of the way around Tethys circumference.

The Tethyan surface temperature is )#31"



o Saturn-(ethys Lagrangian #oints

Telesto ) either '0 x # x # or ' x 22 x 22 km "alypso ) either '0 x # x # or ' x 22 x 22 km

o Cione ) #,##3 km

Cione is composed completely of water ice.

o Saturn-Dione Lagrangian #oints 7elene ) ' x '2 x '0 km

!olydeuces ) #' kmK

o :hea ) #,523 km :hea is an icy body with a density of about #,20 kg@m'. This low

density indicates that it has a rocky core taking up less than one)

third of the moons mass with the rest composed of water)ice

o Titan ) 5,#50 km Titan is the only moon in our solar system to have a dense

atmosphere. Titanian volcanism is now believed to be a significant

source of the methane in the atmosphere.

Titan is about half water ice and half rocky material. =t is probablydifferentiated into several layers with a '00 km rocky center

surrounded by several layers composed of different crystal formsof ice. =ts interior may still be hot. Though similar in composition

to :hea and the rest of aturns moons, it is denser due to

gravitational compressiono 7yperion ) '0 x 230 x 225 km

7yperion is composed largely of water ice with only a small

amount of rock. =t is thought that 7yperion may be similar to a

loosely accreted pile of rubble in its physical composition.7owever, unlike most of aturns moons, 7yperion has a low

albedo <0.2V0.'>, indicating that it is covered by at least a thin layer

of dark material. This may be material from !hoebe <which ismuch darker> that got past =apetus. 7yperion is redder than !hoebe

and closely matches the color of the dark material on =apetus.

o =aptus ) #,' km The low density of =apetus indicates that it is primarily composed

of ice, with only a small amount of rocky materials.

The overall shape of =apetus is neither spherical nor ellipsoid

unusual for a large moonG parts of its globe appear to be sKuashedflat, and its uniKue eKuatorial ridge is so high that it visibly distorts

the moons shape even when viewed from a distance.

'ranus*ranus is similar in composition to +eptune, and both have different

compositions from those of the larger gas giants Aupiter and aturn. (s such, astronomerssometimes place them in a separate category, the Uice giantsU. *ranuss atmosphere, while

similar to Aupiter and aturns in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium,

contains more UicesU such as water, ammonia and methane, along with traces ofhydrocarbons. =t is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the olar ystem, with a



minimum temperature of 4 H <$22 ">. =t has a complex, layered cloud structure, with

water thought to make up the lowest clouds, and methane thought to make up the

uppermost layer of clouds. =n contrast the interior of *ranus is mainly composed of icesand rock. 8inds on the planet can reach up to 400 kmph <50 mph>. *ranus sits at almost

a 40 degree angle, putting its poles where most planets eKuator is.

• #3.' (* to 20.# (* from ol.

• &Kuatorial diameterB 5#,##3 km, !olar diameterB 4,4 km.

• 21 confirmed natural satellitesG have retrograde orbitso Miranda ) 303.5.3 km

o (riel ) ##2.2##55.3##55. km

o *mbriel ) ##4. kmo Titania ) #511.3 km

o ;beron ) #522.3 km

(eptune=n contrast to the relatively featureless atmosphere of *ranus, +eptunes

atmosphere is notable for its active and visible weather patterns. (t the time of the #434)oyager * flyby, for example, the planets southern hemisphere possessed a /reat Carkpot comparable to the /reat :ed pot on Aupiter. These weather patterns are driven by

the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the olar ystem, with recorded wind

speeds as high as 2,#00 kmph. ecause of its great distance from the un, +eptunesouter atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the olar ystem, with temperatures at its

cloud tops approaching \2#3 " <55 H>. Temperatures at the planets center, however, are

approximately 5,00 H <5,000 ">. +eptune has a faint and fragmented ring system,which may have been detected during the #40s but was only indisputably confirmed in

#434 by )oyager *.



• &Kuatorial diameterB 4,523 km, !olar diameterB 3,3# km.

• 7as wind speeds up to #2,000 mph. (tmosphere is mostly hydrogen, helium and

methane.

• 24.3#0 (* to '0.'21 (* from ol.• #' confirmed natural satellitesG 5 have retrograde orbits

o !roteus ) ' x # x 02 Hm !roteus is one of the darkest ob6ects in the solar system, as dark as

sootG it reflects only percent of the sunlight that strikes it

!roteus is very cratered showing no sign of any geological

modification. =t is also irregularly shapedG scientists believe!roteus is about as large as a body of its density can be without

being pulled into a spherical shape by its own gravity

o Triton ) 210.3#.3 kmG has a retrograde orbit Triton is uniKue among all large moons in the solar system for its

retrograde orbit around the planet <i.e., it orbits in a directionopposite to the planets rotation>. Tritons axis of rotation is alsounusual, tilted #51 degrees with respect to +eptunes axis, and #'0

degrees with respect to +eptunes orbit. This means Tritons

rotational axis points within 0 degrees of the un twice per

+eptunian year, much like *ranus. (s +eptune orbits the un,Tritons polar regions take turns facing the un, probably resulting

in radical seasonal changes as one pole then the other moves into

the sunlight. Curing the oyager 2 encounter, Tritons south polewas facing the un. (lmost the entire southern hemisphere was

covered with an Uice capU of froen nitrogen and methane. The

average surface temperature is )'40 degrees ?.o +eried ) '0 km

=ts orbit averages 5,5#',00 km in radius, but is highly eccentric

and varies from #,'5',00 to 4,2',100 kilometers. This is the

most highly eccentric orbit of any known satellite in the solarsystem. The unusual +ereidian orbit suggests that it may be a

captured asteroid or Huiper belt ob6ect, or possibly that it was



perturbed during the capture of +eptunes largest moon Triton.

ery little else is known of +ereid

(eptune #ro3an Asteroi/s

• +eptune)un %agrangial !oints

o % point 200# O: '22 ) orbits ahead of +eptune 200 *!#0 ) has the same orbital period as +eptune and orbits at

the +eptune)un % %agrangian point about 0 ahead of +eptune

#rans&(eptunian Fb3ects

( trans)+eptunian ob6ect <T+;> is any ob6ect in the solar system which orbits the

sun at a greater distance on average than +eptune.

• Huiper elt ) '0 to 50 (* from olo The Huiper elt is an area extending from within the orbit of +eptune <at

'0 (*> to 50 (* from ol, at inclinations consistent with the ecliptic.

;b6ects within the Huiper elt are referred to as trans)+eptunian ob6ects<a type of minor planet>. They are sometimes also called asteroids.

o ;ver 300 Huiper belt ob6ects <H;s> have been discovered. H;s are by

<current> definition limited to '0) (* from the un.

• !lutino ;b6ects

o !lutino are !luto)like ob6ects, insofar as it has the same relative orbit as

!luto. These orbits are stabilied by an orbital resonance with +eptune,similar to !lutos 'B2 orbital resonance. This means that !lutinos complete

2 orbits around the un in the time it takes +eptune to complete ' orbits.

!lutinos form the inner part of the Huiper belto !luto

24.1 (* to 4.' (* from ol CiameterB 2,'40 km



' confirmed natural satellitesG "haron possibly forming a binary

planet as it appears they orbit together around their mutual point of

gravity

• "haron ) Ciameter is #,205 km

o Cue to the unusually small difference in sie

between it and !luto, !luto and "haron aresometimes considered to be a double planet. They

are also sometimes thought of as not a planet and a

satellite, but as the first two Trans)+eptunianob6ects

• @2005 ! # ) estimated diameterB ##0 to #0 km

• @2005 ! 2 ) estimated diameterB #00 and #0 km

o :uins of outh (taria =sle 8hen the C?)# made the spacefold at the start of 8=, it took

with it and deposited outh (taria =sland and a sieable amount of

the surrounding !acific waters with it, depositing them near !luto.

=t is most likely slowly spreading over a larger area due to eventsthat occurred immediately after its arrival and subseKuent

interactions with gravity fields and olar wind passing through the

area. =t is the authors opinion that the area looks more like an icysmudge <perhaps occasionally being mistaken for a comet> in

space.

o 23413 =xion ) diameter of 322 kmG '0.0 (* to 4.01 (* from olo 4032 ;rcus ) Cimensions 30 ) #330 kmG '0.3# (* to 3.01# (* from

ol

# confirmed natural satellite named anthG possibly as much as #@'

the sie of ;rcus

o '303' :hadamanthus ) ''.#4 (* to 5.23 (* from olo <1#1#> #444 T"' ) VV HmG '0.55 (* to 1.4#0 (* from ol

o 200' &%# 7aumea ) #,40 km #,5#3 km 44 km to 2,500 km #,030km 3,0 kmG '5.#55 (* to 5#.52 (* from ol

The rotation period of 200' &%# is much faster than any other

ob6ect of its sie, less than four hours. The fast rotation has causedthe ob6ect to become highly oblateB it is twice as long as wide and

shorter still in height. piraling)in effect of 200' &%# and its

moon may have caused the speeding up of the rotation. The spectra

of 200' &%#, which show strong water ice features similar to whatis seen on the surface of !lutos moon "haron. Methane ice has

been detected on the surface of 200' &%#, which means it hasnever been very close to the un. =ts reflectivity is reported beingDalmost that of pure snowE

2 confirmed natural satellites

• 7iiaka, at first nicknamed U:udolphU by the "altech team,

was discovered Aanuary 2, 2005. =t is the outer and, at

roughly '#0 km in diameter, the larger and brighter of thetwo, and orbits 7aumea in a nearly circular path every



4 days. trong absorption features at #.5 and 2

micrometers in the infrared spectrum are consistent with

nearly pure crystalline water ice covering much of thesurface. The unusual spectrum, along with similar

absorption lines on 7aumea, led rown and colleagues to

conclude that capture was an unlikely model for thesystems formation, and that the 7aumean moons must be

fragments of 7aumea itself.

• +amaka, the smaller, inner satellite of 7aumea, was

discovered on Aune '0, 2005, and nicknamed UlitenU. =t is

a tenth the mass of 7iiaka, orbits 7aumea in #3 days in ahighly elliptical, non)Heplerian orbit, and as of 2003 is

inclined #' from the larger moon, which perturbs its orbit.

The relatively large eccentricities together with the mutual

inclination of the orbits of the satellites are unexpected asthey should have been damped by the tidal effects. (

relatively recent passage by a <'B#> resonance might explainthe current excited orbits of the 7aumea moons.

• Twotino

o 8hile a !lutino completes 2 orbits around the un in the time it takes +eptune to complete ' orbits, a Twotino makes # orbit around the un in

the time it takes +eptune to complete 2 orbits. *se of the term UTwotinoU

is relatively rare compared with the term U!lutinoU, and there are manymore !lutinos

o ome known TwotinosB #44 T:, #443 M#5, #441 9#0, #444

:2#, 2000 A/3#

• "ubewano

o ( cubewano is any substantial Huiper belt ob6ect, orbiting beyond about# (* and not controlled by resonances with the outer planets

o <#510> #442 O# ) CimensionsB VVVG 0.315 (* to .5425 (* from

ol

o <#452#> "haos ) CimensionsB VVVG 0.42 (* to 50.50# (* from olo <50000> Ouaoar ) CiameterB 434 to #' kmG #.4# (* to .34 (*

from ol

o <20000> aruna ) CiameterB about #00 HmG 0.4#5 (* to 5.''5 (*from ol

%ittle is known about it. =t has a rotational period of approximately

'.#1 hours <or .' hours, depending on whether the light curve is

single or double)peaked>. =t has a density of approximately #g@cmV <as dense as water>, which implies that it may not be a fully

solid body <Aewitt - heppard, 2002>. The surface is darker than

the surface of !luto indicating it is largely devoid of ice.o 2005 ?L4 Makemake ) =nitial estimates gave a diameter of 50I to 15I

that of !luto. =t is similar in sie to 200' &%#, although slightly brighterG

'3.1# (* to 52.51 (* from ol. ;riginally nicknamed U&asterbunnyU.



o <5''##> Ceucalion ) CimensionsB VVVG #.514# (* to .'3' (* from

ol

o <#4'03> #44 T; ) VV HmG '1.4#'# (* to 3.'545 (* from olo #443 88'# ) VV HmG 0.15#1 (* to 3.'44 (* from ol

=t forms a binary system with another ob6ect with the designation

@2000 <#443 88'#> #G the combined system was the first trans) +eptunian binary to be discovered.

• Camocloid (steroido Camocloids are asteroids such as 5''5 Damocles and +,, #W that have

long)period highly eccentric orbits typical of periodic comets such as

"omet 7alley, but without showing a cometary coma or tail.o Camocloids are believed to be nuclei of 7alley)type comets that have lost

all their volatile materials due to outgassing. uch comets are believed to

originate from the ;ort cloud. (nother strong indication of cometary

origin is the fact that some Camocloids have retrograde orbits, unlike anyother asteroids.

o (s of late 2005, 25 were known.o Their average radius is 3 Hm.o The albedos of four Camocloids have been measured, and they are among

the darkest ob6ects known in the olar system. Camocloids are reddish in

color, but not as red as many Huiper belt ob6ects or "entaurs.

• Huiper /ap <aka Huiper "liff>

o around 50 (* from olo The outer boundary of the Huiper belt is not defined arbitrarilyG rather,

there appears to be a real and fairly sharp dropoff in ob6ects beyond a

certain distance. The cause for this remains a mysteryG one possible

explanation would be a hypothetical &arth)sied or Mars)sied ob6ect

sweeping away debris.

Scattere/ isc

The scattered disc <or scattered disk> is a distant region of our solar system, thinly

populated by icy planetoids known as scattered disk ob6ects <C;s>. The innermost

portion of the scattered disc overlaps with the Huiper belt, but its outer limits extendmuch farther away from the sun and above and below the ecliptic than the belt proper.

8hile the Huiper belt is a relatively UroundU and UflatU doughnut of space extending

from about '0 (* to (* with its member)ob6ects locked in autonomously circular

orbits <cubewanos> or mildly)elliptical resonant orbits <plutinos and twotinos>, thescattered disc is by comparison a much more erratic milieu. C;s can often, as in the

case of 200' *'#', travel almost as great a UverticalU distance they do relative to whathas come to be defined as UhoriontalU.(lthough the T+; 40'11 edna is officially considered an C; by the M!", its

suggested that because its perihelion distance of 1 (* is too distant to be affected by the

gravitational attraction of the outer planets it should be considered an inner ;ort cloudob6ect rather than a member of the scattered disk. 2000 ":#05, which was discovered

before edna, may also be an inner ;ort cloud ob6ect or <more likely> a transitional ob6ect

between the scattered disc and the inner ;ort cloud.



• '0 to 50 (* from ol

• 200' *'#' &ris

o diameter at least 2'40 km

o '3.2 (* to 41.#0 (* from ol.o The ob6ect has already been dubbed the tenth planet by the discoverers,

+((, and some media outletsG the 200 =(* defined &ris as a dwarf planet.

o &ris also has the nicknames of Rena and %ila.

o # confirmed natural satellite @2005 <200' *'#'> # Cysnomia

• Cysnomia has the nickname of /abrielle

• <#531> #44 T% ) less than 453 km <'50 kmV>G '5.024 (* to #'0.11 (* from

ol

• <2'15> #444 C&4 ) VV HmG '2.'# (* to 14.11#0 (* from ol

• <3124> 2000 ;;1 ) VV Hmo This is notable for its highly eccentric orbitB 2# (* to over #,000 (* from

the sun, crossing the orbit of +eptune at closest approach.o =t is believed this ob6ect is composed of rock and ices.

• 2000 ": #05 ) dimensionsB VVV HmG average distance of 22 (* from ol

• <40'11> 200' #2 edna ) #200 to #00 HmG 1.'# (* to 40.13 (* from ol

Fort Clou/The ;ort cloud <sometimes called the ;pik);ort "loud> is a postulated spherical

cloud of comets situated about 50,000 to #00,000 (* from the un. This is

approximately #000 times the distance from the un to !luto or roughly one light year,

almost a Kuarter of the distance from the un to !roxima "entauri, the star nearest theun.

The ;ort cloud would have its inner disk at the ecliptic from the Huiper belt.

(lthough no direct observations have been made of such a cloud, it is believed to be the



source of most or all comets entering the inner solar system <some short)period comets

may come from the Huiper belt>, based on observations of the orbits of comets.

The ;ort cloud is a remnant of the original nebula that collapsed to form the unand planets five billion years ago, and is loosely bound to the solar system. The most

widely)accepted hypothesis of its formation is that the ;ort clouds ob6ects initially

formed much closer to the un as part of the same process that formed the planets andasteroids, but that gravitational interaction with young gas giants such as Aupiter e6ected

them into extremely long elliptical or parabolic orbits. This process also served to scatter

the ob6ects out of the ecliptic plane, explaining the clouds spherical distribution. 8hileon the distant outer regions of these orbits, gravitational interaction with nearby stars

further modified their orbits to make them more circular.

=t is thought that other stars are likely to possess ;ort clouds of their own, and

that the outer edges of two nearby stars ;ort clouds may sometimes overlap, causing theoccasional intrusion of a comet into the inner solar system. The star with the greatest

possibility of perturbing the ;ort cloud in the next #0 million years is /liese 1#0.

• =nner ;ort "loud

o 40'11 edna ) estimated diameter ##30 to #300 HmG 1.0'2 (* to423.03 (*

#ermination Shock

(bout #00 (* from ol. The termination shock boundary fluctuates in itsdistance from the sun as a result of fluctuations in solar flare activity.

@eliosheath

The heliosheath is the one between the termination shock and the heliopause at the

outer border of the solar system. =t lies along the edge of the heliosphere, a UbubbleU

caused by solar winds.

• 30 to #00 (* from ol.

@eliopause

• The heliopause is the boundary where the uns solar wind is stopped by the=nterstellar medium.



• The solar wind blows a UbubbleU known as the heliosphere in the interstellar

medium <the rarefied hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the galaxy>. Theouter border of this UbubbleU is where the solar winds strength is no longer great

enough to push back the interstellar medium. This is known as the heliopause, and

is often considered to be the outer border of the solar system.

•;utside the heliopause, the interaction between the interstellar medium and theheliopause produces the bow shock, a turbulent region in front of the uns progress through the interstellar medium.

• The distance to the heliopause is not precisely known. =t is probably much smalleron the side of the solar system facing the orbital motion through the galaxy. =t

may also vary depending on the current velocity of the solar wind and the local

density of the interstellar medium.

• 8hen particles emitted by the sun bump into the interstellar ones, they slow down

while releasing energy <warming up>. Many particles accumulate in and aroundthe heliopause, highly energied by their negative acceleration, creating a shock

wave. (n alternative definition is that the heliopause is the magnetopause

between the solar systems magnetosphere and the galaxys plasma currents.

Chapter 1% – *uil/in a Star SstemThis chapter provides information for creating new star systems for a Macross

2050 campaign. (t first this all seem overwhelming, as some of it references some prettysophisticated mathematics and scientific theories. Most of it will be simplified enough to

create a star system without spending months in calculations.

Lou may be wondering why you need to know all of this college levelinformation. :eally you donFtG but it is useful for making star systems that make sense,

and its Kuite interesting to read. ;ther science fiction :!/s, there are random generation

charts in which you can come up with results that most likely could never exist. =n a

science fantasy game such as :ifts where you can 6ust say Usome ancient deity did itU,that is fine. 7owever, this game attempts to keep as much scientific fact as possible.

Thus, this will be a rather long and complex chapter.

#he 'niverseefore one can take a look at specific stars and planets, one must take a look at

the big picture of the universe. This will be fairly shorthand, and will use the generallyaccepted theories.

ig ang - ?ormationThis is really a misnomer, as it was not big, and without air there was no bang.

Theory says that since the universe is steadily expanding, then at one point of time allthat exists was in one point. Mathematical calculations place this at #.1 billion yearsago. (t this point in time, all matter and energy of the universe was compacted smaller

than the smallest part of an atom. Then something happened and boom, it all began to

expand. Measurements of background radiation in space show uniform heat, which isattributed to a super)fast expansion burst during the first few milliseconds of existence,

before the four ma6or forces of physics <electromagnetic, gravitation, weak nuclear and

strong nuclear> split away from one primal force.



(pproximately one second after the big bang, the first protons and neutrons form.

(fter ' minutes up to about 20 minutes, the first hydrogen atoms form. omewhere from

20,000 years to '#0,000 years after the big bang, helium begins to form. ?rom around500 million years to # billion years after, the formation of !opulation === stars form from

the hydrogen, helium and trace amounts of lithium . These stars are super)massive and

convert their fuel at astonishing rates, only to go supernova. ?rom those remaininggasses, the !opulation == stars form. ?rom these new stars, all but the most unstable

elements are eventually formed. &ventually these stars also go supernova and from their

remains form the !opulation = stars and the planets.

&ndgame

&ventually the universe will die out. To explain this, one needs to understand the

concept of dark energy. 8hile this is currently not well understood, it is believed tocomprise about 1I of the mass)energy of the entire universe and fills the void between

galaxies and star clusters homogeneously.

.ig Free/e ) This is considered to be the most likely outcome. (round #0# years

from now, all of the stars burn out and no more are created. The universe becomes a colddark place, with the last vestiges of life huddling around dim brown dwarf stars.

&ventually all matter will collapse into low)energy radiation. .ig Rip ) y this theory, if dark matter continues to expand without limit, around

200 million years or more into the future all gravitational bonds will be torn apart.

/alaxies fall apart, solar systems fall apart, atoms fall apart. &verything will be torn intotheir subatomic particles, and even those will be pulled apart.

.ig Crunch ) This theory says that eventually around #00 million years or more

from now, everything will be pulled back into the center where it all began, forcing all

matter and energy back into its pre big bang state. Most scientists speculate this outcomeas being highly unlikely.

)acuum !etainsta$ility %vent ) This complex Kuantum theory, boiled down and

simplified greatly, suggests if the universe is in a false vacuum state and Kuantum tunnelsto a lower energy state, all matter will simply flash out of existence with no warning.

cary.

Galaxies8hile Macross is contained within 6ust a single galaxy, it could be possible to

explore other galaxies as well. 8ith the amount of superscience used by the !rotoculture,it would not be unreasonable that they discovered some form of practical travel across the

void between galaxies and may have left the Milky 8ay galaxy for a neighboring galaxy

after the !rotodeviln were defeated <not like that scenario never happens in sci)fi>. /iven

that the a6ra are an intergalactic race, there is at least proof of life in other galaxies.

efinition of a alax

( galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system that consists of stars, aninterstellar medium of gas and dust, and dark matter. Typical galaxies range from dwarfs

with as few as ten million <#01> stars up to giants with one trillion <#0#2> stars, all orbiting

a common center of gravity. /alaxies can also contain a large number of multiple starsystems and star clusters as well as various types of interstellar clouds.



7istorically, galaxies have been categoried according to their apparent shape

<usually referred to as their visual morphology>. ( common form is the elliptical galaxy,

which has an ellipse)shaped light profile. piral galaxies are disk)shaped assemblageswith curving dusty arms. /alaxies with irregular or unusual shapes are known as peculiar

galaxies, and typically result from disruption by the gravitational pull of neighboring

galaxies. uch interactions between nearby galaxies, which may ultimately result in agalaxy merger, may induce episodes of significantly increased star formation, producing

what is called a starburst galaxy. mall galaxies which lack a coherent structure may also

be referred to as irregular galaxies.There are probably more than a hundred billion <#0##> galaxies in the observable

universe. Most galaxies are a thousand to a hundred thousand parsecs in diameter and are

usually separated from one another by distances on the order of millions of parsecs <or

megaparsecs>. =ntergalactic space, the space between galaxies, is filled with a tenuous gaswith an average density less than one atom per cubic meter. The ma6ority of galaxies are

organied into a hierarchy of associations called clusters, which, in turn, can form larger

groups called superclusters. These larger structures are generally arranged into sheets and

filaments, which surround immense voids in the universe.(lthough theoretical, dark matter appears to account for around 40I of the mass

of most galaxies. ut the nature of these unseen components is not well understood.There is also some evidence that supermassive black holes, with a mass ranging from #05

and #0#0 <hundreds of thousands and tens of billions> of solar masses, may exist at the

center of many, if not all, galaxies. These massive ob6ects are believed to be the primarycause of active galactic nuclei found at the core of some galaxies. The Milky 8ay galaxy

appears to harbor at least one such ob6ect within its nucleus.

#ravel between alaxies

The biggest problem with dealing with other galaxies is that they are thousands or

millions of light years apart, making travel even at light speed very impractical. (s an

example from another popular science fiction series, targate (tlantis, the lost city of(tlantis is located in a star system in the !egasus Cwarf =rregular /alaxy <!C=/> which

is approximately ' million light years <mly> away from the Milky 8ay. The ancients who

built the city dwelt there millions of years ago when they fought with the 8raith. =n oneepisode, it stated an (ncient battleship had traveled between the Milky 8ay and !egasus

galaxies at 44.4I of the speed of light <0.444>. This trip seemed like #2 years to them

<due to time relativity> while millions of years passed around them <:odney states it

would take at least a million years to reach the Milky 8ay at #00I light speed>. This isscientifically sound since their velocity was 6ust under # light year per year traveling '

mly for a travel time of approximately ',0'0,000 years. ?urthermore, traveling so close to

lightspeed slows the aging of all aboard the ship.The Macross saga has better ?T% capabilities. (ll !rotoculture)based capital ships

can travel at # %L every minutes via space folding, and averaging 0.20 of lightspeed

<#,050 km per second> via sublight drives. This means it would still take around 'years to reach the !egasus galaxy <approximately #2,500 days>. *nfortunately, the further

you attempt to travel with a single space fold increases the likelihood of accident, not to

mention the amount of energy reKuired increases geometrically.



Galax .ormation an/ Evolution

The study of galactic formation and evolution attempts to answer Kuestions

regarding how galaxies formed and their evolutionary path over the history of theuniverse. ome theories on this field have now become widely accepted, but it is still an

active area of study in astrophysics.

?ormation

"urrent cosmological models of the early *niverse are based upon the ig ang

theory. (bout '00,000 years after this event, atoms of hydrogen and helium began toform, an event termed recombination. +early all the hydrogen was neutral <non)ionied>,

and readily absorbed light, and no stars had yet formed. (s a result this period has been

called the UCark (gesU. =t was from density fluctuations <or anisotropic irregularities> in

this primordial matter that larger structures began to appear. (s a result, masses of baryonic matter started to condense within cold dark matter halos. These primordial

structures would eventually become the galaxies we see today.

&vidence for the early appearance of galaxies was found in 200, when it was

discovered that the galaxy =;H)# has an unusually high redshift of .4, making it themost distant galaxy yet seen. 8hile some scientists have claimed other ob6ects <such as

(bell #3'5 =:#4#> have higher redshifts <and therefore are seen in an earlier stage of the*niverses evolution>, =;H)#s age and composition have been more reliably established.

The existence of such early protogalaxies suggests that they must have grown in the so)

called UCark (gesU.The detailed process by which such early galaxy formation occurred is a ma6or

open Kuestion in astronomy. Theories may be divided into two categoriesB top)down and

bottom)up. =n top)down theories <such as the &ggen$%ynden)ell$andage &%N

model>, protogalaxies form in a large)scale simultaneous collapse lasting about onehundred million years. =n bottom)up theories <such as the earle)9inn 9N model>, small

structures such as globular clusters form first, and then a number of such bodies accrete

to form a larger galaxy. Modern theories must be modified to account for the probable presence of large dark matter halos.

;nce protogalaxies began to form and contract, the first halo stars <called

!opulation === stars> appeared within them. These were composed almost entirely of7ydrogen and 7elium, and may have been massive. =f so, these huge stars would have

Kuickly consumed their supply of fuel and became supernovae, releasing heavy elements

into the interstellar medium. This first generation of stars re)ionied the surrounding

neutral hydrogen, creating expanding bubbles of space through which light could readilytravel.

&volution8ithin a billion years of a galaxys formation, key structures begin to appear.

/lobular clusters, the central supermassive black hole, and a galactic bulge of metal)poor

!opulation == stars form. The creation of a supermassive black hole appears to play a keyrole in actively regulating the growth of galaxies by limiting the total amount of

additional matter added.



leftN = 9wicky #3 is a recently)formed

galaxy that may still be producing its first

generation of stars.0N +((@&( 7ubblepace Telescope image.

Curing the following two billion

years, the accumulated matter settles into agalactic disk. ( galaxy will continue to

absorb infalling material from high velocity

clouds and dwarf galaxies throughout itslife. This matter is mostly hydrogen and

helium. The cycle of stellar birth and death

slowly increases the abundance of heavy

elements, eventually allowing the formationof planets.

The evolution of galaxies can be

significantly affected by interactions and collisions. Mergers of galaxies were common

during the early epoch, and the ma6ority of galaxies were peculiar in morphology. /iventhe distances between the stars, the great ma6ority of stellar systems in colliding galaxies

will be unaffected. 7owever, gravitational stripping of the interstellar gas and dust thatmakes up the spiral arms produces a long train of stars, similar to that seen in +/" 250

or the (ntennae /alaxies.

(s an example of such an interaction, the Milky 8ay galaxy and the nearby(ndromeda /alaxy are moving toward each other at about #'0 km@s, and, depending

upon the lateral movements, the two may collide in about five to six billion years.

(lthough the Milky 8ay has never collided with a galaxy as large as (ndromeda before,

evidence of past collisions of the Milky 8ay with smaller dwarf galaxies is increasing.uch large scale interactions are unlikely. (s time passes, mergers of two systems

of eKual sie become less common. Most bright galaxies have remained fundamentally

unchanged for the last few billion years, and the net rate of star formation also peakedapproximately five billion years ago.

?uture trends(t present, most star formation occurs in smaller galaxies where cool gas is not so

depleted. piral galaxies, like the Milky 8ay, only produce new generations of stars as

long as they have dense molecular clouds of interstellar hydrogen in their spiral arms.

&lliptical galaxies are already largely devoid of this gas and so form no new stars. Thesupply of star)forming material is finiteG once stars have converted the available supply of

hydrogen into heavier elements, new star formation will come to an end.

The current era of star formation is expected to continue for up to one hundred billion years, and then the Ustellar ageU will wind down after about ten trillion to one

hundred trillion years <#0#')#0# years>, as the smallest, longest)lived stars in our

astrosphere, tiny red dwarfs, begin to fade. (t the end of the stellar age galaxies will becomposed of compact ob6ectsB brown dwarfs, black dwarfs, cooling white dwarfs,

neutron stars, and black holes. &ventually, as a result of gravitational relaxation, all stars

will either fall into central supermassive black holes or be flung into intergalactic space

as a result of collisions.



Galax +orpholo

The 7ubble seKuence is a classification of galaxy types developed by &dwin7ubble in #425. =t is also called the tuning)fork diagram due to the shape of its graphical

representation.

Tuning)fork style diagram of the 7ubble seKuence

The 7ubble Utuning forkU diagram starts from the left with elliptical galaxies as

its base. &lliptical galaxies can be named from &0 to &1. & stands for elliptical while thenumber indicates how oval)shaped the ellipse is with 0 being ball shape <in other words, a

giant globular cluster> to 1 being discus shape. Technically speaking, the number is ten

times the ellipticity. ?or example, an &1 galaxy has an ellipticity of 0.1.

(fter the elliptical galaxies the diagram splits into two branches. The upper branch covers spiral galaxies. =t starts off with 0, also called lenticular galaxies. The UU

means spiral, the U0U means no arms, and the subscript number indicates how heavily a

stripe is absorbed out of the image of the galaxy by dust in the galactic disc. ;n the same branch are the next ' types which all have spiral arms. The UU here also means spiral,

but the lower case letter after it tell how wound up the arms are. They range from UaU to

UdU having the following meaningsB

• a ) tightly)wound, smooth arms, and a bright central disc

• b ) better defined spiral arms than a

• c ) much more loosely wound spiral arms than b

• d ) very loose arms, most of the luminosity is in the arms and not the

discThe lower branch of the diagram covers barred spiral galaxies given the symbol

UU. This branch starts with ; galaxies which is followed by a subscript number that

indicates how heavily defined the bar is. (fter that the branch continues with the galaxies which have lower case letters after them that indicates how heavily defined the

bar is. They range from UaU to UcU having the following meaningsB

• a ) a bright center and tight spirals

• b ) better defined arms than a galaxy and are more loosely wound

• c ) even looser arms, and a much dimmer central portion of the

galaxy

The Milky 8ay /alaxy is currently believed to be an b galaxy.



"ontrary to popular opinion, the galactic tuning fork has nothing to do with the

evolution of galaxies. ?or example, 0 galaxies do not split into two groups, one which

turns into regular spirals and one which becomes barred. %ikewise, spiral or barred)spiralgalaxies do not evolve into ellipticals. 7owever, there are reasons to believe that elliptical

galaxies in general are older than spiral galaxies. ?or instance, elliptical & galaxies appear

redder than galaxies, which indicates that they consist of older, redder stars and stellarclusters. The fact that galaxies usually seem bluer and brighter hints at star formation.

ince stellar formation reKuires dust clouds to collapse gravitationally, we may think

galaxies to be younger than & galaxies where all necessary ingredients for star formationhas already been used up. Let it needs to be mentioned that also through intergalactical

interaction star formation <almer lines> is freKuently observed. The all)encompassing

evolutionary diagram of galaxies remains one of the unresolved challenges of astronomy

today./alaxy types are divided as followsB

#> (n elliptical galaxy <&0)1> has an ellipsoidal form, with a fairly even

distribution of stars throughout. The number is related to eccentricity

but is defined by ten times the galaxys ellipticity, which is mainly used

in astronomy, i.e. where b is the short axis and a is

the long axis. &0 galaxies are nearly round, while &1 are greatlyflattened. The number indicates only how the galaxy appears on the

sky, not its true geometry.

2> ( lenticular galaxy <0 and 0> appears to have a disk)like structurewith a central spherical bulge pro6ecting from it, and does not show any

spiral structure.

'> ( spiral galaxy <a)d> has a central bulge and an outlying disk

containing spiral arms. The arms are centered around the bulge, andvary from tightly wound <a> to very loose <c and d>. The latter also

have less pronounced central bulges.

> ( barred spiral galaxy <a)d> has a similar sort of spiral structure tospiral galaxies, but instead of emanating from the bulge, the arms

pro6ect out from the ends of a UbarU running through the bulge, like

ribbons on either end of a baton. (gain, a to d refer to howUtightly woundU these arms are.

5> (n irregular galaxy <=rr> can be of type =rr)=, which shows spiral

structure but is deformed in some way, and =rr)== for any other galaxy

that does not fit into another category.

Hnown !roperties of /alaxies

/alaxy TypeMass <olarMasses>

%uminosity <olar%uminosity>

Ciameter<kpc>

tellar!opulations

!ercentage of ;bserved/alaxies

piral @

arred piral#04 to #0## #03 to #0#0 5)250

diskB

!opulation =

haloB

!opulation ==

11I



&lliptical #05 to #0#' #05 to #0## #)205 !opulation == 20I

=rregular #03 to #0#0 #01 to #04 #)#0 !opulation = 'I

7ubble based his classification on photographs of the galaxies through thetelescopes of the time. 7e originally believed that elliptical galaxies were an early form,

which might have later evolved into spiralsG our current understanding suggests that the

situation is roughly opposite, however, this early belief left its imprint in the astronomers

6argon, who still speak of Uearly typeU or Ulate typeU galaxies according to whether agalaxys type appears to the left or to the right in the diagram.

More modern observations of galaxies have given us the following information

about these typesB

• &lliptical galaxies are generally fairly low in gas and dust, and are

composed mostly of older stars.

• piral galaxies generally have plentiful supplies of gas and dust, and

have a broad mix of older and younger stars.

• =rregular galaxies are fairly rich in gas, dust, and young stars.

?rom this, astronomers have constructed a theory of galaxy evolution which suggests thatellipticals are, in fact, the result of collisions between spiral and@or irregular galaxies,

which strip out much of the gas and dust and randomie the orbits of the stars.

de aucouleursThere is an extension to the 7ubble seKuence that widely usedB the de

aucouleurs extensions. The distinction between the de aucouleurs and 7ubble

classification systems lies primarily with spiral galaxies. 8hile the 7ubble type describesspiral galaxies based upon the two criteria of tightness of spiral and barredness, de

aucouleurs adds a third descriptor, internal ring.

• piralnessB galaxies range from &, through 0, through the other spirals,

to =m.

• arrednessB galaxies are described as being ( <ordinary>, <barred>, or

( <intermediate>.

• :ingednessB galaxies are described as being s)shaped <no ring>, r)shaped

<ring>, or sr <intermediate>.

Therefore, a galaxy may be described as being (<rs>c ) c spiral, between barred and ordinary, and between ringed and no ring.

isually, the de aucouleurs system is often represented in three dimensions,

with spiralness on the x)axis, barredness on the y)axis, and ringedness on the )axis. (

cross)section of one spiralness <egB b> will yield a representation in two dimensions withringedness on the x)axis and barredness on the y)axis.

isc Galax

Cisc galaxies are galaxies which have discs, a flattened circular volume of stars.

These galaxies may, or may not include a central non)disc)like region <central bulge>.

Cisc galaxies include spiral gala0ies <barred, unbarred and intermediate barred> andlenticular gala0ies. piral galaxies have very little random movement, being dominated

by rotational energy.



arred or *nbarred

arred galaxies have a band of bright stars extending from opposite sides of thegalactic core with the spiral arms connecting to the ends of the bars. *nbarred galaxies

lack this band, with the spiral arms connecting directly to the galactic core itself. (n

intermediate barred galaxy is somewhere between these two classifications.

Elliptical Galax

&lliptical galaxies differ from spiral galaxies in several mannersB

• The motion of stars is dominated by random motion, unlike spiral

galaxies, which have very little random motion and are dominated byrotation.

• ery little interstellar matter, few young stars, and few open star clusters

• "onsist of old, so)called !opulation == stars

%arger elliptical galaxies typically have a system of globular clusters, indicating

an old population.

This traditional portrait of elliptical galaxies paints them as galaxies where starformation has finished after the initial burst, leaving them to shine with only their aging

stars. ery little star formation is thought to happen. =n general, they appear yellow)red,which is in contrast to the distinct blue tinge of a typical spiral galaxy, a color emanating

largely from the young, hot stars in its spiral arms.

There is a wide range in sie and mass for elliptical galaxiesB as small as a tenth ofa kiloparsec to over #00 kiloparsecs, and from #01 to nearly #0#' solar masses. The

smallest, the Cwarf elliptical galaxies, may be no larger than a typical globular cluster,

but contain a considerable amount of dark matter not present in clusters. Most of thesesmall galaxies may not be related to other ellipticals. The single largest known galaxy,

M31 <which also goes by the +/" number 3>, is an elliptical. This range is much

broader for this galaxy type than for any other.=t was once thought that the shape of ellipticals varied from spherical to highly

elongated. The 7ubble classification of elliptical galaxies ranges from &0 for those that

are most spherical, to &1, which are long and thin. =t is now recognied that the vast

ma6ority of ellipticals are of middling thinness, and that the 7ubble classifications are aresult of the angle with which the galaxy is observed.

There are two physical types of ellipticalsG the UboxyU giant ellipticals, whose

shapes result from random motion which is greater in some directions than in others<anisotropic random motion>, and the UdiskU normal and low luminosity ellipticals, which

have nearly isotropic random velocities but are flattened due to rotation.

Cwarf elliptical galaxies are probably not true ellipticals at allG they have properties that

are similar to those of irregulars and late spiral)type galaxies. Many astronomers nowrefer to them as Udwarf spheroidalsU in recognition of this <note that this is still a topic of

some controversy>.

&llipticals and the bulges of disk galaxies have similar properties, and aregenerally regarded as the same physical phenomenon

&lliptical galaxies tend to lie in the cores of galaxy clusters and in compact groups of

galaxies.



ome recent observations have found young, blue star clusters inside a few

elliptical galaxies, along with other structures that can be explained by galaxy mergers.

"urrent thinking is that an elliptical galaxy is the result of a long process where twogalaxies of comparable mass, of any type, collide and merge.

uch ma6or galaxy mergers are thought to have been common at early times, but

may carry on more infreKuently today. Minor galaxy mergers involve two galaxies ofvery different masses, and are not limited to giant ellipticals. ?or example, our own

Milky 8ay galaxy is known to be UdigestingU a couple of small galaxies right now.

Lenticular Galax

( lenticular galaxy is a type of galaxy which is an intermediate between an

elliptical galaxy and a spiral galaxy in the 7ubble seKuence classification scheme.

%enticular galaxies are disc galaxies <like spiral galaxies> which have used up or lost theirinterstellar matter <like elliptical galaxies>. ecause of their ill)defined spiral arms, if they

are inclined face)on it is often difficult to distinguish between them and elliptical

galaxies. 7ubble classification of lenticulars are 0, 0, &3

%enticular galaxies may be barred or unbarred like a spiral galaxy.

<rreular Galax

(n irregular galaxy is a galaxy that does not fall into the 7ubble classification for

galaxies. These are galaxies that feature neither spiral nor elliptical morphology. They are

often chaotic in appearance, with neither a nuclear bulge nor any trace of spiral armstructure. "ollectively they are thought to make up about a Kuarter of all galaxies. Most

irregular galaxies were once spiral or elliptical galaxies but were deformed by

gravitational action.

There are two ma6or 7ubble types of irregular galaxiesB

• (n =rr)= galaxy <=rr => is an irregular galaxy that features some structure

but not enough to place it cleanly into the 7ubble seKuence. deaucouleurs subtypes this into galaxies that have some spiral structure

m, and those that do not =m.

• (n =rr)== galaxy <=rr ==> is an irregular galaxy that does not appear to

feature any structure that can place it into the 7ubble seKuence.

( third classification of irregular galaxies are the dwarf irregulars, labeled as d= ord=rrs. This type of galaxy is now thought to be important to understand the overall

evolution of galaxies, as they tend to have a low level of metallicity and relatively high

levels of gas, and are thought to be similar to the earliest galaxies that populated the

*niverse. They may represent a local <and therefore more recent> version of the faint bluegalaxies known to exist in deep field galaxy surveys.

ome irregular galaxies are small spiral galaxies that are being distorted by thegravity of a larger neighbor.The Magellanic "loud galaxies were once classified as irregular galaxies, but

have since been found to contain barred spiral structures, and have been since re)

classified as UmU, a fourth type of barred spiral galaxy.

Peculiar Galax



( peculiar galaxy is a galaxy which is unusual in its sie, shape, or composition.

!eculiar galaxies come about as a result of interactions between galaxies, and they may

contain atypical amounts of dust or gas, may have higher or lower surface brightness thana typical galaxy, or may have features such as nuclear 6ets. They can be highly irregular

in shape due to the immense gravitational forces which act on them during encounters

with other galaxies. !eculiar galaxies are designated by UpU or UpecU in catalogs such asthe 7alton (rp catalog.

$in Galax

( ring galaxy is a galaxy with a ring)like appearance. The ring consists of

massive, relatively young blue stars, which are extremely bright. The central region

contains relatively little luminous matter. (stronomers believe that ring galaxies are

formed when a smaller galaxy passes through the center of a larger galaxy. ecause mostof a galaxy consists of empty space, this UcollisionU rarely results in any actual collisions

between stars. 7owever the gravitational disruptions caused by such an event could cause

a wave of star formation to move through the larger galaxy.

Polar&rin Galax

( polar)ring galaxy is a relatively rare type of galaxy, with only around #00examples known. The best know example is +/" 50(. =t is theoried that the structure

of these galaxies result from the collision of two galaxies. The collision results in a

structure composed of two rings of material rotating at an approximate right angle to eachother.

warf Galax

( dwarf galaxy is any other type of galaxy that is of a smaller sieG containingonly a few million stars rather than hundreds of millions like their larger cousins. ome

ultra)compact dwarf galaxies have been discovered that only measure #00 parsecs in

diameter. Many dwarf galaxies orbit around a larger galaxy not unlike planets around astar.

'nusual namics an/ Activities

ome galaxies have unusual properties or behaviors attributed to them.

<nteractin

The average separation between galaxies within a cluster is a little over an orderof magnitude larger than their diameter. 7ence interactions between these galaxies are

relatively freKuent, and play an important

role in their evolution. +ear misses betweengalaxies result in warping distortions due to

tidal interactions, and may cause some

exchange of gas and dust.leftN The (ntennae /alaxies are

undergoing a collision that will result in

their eventual merger <+((@&( 7ubble

pace Telescope image>



"ollisions occur when two galaxies pass directly through each other and have

sufficient relative momentum not to merge. The stars within these interacting galaxies

will typically pass straight through without colliding. 7owever the gas and dust withinthe two forms will interact. This can trigger bursts of star formation as the interstellar

medium becomes disrupted and compressed. ( collision can severely distort the shape of

one or both galaxies, forming bars, rings or tail)like structures.(t the extreme of interactions are galactic mergers. =n this case the relative

momentum of the two galaxies is insufficient to allow the galaxies to pass through each

other. =nstead they gradually merge together to form a single, larger galaxy. Mergers canresult in significant changes to morphology, as compared to the original galaxies. =n the

case where one of the galaxies is much more massive, however, the result is known as

cannibalism. =n this case the larger galaxy will remain relatively undisturbed by the

merger, while the smaller galaxy is torn apart. The Milky 8ay galaxy is currently in the process of cannibaliing the agittarius Cwarf &lliptical /alaxy and the "anis Ma6or

Cwarf /alaxy.

Starbursttars are created within galaxies from a reserve of cold gas that forms into giant

molecular clouds. ome galaxies have been observed to form stars at an exceptional rate,known as a starburst. hould they continue to do so, however, they would consume their

reserve of gas in a time frame lower than the lifespan of the galaxy. 7ence starburst

activity usually lasts for only about ten million yearsG a relatively brief period in thehistory of a galaxy. tarburst galaxies were more common during the early history of the

universe, and, at present, still contribute an estimated #5I to the total star production

rate.

tarburst galaxies are characteried by dusty concentrations of gas and the

appearance of newly)formed stars,

including massive stars that ionie thesurrounding clouds to create 7 == regions.

These massive stars also produce

supernova explosions, resulting inexpanding remnants that interact

powerfully with the surrounding gas.

These outbursts trigger a chain reaction of

star building that spreads throughout thegaseous region. ;nly when the available

gas is nearly consumed or dispersed does the starburst activity come to an end.

tarbursts are often associated with merging or interacting galaxies. The prototype example of such a starburst)forming interaction is M32, which experienced a

close encounter with the larger M3# picture rightN. =rregular galaxies often exhibit

spaced knots of starburst activity

Active (ucleus



( portion of the galaxies we can observe are classified as active. That is, a

significant portion of the total energy output from the galaxy is emitted by a source other

than the stars, dust and interstellar medium.The standard model for an active galactic nucleus is based upon an accretion disk

that forms around supermassive black hole <M7> at the core region. The radiation

from an active galactic nucleus results from the gravitational energy of matter as it fallstoward the black hole from the disk. =n about #0I of these ob6ects, a diametrically

opposed pair of energetic 6ets e6ects particles from the core at velocities close to the speed

of light. The mechanism for producing these 6ets is still not well)understood.leftN( 6et of particles is being

emitted from the core of the elliptical radio

galaxy M31 <+((@&( 7ubble pace

Telescope image>(ctive galaxies that emit high)

energy radiation in the form of x)rays are

classified as eyfert galaxies or Kuasars,

depending on the luminosity. laars are believed to be an active galaxy with a

relativistic 6et that is pointed in the directionof the &arth. ( radio galaxy emits radio

freKuencies from relativistic 6ets. ( unified

model of these types of active galaxiesexplains their differences based on the

viewing angle of the observer.

!ossibly related to active galactic nuclei <as

well as starburst regions> are low)ioniation nuclear)emission regions, or %=+&:s. Theemission from %=+&:)type galaxies is dominated by weakly)ionied elements.

(pproximately one)third of nearby galaxies are classified as containing %=+&: nuclei

*uil/in a Sol&like Sstem;k itFs time to make a star system for coloniation, or possibly for a near)human

race to evolve. This guide follows the assumption of the Drare earth theoryE.The :are &arth hypothesis argues that the emergence of complex life reKuired a

host of fortuitous circumstances. ( number of such circumstances are set out below under

the following headingsB galactic habitable one, a central star and planetary systemhaving the reKuisite character, the circumstellar habitable one, the sie of the planet, the

advantage of a large satellite, conditions needed to assure the planet has a magnetosphere

and plate tectonics, the chemistry of the lithosphere, atmosphere, and oceans, the role of

Uevolutionary pumpsU such as massive glaciation and rare bolide impacts, and whateverled to the still mysterious "ambrian explosion of animal phyla. The emergence of

intelligent life may have reKuired yet other rare events.

=n order for a small rocky planet to support complex life, the values of hundredsof variables must fall within narrow ranges. The universe is so vast that it could contain

multiple &arth)like planets throughout millions of galaxies. ut if such planets exist, they

are likely to be separated from each other by many thousands of light years.



#he alactic habitable Done

:are &arth suggests that much of the known universe, including large parts of our

galaxy, cannot support complex lifeG 8ard and rownlee refer to such regions as Udeadones.U Those parts of a galaxy where complex life is possible make up the galactic

habitable one. This one is primarily a function of distance from the galactic center. (s

that distance increasesB#> The metal content of stars declines, and metals are considered necessary to the

formation of terrestrial planets.

2> The R)ray and gamma ray radiation from the supermassive black hole at thegalactic center, and from nearby neutron stars and Kuasars, becomes less intense.

:adiation of this nature is considered dangerous to complex life. 7ence the :are &arth

hypothesis deems unfit for life the early universe, and regions where the stellar density is

high and supernovae not rare.'> /ravitational perturbation of planets and planetesimals by nearby stars

becomes less likely as the density of stars decreases. 7ence the further a planet lies from

the galactic center, the less likely it is to be struck by a large bolide. ( sufficiently large

impact may extinguish all complex life on a planet.!oint <#> rules out the outer reaches of a galaxyG <2> and <'> rule out galactic inner

regions, globular clusters, and the spiral arms of spiral galaxies. These arms are not physical ob6ects, but regions of a galaxy characteried by a higher rate of star formation,

moving very slowly through the galaxy in a wave)like manner. (s one moves from the

center of a galaxy to its furthest extremity, the ability to support life rises then falls.7ence the galactic habitable one may be ring)shaped, sandwiched between its

uninhabitable center and outer reaches.

8hile a planetary system may en6oy a location favorable to complex life, it must

also maintain that location for a span of time sufficiently long for complex life to evolve.7ence a central star with a galactic orbit that steers clear of galactic regions where

radiation levels are high, such as the galactic center and the spiral arms, would appear

most favorable. =f the central stars galactic orbit is eccentric <egg)shaped>, it will passthrough some spiral arms, but if the orbit is a near perfect circle and the orbital velocity

eKuals the UrotationalU velocity of the spiral arms, the star will drift into a spiral arm

region only gradually, if at all. Therefore :are &arth proponents conclude that a life) bearing star must have a galactic orbit that is nearly circular about the center of its

galaxy. The reKuired synchroniation of the orbital velocity of a central star with the

wave velocity of the spiral arms can occur only within a fairly narrow range of distances

from the galactic center. This region is termed the Ugalactic habitable oneU. %ineweaveret al <200> calculate that the galactic habitable one is an annular ring 1 to 4 kiloparsecs

in diameter, that includes no more than #0I of the stars in the Milky 8ay. ased on

conservative estimates of the total number of stars in the galaxy, this could representsomething like 20 to 0 billion stars. /onale <200#> would halve these numbersG he

estimates that at most 5I of stars in the Milky 8ay fall in the galactic habitable one.

The orbit of the un around the center of the Milky 8ay is indeed almost perfectly circular, with a period of 22 Ma, one closely matching the rotational period of

the galaxy. 7owever, Masters <2002> calculates that the orbit of the un takes it through a

spiral arm approximately every #00 million years. =n contrast, the :are &arth hypothesis

predicts that the un, since its formation, should have passed through no spiral arm at all.



#he Star <tself

=t is generally accepted by exobiologists that the central star for a life)bearing planet must be of appropriate sie. %arge stars emit much ultraviolet radiation, which

precludes life other than underground microbes. %arge stars also exist for millions, not

billions, of years, after which they explode as supernovae. ( supernova remnant becomesa neutron star or black hole, giving off high energy x)ray and gamma radiation. 7ence the

planets orbiting the large hot or binary stars believed to give rise to supernovae do not

live long enough to allow their planets to evolve complex life.The terrestrial example suggests complex life reKuires water in the liKuid state and

its planet must therefore be at an appropriate distance. This is the core of the notion of

habitable one. The habitable one forms a ring around the central star. =f a planet orbits

its sun too closely or too far away, the surface temperature is incompatible with water being liKuid <though sub)surface water, as suggested for &uropa, may be possible at

varying locations>. Hasting et al <#44'> estimate that the habitable one for the un

ranges from 0.45 to #.#5 astronomical units.

The habitable one varies with the type and age of the central star. The habitableone for a main seKuence star very gradually moves out over time until the star becomes

a white dwarf, at which time the habitable one vanishes. The habitable one is closelyconnected to the greenhouse warming afforded by atmospheric carbon dioxide <";2>.

&ven though the &arths atmosphere contains only '50 parts per million of ";2, that

trace amount suffices to raise the average surface temperature of the &arth by about 0"from what it would otherwise be <8ard and rownlee 2000B #3>.

=t is then presumed a star needs to have rocky planets within its habitable one.

8hile the habitable one of hot stars, such as irius or ega is wide, there are two

problemsB#> /iven that rocky planets tend to form closer to their central stars, the minimum

radius of the habitable one may be greater than the orbital radius of any rocky planet.

This does not rule out life on a moon of a gas giant. 7ot stars also emit much moreultraviolet radiation, which will ionie any planetary atmosphere.

2> 7ot stars as mentioned above, have short lives, becoming red giants in as little

as # /a. This may not allow enough time for advanced life to evolve.These considerations rule out the massive and powerful stars of type ? to ; <see

stellar classification>.

mall red dwarf stars, on the other hand, have habitable ones with a small radius.

This proximity causes one face of the planet to constantly face the star, and the other toalways remain dark, a situation known as tidal lock. Tidal lock rules out axial rotationG

hence one side of a planet will be extremely hot, while the other will be extremely cold.

!lanets within a habitable one with a small radius are also at increased risk of solarflares <see (urelia>, which would tend to ionie the atmosphere and are otherwise

inimical to complex life. :are &arth proponents argue that this rules out the possibility of

life in such systems, though some exobiologists have suggested that habitability mayexist under the right circumstances. This is a central point of contention for the theory,

since these H and M category stars are estimated to make up 40I of all stars.



:are &arth proponents argue that the stellar type of central stars that are U6ust

rightU ranges from ?1 to H#. uch stars are not commonB / type stars such as the un

<between the hotter ? and cooler H> comprise only 5I of the stars in the Milky 8ay.(ged stars, such as red giants, and white dwarfs, are also unlikely to support life. :ed

giants are common in globular clusters and elliptical galaxies. 8hite dwarfs are mostly

dying stars that have already gone through their red giant phase. The diameter of a redgiant has substantially increased from its youth. =f a planet was in the habitable one

during a stars youth and middle age, it will be fried when its parent star becomes a red

giant <though theoretically planets at a much greater distance may become habitable>.The energy output of a star over its lifespan should only change very graduallyG

variable stars such as a "epheid variables, for instance, are highly unlikely to support life.

=f the central stars energy output suddenly decreases, even for a relatively short while,

the planets water may freee. "onversely, if the central stars energy output temporarilyincreases, the oceans may evaporate, resulting in a greenhouse effectG this may preclude

the oceans from reforming.

There is no known way to achieve life without complex chemistry, and such

chemistry reKuires metals, namely elements other than hydrogen, helium, and lithium.This suggests a condition for life is a solar system rich in metals. The only known

mechanism for creating and dispersing metals is a supernova explosion. The presence ofmetals in stars is revealed by their absorption spectrum, and studies of stellar spectra

reveal that many, perhaps most, stars are poor in metals. %ow metallicity characteries

the early universe, globular clusters and other stars formed when the universe was young,stars in most galaxies other than large spirals, and stars in the outer regions of all

galaxies. Thus metal)rich central stars capable of supporting complex life are believed

most common in the Kuiet suburbs of the larger spiral galaxies, regions hospitable to

complex life for another reason, namely the absence of high radiation.=f a star is poor in metals, any associated planetary system is likely poor in metals

as well. =n order to have rocky planets like the &arth, a central star must have condensed

out of a nebula that was fairly metal)rich. ;nly gas giant planets will condense out of ametal)poor nebulaG such a nebula simply lacks the material reKuired to form terrestrial

planets.

Planetar Sstem

( gas cloud capable of giving birth to a star can also give rise to gas giant

<Aovian> planets like Aupiter and aturn. ut Aovian planets have no hard surface of the

kind believed necessary for complex life <their satellites may have hard surfaces, though>.7ence a planetary system capable of sustaining complex life must be structured more or

less like the solar system, with small and rocky inner planets, and Aovian outer ones.

Thanks to its gravitational force, a gas giant e6ects the debris from planetformation into the eKuivalent of the Huiper belt and ;ort cloud. 7ence a gas giant helps

protect the inner rocky planets from asteroid bombardment. 7owever, a gas giant must

not be too close to a body upon which life is developing, unless that body is one of itsmoons. ( gas giant must also not be too close to another gas giant. &ither placement of

the gas giant<s> could disrupt the orbit of a potential life)bearing planet, either directly or

by drifting into the habitable one. ?urthermore, some <if not many> gas giants produce a

tremendously strong magnetic@radiation belt that envelops its moons.



+ewtonian dynamics predict that all planetary orbits will tend to be chaotic. This

tendency to chaos is much stronger when orbits are eccentric, especially the orbits of

large planets. The need for stable orbits rules out planetary systems resembling those thathave been discovered in recent years, namely systems with a large planet with a small

orbit. uch planets are known as hot Aupiters. =t is believed that hot Aupiters formed much

further from their parent stars than they are now, and have gradually migrated inwards totheir current orbits. =n the process, they would have gravely disrupted the orbits of any

inner planets in the habitable one.

!lanetary systems, especially their outer regions, are believed to be riddled withcomets and asteroids which inevitably collide with planets. uch collisions, known as

bolide impacts, can be highly disruptive for complex life. 7ence bolide impacts must be

rare <but nonexistent is not necessarily for the best eitherG see below> during the billions

of years reKuired for complex life to emerge. The freKuency of bolide impacts on inner planets is reduced if there are lifeless planets at the right distance from the central star,

and with sufficient gravity either to attract comets and asteroids to themselves or to e6ect

them from the planetary system.

7ence a planetary system capable of supporting complex life must include at leastone large outer planet. Aupiters large mass has attracted many <nearly allV> of the bolides

that would have otherwise hit &arth since the end of the late heavy bombardment about'.3 /a. ut planetary systems with too many Aovian planets, or with a single one that is

too large, are likely to be unstable, in which case the likely fate of a rocky inner planet

able to support life is either to plunge into its central star or to be e6ected into interstellarspace.

SiDe of planet

<%issauer #444, as summaried by "onway Morris 200'B 42G also see "omins#44'>. ( planet that is too small cannot hold much of an atmosphere. 7ence the surface

temperature becomes more variable and the average temperature drops. 8ater will either

freee, boil away, or decompose under the action of * radiationG in any event,substantial and long)lasting oceans become impossible. ( small planet will also tend to

have a rough surface, with large mountains and deep canyons. The core will cool faster,

and plate tectonics will either not last as long as they would on a larger planet or may notoccur at all.

=f a planets sie is such that its gravitational field substantially exceeds the

&arths, it will attract more bolides to itself. The stronger the gravitational field, the

harder it is for mountains and continents to form. =n the limit, such a planet would probably be covered with an ocean, in which case the lack of exposed rocks would rule

out the feedback mechanism, described below, regulating atmospheric ";2.

Lare moon

The Moon is unusual becauseB

#> The other rocky planets in the olar ystem either have no satellites <Mercuryand enus>, or have tiny satellites that are likely to be captured asteroids <Mars>.

2> (s a fraction of its planet, it is much larger than any other satellite in the olar

ystem except !lutos "haron. =t is also atypically close.



The giant impact theory hypothesies that the Moon results from the impact of a

Mars)sied body <referred to as Theia> with the very young &arth. This giant impact also

gave the &arth its axis tilt and velocity of rotation <Taylor #443>. :apid rotation reducesthe daily variation in temperature and makes photosynthesis viable. The :are &arth

hypothesis further argues that the axis tilt cannot be too large or too small <relative to the

orbital plane>. ( planet with a large tilt will experience extreme seasonal variations inclimate, unfriendly to complex life. ( planet with little or no tilt will lack the stimulus to

evolution that climate variation provides. =n this view, the &arths tilt is U6ust rightU. (

large satellite can also act as a gyroscope, stabiliing the planets tiltG without this effectthe tilt will be chaotic, presumably also causing difficulties for developing life forms.

=f the &arth had no Moon, the ocean tides resulting solely from the uns gravity

would be very modest. ( large satellite gives rise to substantial tides and the resulting

tidal pools, which are likely to have been an important focus for the evolution of complexlife. ( large satellite also increases the likelihood of plate tectonics through the effect of

tidal forces on the planets crust. The impact that formed the Moon may also have

initiated plate tectonics, without which the continental crust would cover the entire

planet, leaving no room for oceanic crust. =t is possible that the large scale mantleconvection needed to drive plate tectonics could not have emerged in the absence of

crustal inhomogeneity.=f a giant impact is the only known way for a rocky inner planet to acKuire a large

satellite, any planet in the circumstellar habitable one will need to form as a double

planet in order that there be an impacting ob6ect sufficiently massive to give rise in duecourse to a large satellite. (n impacting ob6ect of this nature is not necessarily

improbable. :ecent work by &dward elbruno and A. :ichard /ott of !rinceton

*niversity suggests that a suitable impacting body could form in a planets tro6an points

<% or %5>.

+anetic fiel/

( magnetosphere protects the biosphere from solar wind and cosmic rays, whichare harmful to life. The magnetosphere results from a massive conductive planetary core

made of molten iron, acting as a dynamo. The iron is molten because of heat given off by

the decay of radioactive elements. =f complex life can exist only on the surface of a planetsurrounded by a magnetosphere, then complex life reKuires a planet whose interior

contains radioactive elements. Moreover, these elements must have half lives long

enough <e.g., uranium 2'3, thorium 2'2, and potassium 0> to sustain the magnetosphere

for a time span long enough for complex life to evolve. uch elements are relatively rarein the universe. (s the universe grows older, the freKuency of the sort of supernovae that

produces radioactive elements with long half lives is believed to decline. 7ence these

elements are fated to grow ever rarer as the universe grows older. 7ence there is possiblyan upper bound to the age of a universe capable of supporting complex life.

The unusually massive iron core that generates the &arths magnetosphere may

have resulted from the merger of the proto)&arths smaller core with that of an impacting body. This impacting body could have been the one that, under the giant impact theory

<see above>, gave rise to the Moon.

Plate tectonics



This is the most original part of 8ard and rownlees analysis <however this

section owes much to 8ebb 2002B #30)3>. They argue that in order for a rocky planet to

support animal life, its crust must experience plate tectonics. That is, the lithosphere mustconsist of large crustal plates that, along certain margins, are continuously created from

fluid matter carried from the deep interior in convection cells. (long other margins,

called subduction ones, these crustal plates are reabsorbed into the planets interior.( planet will not experience plate tectonics unless its chemical composition

allows it. The only known long lasting source of the reKuired heat is radioactive decay

occurring deep in the planets interior. "ontinents must also be made up of less densegranitic rocks that UfloatU on underlying more dense basaltic rock. Taylor <#443>

emphasies that subduction ones <an essential part of plate tectonics> reKuire the

lubricating action of ample waterG on &arth, such ones exist only at the bottom of

oceans.( large satellite also increases the likelihood of plate tectonics through the effect

of tidal forces on the planets crust. The impact that formed the Moon may also have

initiated plate tectonics, without which the continental crust would cover the entire

planet, leaving no room for oceanic crust. (t present, it is not known whether theorganiation of the large scale mantle convection needed to drive plate tectonics could

develop in the absence of crustal inhomogeneity.The reasons why convection)driven plate tectonics promotes the development of

complex life include the following. !late tectonicsB

#> &nable the magnetosphereG2> "reate and alter dry land via magmatic differentiationG

'> :egulate the temperature of the atmosphere.

y drawing heat from the interior to the surface, convection driven plate tectonics

assures that if a planet has a core of molten iron, that core keeps moving. That motionmeans that the core of the earth acts like a dynamo, generating a magnetic field.

=f the atmosphere contains too few greenhouse gases, the planet slides into a

permanent ice age. Too much greenhouse gas, and the temperature becomes first too highfor complex life <many proteins denature at temperatures well short of the boiling point

of water>, and eventually the oceans turn to water vapor. The primary greenhouse gas in

the &arths atmosphere is carbon dioxide, ";2. =t appears that plate tectonics play animportant role in a complex feedback system <for details, see 8ard and rownlee> that

stabilies the &arths temperature. (tmospheric ";2 combines with rainwater to form

dilute carbonic acid. This acid interacts with surface rocks to form calcium carbonate,

"a";', which is eventually deposited on the ocean bottom and carried into the &arthsinterior at subduction ones. Thus ";2 is removed from the atmosphere. The high

temperatures and pressures within the &arths mantle transform "a";' into ";2 and

"a;. This subterranean ";2 is eventually returned to the atmosphere via volcanism.?eedback occurs because a rise in atmospheric ";2 results in higher temperatures

via the greenhouse effect, and more rainfall, and more acid rainwater. 7ence the rate at

which ";2 is removed from the atmosphere rises. 8hen atmospheric ";2 falls, the rateat which it is removed from the atmosphere declines. !late tectonics exposes and buries

rocks in a way that automatically regulates the ";2 content of the atmosphere. The result

has been an &arth with a more or less steady surface temperature, even though the suns

energy output is believed to be about 25I greater now than it was when the &arth was



young. (bsent this recycling of atmospheric carbon, the expected lifetime of the

biosphere is not expected to exceed a few million years. =ce ages, by covering much of a

planets rocks and by reducing rainfall, interfere with this feedback process.=t is difficult to imagine how an aKuatic species would smelt and shape metal ores

or manipulate electricity <sea water is a fair electrical conductor thanks to its dissolved

minerals>. 7ence it is likely that intelligent life with technology can only evolve on drylandG plate tectonics assures that a planet with ample water also has dry land. More

generally, a planet with mountains, islands, and continents gives rise to more

microclimates and evolutionary niches, which present evolution with more challenges.7ence plate tectonics promote biodiversity.

8hile plate tectonics appear to have helped complex life to evolve on &arth, how

essential plate tectonics are for complex life in general, and the rarity of planets with

plate tectonics, are both not well understood at present. The only ob6ect in the solarsystem other than the &arth believed to experience plate tectonics now is the /alilean

moon &uropa.

#he atmosphere"arbon)based biochemistry clearly reKuires a large supply of atmospheric carbon

dioxide and crustal carbon <in the form of carbonate compounds>G however large amountsof carbon would give rise to a runaway greenhouse effect. (tmospheric oxygen is

necessary to support the metabolism of &arthly animals and hence intelligent life. 7ence

something like photosynthesis had to evolve to shift the atmosphere from a reducing oneto an oxidiing one.

"entral stars invariably emit ultraviolet <*> radiation. * radiation whose

wavelength falls in the range of 20)40 nm is efficiently absorbed by nucleic acids and

proteins, and hence is lethal for all forms of terrestrial life. ?ortunately, oone efficientlyabsorbs * radiation in the range 200)'00 nm, and atmospheric oxygen is the building

block for oone. 7ence a planet with complex life living on dry land must have an oone

layer in its upper atmosphere. ;xygen first appeared in the atmosphere when *radiation in the range #00)200 nm broke water down into its atomic components. ;nce

there was enough of an oone layer to permit photosynthetic microbes to evolve on the

planets surface, the oxygen content of the atmosphere gradually rose through photosynthesis, and is believed to have reached its present <or even higher> level during

the "ambrian era. 7ence an atmosphere sufficiently rich in oxygen may have been a

necessary condition for the "ambrian explosion.

&ven if conditions on a planets surface allow water in the liKuid phase, we cannotconclude that there will in fact be any water present. The inner planets in our solar system

were formed with little water. Much of the water in the oceans is believed to have been

brought to &arth by the icy asteroid impacts during the early bombardment phase about.5 /a. The oceans play a crucial role in moderating the seasonal swings in the &arths

temperature. The high specific heat of water enables oceans to warm slowly during the

summer and then to give up their summer heat over the following winter. Too muchwater, on the other hand, leads to a planet with little or no land, and hence no weathering

mechanism for regulating the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere.

Evolutionar pumps



&ven if all of these above conditions are met, complex life does not necessarily

evolve. There is no evidence whatsoever of life until '.3 /a, when the late heavy

bombardment ended, marking the end of the 7adean eon. ;ver the next '.2 /a, there isno evidence, other than a few possible worm tracks, of life more complex than the

protistsG if there were proto)nematodes or other small soft bodied organisms, they left no

fossils. The terrestrial fossil record is thought to show that a complex ecosystem,

consisting of many niches, each filled, has been attained several times, the first being 6ust

after the "ambrian &xplosion. The theory of !unctuated eKuilibrium argues thatB#> ;nce a planet has an ecosystem whose niches are all filled, the rate of

evolutionary change drops considerablyG

2> ;n &arth, the time reKuired for evolution to fill all niches <to reach

eKuilibrium> has been relatively short compared to geological time.(n Uevolutionary pumpU is any mass extinction event that results in many empty

ecological niches, thereby speeding up evolution. uch events, which can place all of a

planets complex life at risk, include a sudden change in the energy put out by the central

star, a collapse of the magnetosphere, a sudden change in a planets spin rate or axial tilt,a nearby supernova, gamma ray bursts anywhere in the galaxy <perhaps resulting from

merging neutron stars>, and any rapid and drastic change in climate or ocean chemistry.:are &arth focuses on two candidate evolutionary pumps, global glaciation, and bolide

impacts.

/lobal glaciation

The evolution of life on &arth includes two very important and unexpected leaps,

the emergence ofB

#> *nicellular eukaryotes characteried by organelles, such as chromosomes,nuclei, and mitochondriaG

2> Multicellular life with specialied biological tissues and organs, especially

animals with calcified shells and skeletons, capable of leaving a clear fossil record.The earliest unambiguous fossil evidence of multicellular life is the &diacaran

biota, about 530 Ma. 7ence the better part of 2 billion years elapsed between the first and

the second leaps. Meanwhile, only about 00 million years were reKuired in order for thefirst multicellular animals <sponges and &diacaran biota> to evolve into dinosaurs.

"uriously, both of these evolutionary transitions came hard on the heels of

extended periods of glaciation so extensive that it is suspected that the earth was covered

with ice, either entirely or over all but a narrow band about the &Kuator. This much icecover would have raised the &arths albedo to such an extent that the &arths average

temperature may have fallen to about )50". The thick ice covering almost all oceans

ruled out any interactions between the oceans and the atmosphere. The continents wereeither covered with ice, or consisted of bare rock devoid of life. This scenario has been

named nowball &arth.

Curing such periods of catastrophic glaciation, life probably retreated to a narrow band near the eKuator, and to places warmed by tectonic activity, such as hydrothermal

vents on the ocean floor, and volcanoes. ?ortunately, glaciation interferes neither with

plate tectonics nor with the resulting vulcanism. ( hypothesied eventual rise in



vulcanism increased atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases, which led to a dramatic

increase in temperature and the end of the two apparent snowball earth episodes.

The first nowball &arth episode, the 7uronian glaciation, began about 2. /a,shortly after the appearance of the oldest known eukaryotic unicellular organisms. The

second episode, the "ryogenian period, lasted from 350 Ma to '5 Ma, ending about 50

Ma before the emergence of the &diacaran biota. =t is an open Kuestion what role, if any,these ice ages played in triggering the emergence of complex life. =n any event, when the

glaciation ended, life eventually sprang back with renewed vigor and diversity. The

"ambrian explosion began 52 Ma, in which representatives of all currently extant <andsome now extinct> animal phyla suddenly appear in the fossil record. Aust how or why the

"ambrian explosion came about is still not understood, but it is likely to have resulted

from one or more Uevolutionary pumps.U

More modest glaciations are also associated with rapid evolutionary change. Therapid evolution of hominids, which culminated in the appearance of homo sapiens about

200 ka, coincides with the oscillating Ouarternary ice age that began about #.5 Ma.

Moreover, the agricultural revolution, when homo sapiens emerged as an aggressive

discover of technology, began shortly after the last glacial retreat, around #2 Ha.

olide impactsThe impact of a sufficiently massive asteroid or comet can act as an evolutionary

pump. The evolution of complex life reKuires long periods of tranKuility. ?reKuent

impacts from large bolides, while not incompatible with the emergence and survival ofmicrobes, make it unlikely that complex life will emerge and survive. :are bolide

impacts, however, while making many forms of complex life extinct, on balance appear

to act as evolutionary pumps. ( small number of mass)extinction events may be reKuired

to give evolution the chance to explore radical new approaches to the challenges of theenvironment, rather than remain trapped in a suboptimal local maximum. y

UsuboptimalU is meant Uthe likelihood that human)like intelligence will eventually emerge

is not at a maximum.U( case in point is the asteroid impact that created the "hicxulub "rater, believed

to have triggered the "retaceous)Tertiary extinction event, when an estimated 10I of

extant metaoans species, including all dinosaurs, became extinct. y removingdinosaurs from all niches they happened to fill, the H)T extinction opened the way for

mammals to become large and take their place.

<nertial interchane event

There is ample evidence that the rate of continental drift during the "ambrian

explosion was unusually high. =n fact, continents moved from (rctic to eKuatorial

locations, and vice versa, in #5 million years or less. Hirschvink et al <#441> have proposed the following controversial explanationB a 40 change in the &arths axis of

rotation resulting from an imbalance in the distribution of continental masses relative to

the axis. The result was huge changes in climates, ocean currents, and so on, occurring ina very short time and affecting the entire &arth. They named their explanation the

Uinertial interchange event.U This scenario is not yet received science, but if such an event

took place and is a very unlikely occurrence, and if such an event was reKuired for the



evolution of animal life more complex than sponges and coral reefs, then we have yet

another reason why complex life will be rare in the universe.

Consi/erations

The :are &arth hypothesis only assumes the formation of complex life

<multicellular life>. This does not cover the possibility of intelligent life forming nor thatintelligent life discovering and developing technology. (ccording to this hypothesis, the

earth might be the only planet in the galaxy to have complex life at allG and if there are

others, they are so far away that any attempt at communication is futile at best.?urther details on the distribution of life throughout the galaxy and Crakes

Theory are covered in "hapter #B (liens.

#he Galax of +across

The Macross series can be easily explained with the :are &arth hypothesis in the

fact that the first and only intelligent life to evolve in this galaxy was the !rotoculture

themselves. 7umans, 9entraedi and 9olans all were created, altered or seeded on planets

by the !rotoculture and thus do not fall into the :are &arth hypothesis cleanly. =t is notimpossible that other complex or intelligent life did in fact form, however the lack of any

signs of them in the Macross saga would suggest they are on the opposite side of thegalaxy or were rendered extinct by the !rotodeviln or the chism 8ar.

;ne of the ma6or themes of Macross is searching out hospitable planets to

colonie and thus ensure the survival of the human <and 9entraedi> race. uch hospitable planets would still have to meet most of the reKuirements for the evolution of complex

life since there would be need of plant and animal life.

=n the galaxy of Macross, terraforming available with the technology in the

20'0s. =f a planet is close to earth)like but needs minor alterations, it can be done.7owever, terraforming may well have been commonplace by the !rotoculture, given

their other fantastic technologies.

7arauta

The 'rd planet, :axx, was a near)earth planet with large oceans and continents.

%ittle detail was given on the world other than it was once a science colony of the!rotoculture and was thus likely a near)earth planet even at that time. =t is assumed the

planet had similar seasons, weather patterns and day@night cycles as earth.

The th planet was a froen ball of ice with high winds and constant snowstorms.

ecause several pilots were shown surviving on the surface for a short time, theatmosphere is close to that of earth, and the snow and ice are likely water rather than

toxic elements such as methane or ammonia.

>ola

9ola is shown with a ring of large rocky debris. =t is Kuite likely that the planet at

one point possessed a moon comparable to the one orbiting the earth, but that moon wasshattered by either collision with large asteroid or planetoid or from the chism 8arG or

possibly from massed firepower.

7a3ra @omeworl/



This unnamed planet has three small moons and an artificial ring around the

eKuator. =t is presumed this artificial ring was constructed by the !rotoculture, as it was

once one of their worlds <if not their homeworld>.

Stars

The first part of a star system is of course the star itself. ( star is a massive ball ofluminous plasma generating various types of radiation including light and heat through a

process of internal nuclear fusion.

(stronomers can determine the mass, age, chemical composition and many other properties of a star by observing its spectrum, luminosity and motion through space. The

total mass of a star is the principal determinant in its evolution and eventual fate. ;ther

characteristics of a star that are determined by its evolutionary history include thediameter, rotation, movement and temperature. ( plot of the temperature of many stars

against their luminosities, known as a 7ertsprung):ussell diagram <7): diagram>,

allows the current age and evolutionary state of a particular star to be determined.

( star begins as a collapsing cloud of material that is composed primarily of

hydrogen along with some helium and heavier trace elements. ;nce the stellar core issufficiently dense, some of the hydrogen is steadily converted into helium through the

process of nuclear fusion. The remainder of the stars interior carries energy away fromthe core through a combination of radiation and convective processes. These processes

keep the star from collapsing upon itself and the energy generates a stellar wind at the

surface and radiation into outer space.inary and multi)star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally

bound, and generally move around each other in stable orbits. 8hen two such stars have

a relatively close orbit, their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact ontheir evolution.

Measuring a tar Most stellar parameters are expressed in = units by convention, but "/ units are

also used <e.g., expressing luminosity in ergs per second>. Mass, luminosity, and radii are

usually given in solar units, based on the characteristics of the unB

solar massB kg

solar luminosityB watts

solar radiusB m

%arge lengths, such as the radius of a giant star or the semi)ma6or axis of a binary star

system, are often expressed in terms of the astronomical unit <(*> approximately the

mean distance between the &arth and the un <#50 million km or 4' million miles>.

tar ?ormation

tar formation is the process by which dense parts of molecular clouds collapseinto a ball of plasma to form a star. (s a branch of astrophysics tar ?ormation includes

the study of the interstellar medium and giant molecular clouds as precursors to the star

formation process and the study of early type stars and planet formation as its immediate



products. tar formation theory, as well as accounting the formation of a single star, must

also account for the statistics of binary stars and the initial mass function.

(ccording to current theories of star formation, cores of molecular clouds<regions of especially high density> become gravitationally unstable, fragment, and begin

to collapse <the so)called spontaneous star ormation> or shockwaves from supernovae or

other energetic astronomical processes trigger star formation in nearby nebulae <the so)called triggered star ormation>. !art of the gravitational energy lost in this collapse is

radiated in the infrared, with the remainder increasing the temperature of the core of the

ob6ect. The accretion of material happens partially through a circumstellar disc. 8hen thedensity and temperature are high enough, deuterium fusion ignition occurs, and the

outward pressure of the resultant radiation slows <but does not stop> the collapse.

Material comprising the cloud continues to UrainU onto the protostar. =n this stage bipolar

flows are produced, probably an effect of the angular momentum of the infallingmaterial. ?inally, hydrogen begins to fuse in the core of the star, and the rest of the

enveloping material is cleared away.

The protostar follows a 7ayashi track on the 7ertsprung):ussell diagram. The

contraction will proceed until the 7ayashi boundary is reached, and thereafter contractionwill continue on a Helvin)7elmholt timescale with the temperature remaining stable.

tars with less than 0.5 solar masses thereafter 6oin the main seKuence. ?or more massive protostars, at the end of the 7ayashi track they will slowly collapse in near hydrostatic

eKuilibrium, following the 7enyey track.

The 7ayashi track is a path taken by protostars in the 7ertsprung):usselldiagram after the protostellar cloud has reached approximate hydrostatic eKuilibrium. =n

#4# "hushiro 7ayashi showed that there is a minimum effective temperature

<eKuivalently, a boundary on the right)hand side of the 7): diagram> cooler than which

hydrostatic eKuilibrium cannot be maintainedG this boundary corresponds to a temperaturearound 000 H. !rotostellar clouds cooler than this will contract and heat up until they

reach the 7ayashi boundary. ;nce at the boundary, a protostar will continue to contract

on the Helvin)7elmholt timescale, but its effective temperature will no longer increase,as it will remain at the 7ayashi boundary. Thus the 7ayashi track is close to a vertical

line on the 7): diagram. tars at the 7ayashi boundary are fully convectiveB this is

because they are cool and highly opaKue, so that radiative energy transport is notefficient, and conseKuently have large internal temperature gradients. tars with masses

_0.5 olar mass remain on the 7ayashi track <i.e. are fully convective> throughout their

pre)main seKuence stage, 6oining the main seKuence at the bottom of the 7ayashi track.

?or stars with masses ` 0.5 olar mass the 7ayashi track ends, and the 7enyey track begins, when the internal temperature of the star rises high enough that its central opacity

drops and radiative energy transport becomes more efficient than convective transportB

the lowest luminosity on the 7ayashi track for a star of a given mass is thus the lowestluminosity at which it is still fully convective

The stages of the process are well defined in stars with masses around one solar

mass or less. =n high mass stars, the length of the star formation process is comparable tothe other timescales of their evolution, much shorter, and the process is not so well

defined. The later evolution of stars are studied in stellar evolution.

;bservations



Hey elements of star formation are only available by observing in wavelengths

other than the optical. The structure of the molecular cloud and the effects of the protostar

can be observed in near)=: extinction maps <where the number of stars are counted perunit area and compared to a nearby ero extinction area of sky>, continuum dust emission

and rotational transitions of "; and other moleculesG these last two are observed in the

millimeter and submillimeter range. The radiation from the protostar and early star has to be observed in infrared astronomy wavelengths, the extinction caused by the rest of the

cloud where it is being formed is usually too big to allow us to observe it in the visual

part of the spectrum. This presents considerable difficulties as the atmosphere is almostentirely opaKue from 20um to 350um, with narrow windows at 200 and 50um. &ven

outside this range atmospheric subtraction techniKues must be used.

The formation of individual stars can only be directly observed in our /alaxy, but

in distant galaxies star formation has been detected through its uniKue spectral signature.

%ow Mass vs. 7igh Mass tar ?ormation

tars of different masses are thought to form by slightly different mechanisms.

The theory of low)mass star formation, which is well)supported by a plethora ofobservations, suggests that low)mass stars form by the gravitational collapse of rotating

density enhancements within molecular clouds. (s described above, the collapse of arotating cloud of gas and dust leads to the formation of an accretion disk through which

matter is channeled onto a central protostar. ?or stars with masses higher than about 3

solar masses, however, the mechanism of star formation is not well understood.Massive stars emit copious Kuantities of radiation which pushes against infalling

material. =n the past, it was thought that this radiation pressure might be substantial

enough to halt accretion onto the massive protostar and prevent the formation of stars

with masses more than a few tens of solar masses. :ecent theoretical work has shownthat the production of a 6et and outflow clears a cavity through which much of the

radiation from a massive protostar can escape without hindering accretion through the

disk and onto the protostar. !resent thinking is that massive stars may therefore be able toform by a mechanism similar to that by which low mass stars form.

There is mounting evidence that at least some massive protostars are indeed

surrounded by accretion disks. everal other theories of massive star formation remain to be tested observationally. ;f these, perhaps the most prominent is the theory of

competitive accretion, which suggests that massive protostars are UseededU by low)mass

protostars which compete with other protostars to draw in matter from the entire parent

molecular cloud, instead of simply from a small local region. (nother theory of massivestar formation suggests that massive stars may form by the coalescence of two or more

stars of lower mass.

Main eKuence

The main seKuence of the 7ertsprung):ussell diagram is the curve along which

the ma6ority of stars are located. tars on this band are known as main)seKuence stars ordwarf stars.

This line is so pronounced because both the spectral type and the luminosity

depend only on a stars mass <to 0th order> as long as it is fusing hydrogen ) and that is

what almost all stars spend most of their UactiveU life doing.



(t closer inspection, one notices that the main seKuence does not look like a line

and it isnt but instead somewhat fuy. There are many reasons for this fuiness, the

most important one still being observational uncertainties which mainly affect thedistance of the star in Kuestion but range all the way to unresolved binary stars.

ut even perfect observations would lead to a fuy main seKuence, because mass

is not a stars only parameter. "hemical composition andrelatedits evolutionarystatus also move a star slightly on the main seKuence, as do close companions, rotation,

or magnetic fields, to name 6ust a few. (ctually, there are very metal)poor stars

<subdwarfs> that lie 6ust below the main seKuence although they are fusing hydrogen, thusmarking the lower edge of the main seKuences fuiness due to chemical composition.

(stronomers will sometimes refer to the Uero age main seKuenceU, or 9(M.

This is a line calculated by computer models of where a star will be when it begins

hydrogen fusionG its brightness and surface temperature typically increase from this pointwith age. tars usually enter and leave the main seKuence from about when they are born

or when they are starting to die, respectively.

;ur un is a main)seKuence starit has been one for about .5 billion years and

will continue to be one for another .5 billion years. =t has the spectral classification of/2 . (fter the hydrogen supply in the core is exhausted, it will expand to become a red

giant.The total main seKuence lifetime of a star can be estimated from its mass relative

to the uns as followsB

where is the mass of the sun, M is the mass of the star and ms is the stars

estimated main seKuence lifetime in years. The lightest stars, of less than a tenth of solar

mass, may last over a trillion years, whilst the heaviest last only a few tens of thousands

of years.The table below shows typical values for stars along the main seKuence. The

values of luminosity <%>, radius <:>, and mass <M> are relative to the un. The actual

values for a star may vary by as much as 20)'0I. The coloration of the stellar classcolumn gives an approximate representation of the stars photographic color.

Class #emperature Star color +ass $a/ius Luminosit@/roen

lines

F '0,000 $ 0,000H

luish <UblueU> 0 #5 #,00,000 8eak

*#0,000 $ '0,000

H

luish)white <Ublue)

whiteU>#3 1 20,000 Medium



A1,500 $ #0,000

H

8hite with bluish

tinge <UwhiteU>'.# 2.# 30 trong

. ,000 $ 1,500 H 8hite <Uyellow)whiteU>

#.1 #.' Medium

G 5,000 $ ,000 H %ight yellow<UyellowU>

#.# #.# #.2 8eak

; ',500 $ 5,000 H %ight orange

<UorangeU>0.3 0.4 0. ery weak

+ 2,000 $ ',500 H :eddish orange <UredU> 0.' 0. 0.0 ery weak

Stellar

Class

$a/ius +ass Luminosit #emperature

:@: ☉ M@M☉ %@%☉ H

;2 # #53 2,000,000 5,000

;5 # 53 300,000 ,000

0 5.1 # #,000 24,000

5 '.1 5. 150 #5,200

(0 2.' 2. ' 4,00

(5 #.3 #.4 2 3,100

?0 #.5 #. 4.0 1,200

?5 #.2 #.'5 .0 ,00

/0 #.05 #.03 #.5 ,000

/2 #.0 #.0 #.0 5,100

/5 0.43 0.45 0.10 5,500

H0 0.34 0.3' 0.' 5,#50

H5 0.15 0.2 0.#3 ,50

M0 0. 0.1 0.015 ',350



M5 0.' 0.25 0.0#' ',200

M3 0.#5 0.#0 0.0003 2,500

M4.5 0.#0 0.03 0.000# #,400

U;h e ( ?ine /irl, Hiss MeU is a phrase used to aid memory of the seKuence.

O Class

"lass ; stars are very hot and very luminous, being bluish in colorG in fact, mostof their output is in the ultraviolet range. These are the rarest of all main seKuence stars,

constituting as few as # in '2,000. ;)stars shine with a power over a million times our

uns output. These stars have prominent ionied and neutral helium lines and only weakhydrogen lines. ecause they are so huge, "lass ; stars burn through their hydrogen fuel

very Kuickly, and are the first stars to leave the main seKuence. :ecent observations by

the piter pace Telescope indicate that planetary formation does not occur within the

vicinity of an ; class star due to the !hoto evaporation effect.

. Class

"lass stars are extremely luminous and blue. Their spectra have neutral heliumand moderate hydrogen lines. (s ; and stars are so powerful, they only live for a very

short time, and thus they do not stray far from the area in which they were formed. These

stars tend to cluster together in what are called ;# associations, which are associatedwith giant molecular clouds. The ;rion ;# association occupies a large portion of a

spiral arm of our /alaxy and contains many of the brighter stars of the constellation

;rion. They constitute about 0.#'I of main seKuence stars )) rare, but much morecommon than those of class ;.

A Class"lass ( stars are amongst the more common naked eye stars. (s with all class (stars, they are white or bluish)white. They have strong hydrogen lines and also lines of

ionied metals. They comprise perhaps 0.'I of all main seKuence stars.

F Class

"lass ? stars are still Kuite powerful but they tend to be main seKuence stars. Their

spectra is characteried by the weaker hydrogen lines and ionied metals, their color iswhite with a slight tinge of yellow. These represent '.#I of all main seKuence stars.

G Class

"lass / stars are probably the best known, if only for the reason that our un is ofthis class. They have even weaker hydrogen lines than ?, but along with the ionied

metals, they have neutral metals. / is host to the ULellow &volutionary oidU.

upergiant stars often swing between ; or <blue> and H or M <red>. 8hile they do this,they do not stay for long in the / classification as this is an extremely unstable place for a

supergiant to be. These are about 3I of all main seKuence stars.

1 Class



"lass H are orangish stars which are slightly cooler than our un. ome H stars

are giants and supergiants, such as (rcturus while others like (lpha "entauri are main

seKuence stars. They have extremely weak hydrogen lines, if they are present at all, andmostly neutral metals. These make up some #'I of main seKuence stars.

! Class"lass M is by far the most common class. ;ver 13I of stars are red dwarfs, such

as !roxima "entauri. M is also host to most giants and some supergiants such as (ntares

and etelgeuse, as well as Mira variables. The %ate)M group hold hotter rown Cwarfsthat are above the % spectrum. This is usually in the range of M.5 to M4.5. The

spectrum of an M star shows lines belonging to molecules and all neutral metals but

hydrogen are usually absent. Titanium oxide can be strong in M stars.

W Class

"lass 8 or 8: represents the superluminous 8olf):ayet stars, notably unusual

since they have mostly helium in their atmospheres instead of hydrogen. They are

thought to be dying supergiants with their hydrogen layer blown away by hot stellarwinds caused by their high temperatures, thereby directly exposing their hot helium shell.

"lass 8 is subdivided into subclasses 8", 8+, and 8; according to the dominance ofcarbon, nitrogen, or oxygen in their spectra <and outer layers>. 8 class stars range up to

10,000 H.

=ntermediary between the genuine 8olf):ayets and ordinary hot stars of classes; and early , there are ;", ;+, " and + stars. They seem to constitute a short

continuum from the 8olf):ayets into the ordinary ;s.

L Class"lass %, dwarfs get their designation because they are cooler than M stars and % is

the remaining letter alphabetically closest to M. % does not mean %ithium CwarfG a large

fraction of these stars do not have %ithium in their spectra. ome of these ob6ects are ofsubstellar mass <do not support fusion> and some are not, so collectively this class of

ob6ects should be referred to as U% dwarfsU, not U% stars.U They are a very dark red in

color and brightest in infrared. Their gas is cool enough to allow metal hydrides andalkali metals to be prominent in their spectra. They range from #'00 to 2500 H.

( Class

"lass T stars are very young and low density stars often found in the interstellarclouds they were born in. These are stars barely big enough to be stars and others that are

substellar, being of the brown dwarf variety. They are black, emitting little or no visible

light but being strongest in infrared. Their surface temperature is a stark contrast to thefifty thousand kelvins or more for "lass ; stars, being merely up to #,000 H. "omplex

molecules can form, evidenced by the strong methane lines in their spectra.

2 Class

"lass L stars are expected to be much cooler than T)dwarfs. +one have been

found as of yet, but they have been modeled. These are ultra)cool brown dwarves.



C Class

;riginally classified as : and + stars, these are also known as carbon stars.

These are red giants, near the end of their lives, in which there is an excess of carbon inthe atmosphere. The old : and + classes ran parallel to the normal classification system

from roughly mid / to late M. These have more recently been remapped into a unified

carbon classifier ", with +0 starting at roughly ". (nother subset of cool carbon starsare the A)type stars, which are characteried by the strong presence of molecules of #'"+

in addition to those of #2"+. ( few dwarf <that is, main seKuence> carbon stars are

known, but the overwhelming ma6ority of known carbon stars are giants or supergiants.

S Class

"lass stars have 9r; lines in addition to <or, rarely, instead of> those of Ti;,

and are in between the "lass M stars and the carbon stars. stars have excess amounts ofirconium and other elements produced by the s)process, and have their carbon and

oxygen abundances closer to eKual than is the case for M stars. The latter condition

results in both " and ; being locked up almost entirely in "; molecules. ?or stars cool

enough for "; to form that molecule tends to Ueat upU all of whichever element is lessabundant, resulting in Uleftover oxygenU <which becomes available to form Ti;> in stars

of normal composition, Uleftover carbonU <which becomes available to form the diatomiccarbon molecules> in carbon stars, and Uleftover nothingU in the stars. The relation

between these stars and the ordinary M stars indicates a continuum of carbon abundance.

%ike carbon stars, nearly all known stars are giants or supergiants.

!S and SC Class

=n between the M class and the class, border cases are named M stars. =n a

similar way border cases between the class and the ")+ class are named " or ". TheseKuence M $ M $ $ " $ + is believed to be a seKuence of increased carbon

abundance with age for carbon stars in the asymptotic giant branch.

D Class

The class C is sometimes used for white dwarfs, the state most stars end their life

in. "lass C is further divided into classes C(, C, C", C;, C9, and CO. The letters arenot related to the letters used in the classification of true stars, but instead indicate the

composition of the white dwarfs outer layer or UatmosphereU.

The white dwarf classes are as followsB

• C(B a hydrogen)rich UatmosphereU or outer layer, indicated by strong almer

hydrogen spectral lines.

• CB a neutral helium)rich UatmosphereU or outer layer, indicated by neutral

helium spectral lines, <7e = lines>.• C;B an ionied helium)rich UatmosphereU or outer layer, indicated by ionied

helium spectral lines, <7e == lines>.

• C"B no strong spectral lines indicating one of the above categories.

• COB a carbon)rich UatmosphereU or outer layer, indicated by atomic or molecularcarbon lines.

• C9B a metal)rich UatmosphereU or outer layer, indicated by magnesium, calcium,and@or iron lines, <"a =, "a == 7 and H, Mg =, ?e =, +a =>.



• CRB spectral lines are insufficiently clear to classify into one of the above

categories.(ll class C stars use the same seKuence from # to 4, with # indicating a temperature

above '1,500 H and 4 indicating a temperature below 5,500 H. <The number is by

definition eKual to Teff ^ 50,00 H.>

&xtended 8hite Cwarf "lass• C(B a hydrogen) and neutral helium)rich white dwarf.

• C(;B a hydrogen) and ionied helium)rich white dwarf.

• C(9B a hydrogen)rich cool metallic white dwarf.

• C9B a helium)rich cool metallic white dwarf.

• C( or "etiB a hydrogen)rich pulsating white dwarf.

• C or 111 7erB a helium)rich pulsating white dwarf

• C; or !/ ##54B a helium)rich pulsating white dwarf.

# 3 4 Class

?inally, the classes ! and O are occasionally used for certain non)stellar ob6ects.

Type ! ob6ects are planetary nebulae and type O ob6ects are novae.

&very star generates a stellar wind of particles that causes a continual outflow ofgas into space. ?or most stars, the amount of mass lost is negligible. The un loses #0\#

solar masses every year, or about 0.0#I of its total mass over its entire lifespan. 7owever

very massive stars can lose #0\1 to #0\5 solar masses each year, significantly affecting

their evolution. tars that begin with more than 50 solar masses can lose over half theirtotal mass while they remain on the main seKuence.

The duration that a star spends on the main seKuence depends primarily on the

amount of fuel it has to burn and the rate at which it burns that fuel. =n other words, itsinitial mass and its luminosity. ?or the un, this is estimated to be about #0#0 years <#0

billion>. %arge stars burn their fuel very rapidly and are short)lived. mall stars <calledred dwarfs> burn their fuel very slowly and last tens to hundreds of billions of years. (tthe end of their lives, they simply become dimmer and dimmer, fading into black dwarfs.

7owever, since the lifespan of such stars is greater than the current age of the universe

<#'.1 billion years>, no black dwarfs are expected to exist yet.

esides mass, the portion of elements heavier than helium can play a significantrole in the evolution of stars. =n astronomy all elements heavier than helium are

considered a UmetalU, and the chemical concentration of these elements is called the

metallicity. The metallicity can influence the duration that a star will burn its fuel, controlthe formation of magnetic fields and modify the strength of the stellar wind. ;lder,

population == stars have substantially less metallicity than the younger, population = stars

due to the composition of the molecular clouds from which they formed. <;ver time theseclouds become increasingly enriched in heavier elements as older stars die and shed

portions of their atmospheres.>

!ost)Main eKuence

(s stars of at least 0. solar masses exhaust their supply of hydrogen at their core,

their outer layers expand and cool to form a red giant. =n about 5 billion years, when the

un is a red giant, it will be so large that it will consume Mercury and possibly enus.



Models predict that the un will expand out to about 44I of the distance to the &arths

present orbit <# astronomical unit, or (*>. y that time, however, the orbit of the &arth

will expand to about #.1 (*s due to mass loss by the un and thus the &arth will escapeenvelopment. 7owever, the &arth will be stripped of its oceans and atmosphere as the

uns luminosity increases several thousand fold.

=n a red giant, hydrogen fusion proceeds in a shell)layer surrounding the core.&ventually the core is compressed enough to start helium fusion, and the star now

gradually shrinks in radius and increases its surface temperature.

(fter the star has consumed the helium at the core, fusion continues in a shellaround a hot core of carbon and oxygen. The star now follows an evolutionary path that

parallels the original red giant phase, but at a higher surface temperature.

Massive tarsCuring their helium)burning phase, very high mass stars with more than nine

solar masses expand to form red supergiants. ;nce this fuel is exhausted at the core, they

can continue to fuse elements heavier than helium. The core contracts until the

temperature and pressure are sufficient to fuse carbon. This process continues, with thesuccessive stages being fueled by oxygen, neon, silicon, and sulfur. +ear the end of the

stars life, fusion can occur along a series of onion)layer shells within the star. &ach shellfuses a different element, with the outermost shell fusing hydrogenG the next shell fusing

helium, and so forth.

The final stage is reached when the star begins producing iron. ince iron nucleiare more tightly bound than any heavier nuclei, if they are fused they do not release

energy ) the process would, on the contrary, consume energy. %ikewise, since they are

more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei, energy cannot be released by fission. =n

relatively old, very massive stars, a large core of inert iron will accumulate in the centerof the star. The heavier elements in these stars can work their way up to the surface,

forming evolved ob6ects known as 8olf):ayet stars that have a dense stellar wind which

sheds the outer atmosphere.

tellar "ollapse

(n evolved, average)sie star will now shed its outer layers as a planetary nebula.=f what remains after the outer atmosphere has been shed is less than #. solar masses, it

shrinks to a relatively tiny ob6ect <about the sie of &arth> that is not massive enough for

further compression to take place, known as a white dwarf. The electron)degenerate

matter inside a white dwarf is no longer a plasma, even though stars are generallyreferred to as being spheres of plasma. 8hite dwarfs will eventually fade into black

dwarfs over a very long stretch of time.

=n larger stars, fusion continues until the iron core has grown so large that it canno longer support its own mass <more than #. solar masses>. This core will suddenly

collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons, forming neutrons and neutrinos in a

burst of inverse beta decay, or electron capture. The shockwave formed by this suddencollapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a supernova. upernovae are so bright

that they may briefly outshine the stars entire home galaxy. 8hen they occur within the

Milky 8ay, supernovae have historically been observed by naked)eye observers as Unew

starsU where none existed before.



Most of the matter in the star is blown away by the supernovae explosion

<forming nebulae such as the "rab +ebula> and what remains will be a neutron star

<which sometimes manifests itself as a pulsar or R)ray burster> or, in the case of thelargest stars <large enough to leave a stellar remnant greater than roughly solar masses>,

a black hole. =n a neutron star the matter is in a state known as neutron)degenerate matter,

with a more exotic form of degenerate matter, O"C matter, possibly present in the core.8ithin a black hole the matter is in a state that is not currently understood.

The blown)off outer layers of dying stars include heavy elements which may be

recycled during new star formation. These heavy elements allow the formation of rocky planets. The outflow from supernovae and the stellar wind of large stars play an

important part in shaping the interstellar medium

tellar Cistribution

The !leiades, an open cluster of stars inthe constellation of Taurus. NASA photo.

=t has been a long)held assumption that the ma6ority of stars occur in

gravitationally)bound, multiple)star systems, forming binary stars. This is particularlytrue for very massive ; and class stars, where 30I of the systems are believed to be

multiple. 7owever the portion of single star systems increases for smaller stars, so that

only 25I of red dwarfs are known to have stellar companions. (s 35I of all stars are reddwarfs, most stars in the Milky 8ay are likely single from birth.

%arger groups called star clusters also exist. These range from loose stellar

associations with only a few stars, up to enormous globular clusters with hundreds ofthousands of stars.

tars are not spread uniformly across the universe, but are normally grouped into

galaxies along with interstellar gas and dust. ( typical galaxy contains hundreds of

billions of stars, and there are more than #00 billion <#0##> galaxies in the observableuniverse. 8hile it is often believed that stars only exist within galaxies, intergalactic stars

have been discovered.

(stronomers estimate that there are at least 10 sextillion <1#022> stars in theknown universe. That is 2'0 billion times as many as the '00 billion in our own Milky

8ay.

The nearest star to the &arth, apart from the un, is !roxima "entauri, which is'4.4 trillion <#0#2> kilometers, or .2 light)years away. %ight from !roxima "entauri

takes .2 years to reach &arth. Traveling at the orbital speed of the pace huttle <5 miles

per second ) almost '0,000 kilometers per hour>, it would take about #50,000 years to get



there. Cistances like this are typical inside galactic discs, including the vicinity of the

solar system. tars can be much closer to each other in the centers of galaxies and in

globular clusters, or much farther apart in galactic halos.ecause of their low density, collisions of stars in the galaxy are thought to be

rare. 7owever in dense regions such as the core of globular clusters or the galactic center,

collisions can be more common. uch collisions can produce what are known as bluestragglers. These abnormal stars have a higher surface temperature than the other main

seKuence stars in the cluster with the same luminosity.

Characteristics

(lmost everything about a star is determined by its initial mass, including

essential characteristics such as luminosity and sie, as well as the stars evolution,

lifespan, and eventual fate.

Ae

Many stars are between # billion and #0 billion years old. ome stars may even be

close to #'.1 billion years old ) the observed age of the universe. The more massive the

star, the shorter its lifespan, primarily because massive stars have greater pressure ontheir cores, causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly. The most massive stars last an

average of about one million years, while stars of minimum mass <red dwarfs> burn theirfuel very slowly and last tens to hundreds of billions of years.

Chemical Composition

8hen stars form they are composed of about 10I hydrogen and 23I helium, asmeasured by mass, with a small fraction of heavier elements. Typically the portion of

heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron content of the stellar atmosphere, as iron

is a common element and its absorption lines are relatively easy to measure. ecause the

molecular clouds where stars form are steadily enriched by heavier elements fromsupernovae explosions, a measurement of the chemical composition of a star can be used

to infer its age. The portion of heavier elements may also be an indicator of the likelihood

that the star has a planetary system.The star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf 7&#'21)2'2,

with only #@200,000th the iron content of the un.

iameter

Cue to their great distance from the &arth, all stars except the un appear to the

human eye as shining points in the night sky that twinkle because of the effect of the

&arths atmosphere. The disks of stars are much too small in angular sie to be observed

with current ground)based optical telescopes, and so =nterferometer telescopes arereKuired in order to produce images of these ob6ects. The un is also a star, but it is close

enough to the &arth to appear as a disk instead, and to provide daylight. ;ther than the

un, the star with the largest apparent sie is : Coradus, with an angular diameter of only0.051 arcseconds.

tars range in sie from neutron stars, which vary anywhere from 20 to 0 km in

diameter, to supergiants like etelgeuse in the ;rion constellation, which has a diameterapproximately 50 times larger than the un ) about 0.4 billion kilometers. 7owever,

etelgeuse has a much lower density than the un.

;inematics



The motion of a star relative to the un can provide useful information about the

origin and age of a star, as well as the structure and evolution of the surrounding galaxy.

The proper motion of a star is the traverse velocity across the sky. This isdetermined by precise astrometric measurements in units of milli)arc seconds <mas> per

year. y determining the parallax of a star, the proper motion can then be converted into

units of velocity. tars with high rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close tothe un, making them good candidates for parallax measurements.

The radial velocity is the movement of the star toward or away from the un. This

is determined by measurements in the Coppler shift of spectral lines, and is given in unitsof km@s.

;nce both rates of movement are known, the space velocity of the star relative to

the un or the galaxy can be computed. (mong nearby stars, it has been found that

population = stars have generally lower velocities than older, population == stars. Thelatter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the galaxy. "omparison of the

kinematics of nearby stars has also led to the identification of stellar associations. These

are most likely groups of stars that share a common point of origin in giant molecular

clouds.+ass

;ne of the most massive stars known is &ta "arinae, with #00 ) #50 times asmuch mass as the unG its lifespan is very short ) only several million years at most. (

recent study of the (rches cluster suggests that #50 solar masses is the upper limit for

stars in the current era of the universe. The reason for this limit is not precisely known, but it is partially due to the &ddington luminosity which defines the maximum amount of

luminosity that can pass through the atmosphere of a star without e6ecting the gases into

space.

The first stars to form after the ig ang may have been larger, up to '00 solarmasses or more, due to the complete absence of elements heavier than lithium in their

composition. This generation of supermassive, population === stars is long extinct,

however, and currently only theoretical.8ith a mass only 4' times that of Aupiter, ( Coradus ", a companion to (

Coradus (, is the smallest known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core. ?or stars

with similar metallicity to the un, the theoretical minimum mass the star can have, andstill undergo fusion at the core, is estimated to be about 15 times the mass of Aupiter.

8hen the metallicity is very low, however, a recent study of the faintest stars found that

the minimum star sie seems to be about 3.'I of the solar mass, or about 31 times the

mass of Aupiter. maller bodies are called brown dwarfs, which occupy a poorly)definedgrey area between stars and gas giants.

The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines the surface

gravity. /iant stars have a much lower surface gravity than main seKuence stars, whilethe opposite is the case for degenerate, compact stars such as white dwarfs. The surface

gravity can influence the appearance of a stars spectrum, with higher gravity causing a

broadening of the absorption lines.

$otation

The rotation rate of stars can be approximated through spectroscopic

measurement, or more exactly determined by tracking the rotation rate of starspots.

Loung stars can have a rapid rate of rotation greater than #00 km@s at the eKuator. The )



class star (chernar, for example, has an eKuatorial rotation velocity of about 225 km@s or

greater, giving it an eKuatorial diameter that is more than 50I larger than the distance

between the poles. This rate of rotation is 6ust below the critical velocity of '00 km@swhere the star would break apart. y contrast, the un only rotates once every 25 $ '5

days, with an eKuatorial velocity of #.44 km@s. The stars magnetic field and the stellar

wind serve to slow down a main seKuence stars rate of rotation by a significant amountas it evolves on the main seKuence.

Cegenerate stars have contracted into a compact mass, resulting in a rapid rate of

rotation. 7owever they have relatively low rates of rotation compared to what would beexpected by conservation of angular momentum ) the tendency of a rotating body to

compensate for a contraction in sie by increasing its rate of spin. ( large portion of the

stars angular momentum is dissipated as a result of mass loss through the stellar wind. =n

spite of this, the rate of rotation for a pulsar can be very rapid. The pulsar at the heart ofthe "rab nebula, for example, rotates '0 times per second. The rotation rate of the pulsar

will gradually slow due to the emission of radiation

#emperature

The surface temperature of a main seKuence star is determined by the rate ofenergy production at the core and the radius of the star. Massive stars can have surface

temperatures of 50,000 H. maller stars such as the un have surface temperatures of afew thousand degrees. :ed giants have relatively low surface temperatures of about

',00 H, but they also have a high luminosity due to their large exterior surface area.

The stellar temperature will determine the rate of energiation or ioniation ofdifferent elements, resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum. The

surface temperature of a star, along with its visual absolute magnitude and absorption

features, is used to classify a star <see classification below>.

$a/iation

The energy produced by stars, as a by)product of nuclear fusion, radiates into

space as both electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation. The particle radiation

emitted by a star is manifested as the stellar wind <which exists as a steady stream ofelectrically charged particles, such as free protons, alpha particles, and beta particles,

emanating from the starFs outer layers> and as a steady stream of neutrinos emanating

from the starFs core.The production of energy at the core is the reason why stars shine so brightlyB

every time two or more atomic nuclei of one element fuse together to form an atomic

nucleus of a new heavier element, gamma ray photons are released from the nuclear

fusion reaction. This energy is converted to other forms of electromagnetic energy,including visible light, by the time it reaches the starFs outer layers.

The color of a star, as determined by the peak freKuency of the visible light,

depends on the temperature of the starFs outer layers, including its photosphere. esidesvisible light, stars also emit forms of electromagnetic radiation that are invisible to the

human eye. =n fact, stellar electromagnetic radiation spans the entire electromagnetic

spectrum, from the longest wavelengths of radio waves and infrared to the shortestwavelengths of ultraviolet, R)rays, and gamma rays. (ll components of stellar

electromagnetic radiation, both visible and invisible, are typically significant.

*sing the stellar spectrum, astronomers can also determine the surface

temperature, surface gravity, metallicity and rotational velocity of a star. =f the distance of



the star is known, such as by measuring the parallax, then the luminosity of the star can

be derived. The mass, radius, surface gravity, and rotation period can then be estimated

based on stellar models. <Mass can be measured directly for stars in binary systems. ThetechniKue of gravitational microlensing will also yield the mass of a star.> 8ith these

parameters, astronomers can also estimate the age of the star.

Luminosit=n astronomy, luminosity is the amount of light, and other forms of radiant

energy, a star radiates per unit of time. The luminosity of a star is determined by the

radius and the surface temperature.urface patches with a lower temperature and luminosity than average are known

as starspots. mall, dwarf stars such as the un generally have essentially featureless

disks with only small starspots. %arger, giant stars have much bigger, much more obvious

starspots, and they also exhibit strong stellar limb darkening. That is, the brightnessdecreases towards the edge of the stellar disk. :ed dwarf flare stars such as * "eti may

also possess prominent starspot features.

+anitu/e

The apparent brightness of a star is measured by its apparent magnitude, which isthe brightness of a star with respect to the starFs luminosity, distance from &arth, and the

altering of the starFs light as it passes through &arthFs atmosphere.

+umber of stars brighter than magnitude

(pparent

magnitude

+umber

of tarsW

0

# #5

2 3

' #1# 5#'

5 #,02

,300

1 #,000

W Ciscovered as of 200)03)0'=ntrinsic or absolute magnitude is what the apparent magnitude a star would be if

the distance between the &arth and the star were #0 parsecs <'2. light)years>, and it is

directly related to a starFs luminosity.oth the apparent and absolute magnitude scales are logarithmic unitsB one whole

number difference in magnitude is eKual to a brightness variation of about 2.5 times <the5th root of #00 or approximately 2.5#2>. This means that a first magnitude <J#.00> star is

about 2.5 times brighter than a second magnitude <J2.00> star, and approximately #00times brighter than a sixth magnitude <J.00> star. The faintest stars visible to the naked

eye under good seeing conditions are about magnitude J.

;n both apparent and absolute magnitude scales, the smaller the magnitudenumber, the brighter the starG the larger the magnitude number, the fainter. The brightest

stars, on either scale, have negative magnitude numbers. The variation in brightness



between two stars is calculated by subtracting the magnitude number of the brighter star

<mb> from the magnitude number of the fainter star <mf>, then using the difference as an

exponent for the base number 2.5#2G that is to sayBjm ^ mf \ mb

2.5#2jm ^ variation in brightness

:elative to both luminosity and distance from &arth, absolute magnitude <M> andapparent magnitude <m> are not eKuivalent for an individual starG for example, the bright

star irius has an apparent magnitude of \#., but it has an absolute magnitude of J#.#.

The un has an apparent magnitude of \2.1, but its absolute magnitude is onlyJ.3'. irius, the brightest star in the night sky as seen from &arth, is approximately 2'

times more luminous than the un, while "anopus, the second brightest star in the night

sky with an absolute magnitude of \5.5', is approximately #,000 times more luminous

than the un. Cespite "anopus being vastly more luminous than irius, however, iriusappears brighter than "anopus. This is because irius is merely 3. light)years from the

&arth, while "anopus is much farther away at a distance of '#0 light)years.

(s of 200, the star with the highest known absolute magnitude is % #30)20,

with a magnitude of )#.2. This star is at least 5,000,000 times more luminous than theun. The least luminous stars that are currently known are located in the +/" '41

cluster. The faintest red dwarfs in the cluster were magnitude 2, while a 23th magnitudewhite dwarf was also discovered. These faint stars are so dim that their light is as bright

as a birthday candle on the Moon when viewed from the &arth.

tellar "lassification

There are different classifications of stars according to their spectra ranging from

type F, which are very hot, to +, which are so cool that molecules may form in their

atmospheres. The main classifications in order of decreasing surface temperature are F:

*: A: .: G: ; , and +. ( variety of rare spectral types have special classifications. The

most common of these are types L and #, which classify the coldest low)mass stars and

brown dwarfs.&ach letter has #0 sub)classifications numbered <hottest to coldest> from - to .

This system matches closely with temperature, but breaks down at the extreme hottest

endG class F- and F1 stars might not exist.=n addition, stars may be classified by the luminosity eects found in their spectral

lines, which correspond to their spatial sie and is determined by the surface gravity.

These range from - <hypergiants> through <<< <giants> to 7 <main seKuence dwarfs> and

7<< <white dwarfs>. Most stars fall into the main seKuence, which consists of ordinaryhydrogen)burning stars. These fall along a narrow band when graphed according to their

absolute magnitude and spectral type. ;ur un is a main seKuence G27 <yellow dwarf>,

being of intermediate temperature and ordinary sie.(dditional nomenclature, in the form of lower)case letters, can follow the spectral

type to indicate peculiar features of the spectrum. ?or example, an UeU can indicate the

presence of emission linesG UmU represents unusually strong levels of metals, and Uvar Ucan mean variations in the spectral type.

8hite dwarf stars have their own class that begins with the letter . This is

further sub)divided into the classes A, *, C, F, >, and , depending on the



types of prominent lines found in the spectrum. This is followed by a numerical value

that indicates the temperature index.

urface Temperature :anges for

Cifferent tellar "lasses

"lass Temperature ample star

; '',000 H or more 9eta ;phiuchi

#0,500$'0,000 H :igel

( 1,500$#0,000 H (ltair

? ,000$1,200 H !rocyon (

/ 5,500$,000 H un

H ,000$5,250 H &psilon =ndi

M 2,00$',350 H !roxima "entauri

ariable tars

ariable stars have periodic or random changes in luminosity because of intrinsic

or extrinsic properties. ;f the intrinsically variable stars, the primary types can be

subdivided into three principal groups.!ulsating variables are stars that vary in radius over time, expanding and

contracting as a result of the stellar aging process. This category includes "epheid and

cepheid)like stars, and long)period variables such as Mira.&ruptive variables are stars that experience sudden increases in luminosity

because of flares or mass e6ection events. This group includes protostars, 8olf):ayet

stars, and ?lare stars, as well as giant and supergiant stars.

"ataclysmic or explosive variables undergo a dramatic change in their properties.This group includes novae and supernovae. ( binary star system that includes a nearby

white dwarf can produce certain types of these spectacular stellar explosions, includingthe nova and a Type #a supernova. The explosion is created when the white dwarf

accretes hydrogen from the companion star, building up mass until the hydrogen

undergoes fusion. ome novae are also recurrent, having periodic outbursts of moderate

amplitude.tars can also vary in luminosity because of extrinsic factors, such as eclipsing

binaries, as well as rotating stars that produce extreme starspots. ( notable example of an

eclipsing binary is (lgol, which regularly varies in magnitude from 2.' to '.5 over a period of 2.31 days.

Multiple tarstar systems with two or more stars is Kuite commonG indeed it is believed single)

star systems like our own are on the rare side. (pproximately 25)50I of star systems are

binary stars, with about #0I of those having three or more stars.



Structure of a Star

The interior of a stable, main seKuence star is in a state of eKuilibrium in whichthe forces in any small volume almost exactly counterbalance each other. The balancingforces consist of inward directed gravitational force and the opposing pressure from the

thermal energy of the plasma gas. ?or these forces to balance out, the temperature at the

core of a typical star has to be on the order of #01 H or higher. The resulting temperatureand pressure at the hydrogen)burning core of a main seKuence star are sufficient for

nuclear fusion to occur, and for sufficient energy to be produced to prevent further

collapse of the star.(s atomic nuclei are fused in the core, they emit energy in the form of gamma

rays. These photons interact with the surrounding plasma, adding to the thermal energy at

the core. tars on the main seKuence convert hydrogen into helium, creating a slowly but

steadily increasing proportion of helium in the core. &ventually the helium content becomes predominant and energy production ceases at the core. =nstead, for stars of

greater than 0. solar masses, fusion occurs in a slowly expanding shell around the

degenerate helium core.=n addition to hydrostatic eKuilibrium, the interior of a stable star will also

maintain an energy balance of thermal eKuilibrium. There is a radial temperature gradient

throughout the interior that results in a flux of energy flowing toward the exterior. Theoutgoing flux of energy leaving any layer within the star will exactly match the incoming

flux from below.



This diagram showsa cross)section of a solar)type star. +(( image

The radiation one is the region within the stellar interior where radiative transferis sufficiently efficient to maintain the flux of energy. =n this region the plasma will not

be perturbed and any mass motions will die out. =f this is not the case, however, then the

plasma becomes unstable and convection will occur, forming a convection one. This canoccur, for example, in regions where very high energy fluxes occur, such near the core or

in areas with high opacity as in the outer envelope.

The occurrence of convection in the outer envelope of a main seKuence stardepends on the spectral type. tars with several times the mass of the un have a

convection one deep within the interior and a radiative one in the outer layers. maller

stars such as the un are 6ust the opposite, with the convective one located in the outerlayers. :ed dwarf stars with less than 0. solar masses are convective throughout, which prevents the accumulation of a helium core. ?or most stars the convective ones will also

vary over time as the star ages and the constitution of the interior is modified.

The portion of a main seKuence star that is visible to an observer is called the photosphere. This is the layer at which the plasma gas of the star becomes transparent to

photons of light. ?rom here, the energy generated at the core becomes free to propagate

out into space. =t is within the photosphere that sun spots, or regions of lower thanaverage temperature, appear.

(bove the level of the photosphere is the stellar atmosphere. =n a main seKuence

star such as the un, the lowest level of the atmosphere is the thin chromosphere region,

where spicules appear and stellar flares begin. This is surrounded by a transition region,where the temperature rapidly increases within a distance of only #00 km. eyond this is

the corona, a volume of super)heated plasma that can extend outward to several million

kilometres. The existence of a corona appears to be dependent on a convective one inthe outer layers of the star. Cespite its high temperature, the corona emits very little light.

The corona region of the un is normally only visible during a solar eclipse.

?rom the corona, a stellar wind of plasma particles expands outward from the star, propagating until it interacts with the interstellar medium.



+uclear ?usion :eaction !athways

( variety of different nuclear fusion reactions take place inside the cores of stars,depending upon their mass and composition, as part of stellar nucleosynthesis. The net

mass of the fused atomic nuclei is smaller than the sum of the constituents. This lost mass

is converted into energy, according to the mass)energy relationship &^mc.The hydrogen fusion process is temperature)sensitive, so a moderate increase in

the core temperature will result in a significant increase in the fusion rate. (s a result the

core temperature of main seKuence stars only varies from million H for a small M)classstar to 0 million H for a massive ;)class star.

=n the un, with a #01 H core, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton)proton

chain reactionB

#7 227 J 2eJ J 2e <.0 Me J #.0 Me>2#7 J 227 2'7e J 2Z <5.5 Me>

2'7e 7e J 2#7 <#2.4 Me>

These reactions result in the overall reactionB

#7 7e J 2eJ J 2Z J 2e <2.1 Me>where eJ is a positron, Z is a gamma ray photon, e is a neutrino, and 7 and 7e are

isotopes of hydrogen and helium, respectively. The energy released by this reaction is inmillions of electron volts, which is actually only a tiny amount of energy. 7owever

enormous numbers of these reactions occur constantly, producing all the energy

necessary to sustain the stars radiation output.=n more massive stars, helium is produced in a cycle of reactions catalyed by

carbonthe carbon)nitrogen)oxygen cycle.

=n evolved stars with cores at #03 H and masses between 0.5 and #0 solar masses,

helium can be transformed into carbon in the triple)alpha process that uses theintermediate element berylliumB

7e J 7e J 42 ke 3We

7e J 3We J 1 ke #2W"#2W" #2" J Z J 1. Me

?or an overall reaction ofB

'7e #2" J Z J 1.2 Me=n massive stars, heavier elements can also be burned in a contracting core

through the +eon burning process and ;xygen burning process. The final stage in the

stellar nucleosynthesis process is the ilicon burning process that results in the

production of the stable isotope iron)5. ?usion can not proceed any further exceptthrough an endothermic process, and so further energy can only be produced through

gravitational collapse.

The example below shows the amount of time reKuired for a star of 20 solarmasses to consume all of its nuclear fuel. (s an ;)class main seKuence star, it would be 3

times the solar radius and 2,000 times the uns luminosity.

?uel

material

Temperature

<million kelvins>

Censity

<kg@cm>

urn duration

7 '1 0.005 3.# million years

7e #33 0.41 #.2 million years



" 310 #10 41 years

+e #,510 ',#00 0. years

; #,430 5,550 #.25 years

@i ','0 '',00 ##.5 days

'nusual Stars

+ot all stars fall into the basic model above. These are included as possible

research plots or even possible disasters. Most of these types of stars cannot support a star

system due to their natures.

*lue Straler

lue stragglers are stars in open or globular clusters that are hotter and bluer thanother cluster stars having the same luminosity. Thus, they are separate from other stars on

the clusters 7ertsprung):ussell diagram. lue straggler stars appear to violate standard

theories of stellar evolution, in which all stars born at the same time should lie on a

clearly defined curve in the 7ertsprung):ussell diagram, with their positions on thatcurve determined solely by their initial mass. ince blue stragglers often lie well off this

curve, they may undergo abnormal stellar evolution.

The cause of this is not yet clearly known, but the leading hypothesis is that theyare current or former binary stars that are in the process of merging or have already done

so. The merger of two stars would create a single star with larger mass, making it hotter

and more luminous than stars of a similar age. =f this theory is correct, then bluestragglers would no longer cause a problem for stellar evolution theoryG the resulting star

would have more hydrogen in its core making it behave like a much younger star. There

is evidence in favor of this view, notably that blue straggler stars appear to be much morecommon in dense regions of clusters, especially in the cores of globular clusters. ince

there are more stars per unit volume, collisions and close)encounters are far more likelyin clusters than among field stars.

;ne way to test this hypothesis is to study the pulsations of variable blue stragglerstars. The asteroseismological properties of merged stars may be measurably different

from those of normal pulsating variables of similar mass and luminosity. 7owever, the

measurement of pulsations is very difficult, given the scarcity of variable blue stragglers,the small photometric amplitudes of their pulsations, and the crowded fields these stars

are often found in.

@pervelocit Stars

7ypervelocity stars <7s> are stars moving with high velocity relative to the

galaxy, which have or will eventually escape from the /alaxy, hence also the name&xiled tars. ;rdinary stars in the galaxy have velocities not exceeding 200 km@s, whilehypervelocity stars are moving at several times this speed.

"urrently, seven 7s are known. ;ne of them possibly originating from the

%arge Magellanic "loud, this one discovered by 7. &delmann et al. 8arren rown fromthe 7arvard)mithsonian "enter for (strophysics discovered the first one in 2005. =n

200 two more have been discovered by 8arren rown et al. Their velocities are 553#2

and '3#2 km@s.



=t is believed that around #000 7s exist in our /alaxy. "onsidering the large

number of stars in the Milky 8ay, this is only a tiny fraction.

7s are believed to originate by close encounters of binary stars to the black hole inthe center of the Milky 8ay. ;ne of the two partners is captured by the black hole, while

the other escapes with high velocity.

Hnown 7sB• 7 # <C A04015.0J2501> <a.k.a. The ;utcast tar>

• 7 2 <C A04''20.3J#105.> <* 103>

• 7 ' <7& 0'1)5'4> ) possibly from the %arge Magellanic "loud

• 7 <C A04#'0#.00J'05#20.0>

• 7 5 <C A04#154.2J122'3.1>

• 7 <C A##0551.5J04''4.5>

• 7 1 <C A##''#2.#2J0#032.4>

(eutron Star

( neutron star is one of the few possible endpoints of stellar evolution. ( neutron

star is formed from the collapsed remnant of a massive star after a Type ==, Type =b, orType =c supernova.

( typical neutron star has a mass between #.'5 to about 2.# solar masses, with a

corresponding radius between 20 and #0 km <they shrink as their mass increases>

'0,000 to 10,000 times smaller than the un. Thus, neutron stars have densities of3#0#' to 2#0#5 g@cm, about the density of an atomic nucleus. "ompact stars of less

than #. solar masses, the "handrasekhar limit, are white dwarfsG above three to five

solar masses <the Tolman);ppenheimer)olkoff limit>, gravitational collapse occurs,inevitably producing a black hole.

ince a neutron star retains most of the angular momentum of its parent star but

has only a tiny fraction of its parents radius, the moment of inertia decreases sharply

causing a rotational acceleration to a very high rotation speed, with one revolution takinganywhere from one seven)hundredth of a second to thirty seconds. The neutron stars

compactness also gives it high surface gravity, 2#0## to '#0#2 times stronger than thatof &arth. ;ne of the measures for the gravity is the escape velocity, the velocity needed

for an ob6ect to escape from the gravitational field to infinite distance. ?or a neutron star,

such velocities are typically #50,000 km@s, about #@2 of the velocity of light. "onversely,

matter falling onto the surface of a neutron star would strike the star also at #50,000 [email protected]

"urrent understanding of the structure of neutron stars is defined by existing

mathematical models. ;n the basis of current models, the matter at the surface of aneutron star is composed of ordinary atomic nuclei as well as electrons. The

UatmosphereU of the star is roughly one meter thick, below which one encounters a solidUcrustU. !roceeding inward, one encounters nuclei with ever increasing numbers ofneutronsG such nuclei would Kuickly decay on &arth, but are kept stable by tremendous

pressures. !roceeding deeper, one comes to a point called neutron drip where free

neutrons leak out of nuclei. =n this region, there are nuclei, free electrons, and free

neutrons. The nuclei become smaller and smaller until the core is reached, by definitionthe point where they disappear altogether. The exact nature of the superdense matter in

the core is still not well understood. 8hile this theoretical substance is referred to as



neutronium in science fiction and popular literature, the term UneutroniumU is rarely used

in scientific publications, due to ambiguity over its meaning. The term neutron)

degenerate matter is sometimes used, though not universally as the term incorporatesassumptions about the nature of neutron star core material. +eutron star core material

could be a superfluid mixture of neutrons with a few protons and electrons, or it could

incorporate high)energy particles like pions and kaons in addition to neutrons, or it could be composed of strange matter incorporating Kuarks heavier than up and down Kuarks, or

it could be Kuark matter not bound into hadrons. <( compact star composed entirely of

strange matter would be called a strange star.> 7owever so far observations have neitherindicated nor ruled out such exotic states of matter.

7istory of Ciscovery

=n #4'2, ir Aames "hadwick discovered the neutron as an elementary particle, forwhich he was awarded the +obel !rie in !hysics in #4'5.

=n #4'', 8alter aade and ?rit 9wicky proposed the existence of the neutron

star, only a year after "hadwicks discovery of the neutron. =n seeking an explanation for

the origin of a supernova, they proposed that the neutron star is formed in a supernova.upernovae are suddenly appearing dying stars in the sky, whose luminosity in the

optical might outshine an entire galaxy for days to weeks. aade and 9wicky correctly

proposed at that time that the release of the gravitational binding energy of the neutronstars powers the supernovaB U=n the supernova process mass in bulk is annihilatedU. =f the

central part of a massive star before its collapse contains <for example> ' solar masses,

then a neutron star of 2 solar masses can be formed. The binding energy & of such aneutron star, when expressed in mass units via &^mc, is # solar mass. =t is ultimately this

energy that powers the supernova.

=n #41, Aocelyn ell and (ntony 7ewish discovered radio pulses from a pulsar,

later interpreted as originating from an isolated, rotating neutron star. The energy sourceis rotational energy of the neutron star. The largest number of known neutron stars are of

this type <ee :otation)powered pulsar>.

=n #41#, :iccardo /iacconi, 7erbert /ursky, &d Hellogg, :. %evinson, &.chreier, and 7. Tananbaum discovered .3 second pulsations in an R)ray source in the

constellation "entaurus, "en R)'. They interpreted this as resulting from a rotating hot

neutron star. The energy source is gravitational and results from a rain of gas falling ontothe surface of the neutron star from a companion star or the interstellar medium <ee

(ccretion)powered pulsar>.





the hypothesis that they were beacons from extraterrestrial civiliations were never taken

very seriously. 7owever, astrophysicist !eter (. turrock writes that Uwhen the first

regular radio signals from pulsars were discovered, the "ambridge scientists seriouslyconsidered that they might have come from an extraterrestrial civiliation. They debated

this possibility and decided that, if this proved to be correct, they could not make an

announcement without checking with higher authorities. There was even some discussionabout whether it might be in the best interests of mankind to destroy the evidence and

forget itPU <turrock, #5>

"! #4#4 emits in radio wavelengths, but pulsars have subseKuently been found toemit in the R)ray and@or gamma ray wavelengths.

The word pulsar is a contraction of Upulsating starU, and first appeared in print in

#43B U(n entirely novel kind of star came to light on (ug. last year and was

referred to by astronomers as %/M <%ittle /reen Men>. +ow it is thought to be anovel type between a white dwarf and a neutron sicN. The name !ulsar <!ulsating tar> is

likely to be given to it. Cr. (. 7ewish told me yesterdayB = am sure that today

every radio telescope is looking at the !ulsars.U

The suggestion that pulsars were rotating neutron stars was put forthindependently by Thomas /old and ?ranco !acini in #43, and was soon proven beyond

doubt by the discovery of a pulsar with a very short '')millisecond pulse period in the"rab nebula.

=n #41, (ntony 7ewish was awarded the +obel !rie in physics, the first

astronomer to do so <astronomer Martin :yle also received the prie in #41 for hisobservations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis techniKue>.

"onsiderable controversy is associated with the fact that !rofessor 7ewish was awarded

the prie while ell, who made the initial discovery while she was a !hC student, was

not.ubseKuent 7istory

=n #41, Aoseph Taylor and :ussell 7ulse discovered for the first time a pulsar in

a binary system, !: #4#'J#. This pulsar orbits another neutron star with an orbital period of 6ust eight hours. &insteins theory of general relativity predicts that this system

should emit strong gravitational radiation, causing the orbit to continually contract as it

loses orbital energy. ;bservations of the pulsar soon confirmed this prediction, providingthe first ever proof of the existence of gravitational waves. (s of 200, observations of

this pulsar continue to agree with general relativity. =n #44' the +obel prie in physics

was awarded to Taylor and 7ulse for the discovery of this pulsar.

=n #432, a pulsar with a rotation period of 6ust #. milliseconds was discovered, by hri Hulkarni and Con acker. ;bservations soon revealed that its magnetic field was

much weaker than ordinary pulsars, while further discoveries cemented the idea that a

new class of ob6ect, the Umillisecond pulsarsU <M!s> had been found. M!s are believedto be the end product of R)ray binaries. ;wing to their extraordinarily rapid and stable

rotation, M!s can be used by astronomers as clocks rivalling the stability of the best

atomic clocks on &arth. ?actors affecting the arrival time of pulses at the &arth by morethan a few hundred nanoseconds can be easily detected and used to make precise

measurements. !hysical parameters accessible through pulsar timing include the three)

dimensional position of the pulsar, its proper motion, the electron content of the

interstellar medium along the propagation path, the orbital parameters of any binary



companion, the pulsar rotation period and its evolution with time. ;nce these factors

have been taken into account, deviations between the observed arrival times and

predictions made using these parameters can be found and attributed to one of three possibilitiesB intrinsic variations in the spin period of the pulsar, errors in the realiation

of Terrestrial Time against which arrival times were measured, or the presence of

background gravitational waves. cientists are currently attempting to resolve these possibilities by comparing the deviations seen amongst several different pulsars, forming

what is known as a !ulsar Timing (rray. 8ith luck, these efforts may lead to a time scale

a factor of ten or more better than currently available, and the first ever direct detection ofgravitational waves.

The first ever detected extrasolar planets were found orbiting a millisecond pulsar

in #440, by (leksander 8olscan. This discovery presented important evidence

concerning the widespread existence of planets outside the solar system, although it isvery unlikely that any life form could survive in the environment of intense radiation near

a pulsar.

!ulsar classesThree distinct classes of pulsars are currently known to astronomers, according to

the source of energy that powers the radiationB

• :otation)powered pulsars, where the loss of rotational energy of the star powers

the radiation

• (ccretion)powered pulsars <accounting for most but not all R)ray pulsars>, where

the gravitational potential energy of accreted matter is the energy source<producing R)rays that are observable from &arth>, and

• Magnetars, where the decay of an extremely strong magnetic field powers theradiation.

(lthough all three classes of ob6ects are neutron stars, their observable behavior

and the underlying physics are Kuite different. There are, however, connections. ?orexample, R)ray pulsars are probably old rotation)powered pulsars that have already lostmost of their energy, and have only become visible again after their binary companions

expanded and began transferring matter on to the neutron star. The process of accretion

can in turn transfer enough angular momentum to the neutron star to UrecycleU it as arotation)powered millisecond pulsar.

/litch prediction=n Aune 200, astronomer Aohn Middleditch and his team at %(+% announced the

first prediction of glitches with observational data from the :ossi R)ray Timing &xplorer.

They used observations of the pulsar !: A05'1)4#0.

(pplication

The study of pulsars has resulted in many applications in physics and astronomy.

triking examples include the confirmation of the existence of gravitational radiation as predicted by general relativity and the first detection of an extra)solar planetary system.

ignificant !ulsars



• The first radio pulsar, "! #4#4 <now known as !: #4#4J2#>, with a pulse

period of #.''1 seconds and a pulse width of 0.0 second, was discovered in #41<+ature 2#1B104)1#', #43>. ( drawing of this pulsars radio waves was used as

the cover of ritish rock band Aoy Civisions debut album, *nknown !leasures.

• The first binary pulsar, !: #4#'J#, confirming general relativity and proving

the existence of gravitational waves• The first millisecond pulsar, !: #4'1J2#

• The brightest millisecond pulsar, !: A0'1)1#5

• The first R)ray pulsar, "en R)'

• The first accreting millisecond R)ray pulsar, (R A#303.)'53

• The first pulsar with planets, !: #251J#2

• The first double pulsar binary system, !: A01'1\'0'4

• The magnetar /: #30)20 produced the largest burst of energy in the /alaxy

ever experimentally recorded on 21 Cecember 200

• !: #4'#J2 U... appears as a normal pulsar for about a week and then

switches off for about one month before emitting pulses again. ..N this pulsar

slows down more rapidly when the pulsar is on than when it is off. .. theN breaking mechanism must be related to the radio emission and the processes

creating it and the additional slow)down can be explained by a wind of particles

leaving the pulsars magnetosphere and carrying away rotational energy

• !: A#13)2ad, at 1# 7, the fastest spinning pulsar known

+anetar

( magnetar is a neutron star with an extremely powerful magnetic field, the decay

of which powers the emission of copious amounts of high)energy electromagnetic

radiation, particularly R)rays and gamma)rays. The theory regarding these ob6ects wasformulated by :obert Cuncan and "hristopher Thompson in #442. =n the course of the

decade that followed, the magnetar hypothesis has become widely accepted as a likely physical explanation for observable ob6ects known as soft gamma repeaters andanomalous R)ray pulsars.

8hen, in a supernova, a star collapses to a neutron star, its magnetic field

increases dramatically in strength <halving a linear dimension increases the magneticfield fourfold>. Cuncan and Thompson calculated that the magnetic field of a neutron

star, normally an already enormous #03 teslas could, through the dynamo mechanism,

grow even larger, to more than #0## teslas <or #0#5 gauss>. uch a highly magneticneutron star is called a magnetar.

The supernova might lose #0I of its mass in the explosion. =n order for such

large stars <#0$'0 solar masses> not to collapse straight into a black hole, they have to

shed a larger proportion of their massmaybe another 30I.=t is estimated that about # in #0 supernova explosions results in a magnetar rather

than a more standard neutron star or pulsar. This happens when the star already has a fast

rotation and strong magnetic field before the supernova. =t is thought that a magnetarsmagnetic field is created as a result of a convection)driven dynamo of hot nuclear matter

in the neutron stars interior that operates in the first ten seconds or so of a neutron stars

life. =f the neutron star is initially rotating as fast as the period of convection, about tenmilliseconds, then the convection currents are able to operate globally and transfer a



significant amount of their kinetic energy into magnetic field strength. =n slower)rotating

neutron stars, the convection currents form only in local regions.

=n the outer layers of a magnetar, which consist of a plasma of heavy elements<mostly iron>, tensions can arise that lead to starKuakes. These seismic vibrations are

extremely energetic, and result in a burst of R)ray and gamma ray radiation. To

astronomers, such an ob6ect is known as a soft gamma repeater.The life of a magnetar as a soft gamma repeater is shortB tarKuakes cause large

e6ections of energy, and matter. The matter is held in the strong magnetic field, and

evaporates in minutes. :adial e6ection of matter carries away angular momentum whichslows the rotation. Magnetars lose rotational speed at a higher rate than other neutron

stars, attributed to their high magnetic field. lowdown weakens the magnetic field, and

after only about #0,000 years the starKuakes cease. (fter this, the star still radiates R)

rays, and astronomers con6ecture it forms an anomalous R)ray pulsar. (fter another#0,000 years, it becomes completely Kuiet. tarKuakes are explosive events and some

have been directly recorded, such as that at /: #30)20 on Cecember 21, 200, and

more are expected to be recorded as telescopes increase in number and capability.

( magnetic field above #0 gigateslas is strong enough to wipe a credit card fromhalf the distance of the Moon from the &arth. ( small neodymium based rare earth

magnet has a field of about # tesla, &arth has a geomagnetic field of '0)0 microteslas,and most media used for data storage can be erased with a millitesla field at very short

range.

The magnetic field of a magnetar would be lethal at a distance of up to #000 km,tearing tissues due to the diamagnetism of water. Tidal forces of a #. solar mass

magnetar would also be lethal at such a distance, pulling an average)sied human apart

with a force of over 20 kilonewtons <over 500 pounds)force>.

Hnown magnetarsB

• /: #30)20, located 50,000 light)years from &arth on the far side of our Milky

8ay galaxy in the constellation of agittarius.• #& #03.#)54'1, located 4,000 light)years away in the constellation "arina. The

original star, out of which the magnetar formed, had a mass '0 to 0 times that ofthe un.

uark Star

( Kuark star or strange star is a hypothetical type of star composed of Kuark

matter, or strange matter. These are ultra)dense phases of degenerate matter theoried to

form inside particularly massive neutron stars.

=t is theoried that when the neutron)degenerate matter which makes up a neutronstar is put under sufficient pressure due to the stars gravity, the individual neutrons break

down into their constituent Kuarks, up Kuarks and down Kuarks. ome of these Kuarksmay then become strange Kuarks and form strange matter. The star then becomes knownas a UKuark starU or Ustrange starU, similar to a single gigantic hadron <but bound by

gravity rather than the color force>. Ouark matter@strange matter is one candidate for the

theoretical dark matter that is a feature of several cosmological theories.( Kuark star may be formed from a neutron star through a process called Kuark

deconfinement. This process may produce a Kuark nova. The resultant star should have

free Kuarks in its interior. The deconfinement process should release immense amounts of



energy, perhaps being the most energetic explosions in existence. =t may be that gamma

ray bursts are indeed Kuark)novae. ( Kuark star lies between neutron stars and black

holes in terms of both mass and density, and if sufficient additional matter is added to aKuark star, it will collapse into a black hole.

+eutron stars with masses of #.5 ) #.3 solar masses with rapid spin are

theoretically the best candidates for conversion. This amounts to #I of the pro6ectedneutron star population. (n extrapolation based on this indicates that up to 2 Kuark)novae

may occur in the observable universe each day.

Theoretically Kuark stars may be radio Kuiet, so radio)Kuiet neutron stars may beKuark stars.

Preon Star

( preon star is a hypothetical compact star made of preons, a group of theoreticalsubatomic particles that may compose Kuarks and leptons. !reon stars would be expected

to have huge densities, exceeding #020 g@cm intermediate between neutron stars and

black holes. ( preon star having the same mass as &arth would be about five meters in

diameter.uch ob6ects could be detected in principle through gravitational lensing of

gamma rays. The presence of preon stars could potentially explain the pulingobservations that lead to the dark matter hypothesis.

!reon stars could originate from supernova explosions or the big bang, although it

seems difficult to explain how such light and compact ob6ects could be formed.

*rown warf

rown dwarfs are sub)stellar ob6ects with a mass below that necessary to maintain

hydrogen)burning nuclear fusion reactions in their cores, as do stars on the mainseKuence, but which have fully convective surfaces and interiors, with no chemical

differentiation by depth. rown dwarfs occupy the mass range between that of large gas)

giant planets and the lowest mass stars <anywhere between 15 and 30 Aupiter masses>."urrently there is a large ambiguity as to what separates a brown dwarf from a giant

planet at very low brown dwarf masses <#' Aupiter masses>. There is some Kuestion as

to whether brown dwarfs are reKuired to have experienced fusion at some point in theirhistoryG in any event, brown dwarfs heavier than #' Aupiter masses < ! 5 > do fuse

deuterium and above roughly 5 ! 5 fuse both deuterium and lithium. "urrently, the only

planet known to orbit a brown dwarf star is 2M#201b.

rown dwarfs, a term coined by Aill Tarter in #415, were originally called blackdwarfs, a classification for dark substellar ob6ects floating freely in space which were too

low in mass to sustain stable hydrogen fusion <the term black dwarf currently refers to a

white dwarf that has cooled down so that it no longer emits heat or light>. (lternativenames have been proposed, including !lanetar and ubstar.

&arly theories concerning the nature of the lowest mass stars and the hydrogen

burning limit suggested that ob6ects with a mass less than 0.01 solar masses for!opulation = ob6ects or ob6ects with a mass less than 0.04 solar masses for !opulation ==

ob6ects would never go through normal stellar evolution and would become a completely

degenerate star <Humar #4'>. The role of deuterium)burning down to 0.0#2 solar masses

and the impact of dust formation in the cool outer atmospheres of brown dwarfs was



understood by the late eighties. They would however be hard to find in the sky, as they

would emit almost no light. Their strongest emissions would be in the infrared <=:>

spectrum, and ground)based =: detectors were too imprecise for a few decades after thatto firmly identify any brown dwarfs.

ince those earlier times, numerous searches involving various methods have

been conducted to find these ob6ects. ome of those methods included multi)colorimaging surveys around field stars, imaging surveys for faint companions to main

seKuence dwarfs and white dwarfs, surveys of young star clusters and radial velocity

monitoring for close companions.?or many years, efforts to discover brown dwarfs were frustrating and searches to

find them seemed fruitless. =n #433, however, *niversity of "alifornia at %os (ngeles

professors &ric ecklin and en 9uckerman identified a faint companion to /C #5 in an

infrared search of white dwarfs. The spectrum of /C #5 was very red and enigmatic,showing none of the features expected of a low)mass red dwarf star. =t became clear that

/C #5 would need to be classified as a much cooler ob6ect than the latest M dwarfs

known at that time. /C #5 remained uniKue for almost a decade until the advent of the

Two Micron (ll ky urvey <2M(> when Cavy Hirkpatrick, out of the "alifornia=nstitute of Technology, and others discovered many ob6ects with similar colors and

spectral features.Today, /C #5 is recognied as the prototype of a class of ob6ects now called

U% dwarfsU. 8hile the discovery of the coolest dwarf was highly significant at the time it

was debated whether /C #5 would be classified as a brown dwarf or simply a verylow mass star since observationally it is very difficult to distinguish between the two.

=nterestingly, soon after the discovery of /C #5 other brown dwarf candidates were

reported. Most failed to live up to their candidacy however, and with further checks for

substellar nature, such as the lithium test, many turned out to be stellar ob6ects and nottrue brown dwarfs. 8hen young <up to a gigayear old>, brown dwarfs can have

temperatures and luminosities similar to some stars, so other distinguishing

characteristics are necessary, such as the presence of lithium. tars will burn lithium in alittle over #00 Myr, at most, while most brown dwarfs will never acKuire high enough

core temperatures to do so. Thus, the detection of lithium in the atmosphere of a

candidate ob6ect ensures its status as a brown dwarf.=n #445 the study of brown dwarfs changed dramatically with the discovery of

three incontrovertible substellar ob6ects, some of which were identified by the presence

of the 103 %i line. The most notable of these ob6ects was /liese 224 which was found

to have a temperature and luminosity well below the stellar range. :emarkably, its near)infrared spectrum clearly exhibited a methane absorption band at 2 micrometers, a feature

that had previously only been observed in gas giant atmospheres and the atmosphere of

aturns moon, Titan. Methane absorption is not expected at the temperatures of main)seKuence stars. This discovery helped to establish yet another spectral class even cooler

than % dwarfs known as UT dwarfsU for which /l 224 is the prototype.

ince #445, when the first brown dwarf was confirmed, hundreds have beenidentified. rown dwarfs close to &arth include &psilon =ndi a and b, a pair of dwarfs

around #2 light)years from the un.

Theory



The standard mechanism for star birth is through the gravitational collapse of a

cold interstellar cloud of gas and dust. (s the cloud contracts it heats up. The release of

gravitational potential energy is the source of this heat. &arly in the process thecontracting gas Kuickly radiates away much of the energy, allowing the collapse to

continue. &ventually, the central region becomes sufficiently dense to trap radiation.

"onseKuently, the central temperature and density of the collapsed cloud increasesdramatically with time, slowing the contraction, until the conditions are hot and dense

enough for thermonuclear reactions to occur in the core of the protostar. ?or most stars,

gas and radiation pressure generated by the thermonuclear fusion reactions within thecore of the star will support it against any further gravitational contraction. 7ydrostatic

eKuilibrium is reached and the star will spend most of its lifetime burning hydrogen to

helium as a main)seKuence star.

=f, however, the mass of the protostar is less than about 0.03 solar mass, normalhydrogen thermonuclear fusion reactions will not ignite in the core. /ravitational

contraction does not heat the small protostar very effectively, and before the temperature

in the core can increase enough to trigger fusion, the density reaches the point where

electrons become closely packed enough to create Kuantum electron degeneracy pressure.(ccording to the brown dwarf interior models, typical conditions in the core for density,

temperature and pressure are expected to be the followingB

?urther gravitational contraction is prevented and the result is a Ufailed starU, or

brown dwarf that simply cools off by radiating away its internal thermal energy.

Cistinguishing high mass brown dwarfs from low mass stars

#> %ithiumB %ithium is generally present in brown dwarfs and not in low)mass

stars. tars, which achieve the high temperature necessary for fusing hydrogen, rapidlydeplete their lithium. This occurs by a collision of %ithium)1 and a proton producing two

7elium) nuclei. The temperature necessary for this reaction is 6ust below the

temperature necessary for hydrogen fusion. "onvection in low)mass stars ensures that

lithium in the whole volume of the star is depleted. Therefore, the presence of the lithiumline in a candidate brown dwarfs spectrum is a strong indicator that it is indeed

substellar. The use of lithium to distinguish candidate brown dwarfs from low)mass stars

is commonly referred to as the lithium test, and was pioneered by :afael :ebolo andcolleagues.

7owever, lithium is also seen in very young stars, which have not yet had a

chance to burn it off. 7eavier stars like our sun can retain lithium in their outeratmospheres, which never get hot enough for lithium depletion, but those are

distinguishable from brown dwarfs by their sie.

"ontrariwise, brown dwarfs at the high end of their mass range can be hot enoughto deplete their lithium when they are young. Cwarfs of mass greater than 5 MA can

burn off their lithium by the time they are half a billion years old HulkarniN, thus this test

is not perfect.



2> MethaneB *nlike stars, older brown dwarfs are sometimes cool enough that

over very long periods of time their atmospheres can gather observable Kuantities of

methane. Cwarfs confirmed in this fashion include /liese 224.'> %uminosityB Main seKuence stars cool, but eventually reach a minimum

luminosity which they can sustain through steady fusion. This varies from star to star, but

is generally at least 0.0#I the luminosity of our un. rown dwarfs cool and darkensteadily over their lifetimesB sufficiently old dwarfs will be too faint to be a star.

Cistinguishing low mass brown dwarfs from high mass planets( remarkable property of brown dwarfs is that they are all roughly the same

radius, more or less the radius of Aupiter. (t the high end of their mass range <0)40

Aupiter masses>, the volume of a brown dwarf is governed primarily by electron

degeneracy pressure, as it is in white dwarfsG at the low end of the range <#)#0 Aupitermasses>, their volume is governed primarily by "oulomb pressure, as it is in planets. The

net result is that the radii of brown dwarfs vary by only #0)#5I over the range of

possible masses. This can make distinguishing them from planets difficult.

=n addition, many brown dwarfs undergo no fusionG those at the low end of themass range <under #' Aupiter masses> are never hot enough to fuse even deuterium, and

even those at the high end of the mass range <over 0 Aupiter masses> cool Kuicklyenough that they no longer undergo fusion after something on the order of #0 million

years. 7owever, there are other ways to distinguish dwarfs from planetsB

#> Censity is a clear giveaway. rown dwarfs are all about the same radiusG soanything that sie with over #0 Aupiter masses is unlikely to be a planet.

2> R)ray and infrared spectra are telltale signs. ome brown dwarfs emit R)raysG

and all UwarmU dwarfs continue to glow tellingly in the red and infrared spectra until they

cool to planet like temperatures <under #000 H>.ome astronomers believe that there is in fact no actual black)and)white line

separating light brown dwarfs from heavy planets, and that rather there is a continuum.

?or example, Aupiter and aturn are both made out of primarily hydrogen and helium,like the un. aturn is nearly as large as Aupiter, despite having only '0I the mass. Three

of the giants in our solar system <Aupiter, aturn, and +eptune> emit more heat than they

receive from the un. (nd all four giant planets have their own Uplanetary systemsU ))their moons. =n addition, it has been found that both planets and brown dwarfs can have

eccentric orbits. "urrently, the =nternational (stronomical *nion considers ob6ects with

masses above the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium <currently

calculated to be #' Aupiter masses for ob6ects of solar metallicity> to be a brown dwarf,whereas those ob6ects under that mass <and orbiting stars or stellar remnants> are

considered planets.

"lassification of brown dwarfs

The defining characteristic of spectral class M, the coolest type in the long)

standing classical stellar seKuence, is an optical spectrum dominated by absorption bandsof titanium oxide <Ti;> and vanadium oxide <;> molecules. 7owever, /C #5, the

cool companion to the white dwarf /C #5 had none of the hallmark Ti; features of M

dwarfs. The subseKuent identification of many field counterparts to /C #5 ultimately

led Hirkpatrick and others to the definition of a new spectral class, the % dwarfs, defined



in the red optical region by weakening metal)oxide bands <Ti;, ;> but strong metal

hydride bands <?e7, "r7, Mg7, "a7> and prominent alkali lines <+a =, H =, "s =, :b =>.

(s of (pril 2005, over 00 % dwarfs have been identified <see link in references section below>, most by wide)field surveysB the Two Micron (ll ky urvey <2M(>, the Ceep

+ear =nfrared urvey of the outhern ky <C&+=>, and the loan Cigital ky urvey

<C>.(s /C #5 is the prototype of the % dwarfs, /liese 224 is the prototype of a

second new spectral class, the T dwarfs. 8hereas near)infrared <+=:> spectra of % dwarfs

show strong absorption bands of 72; and carbon monoxide <";>, the +=: spectrum of/liese 224 is dominated by absorption bands from methane <"7>, features that were

only found in the giant planets of the solar system and Titan. "7, 72;, and molecular

hydrogen <72> collision)induced absorption <"=(> give /liese 224 blue near)infrared

colors. =ts steeply sloped red optical spectrum also lacks the ?e7 and "r7 bands thatcharacterie % dwarfs and instead is influenced by exceptionally broad absorption

features from the alkali metals +a and H. These differences led Hirkpatrick to propose

the T spectral class for ob6ects exhibiting 7) and H)band "7 absorption. (s of (pril

2005, 53 T dwarfs are now known. +=: classification schemes for T dwarfs have recently been developed by (dam urgasser and Tom /eballe. Theory suggests that % dwarfs are

a mixture of very low)mass stars and sub)stellar ob6ects <brown dwarfs>, whereas the Tdwarf class is composed entirely of brown dwarfs.

The ma6ority of flux emitted by % and T dwarfs is in the # to 2.5 micrometer near)

infrared range. %ow and decreasing temperatures through the late M, %, and T dwarfseKuence result in a rich near)infrared spectrum containing a wide variety of features,

from relatively narrow lines of neutral atomic species to broad molecular bands, all of

which have different dependencies on temperature, gravity, and metallicity. ?urthermore,

these low temperature conditions favor condensation out of the gas state and theformation of grains.

Typical atmospheres of known brown dwarfs range in temperature from 2200

down to 150 H <urrows et al. 200#>. "ompared to stars, which warm themselves withsteady internal fusion, brown dwarfs cool Kuickly over timeG more massive dwarfs cool

more slowly than less massive ones.

$e/ warf

(ccording to the 7ertsprung):ussell diagram, a red dwarf star is a small and

relatively cool star, of the main seKuence, either late H or M spectral type. They

constitute the vast ma6ority of stars and have a mass of less than one)half that of the un<down to about 0.015 solar masses, which are brown dwarfs> and a surface temperature of

less than ',500 H. :ed dwarfs fuse hydrogen to helium via the proton)proton <!!> chain.

Cue to the low temperatures in the core, fusion proceeds slowly. Thus red dwarfs have anenormous estimated lifespanG from tens of billions up to trillions of years depending upon

mass. "onseKuently they emit little light, sometimes as little as #@#0,000th that of the sun.

=n general red dwarfs transport energy from the core to the surface via convection. (s reddwarfs are fully convective, all the hydrogen in the star is available for fusion, which

further increases their lifespan. :ed dwarfs never initiate helium fusion via the triple

alpha process and so cannot evolve beyond the red giant phase. =n any event, there has



not been sufficient time since the ig ang for red dwarfs to evolve off the main

seKuence.

The fact that red dwarfs and other low mass stars remain on the main seKuencewhile more massive stars have moved off the main seKuence allows one to date star

clusters by finding the mass at which the stars turn off the main seKuence. This provides a

lower, stellar, age limit to the *niverse and also allows formation timescales to be placedupon the structures within the Milky 8ay galaxy. +amely the /alactic halo and /alactic

disk.

;ne mystery which has not been solved as of 2001 is the lack of red dwarf starswith no metals <in astronomy a metal is any element other than hydrogen and helium>.

The ig ang model predicts the first generation of stars should have only hydrogen,

helium, and lithium. =f such stars included red dwarfs, they should still be observable

today, but as yet none have been identified. ;ne explanation is that without heavyelements, low mass stars cannot form. (lternatively as they are dim and could be few in

number, we simply may not have observed them yet.

:ed dwarfs are the most common star type in the /alaxy, at least in the

neighborhood of the un. !roxima "entauri, the nearest star to the un, is a red dwarf<Type M5, magnitude ##.0>, as are twenty of the next thirty nearest. 7owever, due to

their low luminosity, individual red dwarfs cannot easily be observed over the vastintergalactic distances that luminous stars can.

&xoplanets have been discovered orbiting red dwarfs in 2005, one as small as the

sie of +eptune, or seventeen earth masses. =t orbits 6ust million kilometers <0.0 (*>from its star, and so is estimated to have a surface temperature of #50 ", despite how

dim the star is. =n 200 a planet similar in sie to &arth was found orbiting a red dwarfG it

lies '40 million km <2. (*> from the star and its surface temperature is )220 " <5 H>.

.lare Star

( flare star is a variable star which can undergo unpredictable dramatic increases

in brightness for a few minutes or a few hours. The brightness increase is across thespectrum, from R rays to radio waves.

?lare stars are dim red dwarfs, although recent research indicates that brown

dwarfs might also be capable of flaring.The first known flare stars <#'4 "ygni and (T Microscopii> were discovered

in #42. 7owever, the best)known flare star <* "eti> was discovered in #43, and today

flare stars are sometimes known as * "eti variables.

The uns nearest stellar neighbor !roxima "entauri is a flare star, as is anothernear neighbor 8olf '54. arnards tar, the second nearest star system, is also suspected

of being a flare star. ecause they are so intrinsically faint, all known flare stars are

within about 0 light years from &arth.=t is believed that the flares on flare stars are analogous to solar flares.

Frane warf

;range dwarfs are main seKuence stars of spectral type H. These stars are

intermediate in sie between M class red dwarf stars and yellow / class stars such as the

&arths un. ;range dwarfs vary from 0.5 to 0.4 times the mass of the un and have a



surface temperature between 000 and 5200 degrees "elsius. &xamples include (lpha

"entauri and &psilon =ndi.

These stars are of particular interest in the search for extraterrestrial life becausethey are stable on the main seKuence for a very long time <#5 to '0 billion years,

compared to #0 billion for the &arths un>. This may create an opportunity for life to

evolve on terrestrial planets orbiting such stars.

?ellow warf

=n astronomy, a yellow dwarf is a small <about 0.4 to #. solar masses>, yellowmain seKuence star that is in the process of converting hydrogen to helium in its core by

means of nuclear fusion.

;ur un is the most well)known example of a yellow dwarf.

( yellow dwarfFs lifespan is about #0 billion years, until its supply of hydrogenruns out. 8hen this happens, the star expands to many times its previous sie and

becomes a red giant. The star (ldebaran is an example of a red giant. &ventually the red

giant sheds its outer layers of gas, which become a planetary nebula, while the core

collapses into a small, dense white dwarf.

*lue warf

lue dwarfs are main seKuence stars of spectral type ;.

( typical type ; dwarf has a mass of 50 uns and is tens of thousands of times

more luminous than the un. 7ottest of all the main seKuence stars yet known are of type;'. ecause very massive stars have short lifespans, blue dwarfs are extremely rareB only

about one star in ten million is a blue dwarf. 7owever, because they are so luminous <and

thus more easily seen>, a disproportionate number of ; stars have been charted in

comparison to other star classes.

$unawa Star

( runaway star is one which is moving through space with an abnormally highvelocity compared to other stars around it.

Two possible mechanisms may give rise to a runaway star. =n the first scenario, a

close encounter between two binary systems may result in the disruption of both systems,with some of the stars being e6ected at high velocities. =n the second scenario, a

supernova explosion in a multiple star system can result in the remaining components

moving away at high speed. 8hile both mechanisms are theoretically possible,

astronomers generally favor the supernova hypothesis as more likely in practice.;ne example of a related set of runaway stars is the case of (& (urigae, 5'

(rietis and Mu "olumbae, all of which are moving away from each other at velocities of

over #00km@s <for comparison, the un moves through the galaxy at about 20km@s fasterthan the local average>. Tracing their motions back, their paths intersect near to the ;rion

+ebula about 2 million years ago.

Cataclsmic 7ariable Star

"ataclysmic variables <also * /eminorum tars> are a class of binary stars

containing a white dwarf and a companion star. The companion star is usually a red



dwarf, although in some cases it is another white dwarf or a slightly evolved star

<subgiant>. everal hundred cataclysmic variables are known.

?rom the observational viewpoint, cataclysmic variables are relatively easy todiscover. They are usually Kuite blue ob6ects, whereas the ma6ority of stars are red. The

variability of these systems is usually Kuite rapid and strong. trong ultraviolet or even

R)ray emission and peculiar emission lines are other typical properties.The stars are so close to each other that the gravity of the white dwarf distorts the

secondary, and the white dwarf accretes matter from the companion. Therefore, the

secondary is often referred to as the donor star. The infalling matter forms in most casesan accretion disc around the white dwarf. trong * and R)ray emission is often seen

from the accretion disc. The accretion disk may be prone to an instability leading to

dwarf nova outbursts, when a tenth of the disk material falls onto the white dwarf.

Curing the accretion process, mass is accumulating on the white dwarf surface.*sually the donor star is rich in hydrogen. &ventually the density and temperature at the

bottom of the accumulated hydrogen layer rise high enough to ignite nuclear fusion

reactions. The reactions burn the bulk of the hydrogen layer to helium in a short time.

This is seen as a nova outburst. The outer parts of the hydrogen layer and some of thefusion products are e6ected to interstellar space. =f the accretion process continues long

enough to bring the white dwarf close to the "handrasekhar limit, the increasing interiordensity can ignite runaway carbon fusion and trigger a Type =a supernova explosion,

which completely disrupts the white dwarf.

"ataclysmic variables are subdivided into several smaller groups, often presented by a bright prototype star characteristic of the class. The prototype stars include

"ygni, * /eminorum, 9 "amelopardalis, * *rsae Ma6oris, (M 7erculis, CO 7erculis,

L culptoris, 8 extantis.

=n some cases the magnetic field of the white dwarf disrupts the inner accretiondisk or even prevents disk formation. Magnetic systems often show strong and variable

polariation in their optical light, and are therefore sometimes called intermediate polars

<in case of a disrupted disk> or polars <in case of prevented disk formation>. (nothernaming convention, often used in variable star classification, is naming the class after a

well)known prototype star. =ntermediate polars and polars are sometimes referred to as

CO 7erculis stars and (M 7erculis stars, respectively.

*lack @ole

( black hole is an ob6ect predicted by general relativity, with a gravitational field

so powerful that even electromagnetic radiation <such as light> cannot escape its pull.( black hole is defined to be a region of space)time where escape to the outside

universe is impossible. The outer boundary of this region is called the event horion.

+othing can move from inside the event horion to the outside, even briefly, due to theextreme gravitational field existing within the region. ?or the same reason, observers

outside the event horion cannot see any events which may be happening within the event

horionG thus any energy being radiated or events happening within the region are foreverunable to be seen or detected from outside. 8ithin the black hole is a singularity, an

anomalous place where matter is compressed to the degree that the known laws of

physics no longer apply to it.



Theoretically, a black hole can be any sie. (strophysicists expect to find black

holes with masses ranging between roughly the mass of the un <Ustellar)massU black

holes> to many millions of times the mass of the un <supermassive black holes>.The existence of black holes in the universe is well supported by astronomical

observation, particularly from studying R)ray emission from R)ray binaries and active

galactic nuclei. =t has also been hypothesied that black holes radiate an undetectablysmall amount of energy due to Kuantum mechanical effects. This is called 7awking

radiation.

imple ;verviewMost planets and other celestial bodies are stable because the !auli force between

electrons prevents atoms from collapsing into each other, while gravity,

electromagnetism, and the strong force pull them together. These create a balance which

allows material bodies to retain their shape and structure. =n extreme circumstances,however, if there is enough matter in a small enough space, gravity ends up winning, and

the matter collapsesB electrons cannot stay distant from the atomic nucleus, and incredibly

dense matter forms <sometimes called neutronium>. &ventually, if the star is massive

enough, even the !auli force between nucleons cannot resist gravity and the star collapsesinto itself further forming a black hole. =n a way that can be hard to imagine, nothing can

stop this collapse if enough matter gets into a small enough space, and the mattercollapses to a point of ero height, width, and depth, known as a singularity, in which the

matter is so dense it is no longer UmatterU in any real sense, but some kind of anomaly in

space. (nything that gets too close to this singularity will also collapse into it the sameway, whether it is matter, energy or even light itself, which is the fastest thing in the

universe. The failure of even light to escape its gravitation is how the phenomenon

initially acKuired the name black hole.

ecause matter and energy which passes this UboundaryU can never escape backagain, observers outside this invisible UboundaryU can neither see inside nor detect what

might happen within the interior ) it is forever unable to be witnessed. The invisible

dividing line in space where matter or energy will be unavoidably drawn into the blackhole is known as the event horion, because like the earths horion nothing can be seen

beyond it.

=t was later found that energy can escape from black holes in an unexpected way,and that therefore black holes can evaporate. =n space, virtual particles are continually

coming into existence and vanishing on a microscopic scale that is so small they cannot

easily be detected. This is a conseKuence of Kuantum physics and only works on a

subatomic scale. "onceptually, these particles can be imagined to appear in pairs andvanish a tiny fraction of a second later again. ?or this reason they are not readily noticed.

ut close to the black holes event horion, the intense gravitational field separates the

two particles even in the fractional second that they exist. ;ne particle may be absorbedinto the black hole, the other escapes. ?rom an external perspective all that is seen is the

second of these, giving the appearance of energy being radiated outward, escaping from

its gravitational field beyond the event horion. =n this way, paradoxically, black holescan evaporate. This process is thought to be significant for the very smallest black holes,

as a black hole of stellar mass or larger would absorb more energy from cosmic

microwave background radiation than they lose this way. The radiation emitted is

referred to as 7awking radiation.



lack holes generally come in two typesB those with a mass up to ten times the

mass of our un, and those with a mass that is millions or billions of times that of our

sun. The latter are called supermassive black holes, and are thought to exist at the centersof galaxies. Micro black holes are believed to be possible but very short)lived, capable of

creation under extreme circumstances such as the ig ang or perhaps by very high

powered particle accelerators or ultra)high)energy cosmic rays.?ormation and sie

/eneral relativity <as well as most other metric theories of gravity> not only says

that black holes can exist, but in fact predicts that they will be formed in nature whenevera sufficient amount of mass gets packed in a given region of space, through a process

called gravitational collapseG as the mass inside the given region of space increases, its

gravity becomes stronger and <in the language of relativity> increasingly deforms the

space around it, ultimately until nothing <not even light> can escape the gravityG at this point an event horion is formed, and matter and energy must inevitably collapse to a

density beyond the limits of known physics. ?or example, if the un was compressed to a

radius of roughly three kilometers <about #@2'2,000 its present sie>, the resulting

gravitational field would create an event horion around it, and thus a black hole.( Kuantitative analysis of this idea led to the prediction that a stellar remnant

above about three to five times the mass of the un <the Tolman);ppenheimer)olkofflimit> would be unable to support itself as a neutron star via degeneracy pressure, and

would inevitably collapse into a black hole. tellar remnants with this mass are expected

to be produced immediately at the end of the lives of stars that are more than 25 to 50times the mass of the un, or by accretion of matter onto an existing neutron star.

tellar collapse will generate black holes containing at least three solar masses.

lack holes smaller than this limit can only be created if their matter is sub6ected to

sufficient pressure from some source other than self)gravitation. The enormous pressuresneeded for this are thought to have existed in the very early stages of the universe,

possibly creating primordial black holes which could have masses smaller than that of the

un.upermassive black holes are believed to exist in the center of most galaxies,

including our own Milky 8ay. This type of black hole contains millions to billions of

solar masses, and there are several models of how they might have been formed. The firstis via gravitational collapse of a dense cluster of stars. ( second is by large amounts of

mass accreting onto a UseedU black hole of stellar mass. ( third is by repeated fusion of

smaller black holes. &ffects of such supermassive black holes on spacetime may be

observed in regions as the irgo cluster of galaxies, for example, the location of M31<see image below> and its neighbors.

=ntermediate)mass black holes have a mass between that of stellar and

supermassive black holes, typically in the range of thousands of solar masses.=ntermediate)mass black holes have been proposed as a possible power source for ultra)

luminous R ray sources, and in 200 detection was claimed of an intermediate)mass

black hole orbiting the agittarius ( supermassive black hole candidate at the core of theMilky 8ay galaxy. This detection is disputed.

The lower limit on the mass of a black hole comes from the Kuantum arguments.

(ccording to the most commonly accepted physics, one should not expect to observe

black holes lighter than the !lanck mass, or approximately #0)5 g, and even those would



only exist for minuscule periods of time before evaporating. =f true, this limit would rule

out the possibility of creating miniature black holes in the laboratory in the foreseeable

futureB even today, center)of)mass collision energies of the worlds most advanced particle accelerators are still #)#5 orders of magnitude lower than the !lanck mass.

7owever, certain models of unification of the four fundamental forces do allow

the formation of micro black holes under laboratory conditions. These postulate that theenergy at which gravity is unified with the other forces is comparable to the energy at

which the other three are unified, as opposed to being the !lanck energy <which is much

higher>. This would allow production of extremely short)lived black holes in terrestrial particle accelerators. +o conclusive evidence of this type of black hole production has

been presented, though even a negative result improves constraints on compactification

of extra dimensions from string theory or other models of physics

;bservation=n theory, no ob6ect within the event horion of a black hole can ever escape,

including light. 7owever, black holes can be inductively detected from observation of

phenomena near them, such as gravitational lensing, galactic 6ets, and stars that appear to

be in orbit <typically with short orbital periods of only a few hours or days suggesting amassive partner> around a point in space where there is no visible matter.

The most conspicuous effects are believed to come from matter accreting onto a black hole, which is predicted to collect into an extremely hot and fast)spinning accretion

disk. The internal viscosity of the disk causes it to become extremely hot, and emit large

amounts of R)ray and ultraviolet radiation. This process is extremely efficient and canconvert about #0I of the rest mass energy of an ob6ect into radiation, as opposed to

nuclear fusion which can only convert a few percent of the mass to energy. ;ther

observed effects are narrow 6ets of particles at relativistic speeds heading along the disks

axis.7owever, accretion disks, 6ets, and orbiting ob6ects are found not only around

black holes, but also around other ob6ects such as neutron stars and white dwarfsG and the

dynamics of bodies near these non)black hole attractors is largely similar to that of bodiesaround black holes. =t is currently a very complex and active field of research involving

magnetic fields and plasma physics to disentangle what is going on. 7ence, for the most

part, observations of accretion disks and orbital motions merely indicate that there is acompact ob6ect of a certain mass, and says very little about the nature of that ob6ect. The

identification of an ob6ect as a black hole reKuires the further assumption that no other

ob6ect <or bound system of ob6ects> could be so massive and compact. Most

astrophysicists accept that this is the case, since according to general relativity, anyconcentration of matter of sufficient density must necessarily collapse into a black hole.

;ne important observable difference between black holes and other compact

massive ob6ects is that any infalling matter will eventually collide with the latter atrelativistic speeds, leading to emission as the kinetic energy of the matter is thermalied.

=n addition thermonuclear UburningU may occur on the surface of compact massive

ob6ects as material collides or builds up. These processes produce irregular intense flaresof R)rays and other hard radiation around some ob6ects. The lack of such flare)ups

around such a compact concentration of mass is taken as evidence suggesting that the

ob6ect is a black hole which lacks a surface onto which matter can collect and from which

radiation can be emitted.



uspected black holes

%ocation of the R)ray source "ygnus R)# which is widely accepted to be a #0 solar mass black hole orbiting a blue giant star <left> and an artist depiction of two black holes

merging <right>

There is now a great deal of indirect astronomical observational evidence for black holes in two mass rangesB

• stellar mass black holes with masses of a typical star < $ #5 times the mass of our

un>, and

• supermassive black holes with masses ranging from on the order of #05 to #0#0

solar masses@

(dditionally, there is some evidence for intermediate)mass black holes <=M7s>,

those with masses of a few hundred to a few thousand times that of the un. These blackholes may be responsible for the emission from ultraluminous R)ray sources <*%Rs>.

"andidates for stellar)mass black holes were identified mainly by the presence of

accretion disks of the right sie and speed, without the irregular flare)ups that are

expected from disks around other compact ob6ects. tellar)mass black holes may beinvolved in gamma ray bursts </:s>G short duration /:s are believed to be caused by

colliding neutron stars, which form a black hole on merging. ;bservations of long /:sin association with supernovae suggest that long /:s are caused by collapsarsG a

massive star whose core collapses to form a black hole, drawing in the surrounding

material. Therefore, a /: could possibly signal the birth of a new black hole, aidingefforts to search for them.

"andidates for more massive black holes were first provided by the active galactic

nuclei and Kuasars, discovered by radioastronomers in the #40s. The efficient

conversion of mass into energy by friction in the accretion disk of a black hole seems to be the only explanation for the copious amounts of energy generated by such ob6ects.

=ndeed the introduction of this theory in the #410s removed a ma6or ob6ection to the belief that Kuasars were distant galaxies namely, that no physical mechanism couldgenerate that much energy.

?rom observations in the #430s of motions of stars around the galactic centre, it is

now believed that such supermassive black holes exist in the centre of most galaxies,including our own Milky 8ay. agittarius (W is now generally agreed to be the location

of a supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky 8ay galaxy. The orbits of stars





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/: ##2)3' .5\3.2 0.' #1000

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:ecent discoveries

=n 200, astronomers found '# candidate supermassive black holes fromsearching obscured Kuasars. The lead scientist said that there are from two to five times

as many supermassive black holes as previously predicted.

=n Aune 200 astronomers found a super)massive black hole, O040J4'0, at thecentre of a distant galaxy about #2.1 billion light years away. This observation indicated

rapid creation of super)massive black holes in the early universe.

=n +ovember 200 a team of astronomers reported the discovery of the firstintermediate)mass black hole in our /alaxy, orbiting three light)years from agittarius

(W. This medium black hole of #,'00 solar masses is within a cluster of seven stars,

possibly the remnant of a massive star cluster that has been stripped down by the /alactic

"entre. This observation may add support to the idea that supermassive black holes grow by absorbing nearby smaller black holes and stars.

=n ?ebruary 2005, a blue giant star C A04015.0J2501 was found to be

leaving the Milky 8ay at twice the escape velocity <0.0022 of the speed of light>, having been catapulted out of the galactic core which its path can be traced back to. The high

velocity of this star supports the hypothesis of a super)massive black hole in the centre of

the galaxy.

The formation of micro black holes on &arth in particle accelerators has beententatively reported, but not yet confirmed. o far there are no observed candidates for

primordial black holes.

=n Aanuary 2001, researchers at the *niversity of outhampton in the *nitedHingdom reported finding a black hole inside a compact group of ancient stars known as

a globular cluster. Many doubted newly)formed black holes could exist in such locations

due to gravitational interactions.



( <simulated> lack 7ole of ten solar masses as seen from a distance of 00 kmwith the Milky 8ay in the background <horiontal camera opening angleB 40>. The

blurred ring is due to ob6ects whose light must travel close enough to the black hole to

suffer gravitational lensing distortion before being observed.

?eatures and theories

lack holes reKuire the general relativistic concept of a curved spacetimeB their

most striking properties rely on a distortion of the geometry of the space surroundingthem.

Gravitational ield

The gravitational field outside a black hole is identical to the field produced byany other spherically symmetric ob6ect of the same mass. The popular conception of

black holes as UsuckingU things in is falseB ob6ects can orbit around black holes

indefinitely without getting any closer. The strange properties of spacetime only become

noticeable closer to the black hole. %vent hori/on

The effective boundary of a black hole is known as the event horion. The &vent

horion is not a surface, it is the invisible dividing line in space beyond which outsideobservers cannot see, and from within which matter and energy cannot exit. tephen

7awking proved that the topology of the event horion of a non)spinning black hole is a

sphere. Cue to the extremely strong gravitational field, anything inside the event horion,including a photon, is prevented from escaping across the event horion. !articles from



outside this region can fall in, cross the event horion, and will never be able to leave. =n

this sense, the event horion is a little like the point of no return.

&xternal observers cannot probe the interior of a black hole. "onseKuentlyaccording to <non)Kuantum> general relativity, black holes can be entirely characteried

by these parametersB energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, electric charge, and

position at a specific time. This principle is summaried by the saying, coined by Aohn(rchibald 8heeler, Ublack holes have no hairU meaning that there are no features that

distinguish one black hole from another, other than energy, linear momentum, charge,

angular momentum, and location.Space-time distortion and rame o reerence

;b6ects in a gravitational field experience a slowing down of time, called time

dilation. This phenomenon has been verified experimentally in the cout rocket

experiment of #41, and is, for example, taken into account in the /lobal !ositioningystem </!>. +ear the event horion, the time dilation increases rapidly.

?rom the viewpoint of a distant observer, an ob6ect falling into a black hole

appears to slow down, approaching but never Kuite reaching the event horion. (s the

ob6ect falls into the black hole, it appears redder and dimmer to the distant observer, dueto the extreme gravitational red shift caused by the gravity of the black hole. &ventually,

the falling ob6ect becomes so dim that it can no longer be seen, at a point 6ust before itreaches the event horion.

?rom the viewpoint of the falling ob6ect, nothing particularly special happens at

the event horion. The ob6ect crosses the event horion and reaches the singularity at thecenter within a finite amount of proper time, as measured by a watch carried with the

falling observer.

?rom the viewpoint of the falling observer, distant ob6ects may appear either blue)

shifted or red)shifted, depending on the observers tra6ectory. %ight is blue)shifted by thegravity of the black hole, but is red)shifted by the velocity of the falling ob6ect.

6nside the event hori/on

pace)time inside the event horion of an uncharged non)rotating black hole is peculiar in that the singularity is in every observers future, so all particles within the

event horion move inexorably towards it <!enrose and 7awking>. This means that there

is a conceptual inaccuracy in the non)relativistic concept of a black hole as originally proposed by Aohn Michell in #13'. =n Michells theory, the escape velocity at the surface

of the star is greater than the speed of light, but it would still be theoretically possible to

hoist an ob6ect out of a black hole using a rope. /eneral relativity eliminates such

loopholes, because once an ob6ect is inside the event horion, its time)line contains anend)point to time itself, and no possible world line comes back out through the event

horion. ;nce inside the black hole, at most one course)correction <performed

immediately> is appropriate to maximie your survival time.(s the ob6ect continues to approach the singularity, it will be stretched radially

with respect to the black hole and compressed in directions perpendicular to this axis.

This phenomenon, called spaghettification, occurs as a result of tidal forcesB the parts ofthe ob6ect closer to the singularity feel a stronger pull towards it <causing stretching along

the axis>, and all parts are pulled in the direction of the singularity, which is only aligned

with the ob6ects average motion along the axis of the ob6ect <causing compression

towards the axis>.



Singularity

(t the center of the black hole, well inside the event horion, general relativity

predicts a singularity, a place where the curvature of spacetime becomes infinite andgravitational forces become infinitely strong.

=n a non)rotating black hole, the singularity is one)dimensional, extended in the

time direction only. =n a rotating black hole, the singularity is two)dimensional, extendedin time and in longitude.

=t is expected that future refinements or generaliations of general relativity <in

particular Kuantum gravity> will change what is thought about the nature of black holeinteriors. Most theorists interpret the mathematical singularity of the eKuations as

indicating that the current theory is not complete, and that new phenomena must come

into play as one approaches the singularity.

The cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts that there are no naked singularities ingeneral relativity. This hypothesis is that every singularity is hidden behind an event

horion and cannot be probed. 8hether this hypothesis is true remains an active area of

theoretical research.

Rotating $lac7 holes

(n artists impression of a black hole with a closely orbiting

companion star that exceeds its :oche limit. =n)falling matter forms an accretion disk,

with some of the matter being e6ected in highly energetic polar 6ets.

(ccording to theory, the event horion of a black hole that is not spinning isspherical, and its singularity is expected to be a single point where the curvature becomes

infinite. =f the black hole carries angular momentum <inherited from a star that is spinning

at the time of its collapse>, it begins to drag space)time surrounding the event horion inan effect known as frame)dragging. This spinning area surrounding the event horion is

called the ergosphere and has an ellipsoidal shape. ince the ergosphere is located outside

the event horion, ob6ects can exist within the ergosphere without falling into the hole.7owever, because space)time itself is moving in the ergosphere, it is impossible for

ob6ects to remain in a fixed position. ;b6ects graing the ergosphere could in some

circumstances be catapulted outwards at great speed, extracting energy <and angularmomentum> from the hole, hence the /reek name ergosphere <Usphere of workU> because

it is capable of doing work.

The singularity inside a rotating black hole is expected to be a ring, rather than a point, though the interior geometry of a rotating black hole is currently not well

understood. 8hile the fate of an observer falling into a non)rotating black hole is

spaghettification, the fate of an observer falling into a rotating black hole is much less

clear. ?or instance, in the Herr geometry, an infalling observer can potentially escapespaghettification by passing through an inner horion. 7owever, it is unlikely that the

actual interior geometry of a rotating black hole is the Herr geometry due to stability



issues, and the ultimate fate of an observer falling into a rotating black hole is currently

not known.

&ntropy and 7awking radiation

=n #41#, tephen 7awking showed that the total area of the event horions of any

collection of classical black holes can never decrease. This sounded remarkably similar tothe econd %aw of Thermodynamics, with area playing the role of entropy. "lassically,

one could violate the second law of thermodynamics by material entering a black hole

disappearing from our universe and resulting in a decrease of the total entropy of theuniverse. Therefore, Aacob ekenstein proposed that a black hole should have an entropy

and that it should be proportional to its horion area. ince black holes do not classically

emit radiation, the thermodynamic viewpoint was simply an analogy. 7owever, in #41,

7awking applied Kuantum field theory to the curved spacetime around the event horionand discovered that black holes can emit 7awking radiation, a form of thermal radiation.

*sing the first law of black hole mechanics, it follows that the entropy of a black hole is

one Kuarter of the area of the horion. This is a universal result and can be extended to

apply to cosmological horions such as in de itter space. =t was later suggested that black holes are maximum)entropy ob6ects, meaning that the maximum entropy of a

region of space is the entropy of the largest black hole that can fit into it. This led to theholographic principle.

The 7awking radiation reflects a characteristic temperature of the black hole,

which can be calculated from its entropy. This temperature in fact falls the more massivea black hole becomesB the more energy a black hole absorbs, the colder it gets. ( black

hole with roughly the mass of the planet Mercury would have a temperature in

eKuilibrium with the cosmic microwave background radiation <about 2.1' H>. More

massive than this, a black hole will be colder than the background radiation, and it willgain energy from the background faster than it gives energy up through 7awking

radiation, becoming even colder still. 7owever, for a less massive black hole the effect

implies that the mass of the black hole will slowly evaporate with time, with the blackhole becoming hotter and hotter as it does so. (lthough these effects are negligible for

black holes massive enough to have been formed astronomically, they would rapidly

become significant for hypothetical smaller black holes, where Kuantum)mechanicaleffects dominate. =ndeed, small black holes are predicted to undergo runaway evaporation

and eventually vanish in a burst of radiation.

(lthough general relativity can be used to perform a semi)classical calculation of

black hole entropy, this situation is theoretically unsatisfying. =n statistical mechanics,entropy is understood as counting the number of microscopic configurations of a system

which have the same macroscopic Kualities<such as mass, charge, pressure, etc.>. ut

without a satisfactory theory of Kuantum gravity, one cannot perform such a computationfor black holes. ome promise has been shown by string theory, however. There one

posits that the microscopic degrees of freedom of the black hole are C)branes. y

counting the states of C)branes with given charges and energy, the entropy for certainsupersymmetric black holes has been reproduced. &xtending the region of validity of

these calculations is an ongoing area of research.

lack hole unitarity



(n open Kuestion in fundamental physics is the so)called information loss

paradox, or black hole unitarity paradox. "lassically, the laws of physics are the same run

forward or in reverse. That is, if the position and velocity of every particle in the universewere measured, we could <disregarding chaos> work backwards to discover the history of

the universe arbitrarily far in the past. =n Kuantum mechanics, this corresponds to a vital

property called unitarity which has to do with the conservation of probability.lack holes, however, might violate this rule. The position under classical general

relativity is subtle but straightforwardB because of the classical no hair theorem, we can

never determine what went into the black hole. 7owever, as seen from the outside,information is never actually destroyed, as matter falling into the black hole appears from

the outside to become more and more red)shifted as it approaches <but never ultimately

appears to reach> the event horion.

=deas of Kuantum gravity, on the other hand, suggest that there can only be alimited finite entropy <ie a maximum finite amount of information> associated with the

space near the horionG but the change in the entropy of the horion plus the entropy of

the 7awking radiation is always sufficient to take up all of the entropy of matter and

energy falling into the black hole.Many physicists are concerned however that this is still not sufficiently well

understood. =n particular, at a Kuantum level, is the Kuantum state of the 7awkingradiation uniKuely determined by the history of what has fallen into the black holeG and is

the history of what has fallen into the black hole uniKuely determined by the Kuantum

state of the black hole and the radiationV This is what determinism, and unitarity, wouldreKuire.

?or a long time tephen 7awking had opposed such ideas, holding to his original

#415 position that the 7awking radiation is entirely thermal and therefore entirely

random, representing new nondeterministically created information. 7owever, on 2# Auly200 he presented a new argument, reversing his previous position. ;n this new

calculation, the entropy associated with the black hole itself would still be inaccessible to

external observersG and in the absence of this information, it is impossible to relate in a#B# way the information in the 7awking radiation <embodied in its detailed internal

correlations> to the initial state of the system. 7owever, if the black hole evaporates

completely, then such an identification can be made, and unitarity is preserved. =t is notclear how far even the specialist scientific community is yet persuaded by the

mathematical machinery 7awking has used <indeed many regard all work on Kuantum

gravity so far as highly speculative>G but 7awking himself found it sufficiently

convincing to pay out on a bet he had made in #441 with "altech physicist Aohn !reskill,to considerable media interest.

Mathematical theorylack holes are predictions of (lbert &insteins theory of general relativity. There

are many known solutions to the &instein field eKuations which describe black holes, and

they are also thought to be an inevitable part of the evolution of any star of a certain sie.=n particular, they occur in the chwarschild metric, one of the earliest and simplest

solutions to &insteins eKuations, found by Harl chwarschild in #4#5. This solution

describes the curvature of spacetime in the vicinity of a static and spherically symmetric

ob6ect, where the metric is,



,

where is a standard element of solid angle.(ccording to general relativity, a gravitating ob6ect will collapse into a black hole

if its radius is smaller than a characteristic distance, known as the chwarschild radius.

<=ndeed, uchdahls theorem in general relativity shows that in the case of a perfect fluid

model of a compact ob6ect, the true lower limit is somewhat larger than the

chwarschild radius.> elow this radius, spacetime is so strongly curved that any lightray emitted in this region, regardless of the direction in which it is emitted, will travel

towards the centre of the system. ecause relativity forbids anything from traveling faster

than light, anything below the chwarschild radius $ including the constituent particlesof the gravitating ob6ect $ will collapse into the centre. ( gravitational singularity, a

region of theoretically infinite density, forms at this point. ecause not even light can

escape from within the chwarschild radius, a classical black hole would truly appear black.

The chwarschild radius is given by

where / is the gravitational constant, m is the mass of the ob6ect, and c is the speed of

light. ?or an ob6ect with the mass of the &arth, the chwarschild radius is a mere 4

millimeters ) about the sie of a marble.

The mean density inside the chwarschild radius decreases as the mass of the black hole increases, so while an earth)mass black hole would have a density of

2 #0'0 kg@m', a supermassive black hole of #04 solar masses has a density of around20 kg@m', less than waterP The mean density is given by

ince the &arth has a mean radius of '1# km, its volume would have to be

reduced #02 times to collapse into a black hole. ?or an ob6ect with the mass of the

un, the chwarschild radius is approximately ' km, much smaller than the unscurrent radius of about 4,000 km. =t is also significantly smaller than the radius to

which the un will ultimately shrink after exhausting its nuclear fuel, which is severalthousand kilometers. More massive stars can collapse into black holes at the end of their

lifetimes.

The formula also implies that any ob6ect with a given mean density is a black holeif its radius is large enough. The same formula applies for white holes as well. ?or

example, if the visible universe has a mean density eKual to the critical density, then it is



a white hole, since its singularity is in the past and not in the future as should be for a

black hole.

More general black holes are also predicted by other solutions to &insteinseKuations, such as the Herr metric for a rotating black hole, which possesses a ring

singularity. Then we have the :eissner)+ordstrm metric for charged black holes. %ast

the Herr)+ewman metric is for the case of a charged and rotating black hole.There is also the lack 7ole &ntropy formulaB

8here ( is the area of the event horion of the black hole, is Ciracs constant <theUreduced !lanck constantU>, k is the oltmann constant, / is the gravitational constant, c

is the speed of light and is the entropy.

( convenient length scale to measure black hole processes is the UgravitationalradiusU, which is eKual to

8hen expressed in terms of this length scale, many phenomena appear at integer radii.

?or example, the radius of a chwarschild black hole is two gravitational radii and the

radius of a maximally rotating Herr black hole is one gravitational radius. The location ofthe light circulariation radius around a chwarschild black hole <where light may orbit

the hole in an unstable circular orbit> is 'r/. The location of the marginally stable orbit,

thought to be close to the inner edge of an accretion disk, is at r/ for a chwarschild black hole.

(lternative models

everal alternative models, which behave like a black hole but avoid thesingularity, have been proposed. ut most researchers 6udge these concepts artificial, as

they are more complicated but do not give near term observable differences from black

holes <see ;ccams raor>. The most prominent alternative theory is the /ravastar.=n March 2005, physicist /eorge "hapline at the %awrence %ivermore +ational

%aboratory in "alifornia proposed that black holes do not exist, and that ob6ects currently

thought to be black holes are actually dark)energy stars. 7e draws this conclusion fromsome Kuantum mechanical analyses. (lthough his proposal currently has little support in

the physics community, it was widely reported by the media.

(mong the alternate models are Magnetospheric eternally collapsing ob6ects,

clusters of elementary particles <e.g., boson stars>, fermion balls, self)gravitating,degenerate heavy neutrinos and even clusters of very low mass <0.0 solar mass> black

holes.

?inally, plasma cosmologists suggest that ierkland currents provide analternative explanation for the observed phenomenon. !lasmas transfer energy over great

distances to smaller regions where it may be periodically or catastrophically released.

!eratt explains the flickering of electromagnetic radiationB UThe flickering of a light in%os (ngeles does not mean that the supply source, a waterfall or hydroelectric dam in the

!acific +orthwest, has abruptly changed dimensions or any other physical property. The

flickering comes from electrical changes at the observed load or radiative source, such as



the formation of instabilities or virtual anodes or cathodes in charged particle beams that

are orders of magnitude smaller than the supply. iarre and interesting non)physical

interpretations are obtained if the flickering light is interpreted by a distant observer to be both the source and supply.U !lasma cosmology in this manner is a minority view not

within mainstream science

lack holes and &arth

lack holes are sometimes listed among the most serious potential threats to &arth

and humanity. There are two principal ways in which they could affect &arth.There is evidence that some black holes are not stationary, rather, they UwanderU

through space. There is only a very slim possibility that a rogue black hole might pass

near, or even through our olar ystem. (t a typical speed of stars relative motion in the

Milky 8ay, it would take a few decades for a black hole to traverse the olar ystem,during which time it would wreak havoc on planets orbits, and possibly affect &arth and

un directly if it passes near them.

?ortunately, any black hole with mass that is large enough to cause problems for

&arth would be detected well in advance, possibly hundreds of years before its arrival, byits effect on outer planets orbits. mall black holes would be much less destructive and

would pass through the olar ystem relatively unnoticed unless they happen to hit oneof the planets.

There is a theoretical possibility that a micro black hole might be created inside a

particle accelerator. (gain, this is not a cause for concern. Many particle collisions thatnaturally occur as the cosmic rays hit the edge of our atmosphere are often far more

energetic than any collisions created by man. =f micro black holes can be created this

way, they are already created every day without our involvement.

&ven if, say, two protons at the %arge 7adron "ollider can merge to create amicro black hole, this black hole would be extremely unstable, and it would vaporie due

to 7awking :adiation before it had a chance to propagate. ?or a # Te black hole <the

center)of)mass energy at the %arge 7adron "ollider>, direct computation of its lifetime by7awking formula gives #0)#00 seconds.

Gravastar

=n astrophysics, the /ravastar theory is a proposal by !awel Maur and &mil

Mottola to replace the black hole. =nstead of a star collapsing into a pinpoint of space

with infinite density, the gravastar theory proposes that as an ob6ect gravitationally

collapses, space itself undergoes a phase transition preventing further collapse, beingtransformed into a spherical void surrounded by a form of super)dense matter.

The origin of the word UgravastarU is simplyB /:(vitational (cuum T(:. =n

some references, the word U"ondensateU is inserted after vacuum, resulting inUgravacstarU.

The asic =dea=nside a gravastar, spacetime would be UwarpedU by the extreme conditions there

and the inner space would exert an outward force, like dark energy. (round this void

would be a UbubbleU of incredibly dense and durable matter. The phase of this matter is

theoried to be similar to an extreme form of ose)&instein condensate in which all



matter <protons, neutrons, electrons, etc.> goes into what is called a Kuantum state

creating a Usuper)atomU.

&xternally, a gravastar appears similar to a black holeB it is visible only by thehigh)energy emissions it creates while consuming matter. (stronomers observe the sky

for R)rays emitted by infalling matter to detect black holes, and a gravastar would

produce an identical signature.Maur and Mottola have suggested that gravastars could explain very important

problems in astrophysics. ?irst, if a black hole cannot form in the real *niverse, then

there is no difficulty with the black hole information paradox, which is the problem thatinformation seems to disappear. =t seems that a gravastar should not suffer from the same

problem.

econd, Maur and Mottola suggest that the violent creation of a gravastar might

be an alternate explanation for gamma ray bursts, adding yet one more possibility to thedoens if not hundreds of ideas that have been proposed as the cause of /:s.

Mottola has even suggested that *niverse itself could very well be the inside of a giant

gravastar, as a possible explanation for the observed accelerating expansion of the

*niverse.

Carbon Star

( carbon star is a late type giant star similar to the red giants <or occasionally red

dwarf> star whose atmosphere contains more carbon than oxygenG the two elements

combine in the upper layers of the star, forming carbon monoxide, which consumes allthe oxygen in the atmosphere, leaving carbon atoms free to form other carbon

compounds, giving the star a UsootyU atmosphere, and a strikingly red appearance to

human observers. The spectral characteristics of these stars are Kuite distinctive, and they

were first recognied by their spectra by (ngelo ecchi in the #30Fs ) the pioneer timeof astronomical spectroscopy. =n UnormalU stars <such as the un>, the atmosphere is

richer in oxygen than carbon.

"urrent research use to subdivide the carbon stars and explain different classes bydifferent astrophysical mechanisms. Mc"lure distinguishes between classical carbon

stars, and other non)classical ones that are less massive.

=n the classical carbon stars, the abundance of carbon is thought to be a product ofhelium fusion, specifically the triple)alpha process within a star, which giants reach near

the end of their lives in the so called (symptotic /iant ranch <(/>. These fusion

products have been brought to the stellar surface by episodes of convection after the

carbon and other products were made. +ormally this kind of (/ carbon star fuseshydrogen in a hydrogen burning shell, but in episodes separated by #0)#05, the star

transform to burning helium in a shell, while the hydrogen fusion temporarily ceases. =n

this phase, the stars luminosity rises, and material from the inner of the star <notablycarbon> moves up. ince the luminosity rises, the star expands so that the helium fusion

ceases, and the hydrogen shell burning restarts. Curing these shell helium flashes, the

mass loss from the star is significant, and after many shell helium flashes, an (/ star istransformed into a hot white dwarf and its atmosphere becomes material for a planetary

nebula.

The non)classical kinds of carbon stars are believed to be binary stars, where one

star is observed to be a giant star <or occasionally a red dwarf> and the other a white



dwarf. The star presently observed to be a giant star accreted carbon)rich material when it

was still a main seKuence star from its companion <that is, the star that is now the white

dwarf> when the latter was still a classical carbon star. That phase of stellar evolution isrelatively brief, and most such stars ultimately end up as white dwarfs. 8e are now

seeing these systems a comparatively long time after the mass transfer event, so the extra

carbon observed in the present red giant was not produced within that star. This scenariois also accepted as the origin of the barium stars, which are also characteried as having

strong spectral features of carbon molecules and of barium <an s)process element>.

ometimes the stars whose excess carbon came from this mass transfer are calledUextrinsicU carbon stars to distinguish them from the UintrinsicU (/ stars which produce

the carbon internally. Many of these extrinsic carbon stars are not luminous or cool

enough to have made their own carbon, which was a pule until their binary nature was

discovered.;ther less convincing mechanisms, such as "+; cycle unbalancing and "ore

7elium ?lash have also been proposed as mechanisms for carbon enrichment in the

atmospheres of smaller carbon stars.

"arbon star spectra

y definition carbon stars have dominant spectral wan ands from the molecule"2. Many other carbon compounds use to be present at high levels, such as "7, "+

<cyanogen>, "' and i"2. "arbon is formed in the core and circulated into its upper

layers, dramatically changing the layers composition. ;ther elements formed throughhelium fusion and the s)process are also Udredged upU in this way, including lithium and

barium.

8hen astronomers developed the spectral classification of the carbon stars, they

got into considerable hardships when trying to correlating the spectra to the starseffective temperatures. The trouble was all the atmospheric carbon hiding the absorption

lines normally used as temperature indicators for the stars.

Secchi

"arbon stars were discovered already in the #30Bies when spectral classification

pioneer !ater (ngelo ecchi erected the ecchi class = for the carbon stars, who in thelate #340Bies were reclassified as + class stars.

"arvard

*sing this new 7arvard classification, the + class was later enhanced by a : classfor less deeply red stars sharing the characteristic carbon bands of the spectrum. %ater

correlation of this : to + scheme with conventional spectra, showed that the :)+

seKuence approximately run in parallel with cBa /1 to M#0 with regards to startemperature.

MH)type :0 :' :5 :3 +a +b

giant eKuiv. /1)/3 H#)H2 H2)H' H5)M0 M2)M' M')M

Teff '00 '400 '100 '50 ))) )))

!organ-1eenan C system



The later + classes correspond less well to the counterparting M types, because

the 7arvard classification was only partially based on temperature, but also carbon

abundandeG so it soon became clear that this kind of carbon star classification wasincomplete. =nstead a new dual number star class " was erected so to deal with

temperature and carbon abundande. uch a spectrum measured for L "n, was

determined to be "5, where 5 refers to temperature dependent features, and to thestrength of the "2 wan bands in the spectrum. <"5 is very often alternatively written

"5,>.

MH)type "0 "# "2 "' " "5 " "1

giant eKuiv. /)/ /1)/3 /4)H0 H#)H2 H')H H5)M0 M#)M2 M')M

Teff 500 '00 #00 '400 '50 '50 ))) )))

(he Revised !organ-1eenan system

This two)dimensional classification replaced the older :)+ classifications during

the #40)#44', but the Morgan)Heenan " system failed to fulfill the creators

expectationsB• it failed to correlate to temperature measurements based on infrared,

• originally being twodimensional it was soon enhanced by suffixes, "7, "+, 6 and

other features making it impractical for en)masse analyses of foreign galaxies

carbon star populations,

• and it gradually occurred that the old : and + stars actually were two distinct

types of carbon stars, having real astrophysical significance.( new revised Morgan)Heenan classification was published in #44' by !hilip Heenan,

defining the classesB ")+, "): and ")7. %ater the classes ")A and ")7d were added. This

constitutes the established classification system used todayB

class spectrum population M theory example<s>

classical carbon stars

"):B the old 7arvard class

: rebornB are still

visible at the blue endof the spectrum,

strong isotopic bands,

no enhanced a lineG

medium disc pop = 0 red

giantsV

"amelopardalis.

")

+B

the old 7arvard class

+ rebornB heavy

diffuse blue

absorption, sometimesinvisibile in blue, s)

process elements

enhanced over solarabundance, weak

isotopic bandsG

thin disc pop = )2.2 (/ : %eporis.

non)classical carbon stars



")AB very strong isotopic bands of "2 and "+G

V V V L "anum enaticorum.

")

7B

very strong "7

absorptionG

halo pop == )#.3 bright

giants,mass

transferG

(rietis,

TT "anum enaticorum

")

7dB

hydrogen lines and

"7 bands weak orabsentG

thin disc pop = )'.5 V 7C #'1#'.

;ther Kualities

Most classical carbon stars are variable starsB miras, irregular or semiregularvariables due to the chaoticity of their modes of fusion.

O$serving car$on stars

Cue to the insensitivity of night vision to red and a slow adaption of the red

sensitive eye rods to the light of the stars, amateur astronomers making magnitudeestimates of red variable stars, especially carbon stars, have to know how to deal with the

!urkin6e effect in order to not overstate the luminosity of the observed star.

6nterstellar car$on so8ers;wing to its low gravity, as much as half <or more> of the total mass of a carbon

star may be lost by way of powerful stellar winds. The stars remnants, carbon)rich UdustU

similar to graphite, therefore become part of the interstellar dust. This dust is believed to be a significant factor in providing the raw materials for the creation of subseKuent

generations of stars and their planetary systems. The material surrounding a carbon star

may blanket it to the extent that the dust absorbs all visible light.

(ova( nova <pl. novae> is a cataclysmic nuclear explosion caused by the accretion of

hydrogen onto the surface of a white dwarf star.=f a white dwarf has a close companion star that overflows its :oche lobe, the

white dwarf will steadily accrete gas from the stars outer atmosphere. The companion

may be a main seKuence star, or one that is aging and expanding into a red giant. Thecaptured gases consist primarily of hydrogen and helium, the two principal constituents

of ordinary matter in the universe. The gases are compacted on the white dwarfs surface

by its intense gravity, compressed and heated to very high temperatures as additionalmaterial is drawn in. The white dwarf consists of degenerate matter, and so is largely

unresponsive to heat, while the accreted hydrogen is not. The dependence of the

hydrogen fusion rate on temperature and pressure means that it is only when it iscompressed and heated at the surface of the white dwarf to a temperature of some 20

million H that a nuclear fusion reaction occursG at these temperatures, hydrogen burns via

the "+; cycle. ?or most binary system parameters, the hydrogen burning is thermally

unstable and rapidly converts a large amount of the hydrogen into other heavier elementsin a runaway reaction. <7ydrogen fusion can occur in a stable manner on the surface, but

only for a narrow range of accretion rates.> The enormous amount of energy liberated by

this process blows the remaining gases away from the white dwarfs surface and produces



an extremely bright outburst of light. The rise to peak brightness can be very rapid or

gradual which is related to the speed class of the nova G after the peak the brightness

declines steadily. The time taken for a nova to decay by 2 or ' magnitudes frommaximum optical brightness is used to classify a nova via its speed class. ( fast nova will

typically take less than 25 days to decay by 2 magnitudes and a slow nova will take over

30 days.=n spite of their violence, the amount of material e6ected in novae is usually only

about #@#0,000th of a solar mass, Kuite small relative to the mass of the white dwarf.

?urthermore, only five percent of the accreted mass is fused to power the outburst. +onetheless, this is enough energy to accelerate nova e6ecta to velocities as high as

several thousand kilometers per second))higher for fast novae than slow ones))with a

concurrent rise in luminosity from a few times solar to 50,000)#00,000 times solar.

( white dwarf can potentially generate multiple novae over time as additionalhydrogen continues to accrete onto its surface from its companion star. (n example is :

;phiuchi, which is known to have flared six times <in #343, #4'', #453, #41, #435, and

again in 200>. &ventually, however, either the white dwarf will run out of material, or

collapse into a neutron star, or explode as a type =a supernova.;ccasionally a nova is bright enough and close enough to be conspicuous to the

unaided eye. The most recent example was +ova "ygni #415. This nova appeared on(ugust 24, #415 in the constellation "ygnus about five degrees north of Ceneb and

reached magnitude 2.0 <nearly as bright as Ceneb>. (nother recent instance was +ova

"ygni #442, though it was considerably fainter.

;ccurrence rate, and astrophysical significance

(stronomers estimate that the Milky 8ay experiences roughly 20 to 0 novae per

year, with a likely rate of about 0. The number of novae discovered each year is muchlower, probably due to great distance and observational biases. y comparison, the

number of novae discovered each year in the nearby (ndromeda /alaxy is much lowerG

roughly Y to that of the Milky 8ay.pectroscopic observation of nova e6ecta nebulae has shown that they are

enriched in elements such as helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, and magnesium.

Though it would seem that the contributions of novae to the /alaxy might be large overastronomical time scales, this is not the caseG in fact, novae supply only #@50th the

amount of material to the interstellar medium as supernovae do, and only #@200th that of

red giant and supergiant stars.

:ecurrent novae like : ;phiuchi <those with periods on the order of decades>are rare. (stronomers theorie however that most, if not all novae are recurrent, albeit on

time scales ranging from #,000 to #00,000 years. The recurrence interval for a nova is

less dependent on the white dwarfs accretion rate than on its massG with their powerfulgravity, massive white dwarfs reKuire less accretion to fuel an outburst than lower)mass

ones. "onseKuently, the interval is shorter for high)mass white dwarfs.

right novae since #340

Lear +ova Maximum brightness

#34# T (urigae '.3 mag



#343 #054 agittarii .5 mag

#344 0 (Kuilae 5.5 mag

#40# /H !ersei 0.2 mag

#40' +ova /eminorum #40' mag

#405 +ova (Kuilae #405 1.' mag

#4#0 +ova %acertae #4#0 . mag

#4#2 +ova /eminorum #4#2 '.5 mag

#4#3 0' (Kuilae \#.3 mag

#4#4 +ova %yrae #4#4 1. mag

#4#4 +ova ;phiuchi #4#4 1. mag

#420 +ova "ygni #420 2.0 mag

#425 :: !ictoris #.2 mag

#4' CO 7erculis #. mag

#4' "! %acertae 2.# mag

#4'4 T Monocerotis .5 mag

#42 "! !uppis 0.' mag

#4' +ova (Kuilae #4' .# mag

#450 CH %acertae 5.0 mag

#40 7erculis 2.3 mag

#4' 5'' 7erculis ' mag

#410 ?7 erpentis mag

#415 #500 "ygni 2.0 mag

#415 '1' cuti mag

#41 +O ulpeculae mag

#413 #3 "ygni mag

#43 O* ulpeculae 5.2 mag

#43 32 "entauri . mag

#44# 3'3 7erculis 5.0 mag

#442 #41 "ygni .2 mag

#444 #4 (Kuilae 5.0' mag

#444 '32 elorum 2. mag

200 : ;phiuchi .5 mag

Supernova



( supernova <pluralB supernovae> is a stellar explosion which produces an

extremely luminous ob6ect made of plasma. ( supernova may briefly out)shine its entire

host galaxy before fading from view over several weeks or months. =t would take#0 billion years for the un to produce the energy output of an ordinary, Type ==

supernova. The explosion expels much or all of a stars material with great force, driving

a shock wave into the surrounding space, forming a supernova remnant.There are several different types of supernovae and at least two possible routes to

their formation. ( massive star may cease to generate energy from the nuclear fusion of

atoms in its core, and collapse under the force of its own gravity to form a neutron star or black hole. (lternatively, a white dwarf star may accumulate material from a companion

star <either through accretion or a collision> until it nears its "handrasekhar limit and

undergoes runaway nuclear fusion in its interior, completely disrupting it. This second

type of supernova is distinct from a surface thermonuclear explosion on a white dwarf,which is called a nova. olitary stars with a mass below the "handrasekhar limit, such as

the un, will evolve into white dwarfs without ever becoming supernovae.

U+ovaU is %atin for UnewU, referring to what appears to be a very bright new star

shining in the celestial sphereG the prefix UsuperU distinguishes this from an ordinarynova, which also involves a star increasing in brightness, though to a lesser extent and

through a different mechanism.

7istory

The earliest recorded supernova, + #35, was viewed by "hinese astronomers in(C #35. ( widely)observed supernova, + #05, produced the "rab +ebula. upernovae

+ #512 and + #0, the last to be observed in the Milky 8ay galaxy, had notable

impacts on the development of astronomy in &urope.

ince the development of the telescope, the field of supernova discovery hasexpanded to other galaxies, starting with the #335 observation of supernova

(ndromedae in the (ndromeda galaxy. These events provide important information on

cosmological distances. Curing the twentieth century, successful supernova models foreach type of supernovae were developed, and the role of supernova in the star formation

process is now increasingly understood.

Most recently it has been discovered that the most distant Type =a supernovaeappeared dimmer than expected. This has provided evidence that the expansion of the

universe may be accelerating.

CiscoveryThe explosion of supernovae in other galaxies cannot be predicted with any

meaningful accuracy. 8hen they are discovered, they are already in progress. Most uses

for supernovae ) as standard candles for measuring distance, for instancereKuire anobservation of their peak luminosity. =t is therefore important to discover them well

before they reach their maximum. (mateur astronomers, who greatly outnumber

professional astronomers, have played an important role in finding supernovae, typically by looking at some of the closer galaxies through an optical telescope and comparing

them to earlier photographs.

Towards the end of the 20th century, astronomers increasingly turned to

computer)controlled telescopes and ""Cs for hunting supernovae. 8hile such systems



are popular with amateurs, there are also larger installations like the Hatman (utomatic

=maging Telescope. :ecently, the upernova &arly 8arning ystem <+&8> pro6ect

has also begun using a network of neutrino detectors to give early warning of a supernovain the Milky 8ay galaxy.

upernova searches fall into two regimesB high redshift and low redshift, with the

boundary falling somewhere around a redshift of ^ 0.2. 7igh redshift searches forsupernovae usually involve the observation of Type =a supernova light curves. These are

useful for standard or calibrated candles to generate 7ubble diagrams and make

cosmological predictions. (t low redshift, supernova spectroscopy is more practical thanat high redshift, and this information can be used to study the physics and environments

of supernovae. %ow redshift observations also anchor the low redshift end of the 7ubble

curve.

+aming "onvention

upernova discoveries are reported to the =nternational (stronomical *nions

"entral ureau for (stronomical Telegrams which sends out a circular with the name it

assigns to it. The name is formed by the year of discovery, immediately followed by aone or two)letter designation. The first 2 supernovae of the year get an upper case letter

from ( to 9. (fterward, pairs of lower)case letters are used, starting with aa, ab, and soon. !rofessional and amateur astronomers find several hundred supernovae per year

'# in 2005 and 524 in 200. ?or example, the last supernova of 2005 was + 2005nc,

indicating that it was the '#st supernova found in 2005.?our historical supernovae are known simply by the year they occurredB + #00,

#05, #512 <Tychos +ova>, and #0 <Heplers tar>. eginning in #335, the letter

notation is used, even if there was only one supernova that year <e.g. + #335(, #401(,

etc.> ) this last happened with + #41(. The standard abbreviation U+U is an optional prefix.

+ #44C in the +/" 52 galaxy <bright

spot on the lower left>. =mage by +((, &(, The 7ubble Hey !ro6ect Team, and The7igh)9 upernova earch Team

"lassification





=f the accretion continues long enough, the white dwarf may eventually approach the

"handrasekhar limit <#. solar masses>, the maximum mass that can be supported by

electron degeneracy pressure, beyond which the white dwarf would collapse to form aneutron star <if nothing intervened to stop the process>.

The current view is that this limit is never actually attained, so that collapse is

never initiated. =nstead, the increase in pressure raises the temperature near the center,and a period of convection lasting approximately #,000 years begins. (t some point in

this simmering phase, a deflagration flame front powered by carbon fusion is born,

although the details of the ignitionthe location and number of points where the flame beginsis still unknown. ;xygen fusion is initiated shortly thereafter, but this fuel is not

consumed as completely as carbon.

;nce fusion has begun, the temperature of the white dwarf starts to rise. +ormally

a typical main seKuence star would expand and cool in order to counter)balance anincrease in thermal energy. 7owever, degeneracy pressure is independent of temperature,

so the white dwarf is unable to regulate the burning process in the manner of normal

stars. The flame accelerates dramatically, through the :ayleigh)Taylor instability and

interactions with turbulence. =t is still a matter of considerable debate as to whether thisflame transitions from a subsonic deflagration into a supersonic detonation.

:egardless of the exact details of nuclear burning, it is generally accepted that asubstantial fraction of the carbon and oxygen in the white dwarf is burned into heavier

elements within a period of only a few seconds, raising the internal temperature to

billions of degrees.This energy release from thermonuclear burning <#0 6oules> is more than

enough to unbind the starG that is, the individual particles making up the white dwarf gain

enough kinetic energy that they are all able to fly apart from each other. The star

explodes violently and releases a shock wave in which matter is typically e6ected atspeeds on the order of 5)20,000 km@s, or roughly 'I of the speed of light. The energy

released in the explosion also causes an extreme increase in luminosity. The typical

visual absolute magnitude of Type =a supernovae is Mv ^ )#4.' < 5 billion times brighterthan ol>, with little variation. 8hether or not the supernova remnant remains bound to

its companion depends on the amount of mass e6ected. (s a general rule, the system will

remain bound if the remnant is heavier than one half of the original total system mass. =fnot, the companion will evolve into a runaway star.



Multiwavelength R)ray image of + #512 or Tychos

+ova <+((@"R"@:[email protected] - A.7ughes et al.>

The theory of this type of supernovae is similar to that of novae, in which a whitedwarf accretes matter more slowly and does not approach the "handrasekhar limit. =n the

case of a nova, the infalling matter causes a hydrogen fusion surface explosion that does

not disrupt the star.

?ormation

*nlike the other types of supernovae, Type =a supernovae generally occur in alltypes of galaxies, including ellipticals. They show no preference for regions of current

stellar formation. (s white dwarf stars form at the end of a stars main seKuence

evolutionary period, such a long)lived star system may have wandered far from theregion where it originally formed. Thereafter a close binary system may spend another

million years in the mass transfer stage <possibly forming persistent nova outbursts> before the conditions are ripe for a Type =a supernova to occur.

( second possible, but much less likely, mechanism for triggering a Type =a

supernova is the merger of two white dwarfs. =n such a case, the total mass would not be

constrained by the "handrasekhar limit. This is one of several explanations proposed for

the anomalously massive <2 solar mass> progenitor of the U"hampagne upernovaU <+200'fg or +%)0'C'bb>.

"ollisions of solitary stars within our galaxy are thought to occur only once every

#01$#0#' yearsG far less freKuently than the appearance of novae. 7owever, collisionsoccur with greater freKuency in the dense core regions of globular clusters. <".f. blue

stragglers.> ( likely scenario is a collision with a binary star system, or between two

binary systems containing white dwarfs. This collision can leave behind a close binarysystem of two white dwarfs. Their orbit decays and they merge together through their

shared envelope.

%ight curve



This plot of luminosity <relative to the un> versus time shows the characteristiclight curve for a Type =a supernova. The peak is primarily due to the decay of +ickel

<+i>, while the later stage is powered by "obalt <"o>.

Type =a supernovae have a characteristic light curve, their graph of luminosity asa function of time after the explosion. +ear the time of maximum luminosity, the

spectrum contains lines of intermediate)mass elements from oxygen to calciumG these are

the main constituents of the outer layers of the star. Months after the explosion, when theouter layers have expanded to the point of transparency, the spectrum is dominated by

light emitted by material near the core of the star, heavy elements synthesied during the

explosion, most prominently iron)group elements. The radioactive decay of +ickel)5through "obalt)5 to =ron)5 produces high)energy photons which dominate the energy

output of the e6ecta at intermediate to late times.

The similarity in the absolute luminosity profiles of nearly all known Type =a

supernovae has led to their use as a secondary standard candle in extragalactic astronomy.The cause of this uniformity in the luminosity curve is still an open Kuestion. =n #443,

observations of Type =a supernovae indicated the unexpected result that the universe

seems to undergo an accelerating expansion.

(ype 6$ and 6c

These events, like supernovae of Type ==, are probably massive stars running outof fuel at their centersG however, the progenitors of Types =b and =c have lost most of

their outer envelopes due to strong stellar winds or else from interaction with a

companion. Type =b supernovae are thought to be the result of the collapse of a massive

8olf):ayet star. There is some evidence that a few percent of the Type =c supernovaemay be the progenitors of gamma ray bursts </:>, though it is also believed that any

7ydrogen)stripped core)collapse supernova <Type =b, =c> could be a /:, dependent

upon the geometry of the explosion.'N

(ype 66

tars far more massive than the sun evolve in much more complex fashions. =nthe core of the sun, hydrogen is fused into helium, releasing energy which heats the suns

core, and providing pressure which supports the suns layers against collapse <see

hydrostatic eKuilibrium>. The helium produced in the core accumulates there since

temperatures in the core are not yet high enough to cause it to fuse. &ventually, as thehydrogen at the core is exhausted, fusion begins to slow down and gravity begins to cause



the core to contract. This contraction raises the temperature high enough to initiate a

shorter phase of helium fusion, which accounts for less than #0I of the stars total

lifetime. =n stars with less than eight solar masses, the carbon produced by helium fusiondoes not fuse, and the star gradually cools to become a white dwarf. 8hite dwarf stars, if

they have a near companion, may then become Type =a supernovae.

( much larger star, however, is massive enough to create temperatures and pressures needed to cause the carbon in the core to begin to fuse once the star contracts at

the end of the helium)burning stage. The cores of these massive stars become layered like

onions as progressively heavier atomic nuclei build up at the center, with an outermostlayer of hydrogen gas, surrounding a layer of hydrogen fusing into helium, surrounding a

layer of helium fusing into carbon <via the triple)alpha process>, surrounding layers that

fuse to progressively heavier elements. (s a star this massive evolves, it undergoes

repeated stages where fusion in the core stops, and the core collapses until the pressureand temperature is sufficient to begin the next stage of fusion, reigniting to halt collapse.

"ore collapse

The factor limiting this process is the amount of energy that is released throughfusion, which is dependent on the binding energy of these atomic nuclei. &ach additional

step produces progressively heavier nuclei, which release progressively less energy whenfusing, until iron is produced. (s iron and nickel have the highest binding energy per

nucleon of all the elements, iron cannot produce energy when fused, and an iron core

grows. This iron core is under huge gravitational pressure. (s there is no fusion to furtherraise the stars temperature to support it against collapse, it is supported only by

degeneracy pressure of electrons. 8hen the cores sie exceeds the "handrasekhar limit,

degeneracy pressure can no longer support it, and catastrophic collapse ensues.

The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 10,000 km@s <0.2'c> as itcollapses toward the center of the star. The rapidly shrinking core heats up, producing

high energy gamma rays which decompose iron nuclei into helium nuclei and free

neutrons <via photodissociation>. (s the cores density increases, it becomes energeticallyfavorable for electrons and protons to merge via inverse beta decay, producing neutrons

and neutrinos. The neutrinos escape from the core, carrying away energy and further

accelerating the collapse, which proceeds in milliseconds as the core detaches from theouter layers of the star. ome of these neutrinos are absorbed by the stars outer layers,

beginning the supernova explosion.

?or Type == supernovae, the collapse is eventually halted by short)range repulsive

neutron)neutron interactions mediated by the strong force, as well as by degeneracy pressure of neutrons, at a density comparable to that of an atomic nucleus. ;nce collapse

stops, the infalling matter rebounds, producing a shock wave that propagates outward.

The energy from this shock dissociates heavy elements within the core. This reduces theenergy of the shock, which can stall the explosion within the outer core.

The core collapse phase is known to be so dense and energetic that only neutrinos

are able to escape. Most of the gravitational potential energy of the collapse getsconverted to a ten second neutrino burst, releasing about #0 6oules <#00 foes>. ;f this

energy, about #0 Aoule <# foe> is reabsorbed by the star producing an explosion. This

energy revives the stalled shock, which blows off the rest of the stars material. The



neutrinos produced by a supernova have been actually observed in the case of upernova

#431( leading astronomers to conclude that the core collapse picture is basically correct.

8ithin a massive, evolved star <a> the onion)layered shells of elements undergo

fusion, forming an iron core <b> that reaches "handrasekhar)mass and starts to collapse.The inner part of the core is compressed into neutrons <c>, causing infalling material to

bounce <d> and form an outward)propagating shock front <red>. The shock starts to stall

<e>, but it is re)invigorated by neutrino interaction. The surrounding material is blasted

away <f>, leaving only a degenerate remnant.8hen the progenitor star is below about 20 solar masses <depending on the

strength of the explosion and the amount of material that falls back>, the degenerate

remnant of a core collapse is a neutron star. (bove this mass the remnant collapses toform a black hole. The theoretical limiting mass for this type of core collapse scenario is

about 0$50 solar masses. (bove that mass, a star is believed to collapse directly into a

black hole without forming a supernova explosion.

Type == and theoretical models

The energy per particle in a supernova is typically one to one hundred and fifty

pico6oules <tens to hundreds of Me>. The per)particle energy involved in a supernova is

small enough that the predictions gained from the tandard Model of particle physics arelikely to be basically correct, but the high densities may include corrections to the

tandard Model. =n particular, &arth)based particle accelerators can produce particleinteractions which are of much higher energy than are found in supernovae, but these

experiments involve individual particles interacting with individual particles, and it is

likely that the high densities within the supernova will produce novel effects. Theinteractions between neutrinos and the other particles in the supernova take place with the

weak nuclear force which is believed to be well understood. 7owever, the interactions



between the protons and neutrons involve the strong nuclear force which is much less

well understood.

The ma6or unsolved problem with Type == supernovae is that it is not understoodhow the burst of neutrinos transfers its energy to the rest of the star producing the shock

wave which causes the star to explode. ?rom the above discussion, only one percent of

the energy needs to be transferred to produce an explosion, but getting that one percent oftransfer has proven very difficult. =n the #440s, one model for doing this involved

convective overturn, which suggests that convection, either from neutrinos from below,

or infalling matter from above, completes the process of destroying the progenitor star.7eavier elements than iron are formed during this explosion by neutron capture, and from

the pressure of the neutrinos pressing into the boundary of the UneutrinosphereU, seeding

the surrounding space with a cloud of gas and dust which is richer in heavy elements than

the material from which the star originally formed. +eutrino physics, which is modeled by the tandard Model, is crucial to the

understanding of this process. The other crucial area of investigation is the

hydrodynamics of the plasma that makes up the dying starG how it behaves during the

core collapse determines when and how the Ushock waveU forms and when and how itUstallsU and is reenergied. "omputer models have been very successful at calculating the

behavior of Type == supernovae once the shock has been formed. y ignoring the firstsecond of the explosion, and assuming that an explosion is started, astrophysicists have

been able to make detailed predictions about the elements produced by the supernova and

of the expected light curve from the supernova. 7owever some aspects of the supernovalight curves remain unexplained.

%ight curves and unusual spectra

This graph of the luminosity <relative to the un> as a function of time shows the

characterisic shapes of the light curves for a Type ==)% and ==)! supernova.

The light curves for Type == supernovae is distinguished by the presence ofhydrogen almer absorption lines in the spectra. These light curves have an average

decay rate of 0.003 magnitudes per dayG much lower than the decay rate for Type =

supernovae. Type == are sub)divided into two classes, depending on whether there is a plateau in their light curve <Type ==)!> or a linear decay rate <Type ==)%>. The net decay

rate is lower at 0.0#2 magnitudes per day for Type ==)% compared to 0.0015 magnitudes

per day for Type ==)!. The difference in the shape of the light curves is believed to be



caused, in the case of Type ==)% supernovae, by the expulsion of most of the hydrogen

envelope of the progenitor star.

The plateau phase in Type ==)! supernovae is due to a change in the opacity of theexterior layer. The shock wave ionies the hydrogen in the outer envelope, which greatly

increases the opacity. This prevents photons from the inner parts of the explosion from

escaping. ;nce the hydrogen cools sufficiently to recombine, the outer layer becomestransparent.

;f the Type == supernovae with unusual features in their spectra, Type ==n

supernovae may be produced by the interaction of the e6ecta with circumstellar material.55N Type ==b supernovae are likely massive stars which have lost most, but not all, of

their hydrogen envelopes through tidal stripping by a companion star. (s the e6ecta of a

Type ==b expands, the hydrogen layer Kuickly becomes optically thin and reveals the

deeper layers.

7ypernovae <"ollapsars>

The core collapse of sufficiently massive stars may not be halted. Cegeneracy

pressure and repulsive neutron)neutron interactions can only support a neutron star whosemass does not exceed the Tolman);ppenheimer)olkoff limit of very roughly solar

masses. (bove this limit, the core collapses to directly form a black hole, perhaps producing a <still theoretical> hypernova explosion. =n the proposed hypernova

mechanism <known as a collapsar> two extremely energetic 6ets of plasma are emitted

from the stars rotational poles at nearly light speed. These 6ets emit intense gamma rays,and are one of many candidate explanations for gamma ray bursts.

ee more information below.

(symmetry( long)standing pule surrounding supernovae has been a need to explain why

the degenerate remnant of the explosion is given a substantial velocity component away

from the core. This kick can be fairly substantial, propelling an ob6ect that is moremassive than the un at a velocity of 500 km@s or greater. This displacement is believed

to be caused by an asymmetry in the explosion, but the mechanism by which this

momentum is transferred to the neutron star remnant has remained a pule. The leadingexplanation for this kick is some combination of a hydrodynamic or magnetic effect, and

an interaction with a massive burst of neutrinos generated during the explosion.



This composite image shows R)ray <blue>

and optical <red> radiation from the "rab +ebulas core region. ( pulsar near the center is

propelling particles to almost the speed of light. This neutron star is traveling at anestimated '15 km@s. +((@"R"@7T@(*@A. 7ester et al. image credit.

The asymmetry in the explosion is thought to be caused by large)scale convection

above the core. The convection can create variations in the densities of elements,resulting in uneven burning during the collapse, bounce and resulting explosion. The

asymmetry of the explosion can create highly directional 6ets, propelling matter at a high

velocity out of the star. These 6ets may play a crucial role in the resulting supernovaexplosion.

=nitial asymmetries has also been confirmed in Type =a supernova explosion

through observation. This result may mean that the initial luminosity of this type of

supernova may depend on the viewing angle. 7owever the explosion becomes more

symmetrical with the passage of time. &arly asymmetries may be detectable bymeasuring slight differences in the polariation of the emitted light.

(ype 6 versus (ype 66

( fundamental difference between Type = and Type == supernovae is the source of

energy for the radiation emitted near the peak of the light curve. The progenitors ofType == supernovae are stars with extended envelopes that can attain a degree of

transparency with a relatively small amount of expansion. Most of the energy powering

emission at peak light is derived from the shock wave that heats and e6ects the envelope.

The progenitors of Type = supernovae, on the other hand, are compact ob6ectsmuch smaller <but more massive> than the un that must expand <and therefore cool>

enormously before becoming transparent. 7eat from the explosion is dissipated in theexpansion and is not available for light production. The radiation emitted by Type =supernovae is thus entirely attributable to the decay of radionuclides produced in the

explosion, principally nickel)5 <with a half)life of .# days> and its daughter cobalt)5

<with a half)life of 11 days>. /amma rays emitted during the decays are absorbed by thee6ected material, heating it to incandescence.

(s the material e6ected by a Type == supernova expands and cools, radioactive

decay eventually takes over as the main energy source for light emission in this case also.



( bright Type =a supernova may expel 0.5)#.0 solar masses of nickel)5, while a Type =b,

=c or Type == supernova probably e6ects closer to 0.# solar mass of +ickel)5.

=nterstellar impact

Source o heavy elements

upernovae are a key source of elements heavier than oxygen. These elements are produced by fusion <for iron fifty)six, 5?e, and lighter elements>, and by

nucleosynthesis during the supernova explosion for elements heavier than iron. The

synthesis of heavy nuclei within a supernova occurs a result of the r)process, which is arapid form of nucleosynthesis that occurs under conditions of high temperature and high

density of neutrons. The reactions produce highly unstable nuclei that are rich in

neutrons. These forms are unstable and rapidly beta decay into more stable forms.

The r)process reaction in supernovae produces about half of all the elementabundance beyond iron, including plutonium, uranium and californium. The only

competing process for producing elements heavier than iron is the s)process in large, old

red giant stars, which produces these elements much more slowly, and which cannot

produce elements heavier than lead.

Role in stellar evolutionThe remnant of the supernova explosion consists of a compact ob6ect and a

rapidly expanding shock wave of material. This cloud of material sweeps up the

surrounding interstellar medium during a free expansion phase, which can last for up totwo centuries. The wave then gradually undergoes a period of adiabatic expansion, and

will slowly cool and mix with the surrounding interstellar medium over a period of about

#0,000 years.

=n standard astronomy, the ig ang produced hydrogen, helium, and traces oflithium, while all heavier elements are synthesied in stars and supernovae. upernovae

tend to enrich the surrounding interstellar medium with metals, which for astronomers

means all of the elements other than hydrogen and helium and is a different definitionthan that used in chemistry.

upernova remnant + '( lies within a

clumpy region of gas and dust in the %arge Magellanic "loud. +(( image.

These in6ected elements ultimately enriching the molecular clouds that are thesites of star formation. Thus, each stellar generation has a slightly different composition,

going from an almost pure mixture of hydrogen and helium to a more metal)rich

composition. upernovae are the dominant mechanism for distributing these heavier



elements, which are formed in a star during its period of nuclear fusion, throughout

space. The different abundances of elements in the material that forms a star have

important influences on the stars life, and may decisively influence the possibility ofhaving planets orbiting it.

The kinetic energy of an expanding +: can trigger star formation due to

compression of nearby, dense molecular clouds in space. 7owever the increase inturbulent pressure can also prevent star formation if the cloud is unable to lose the excess

energy.

&vidence from daughter products of short)lived radioactive isotopes shows that anearby supernova helped determine the composition of the olar ystem .5 billion years

ago, and may even have trigger the formation of this system. upernova production of

heavy elements over astronomic periods of time ultimately made the chemistry of life on

&arth possible.

=mpact on &arth

( near)&arth supernova is an explosion resulting from the death of a star that

occurs close enough to the &arth <roughly fewer than #00 light)years away> to havenoticeable effects on its biosphere. /amma rays are responsible for most of the adverse

effects a supernova can have on a living terrestrial planet. =n &arths case, gamma raysinduce a chemical reaction in the upper atmosphere, converting molecular nitrogen into

nitrogen oxides, depleting the oone layer enough to expose the surface to harmful solar

and cosmic radiation. The gamma ray burst from a nearby supernova explosion has been proposed as the cause of the end ;rdovician extinction, which resulted in the death of

nearly 0I of the oceanic life on &arth.

peculation as to the effects of a nearby supernova on &arth often focuses on

large stars, such as etelgeuse, a red supergiant 21 light)years from &arth which is aType == supernova candidate. everal prominent stars within a few light centuries from

the un are candidates for becoming supernovae in as little as a millennium. Though

spectacular, these UpredictableU supernovae are thought to have little potential to affect&arth. Type =a supernovae, though, are thought to be potentially the most dangerous if

they occur close enough to the &arth. ecause Type =a supernovae arise from dim,

common white dwarf stars, it is likely that a supernova that could affect the &arth willoccur unpredictably and take place in a star system that is not well studied. ;ne theory

suggests that a Type =a supernova would have to be closer than a thousand parsecs

<''00 light years> to affect the &arth.

:ecent estimates predict that a Type == supernova would have to be closer thaneight parsecs <twenty)six light years> to destroy half of the &arths oone layer. uch

estimates are mostly concerned with atmospheric modeling and considered only the

known radiation flux from + #431(, a Type == supernova in the %arge Magellanic"loud. &stimates of the rate of supernova occurrence within #0 parsecs of the &arth vary

from once every #00 million years to once every one to ten billion years.

=n #44, astronomers at the *niversity of =llinois at *rbana)"hampaign theoried thattraces of past supernovae might be detectable on &arth in the form of metal isotope

signatures in rock strata. ubseKuently, iron)0 enrichment has been reported in deep)sea

rock of the !acific ;cean by researchers from the Technical *niversity of Munich.



@pernova

( hypernova is many times more violent than a supernova. 7ypernova <pl.

hypernovae> refers to an exceptionally large star that collapses at the end of its lifespan for example, a collapsar, or a large supernova. *p until the #440s, it had a more

specific meaning to refer to an explosion with released energy of over #00 supernovae

<#0

6oules>. uch explosions were proposed to explain the exceptional brightnesses ofgamma ray bursts.

&ta "arinae, in the constellation of the

"areens, the one of the nearer candidates for a hypernova

"ollapsing star

The core of the hypernova collapses directly into a black hole and two extremely

energetic 6ets of plasma are emitted from its rotational poles at nearly the speed of light.These 6ets emit intense gamma rays, and are a candidate explanation for gamma ray

bursts. =n recent years a great deal of observational data on gamma ray bursts

significantly increased our understanding of these events, and made clear that thecollapsar model produces explosions that differ only in detail from more or less ordinarysupernovae. +evertheless, they continue to sometimes be referred to in the literature as

hypernovae.

ince stars sufficiently large to collapse directly into a black hole are Kuite rare,hypernovae would likewise be rare, if they indeed occur. =t has been estimated that a

hypernova would occur in our galaxy every 200 million years.

"ollapsar is the name of a hypothetical model where a fast)rotating 8olf):ayetstar with a massive <greater than '0 solar masses> core collapses to form a large, rotating

black hole, drawing in the surrounding envelope of stellar matter at relativistic speeds

with a %orent factor of around #50. These speeds would make collapsars the fastest

known celestial ob6ects. They may be considered to be UfailedU Type =b supernovae.=t is believed that collapsars are the cause of long <` 2 seconds> gamma)ray bursts, since

powerful energy 6ets would be created along the rotation axis of the black hole, creating a

burst of high)energy radiation to an observer whose line of sight is along the 6et.( possible example of a collapsar is the supernova n#443bw, which was associated with

the gamma)ray burst /:43025. This was classified as a type =c supernova due to its

unusual spectral properties in the radio spectrum, indicating the presence of relativistic



matter. 7owever, it should be noted that n#443bw was an unusual supernova, and that

/:43025 was an unusual gamma)ray burst.

PlanetsMany stars have planets orbiting around them. !lanets can typically be broken

down into groups by similar properties.

Classification

=n the year 200, the =(* <=nternational (stronomical *nion> set forth rules todefine what constitutes a planet. ( planet must meet the following rulesB

#> must be in orbit around a star

2> must have sufficient mass for its self)gravity to overcome rigid body forces toachieve hydrostatic eKuilibrium <the body is nearly spherical>

'> has Dcleared the neighborhoodE of its orbit <removed the ma6ority of other

ob6ects>

> must not be orbiting another planet

=f all four points are met, the ob6ect is a planet. =f point ' is not met, the ob6ect is a dwarf planet. Those that do not meet point 2 <and likely the others> are Dsmall solar system

bodiesE. This ruling reclassified !luto from a planet to a dwarf planet.=t was argued that these rules are inaccurate, since earth, Mars, Aupiter and

+eptune all have not completely cleared their orbits. &arth has some #0,000 near)earth

asteroids while Aupiter has over #00,000 tro6an asteroids in its orbital path. =f +eptunehad cleared its orbital path completely, !luto would have been e6ected from the system

entirely. ?urther arguments exist in regards to !lutoFs moon "haronG in that the moon is

massive enough that it could Kualify as a dwarf planet of its own, making !luto and

"haron a binary planet, and together they have a small moon or two orbiting the pair.

Terrestrial!lanets <and possibly dwarf planets> that are similar to &arth ) with bodies largelycomposed of rockB Mercury, enus, &arth and Mars. =f including dwarf planets, "eres

would also be counted, with as many as three other asteroids that might be added as of

Aanuary 2003.Terrestrial planets all have roughly the same structureB a central metallic core,

mostly iron, with a surrounding silicate mantle. The moon is similar, but lacks an iron

core. Terrestrial planets have canyons, craters, mountains, and volcanoes. Terrestrial planets possess secondary atmospheres ) atmospheres generated through internal

vulcanism or comet impacts, as opposed to the gas giants, which possess primary

atmospheres ) atmospheres captured directly from the original solar nebula.

Theoretically, there are two types of terrestrial or rocky planets, one dominated bysilicon compounds and another dominated by carbon compounds, like carbonaceous

chondrite asteroids. These are the silicate planets and carbon planets <or Udiamond

planetsU> respectively.

"arbon

( carbon planet has no oxygen in the atmosphere and has large amounts of carbon based compounds. Thus such a planet has oceans of gasoline, and might rain propane one



day and rain butane the next. There is no fear of explosions or ignition, as there is no

oxygen. ?urthermore, such a planet would be rich in coal and diamonds.

/as /iant

!lanets with a composition largely made up of gaseous material and are

significantly more massive than terrestrialsB Aupiter and aturn.( gas giant may have a rocky or metallic core ) in fact, such a core is thought to

be reKuired for a gas giant to form ) but the ma6ority of its mass is hydrogen and helium,

with traces of water, methane, ammonia, and other hydrogen compounds. <(lthoughfamiliar to us as gases on &arth, these constituents are assumed to be compressed into

liKuids or solids deep in a gas giants atmosphere.> ;ther theories state that there is no

solid core, but rather, the gas itself is under such heat and pressure as to form a semi)solid

state called metallic gas. Thus the UcoreU of Aupiter is likely to be metallic hydrogen.The four solar system gas giants share a number of features. (ll have atmospheres

that are mostly hydrogen and helium and that gradually blend into the liKuid interior at

pressures greater than the critical pressure, so that there is no clear boundary between

atmosphere and body. =n this regard, our four gas giants exemplify the classic Umatter phase)gradientU in the materials sciences. They have very hot interiors, ranging from

about 1,000 kelvin <H> for *ranus and +eptune to over 20,000 H for Aupiter. This greatheat means that beneath their atmospheres the planets are most likely entirely liKuid

metallic hydrogen. Thus, when discussions refer to a Urocky core,U one should not picture

a ball of solid rock, or even <at 20,000 H> liKuid rock. :ather, what is meant is a region inwhich the concentration of heavier elements such as iron and nickel is greater than that in

the rest of the planet.

(ll four planets rotate relatively rapidly, which causes wind patterns to break up

into east)west bands or stripes. These bands are prominent on Aupiter, muted on aturnand +eptune, and barely detectable on *ranus.

(ll four planets are accompanied by elaborate systems of rings and moons.

aturns rings are the most spectacular and were the only ones known before the #410s.(s of 200, Aupiter is known to have the most moons with sixty)three.

=ce /iant=ce giants are a sub)class of gas giants, distinguished from gas giants by their

depletion in hydrogen and helium, and a significant composition of rock and iceB *ranus

and +eptune.

*ranus and +eptune have distinctly different interior compositions, with the bulkof their interiors thought to consist of a mixture <or layered assortment> of rock, water,

methane, and ammonia. %ike Aupiter and aturn, the outer atmosphere contains mainly

hydrogen in its troposphere. ery hay atmosphere layers with a small amount ofmethane gives them aKuamarine colors such as baby blue and ultramarine colors

respectively. oth have magnetic fields that are sharply inclined to their axes of rotation.

The rather misleading term has caught on because planetary scientists typicallyuse rock, gas, and ice as shorthands for classes of elements and compounds commonly

found as planetary constituents, irrespective of what phase they appear in. =n the outer

solar system, hydrogen and helium are UgasesUG water, methane, and ammonia are UicesUG

and silicates are DrockE. 8hen deep planetary interiors are considered, it may not be far



off to say that, by UiceU astronomers mean oxygen and carbon, by UrockU they mean

silicon, and by UgasU they mean hydrogen and helium.

"hthonian

This is another sub)class of gas giant, in which their hydrogen and helium

atmospheres are blown away by strong stellar winds. (s of early 2003, no such planet has been found, although planet 7C 20453b in the !egasus constellation <#50 lightyears

away> is in the process of becoming a chthonian planet.

Cwarf

;b6ects that are composed mainly of ice, and do not have large planetary masses.

The dwarf planets !luto, "eres, 7aumea, Makemake and &ris are ice dwarfs, and several

dwarf planetary candidates also Kualify. uch dwarf planets range 00 to 415 km indiameter. (s of the =(*Fs definition of a dwarf planet in (ugust 200, five planets were

declared dwarf planets and it is believed there may be as many as 200 more in the Hupier

belt and scattered disc.

;ceanic

uch a planet is completely covered by oceans of liKuid. ;ne such planet has beenfound as of 2004 that is twice the sie of earth and believed to be 35I water, covering

the entire planetFs surface.

.ormation

=t is not known with certainty how planets are formed. The prevailing theory is

that they are formed from those remnants of a nebula that do not condense under gravity

to form a protostar. =nstead, these remnants become a thin, protoplanetary disk of dustand gas revolving around the protostar and begin to condense about local concentrations

of mass within the disc known as planetesimals. These concentrations become ever more

dense until they collapse inward under gravity to form protoplanets. (fter a planetreaches a diameter larger than the &arths moon, it begins to accumulate an extended

atmosphere. This serves to increase the capture rate of the planetesimals by a factor of

ten.8hen the protostar has grown such that it ignites to form a star, its solar wind

blows away most of the discs remaining material. Thereafter there still may be many

protoplanets orbiting the star or each other, but over time many will collide, either to

form a single larger planet or release material for other larger protoplanets or planets toabsorb. Those ob6ects that have become massive enough will capture most matter in their

orbital neighborhoods to become planets. Meanwhile, protoplanets that have avoided

collisions may become natural satellites of planets through a process of gravitationalcapture, or remain in belts of other ob6ects to become either dwarf planets or small solar

system bodies.

The energetic impacts of the smaller planetesimals will heat up the growing planet, causing it to at least partially melt. The interior of the planet begins to

differentiate by mass, developing a denser core. maller terrestrial planets lose most of

their atmospheres because of this accretion, but the lost gases can be replaced by



outgassing from the mantle and from the subseKuent impact of comets. <maller planets

will lose any atmosphere they gain through various escape mechanisms.>

The level of metallicity is now believed to determine the likelihood that a star willhave planets. 7ence it is thought less likely that a metal)poor, population == star will

possess a more substantial planetary system than a metal)rich population = star.

Planetar Attributes

(ll the planets revolve around the un in the same direction ) counter)clockwise

as seen from over the uns north pole. The period of one revolution of a planets orbit isknown as its year. ( planets year depends on its distance from the unG the farther a

planet is from the un, not only the longer the distance it must travel, but also the slower

its speed, as it is less affected by the uns gravity.

The planets also rotate around invisible axes through their centers. The period ofone rotation of a planet is known as its day. (ll the planets rotate in a counter)clockwise

direction, except for enus, which rotates clockwise. There is great variation in the

length of day between the planets, with enus taking 2' &arth days to rotate, and the

gas giants only a few hours.!lanets also have varying degrees of axial tiltG they lie at an angle to the plane of

the uns eKuator. This causes the amount of sunlight received by each hemisphere tovary over the course of its yearG when the northern hemisphere points away from the un,

the southern hemisphere points towards it, and vice versa. &ach planet therefore

possesses seasonsG changes to the climate over the course of its year. The point at whicheach hemisphere is farthest@nearest from the un is known as its solstice. &ach planet has

two in the course of its orbitG when a planets northern hemisphere has its summer

solstice, when its day is longest, the southern has its winter solstice, when its day is

shortest. Aupiters axial tilt is very small, so its seasonal variation is minimalG *ranus, onthe other hand, has an axial tilt so extreme it is virtually on its side, which means that its

hemispheres are either perpetually in sunlight or perpetually in darkness around the time

of its solstices.(ll of the planets have atmospheres as their large masses mean gravity is strong

enough to keep gaseous particles close to the surface. The larger gas giants are massive

enough to keep large amounts of the light gases 7ydrogen and 7elium close by, althoughthese gases mostly float into space around the smaller planets. &arths atmosphere is

greatly different to the other planets because of the various life processes that have

transpired there, while the atmosphere of Mercury has mostly, although not entirely, been

blasted away by the solar wind.Many of the planets have natural satellites, called UmoonsU, regardless of their

sie. The gas giants all have numerous moons in complex planetary systems. Many gas

giant moons have similar features to the terrestrial planets and dwarf planets, and somehave been studied for signs of life.

warf Planets

efore the (ugust 200 decision, several ob6ects were proposed by astronomers,

including at one stage by the =(*, as planets. 7owever in 200 several of these ob6ects

were reclassified as dwarf planets, ob6ects distinct from planets. "urrently three dwarf

planets in the olar ystem are recognied by the =(*B "eres, !luto and &ris. everal



other ob6ects in both the asteroid belt and the Huiper belt are under consideration, with as

many as 50 that could eventually Kualify. There may be as many as 200 that could be

discovered once the Huiper elt has been fully explored. Cwarf planets share many ofthe same characteristics as planets, although notable differences remain ) namely that

they are not dominant in their orbits.

y definition, all dwarf planets are members of larger populations. "eres is thelargest body in the asteroid belt, while !luto is a member of the Huiper belt and &ris is a

member of the scattered disc. (ccording to Mike rown there may soon be over forty

trans)+eptunian ob6ects that Kualify as dwarf planets under the =(*s recent definition.

Extrasolar Planets

;f the 204 extrasolar planets <those outside the olar ystem> discovered to date

<+ovember 200> most have masses which are about the same as, or larger than, Aupitersthe planets orbiting the stars Mu (rae, 55 "ancri and /A ' which are approximately

+eptune)sied, and a planet orbiting /liese 31 that is estimated to be about to 3 times

as massive as the &arth and is probably rocky in composition.

=t is far from clear if the newly discovered large planets would resemble the gasgiants in the olar ystem or if they are of an entirely different type as yet unknown, like

ammonia giants or carbon planets. =n particular, some of the newly discovered planets,known as hot Aupiters a planet with the mass or greater of Aupiter, but eight times closer

to their star than MercuryN, orbit extremely close to their parent stars, in nearly circular

orbits. They therefore receive much more stellar radiation than the gas giants in the olarystem, which makes it Kuestionable whether they are the same type of planet at all.

There is also a class of hot Aupiters that orbit so close to their star that their atmospheres

are slowly blown away in a comet)like tailB the "hthonian planets hypothetical planet

where a gas giant has its hydrogen and helium atmosphere stripped away, leaving ametallic coreN.

everal pro6ects have been proposed to create an array of space telescopes to

search for extrasolar planets with masses comparable to the &arth. The +(( Terrestrial!lanet ?inder was one such program, but <as of 200)02)0> this program has been put on

indefinite hold. The &( is considering a comparable mission called Carwin. The

freKuency of occurrence of such terrestrial planets is one of the variables in the CrakeeKuation which estimates the number of intelligent, communicating civiliations that

exist in our galaxy.

=n 2005, astronomers detected a planet in a triple star system, a finding that

challenges current theories of planetary formation. The planet, a gas giant slightly largerthan Aupiter, orbits the main star of the 7C #3315' system, in the constellation "ygnus,

and is hence known as 7C #3315' (b. The stellar trio <yellow, orange, and red> is about

#4 light)years from &arth. The planet, which is at least #I larger than Aupiter, orbitsthe main star <7C #3315' (> once every 30 hours or so <'.' days>, at a distance of about

3 /m, a twentieth of the distance between &arth and the un. The other two stars whirl

tightly around each other in #5 days, and circle the main star every 25.1 years at adistance from the main star that would put them between aturn and *ranus in the olar

ystem. The latter stars invalidate the leading hot Aupiter formation theory, which holds

that these planets form at UnormalU distances and then migrate inward through some



debatable mechanism. This could not have occurred hereG the outer star pair would have

disrupted outer planet formation.

<nterstellar Planets

everal computer simulations of stellar and planetary system formation have

suggested that some ob6ects of planetary mass would be e6ected into interstellar space.ome scientists have argued that such ob6ects found roaming in deep space should be

classed as UplanetsU. 7owever, many others argue that only planemos that directly orbit

stars should Kualify as planets, preferring to use the terms Uplanetary bodyU, Uplanetarymass ob6ectU or UplanemoU for similar free)floating ob6ects <as well as planetary)sied

moons>. The =(*s working definition on extrasolar planets takes no position on the

issue. The discoverers of the bodies mentioned above decided to avoid the debate over

what constitutes a planet by referring to the ob6ects as planemos. 7owever, the original=(* proposal for the 200 definition of planet favored the star)orbiting criterion,

although the final draft avoided the issue.

?or a brief time in 200, astronomers believed they had found a binary system of

such ob6ects, ;ph #2225)205#5, which the discoverers described as UplanemosU.7owever, recent analysis of the ob6ects has determined that their masses are each greater

than #' Aupiter)masses, making the pair brown dwarfs.

Lou (re 7ere

;k this all said and done, our sun, a metal rich population = red dwarf star, formedaround 5 billion years ago when the universe was around 3)4 billion years old. =t is

assumed our star followed the typical star formation process <outlined elsewhere>.

?rom the remaining gasses formed some planetsG terrestrial, 2 gas giants and 2

ice giants. (lso formed are the asteroid field, Huiper belt and as many as a half doendwarf planets and a couple hundred moons. ;n one of these terrestrial planets, the

conditions were 6ust right to lead to a series of events that allowed life to form and thrive.

(fter some severe weather changes and several hundreds of thousands of years,we arrive to 20#2.

Construction #ables;k with that long college lesson over, here are the tables for randomly generating

a star system. This is not a DKuickE roll process, so it really should be done ahead of time.

=f a roll makes no sense based on information above, reroll. =f there are options notavailable in some combinations, it will be noted below. =f the /M does not wish to go

with chance, they can simple pick what results they want and ad6ust as needed.

This section may change as = study more about stellar mechanics. This list is by

no means exhaustive, and the /M can find more stars hereBhttpB@@en.wikipedia.org@wiki@"ategoryBtarqtypes

#he Star

The first step is determining the type of star or stars in the system. ased on real

observations by astronomers, approximately 30I of the stars in the Milky 8ay are

believed to be red dwarf stars. ?urthermore, it is believed that '0I to 50I of all starsystems are binary stars. tar systems with multiple stars may still have planets, although

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Star_types





the more stars a system has, the less likely planets are going to exist since they are more

likely to be e6ected from a system. ystems of three stars are Kuite common, although

four or more becomes more rare <they throw one or more out of the group>.

Table #B ystem Type roll table 2 for each starN

d#00

#)55 ingle star

5)4 inary star

45)41 Trinary star

43)00 tar cluster

tar "luster contains #dJ' stars, typically in binary@trinary groups orbiting each other <such asthe (lcyone system or /amma elorum>.

Table 2B tar Type

d#00

#)5 Main eKuence Table 'N

)40 !ost)Main eKuence Table N

4#)45 !re)Main eKuence Table 5N

4)00 ;dditiesThis should be rolled for each star in a multiple)star system. =t is not implausible for a red dwarf to

be paired to a blue giant.

;ddities can include things such as 8olf):ayet stars or any other type of extremely rare orcurrently <as of 2004> theoretical stars.

Table 'B Main eKuence tars

d#00

#)35 :ed Cwarf

3)42 ;range Cwarf

4')43 Lellow Cwarf

44)00 lue Cwarf

Table B !ost)Main eKuence tarsd#00

#)5 /iant

)13 upergiant

14)34 7ypergiant

40)00 "ompact

Table 5B !re)Main eKuence tars

d#00

#)25 T)Tauri

2)50 7erbig (e@e

5#)4 ?* ;rinis

45)00 !rotostar

Table B /iant tars

d#00

#)'5 :ed /iant

')3 "arbon tar

4)5 ")7 tar

51)15 Lellow

1)3' lue

3)33 arium tar



34)00 ubgiant

( barium star is binary with a carbon star. =f this result is rolled, count the two stars as a single

DslotE on the original chart roll.

( subgiant star is between a dwarf and giant star in sie@mass.

Table 1B upergiant tars

d#00#)5 :ed

)13 Lellow

14)32 lue

3')00 right /iant

( bright giant is between a supergiant and giant in sie@mass.

Table 3B 7ypergiant tars

d#00

#) :ed

1)1 Lellow

3)32 lue

3')00 8hite

Table 4B "ompact tars

d#00

0#)04 Cying

#0)5 8hite Cwarf

)51 +eutron tar

53)5 Magnetar

)4 &xotic tar

10)30 lack 7ole

3#)00 laar

( dying star is one that has started fusing iron and has 'd#0 hours until it goes nova.

#he Planets

To determine how many planets are in a star system, roll 2d and apply thefollowing modifiers <if the result becomes 0 or lower, there are no planets>B

)2 for each star beyond the first

)5 if there is even one compact star J# if the original roll was a single star

Table #B !lanet Type <roll once for each planet>

d#00

0#)04 "thonian

#0)'5 Cwarf planet

') Terrestrial

1)51 /as giant

53)3 =ce giant

4)15 ;cean planet

1)32 7ot Aupiter

3')40 (steroid belt

4#)44 "arbon planet

00 &ccentric Aupiter

=f an eccentric Aupiter is rolled, no planets in the system will be &arth)mass or smaller.



Some Example Star Sstems

Alcone

(lcyone is a complex Kuintuple <5> star system. The primary, (lcyone)(, is a

blue)white )type giant binary star separated by 0.0'# arcseconds <the distance between

ol and Aupiter>. (lcyone) and (lcyone)" are a pair of 3th

magnitude white dwarf stars<(lcyone)" is a Celta cuti type variable star> separated from (lcyone)( by ##1 and #3#

arcseconds, respectively. (lcyone)C is yellow)white dwarf star at #4# arcseconds from

the primary.uch a complex system is unlikely to have any planets, since the contradicting

gravitic pull would most likely e6ect any planets from the system. =f it does have any

planets, they are well beyond the range to support life.

Gamma 7elorum

This system consists of no less than six stars. The primary star Z elorum ( is a

spectroscopic binary consisting of a blue supergiant class ;4 <'0 solar masses> and a

massive 8olf):ayet star <approximately #0 solar masses> separated at about # (*. Thesecond brightest is Z elorum , which is a blue)white )type subgiant, which can only

be differentiated from the primary with use of binoculars or better. +ext out is Z elorum", a white ()type star 2.' arcseconds from the primary. The next is another binary star

consisting of Z elorum C <white ()type star> and Z elorum & <a #'th magnitude star>

separated by #.3 arcseconds.

Capella

"apella is a pair of binary stars. The primary is a spectroscopic binary consisting

of two /)class giants separated by only #00 million km. The other is a binary pair of twoM)class red dwarf stars about # %L away.

$ho Cassiopeiae

This is a yellow hypergiant star in the "assipoeiae constellation. =n the year 2000,

it was observed to have dropped in temperature from 1000H to 000H over the course of

a few months and had e6ected approximately 'I of its solar mass. =t seems to have theseeruptions every 50 or so years, meaning another such would have likely occurred by

2050. "onsidering the star is 3#50 %L away from earth, it may have already gone

supernova by the time of the campaign setting.

Gliese ,91c

This planet is believed to be the first extrasolar Dnear earthE planet within a starFs

habitable one. =t orbits a red dwarf planet /liese 53#, which is 20. lightyears from earthtowards the constellation %ibra. Ciscovered on (pril 2, 2001.

The planet is measured <at the time of discovery> to be 5.0' earth masses. =f the

planet is rocky with an iron core, then it would be approximately 50I larger than earthand have 2.2/. =f the planet is icy or watery, then it would be around twice the sie of

earth and have #.25/.

/liese 53# c has an orbital period <UyearU> of #' &arth days and its orbital radius

is only about 1I that of the &arth, about ## million km, while the &arth is #50 million



kilometers from the un. ince the host star is smaller and colder than the un ) and thus

less luminous ) this distance places the planet on the UwarmU edge of the habitable one

around the star according to *drys team . ( typical radius for an M0 star of /liese 53#sage and metallicity is 0.00#23 (*, against the suns 0.005 (*. This proximity means

that the primary star should appear '.15 times wider and # times larger in area for an

observer on the planets surface looking at the sky than the un appears to be from &arthssurface.

Chapter 1) – Aliens?or the most part, Macross is all about !rotocultureG humans and 9entraedi share

the same genetic structure, so they can be considered one race. The only other aliens to

show up in Macross have been the !rotoculture <human progenitorV>, 9entraedi <humanvariant>, 9olans <likely another !rotoculture link>, the !rotodeviln <extra)universe> and

the a6ra <intergalactic>. 7owever, the +*+ has only explored a small fraction of the

Milky 8ay galaxy. 8ho knows what else is hiding out thereV

(dditionally, the aliens rules can also be used in :obotech, which is host to nearly

a doen species already.

*uil/in an Alien

The first thing to keep in mind is whether or not the alien race will be available

for !"s to play as. =n Macross, !"s may be 9entraedi and 9olan, but not a6ra. =f the

alien race is going to be purely +!", you can make them as powerful as you like <O fromtar Trek anyoneV>. 7owever, if you want to allow them for !"s, you need to make sure

they are roughly the same power level as other !" races.

+o/ifications

(liens are set apart from humans by oons and ?laws. 7umans could be

considered to be Umiddle of the roadU, therefore any oon would make the alien betterthan a human while any ?law would make them weaker than a human.

?or every rank of oon, the alien race must have eKual ranks of ?laws. =f they

have a Ma6or oon, they could have a Ma6or ?law or three Minor ?laws.

=n addition to the oons and ?laws below, an alien race can have Talents and"omplications found in the basebook. ?or instance, a warrior race might all have 7igh

!ain Threshold but suffer from the erserker complication.

*oons

=nhuman tatsB The alien race has stats higher than humans.

MinorB *p to ' stats may have a limit of #2

/reaterB *p to 5 stats may have a limit of #5Ma6orB (ny number of stats may have a limit of 20

?lightB The alien race is capable of self)propelled flight. The M( uses Mekton scale.

MinorB M( up to 2/reaterB M( up to

Ma6orB M( up to #2

(rmorB Through dense skin, chitinous exoskeleton or natural forcefield, the alien race canshrug off damage. (ll ! is in human scale and applies to all body locations.



MinorB ! 5

/reaterB ! #0

Ma6orB ! #5 +atural 8eaponsB The alien race possesses claws, fangs, bladed tails or other features.

(ll weapons inflict 7its damage.

MinorB Melee weapons up to #d damage/reaterB Melee weapons up to 2d damage

Ma6orB Melee or ranged weapons up to 'd damage or UshockU weapons

!sychic !owerB The alien race has natural psionic talents.MinorB *p to ' powers

/reaterB *p to powers

Ma6orB *p to #0 powers

&nvironmental !rotectionB The alien race is immune or highly resistant to a particularenvironmental haard.

MinorB =mmune to heat or cold

/reaterB =mmune to vacuum and explosive decompression

Ma6orB =mmune to radiation

.laws

=nhuman tatsB The alien race has lower stats than humans.

MinorB *p to ' stats have a limit of 1.

/reaterB *p to 5 stats have a limit of 5. Ma6orB *p to 1 stats have a limit of '.

:acial !re6udiceB The alien race has an adverse reputation.

MinorB ome other races dislike this race and will avoid them.

/reaterB Most other races dislike this race and will avoid them.Ma6orB (ll races seem to universally hate this race and will react with violence.

&nvironmental@pecial +eedsB The alien race has non)human needs that must be kept up.

MinorB reathes an uncommon atmosphere and reKuires a respirator off theirhomeworld.

/reaterB +eeds a special or rare food@liKuid to survive.

Ma6orB "an only survive in a specialied environment or diet and must have a fullenvironmental habitat wherever they go.

ocial :estrictionsB The alien race has different moral codes than is common, and strictly

adhere to them.

MinorB !acifist. The alien race will not harm others./reaterB (rrogant. (ny insult is met with combat to the death.

Ma6orB =nscrutable. The alien race is 6ust so UalienU that they are incomprehensible

to other races.kill :estrictionB The alien race has trouble with some human skills due to their

UinhumanU nature. ?or instance, a race of energy beings may not understand physical

skills, while a warrior race may have Uweeded outU &mpathy based skills for being weak.MinorB )2 penalty to one skill group

/reaterB ) penalty to one skill group

Ma6orB )3 penalty to one skill group



Cultural Attitu/es

The last step is to determine the attitude of the UaverageU member of the society.

orrowing from :obotech, the !raxians are a race of all)female amaon)like warriors.The average !raxian is a proud, strong warrior with a sense of martial honor. They value

strength and combat prowess.

Go/&like Aliens

o your campaign needs a UgodlikeU alien of such unimaginable power that they

seem to be magical. ?irst off, figure out what you want your alien to do. Then have themdo it. =f they are that powerful, they dont need to roll dice.

=snt being a /M funV

(on&@uman Aliens

The vast ma6ority of aliens in anime are near)human or even human. ;ftentimes

the UalienU race is a lost colony of humans or were transplanted from &arth long ago.

8hy is thisV

?irst off, anime is a Aapanese invention, and the Aapanese are big on getting the pathos points for empathiing with the UenemyU. ( common plot is that the unidentified

UalienU invaders are only seen for their mecha and capital ships until #@' to #@2 way intothe series, then they are revealed as humans or near)humans. This makes the heroes have

to face the fact they are fighting what they see as themselves. :emember how the heroes

felt in Macross and outhern "ross when they discovered who the UenemyU was.The second main reason is plain old sex. (nother anime staple is one of the

heroes becoming romantically attached with one of the UaliensU. =n Macross, Max was

instantly smitten with Millias exotic beauty, and in outhern "ross, owie became

attached to Musika. =ts hard to get it on with a giant slug. Luk..

A/vance/ AliensThe above is good for Kuick and simple aliens, but sometimes we want a littlemore meat to the campaign. Maybe the above is good for one)shot disposable aliens, but

what if the aliens are to be a permanent, and prominent, part of the campaignV The

following advanced rules can be used for detailing out your alien civiliations.

*illions an/ *illions of Stars





+ ^ x #0## f p ^ 0.' <assuming most stars harbor planets>

ne ^ 2 <in our system &arth and Mars could harbor life>

f l ^ 0.' <an education assumption>f i ^ 0.# <an educated assumption>

f c ^ 0.# <an educated assumption>

f % ^ 0.0000000#=f you are wondering why f % is so low <one millionth of a percent>, it is because

our civiliation has existed for less time than a millionth of the lifespan of our world.

"iviliation on our world has only existed for, perhaps, six to seven thousand years, outof the four billion the world has been here <seven thousand divided by billion is a very

small number>. Technological civiliation has only existed for a hundred years <now

divide #00 by billion and you see what = meanP>. Therefore, # millionth of a percent is a

very, very optimistic assumption.(t any rate, when this number is computed < x #0 ## x 0.' x 2 x 0.' x 0.# x 0.# x

0.0000000#> the result is 1.2. To make things simple, this number is rounded up to ten.

This means that, at present, there are probably ten technologically advanced civiliations

in our galaxy. ut dont forget, there are hundreds of billions of galaxies 6ust like oursPThe /M may ad6ust these numbers as he wishes. ?or instance, if the /M assumes

that a technological civiliation will exist for #000 years, f % can be increased to 6ust0.000000#, which would in turn make the result eKual #00 advanced civiliations in our

galaxy. ;ther ad6ustments would likewise give rise to other such changes. elow is a

more UcinematicU universe, where there are many alien civiliationsB + ^ x #0##

f p ^ 0.' <assuming most stars harbor planets>

ne ^2 <in our system &arth and Mars could harbor life>

f l ^ 0.5 <an generous assumption>f i ^ 0.' <an optimistic assumption>

f c ^ 0.' <an educated assumption>

f % ^ 0.000000#=n this setting, the galaxy would harbor < x #0## x 0.' x 2 x 0.5 x 0.' x 0.2 x

0.000000#> #030 alien civiliations. 8e shall consider this to be #000 civiliations, for

simplicity. The distribution of alien civiliations would still be extremely small, with adensity of # civiliation every three million cubic lightyears <or spaced out from each

other with a distance of two thousand light)years apart>. This may be insufficient for a

viable sci)fi campaign. The /M may continue to make ad6ustments to the Crake formula

to suit his universe, or simply declare how many civiliations exist. +evertheless, theCrake formula is a good guideline to follow, especially for a hard sci)fi campaign.

Cinematic CiviliDations

=n a space opera, sci)fantasy or action adventure campaign, it would not be

unreasonable to assume there are thousands or tens of thousands of alien races. =n tar

8ars there are hundreds of alien species, and only a handful of them are detailed out.=n such a universe, four assumptions are made.

#> the formation of stars inherently gives rise to the formation of planets

2> all main seKuence stars have at least one planet in the UbiooneU



'> life will almost always arise on such planets, assuming they have a

suitable atmosphere

> eventually intelligent life and civiliation will appear and last for a longtime

8ith these assumptions, the Crake ?ormula can generate anywhere in the range

of 50,000 to #00,000 alien civiliations. (t this point, the density of civiliations becomes practical for a space adventure <average of 200)'00 lightyears between

civiliations>. =f each of these civiliations travel '00 lightyears in all directions, they

would eventually collide with each other, thus creating war, conflict and epic sagas.etting +umber of "iviliations

agan &stimate 1)#0

7ard ci)?i 100)#000

!ulp ci)?i '000)#0,000(bundant #0,000)50,000

"inematic #00,000J

uper)"inematic #,000,000J

o even in a campaign with a million alien civiliations, the campaign could take place in a smaller area of #000 lightyears across, containing #0)20 alien civiliations.

?or example, in :obotech the entinels, the %ocal /roup contains the !raxians,/arudans, pherisians, !erytonians, Tirolians, Harbarrans and =nvid. The story also

speaks of the loxia, who were wiped out. o even this small galactic area already has a

half doen alien species already, and there is more area to exploreP

"orl/s to Explore

?irst off, there are three main types of aliens in science fictions. The first class are

from worlds of independent, self)contained evolution. These aliens are radically differentfrom anything on earth, and extremely difficult to envision without falling into the

UMonster (lien Menace from /aloopa !rimeU stereotype. The second, more common

approach is panspermia <explained below>. The third type is UthoughtlessUG that is thewriter doesnt care how or why the aliens evolved, and 6ust invents them as he likes with

no science behind it. The third class will not be covered in this, as anyone can 6ust make

crap up on a whim.

Star #pe

There are many different kinds of stars, ranging from tiny red dwarfs up to

superbright blue)white hypergiants. 8hile this is covered very in)depth in "hapter #', wewill 6ust retouch with some simple information here. tar classification ranges from ; to

M.

; blue stars blue)white stars

( white stars

? yellow)white stars/ yellow stars

H orange stars

M red stars



:ealistically class ;, and ( stars cannot have planets where life evolves

because of the immense output of radiation, and such giant stars dont last long enough

<class ; stars can last as few as )5 million years>. That leaves class ?, / and H have ahigher probability of life evolving in their system. Most class M stars shouldnt have lifeG

they produce very little radiation which is good for life but bad for evolution. ?ortunately

most class M stars last for #0)#5 billion years, giving plenty of time for evolutionchances.

(ll stars also have a sub)class, listed 0)4, where 0 is hotter and brighter and 4 is

cooler and dimmer. tar classes will further have a suffix of a :oman numeral rated =, ==,===, =, or =, indicating their sieG = are supergiants, = are subgiants, is similar to

our sun, and = are dwarf stars. ?or instance, our sun is /2.

!ossible habital ones range from ?0 to M5. ;nce the star type is determined,

then determine the number and placement of the planets. ased on our solar system, thereshould be 2d planets for a star similar to ours.

;rbits are rated in (*s <astronomical units> which is eKual to roughly 4' million

miles or #50 million km. &arth is # (* from our parent star. (ccording to the Titius)

ode ?ormula, the placement of orbits runs at a ratio of 0, ', , #2, 2, 3, 4, #42, '3and 13. The ratio number is added to and then divided by #0 for the (* of the orbit.

W?or the first orbit, we compute 0 J and divide by #0 for 0., which is the orbitof Mercury <0. (*>.

WThe second orbit is ' J and divide by #0 for 0.1, which is the orbit of enus

<0.1 (*>.WThe third orbit is J and divide by #0 for #, which is our orbit <# (*>.

(nd this continues for our solar system, with the asteroid belt as our 5th orbit.

To add variation, the added constant < for our solar system> could change. Lou

can roll #d for the constant, or assign it by star typeG ? would be 5, / would be <asours>, H would be ' and M would be 2.

#he *ioDone

This is the most important aspect of the star system for placing the homeworld of

your alien civiliation. The bioone is the range where liKuid water exists on the planet. =t

is sometimes called the /oldielocks 9one, as it is Unot too hot, not too cold, 6ust rightU.?or a class / star, this one is 0.1 to #. (*. =n our solar system earth is right in

the middle, with enus and Mars at the extreme edges. (t best, #)' planets will fall into

this one.

tar Type ioone? #.3)'.0 (*

/ 0.1)#. (*

H 0.5)0.3 (*M 0.#)0.' (*

Planetar Attributes

There are many attributes to consider. Aust because a planet is the 'rd orbit of a

/2 star doesnt mean it will be identical to earth. ?actors to consider are sie of the

planet, gravity, planet type <gas, ice, terran>, climate range <desert, froen, oceanic>,

terrestrial compounds <high metallic core, iron core, silicate, etc>, rotation period,



seasons, length of day and year, number of moons, sie@number of continents,

sie@number of moons, atmosphere type <earthlike, methane, ";2, ammonia, etc> and

many other things.:emember that exotic aliens can evolve on exotic worlds <such as a hot, heavy

gravity, fluorine atmosphere>. These factors will greatly influence the creation of that

alien civiliation.

+oons

Many science fiction writers will try to make a world more exotic by giving themmultiple moons. (fter all, Mars has two moons rightV The problem is, as explained in

"hapter #', that our moon is the exotic one. y many accounts our moon is large enough

in comparison to our planet that some alien civiliations would call it a binary planet.

8hen a planet forms, it will pull most of the material into itself, leaving a verysmall amount for moons. ecause of the early impact with a Mars)sied planet, the &arth

and its moon effectively had two planets worth of material to share. Most Uearth)likeU

planets will likely have a single moon which is a captured asteroid of some type.

+ulti&Star Sstem

Aust to retouch from "hapter #'.. the more stars that are in a single star system,the likelihood of life evolving goes down. imply put, more stars means more radiation.

(dd this to the fact that the multiple gravity wells of multiple stars makes for some

eccentric orbits, and may well throw most of their planets out of the system completely.=n a hard)science sci)fi setting such systems can be written off for the possibility

of life. 7owever, in a space)opera or science)fantasy setting, anything is possible.

Panspermia

+o, its not a dirty word. !anspermia is a scientific term meaning that life starts

from one point in a galaxy and spreads outward in the form of microbes, usually

travelling on comets or meteorites and seeds on multiple worlds or that an alienciviliation has seeded its own on various planets <sounds like the !rotoculture>.

This is not as far)fetched as it first sounds. "onsider the example of the now)

famous Mars rock. The microbes on the Mars rock were fossils and long dead for a billion years before it landed on earth. ut 8hat i a rock was blown off a planet rich with

life and hurled into space. Lou may be Kuick to say most life would be killed by the force

of the impact or it would not survive in space. "ertainly, a microbe cannot live in the

froen vacuum of space. 7owever, microbes can hibernate. =t has been scientifically proven that some bacteria can remain in a state of froen metabolic activity for tens of

millions of years only to awaken when placed in the presence of a livable environment.

o a chunk of rock from a planet full of life gets blasted into space and the bacteria on itgoes into hibernation until it lands on another planet, then wakes up and begins

multiplying.

(nother possibility is that the chemical process for life began on comets. "ometsare rich in water and hydrocarbons, exposed to massive doses of heat and stellar

radiation. =t is plausible that under the right conditions, a chemical reaction could occur

on a comet that creates the basic blocks of life. =f all it takes is a dirty snowball being



exposed to intense radiation to create life, then many such reactions could be set off on

hundreds of thousands of such comets. &ventually some of them will crash into planets.

The third possibility is localied panspermia. =n this theory, a region of space perhaps a few lightyears across is a nebula of cometary fragments <such as our ;ort

"loud>. These fragments may be comets or debris from a failed planet, holding

hibernating microbes or proto)microbe organics. 8hen star systems pass through thisregion of space, their planets are bombarded with thousands of these fragments.

?inally, there is the possibility of intelligence guided panspermia. /oing with the

hard)science Crake ?ormula, life evolves on perhaps a doen planets in the entire galaxy.;ne of those develops advanced technology to travel throughout the region of space,

seeding planets with suitable environments with the life of their homeworld. &ventually

the progenitor race vanishes, leaving the transplanted life to grow on their own paths.

"h PanspermiaH

The reason for this theory in science fiction is two)fold. ?irst off, it might be the

way it really happened. econd, this is a convenient way of making multiple alien species

seem so.. human.?or example, in tar Trek it is explained humans, ulcans, :omulans, Hlingons,

(ndorians, etc all originated from the same original species millions of years ago. 8atchenough episodes of targate and targateB (tlantis and you see planets with oak trees,

you hear the sparrows and oddly enough they all have mosKuitoes. :unning into a doen

near)human species makes the really alien aliens stand out.(nother example, using :obotech. =n the %ocal /roup of the sentinels storyline,

most of the races were near human or close to human. The Tirolians, !raxians and

9entraedi all had virtually identical genetics as humans, making them all the same UraceU.

This is further emphasied with their link to the pretoxican precursor race. TheHarbarrans and /arudans are humanoid with animal features, while the !erytonians are

human)like with physical differences. ;nly the 7aydonites and pherisians are non)

human, with the former being cybernetic with no information on what they were beforehand, and the latter being effectively crystal forms animated by bacterial colonies.

;h yes, the =nvid are giant slugs.

(ll of this leaves the simple method of waving a magic wand and declaring thealien race is near human because of panspermia and be done with it. This of course leads

to two possible types of evolution. The first is ancient microbe evolution, insuring that all

the races will be of similar biology but will have enough differences to not be UhumanU,

such as animal features. This can still lead to UexoticsU as described below, but can stillsurvive in human environments. The second is recent humanoid evolution, where the

progenitor race seeds multiple worlds to evolve 6ust slightly different from each other,

leaving room for blue)skinned humans, UelvesU and four armed humanoids.

Ieno&Exotics

:arely seen in science fiction, yet the most probable form, exotic aliens are lifeforms with radically different biologies from anything on earth. 8hile much of this

section is based on scientific understanding, everything described is pure speculation.

?eel free to let your imagination run wild, but dont lose total sight of the basic principles

of physics, chemistry and biology.



Panspermia Exotics

(s explained above, panspermia exotics are aliens that evolved from universallycommon base microbes, but the evolution was radically different. =n such a setting, alien

worlds will be exotic and alien, but at least they will have some common features <think

of !andora from (vatar>. (ll panspermia exotics should still be based on &arth)likestandardsG they will be carbon)based, reKuire liKuid water, breath an oxygen or "; 2

atmosphere and have a spiral C+( code like humans. They will reproduce sexually,

although it could be asexual <keep in mind asexual reproduction does not facilitate rapidevolution>.

!anspermia exotics lie at the fringe of what we can imagine for truly alien aliens.

Most of these aliens are envisioned to be giant bugs, slugs, sKuids or 6ellyfish)heads,

which is unrealistic, though unavoidable.To actually make up an alien world based on &arth biology, the best thing to do is

create it a timeline of evolution, starting from microbe and evolving step)by)step, making

sure to change a few things on the way.

(t this point it should be noted that there is now evidence that two different panspermia comets hit &arth. There are two radically different types of microbes and cell

structures seen on &arth. The first, most ancient kind, is called prokaryotic <whichappeared around ' billion years ago>. !rokaryotic microbes have no nucleus structure and

are primarily simple bacteria. The other kind, called eukaryotic appeared around #.1

billion years ago. They are more complex bacteria which evolved into higher multi)cellular life forms such as plants and animals.

;nce your alien world is evolved to be dissimilar to earth, pick one of the life

forms and make it sentient. +ow write up their history, culture and civiliation. ?igure

out their technology level and how they got there.

Ieno Exotics

Truly alien aliens are the stuff of 7ugo and +ebula awards. They are rarer thangold in sci)fi and pried above all because they are the result of brilliant imagination and

genius. Most xeno)exotics have radically different biologies, a highly alien and often

terrifying appearance and a mentality utterly beyond human comprehension. They arealien.

The key to xeno)exotics is imagination. These may be evolved from exotic

bacteria, such as bacterial colonies around deep ocean vents, or sulfate)ingesting argon)

excreting microbes. &ven so, such life would still be a panspermia exotic. ( xeno)exoticwould be even more biarre. %ife must be evolved from a base chemical reaction to a

state of sentience, over the course of billions of years. "hlorine based life could form on a

world with an exotic chlorinate atmosphere. Methane based life has been proposed fordecades, as has silicone based life. "reatures of dark matter, anti)matter, Kuantum matter

or even pure energy. entient worlds, sentient stars and even regions of space where

consciousness simply arises can come into play. !erhaps even a race of self)replicatingmachine intelligences, the last survivors <or conKuerors> of the progenitor race...

:emember, xeno)exotics are alien... Alien.

#hreshol/ of the <maination



;nce you have decided on the type of aliens in your universe, it is necessary to

develop them and their world. =f you want a race of militant, hive)mentality bugs, this is

probably unnecessary. The world should already be developed, assuming you developedthe race by step)by)step evolution. (ssuming it is, the alien race had to develop higher

intelligence at some point in the past, going from primitive Ucave dwellersU to a civilied

species.Cont fall into the sad old clich that any non)&arth planet has one species, one

language, one religion, one culture, blah. 7ere = must differentiate between race and

ethnic race. (n alien race, in our terms, is an alien species, of which there can be multipleethnic races. 7umans are a species, so are elves. (sians are an ethnic race of humans, and

Crow elves are an ethnic species of elves. There are many ethnic races of humans, so

there should be the same for an alien species. ome ethnic races will have different

characteristics for any given species. =n fact, two or more sentient species could developon the same planet, perhaps on separate continents. This would play an extremely

significant factor in both cultures development.

%ets take a look at Macross. The !rotoculture was the first sentient humanoid

species in the galaxy. They used their own C+( to clone the 9entraedi, and theyUmodifiedU the ancient life of &arth for future coloniation. Thus it could be said that

humans and 9entraedi are in fact ethnic races of the !rotoculture species. =n :obotech,the 9entraedi and :obotech Masters are cloned from the Tirolians. The Tirolians and

!raxians were transplanted from &arth by the !retoxicans. Thus again, the Tirolians,

:obotech Masters, 9entraedi and !raxians are all ethnic races of the human species. The/arudans, !erytonians and Harbarrans might be evolved from humans, given the

interference of 7aydon. 8ild isnt itV

Genetic Enineerin

imply put, it is the manipulation of C+( to achieve the desired traits. (t basic

levels it is used to correct for genetic flaws. (t the upper end it is cloning specifically

tailored life forms. =n our current time, circa 20#2, we are already cloning mice and usingartificial insemination. 8e are beginning to clone meat that was never part of a cow. o if

we can do that little now, a civiliation centuries ahead of us could do much more.

=n fact, much of the basis of Macross lies on the concept of cloning. The!rotoculture cloned themselves, and genetically engineered a clone race of warriors

called the 9entraedi. (fter the 9entraedi reduce the human population to a fraction of its

original sie, &arth began using mass cloning of humans to restore the population to

viable levels. ?urthermore, the !rotoculture visited &arth no less than t8ice and modifiedthe humanoid life they found to better suit their needs.

8ith this in mind, encountering a near)human alien species might not be the

actual species, but rather genetically engineered Uambassadors to humanityU given a formwe would be most comfortable dealing with what with our delicate <and inferior>

psychology. :eferencing Mospeada, the :efless turns some of her =nbit into human forms

to interact with humans.

#pes of Aliens(s discussed in great detail earlier, there are several different categories of aliens

seen in science fiction literature. This ranges from the utterly silly to the scientifically



plausible. Cepending on the campaign, a certain level of ?actuality level is called for.

?actuality level is similar to reality level, however since it is pure speculation, the best we

can hope for is to gauge realism in terms of facts and educated guesses. That is to say, itis extremely unlikely that Ulittle green menU exist, not because they are little or green, but

because they are men. 7owever, it is within the realm of scientific con6ecture that me

way one day meet up with an alien of an extremely exotic nature, radically different thananything seen on earth.

There is no Ufactuality dialU per say, rather the factuality level is an abstraction

which should be part of the /Ms process in developing an alien species. &ven if the /mdecides for a Upulp sci)fiU style campaign, there can easily be exceptions within any given

universe. =f most aliens are humanoid, there can also be xeno)exotic aliens. %ikewise, if

the universe is populated by biarre, exotic aliens, there can be cases of localied

panspermia <or Ulost colonyU scenarios> where there are a few humanoid aliens.

@umanoi/: (ear&@umans an/ emi&@umans

(liens that look like usP ure some have elfin ears, spoon)indentations on their

foreheads or green blood. ;ther than some niggling details, they are pretty much human,and more often than not they are sexually compatible. Their culture <though historically

different> is easily put into human terms. Their technology, society and even languageseem completely human <and easily translatable into &nglish>. =n many sci)fi shows and

books, the aliens even speak perfect &nglish on first contactP !arallel evolution is truly an

amaing thing.7umanoid aliens are the easiest route to take for devising alien civiliations, and

some say even a copout. This is the lowest factuality level, at the epitome of space opera

and pulp fiction, yet still an extraordinary setting for conflict, epic adventure and

exploration. =f humans can commit war and genocide against each other over such minordifferences as religion, ethnic race and greed, it is not so implausible to do so with a near)

human alien species.

=t is, however, possible to explain away the existence of humanoid aliens with thetheory of panspermia. =t can even be said that a precursor race once populated the galaxy,

and we <along with other near)human races> are their descendants <or descendants of the

slaves who overthrew them>.?or a role)playing game, humanoid aliens are the best choice. 8hyV 7ave you

ever tried to role)play a two)ton silicate)based methane slugV =t is much easier to step into

the shoes of an alien who.. well.. has shoes to step into.

Creature&.eatures

econd in popularity to humanoid aliens, Ucreature)featureU aliens are Kuite

prominent in science fiction. Many such creatures are hybrids with the humanoid class,that is liard)men, dog)men, plant)men, and any race with the )men suffix. ;ther such

creature)feature aliens are species that resemble mutated or giant versions of other &arth

life, such as tarship Troopers bugs, giant slugs like Aabba the 7ut, and other aliens thatmake you say Uhey that looks like a...U. &ven if they dont look human, they look like

something familiar.



"reature)feature aliens are a compromise between humanoid and exotic aliens.

They are not so exotic that they cant be playable in a role playing game, but yet they are

more scientifically plausible <assuming they are done right , avoiding the clich bugmen>.uch aliens must also arise from panspermia, however, the stellar fertiliation

occurred at a microscopic level, delivered by comets to a hundred different worlds, rather

than the active transplantation of an ancient precursor civiliation.&ven creature)feature aliens must have a world, culture, society and even

religions, myths and dreams. Their mentality may be terribly alien, though there could be

underlying laws of sentience which help to make certain psychological traits universalG

greed, fear, love, hate, etc.

<t Came from Futer SpaceJ



To the uninitiated of science fiction, the first image con6ured by the words Uspace

alienU may be a big green monster with big eyes, huge crab claws, two tails and a

drooling tooth)laced mouth. uch space monsters are certainly Ucreature)featureU aliens, but they should not be considered for a serious hard sci)fi game. Many such monsters are

reserved for pulp sci)fi, space opera and movies which can only be watched if shown on

MT'H. 7owever, Uit came from outer spaceU monsters do have a place in many sci)figames.

=n a uck :ogers @ ?lash /ordon style space adventure, most of the enemy aliens

will be space monsters. =ndeed, they will be semi)intelligent, perhaps even intelligent, butthey do not need to be developed or though out the same way a more logical or Uflushed

outU alien civiliation should be.

The xenomorph from the (liens series is a contemporary example of an Uit came

from outer spaceU alien. 7owever, the popularity of the series, the (lien became aflushed out, well)developed race. Thus, in such a campaign, the heroes might meet up

with U6ust another space monsterU only to discover it is the most terrifying nemesis the

universe has ever seen.

(liens of this type are not suited for !"s or even +!"s. They are 6ust spacemonsters.

Ieno&Exotics

?ew and far between in sci)fi are the truly alien aliens. They will have little to no

similarity to anything on &arth, and will have utterly alien psychologies. Therefore, theycannot be used for !"s. This is not because they are too powerful or unbalanced, but it is

very difficult to play something that things so alien to our own desires. !laying an elf is

not too hard, since even elves have the same biological needs and psychological

responses as a human. &ven playing an android is possible because that is something ahuman can identify with. !laying a cloud of sentient neon gas.. well that is 6ust too weird.

Reno)exotics are best used as a distant alien force. They make good enemies in a

space war and are extremely unpredictable due to their alien nature, making it difficult to predict their tactics without knowing their drives.

Reno)exotics are also good for first encounters and deep space exploration

adventures. ?inding such an alien and searching them out can make for a colorful story.

Go/s from the Stars

The ultimate xeno)exotics in sci)fi are entities of stellar magnitude. Massive

energy beings, crystalline lattice entities, sentient planets or stars and aliens from otherrealities. uch beings are staggeringly old and have god)like intelligence. They are

clearly unsuitable for !"s, but make for interesting and dangerous encounters.

uch beings need no stats or skills. The /M simply decides what the being wantsto do, and it is done. imple.

+akin AliensMaking an alien race is almost the same as making a character. (lien races have

modifiers to their base stats, can have inherent Talents and psychological traits derived

from character "omplications such as intolerance or stubborn.



(liens are built by a Carwinian process, where certain biological traits, systems

and adaptations are selected. &ach of these cost a number of &volution !oints <&!>. Thus,

simple creatures have low &! values, while complex life forms have high &! values.y default, humans have 15 &!. =n an all)human campaign, all of the characters

have 15 &!, which has been pre)spent on the Uhuman speciesU package.

Evolution Points

This is a measure of how evolved a life form is. 7ighly evolved races have traits

that ensure their survival, and cost more &!. %esser evolved traits, such as opencirculatory system, cost little or no &! because they have little benefit.

=t may be tempting to treat &! like any other cost system, such as ;ption !oints

<;!> or =mprovement !oints <=!>, but this should not be the case. (liens are balanced

within their own race, thus they should not have to pay points to be one of their own.=n a multi)species campaign, races with higher &! than human may have to pay

;! to cover the difference, while those with lower &! may get bonus points. Thus if an

alien race has #00 &! and a !" wants to play one, it would cost him 25 of his starting ;!.

=f the /M allows the players to create their own race, he can simply state Udo notexceed 15 &!U. +!" aliens can have any &! value the /M deems fitting, and he need not

tell the !"s this value. (fter all, it is a tricky matter to 6udge what species isevolutionarily superior to another. =n fact, many interstellar wars have been triggered

over 6ust this.

Complications

Many alien species display psychological complications. ?or instance, %arry

+ivens !uppeteers had extreme "owardice <)'0 ;!>. "omplications are measured in

;ption !oints, but can be translated into &!. =t is assumed "omplications have a negativeeffect on evolution, therefore, any !sychological, !ersonality or "ompulsive ehavior

"omplications subtract #@2 their ;! value from their species &!. The "omplication value

is halved because it has less impact between actual members of the same species, thus itis not so much a character flaw as a racial trait.

?or instance, if you were making the !uppeteer race, it would have the

!ersonality trait of Uconstant extreme severe cowardU which has an ;! value of )'0. Thiswould be eKual to )#5 &!.

=t is very common for aliens to have ocial "omplications such as ad

:eputation, !ersonal 7abits <usually related to eating>, ;ppressed and often ;utsider and

Cistinctive ?eatures. 7owever, these traits are only relevant outside their own culture.Therefore they cannot be applied to &!. uch traits get relegated to background

information.

(nother example, from abylon 5 Umost people are disgusted with the eatinghabits of the !akmaraU, as they are carrion eaters. Therefore individual !akmara

characters will have the Cisgusting &ating 7abit "omplication for #0 points. This is part

of the character, not the species.The Cistinctive ?eatures "omplication bears special notice here. (mong different

species, all alien species have this trait. =t is what makes them alien. Thus this

"omplication should only be a "omplication where aliens are rare, hated or feared.



?or another example, in Macross, the 9entraedi have odd skin tones, odd hair

colors and slightly pointed ears even when micronied. &arly in the saga <2004)20##> any

9entraedi on earth would have this "omplication. 7owever by the later parts of the story,after the 9entraedi are integrated into human culture and well known by all, the features

are there but they no longer count as a "omplication.

@umanit Points

7umanity is a measure of how humans can relate to one another, and can be

deteriorated by cybernetics, mental illness and psychological trauma. =n a campaign withaliens, who are not human, they would natively have 0 7umanity, as they are not from

human culture. Thus every non)human alien, by the rules, would be a raving psychopath

bent on killing sKuishies. "learly this is silly and needs to be handled differently.

=n a campaign with aliens, the 7umanity trait should be renamed Mental tability.This assumes all sentient life has some basic pattern or %aw of entience, which governs

the sanity and psychological stability of all races. =n essence, Mental tability is identical

to 7umanity, except that it discards the UracistU term.

Cultural <nteraction

The trickiest topic is cultural interaction between alien species. ?or the most part,this is race specific, and should be established by the /M. ?or instance, if a race is

extremely xenophobic and intolerant of other races, they will have a great deal of

difficulty interacting with others. ;n the other hand, dealing with a race of pansexualhedonists would suffer little more than some utterances of Uoh my..U and lots of clothes

being shed.

Cepending on the race, its similarity to other races, its general attitude and true

UaliennessU, the penalty will vary. Therefore it is necessary to gauges the !resence penalty based on these factors. 7ere are some likely modifiersB

:elation !enalty !sychology Modifier

"ulture only )# "ulturally adaptable x0.5omewhat alien )2 +eutral x#.0

ery alien ) Renophobic x2.0

:adically alien )"ompletely alien )3

8ait, whatV )#0

?or example, two near)human alien cultures which developed independently for

the past #0,000 years on different worlds would have a )# penalty to !:& rolls wheninteracting with each other. =f a human met with a different humanoid alien, say a

!erytonian from :obotech, they would suffer a )2 !:& penalty with each other.

%ikewise, two radically different xenophobic races interacting would suffer a )#2 !:& penalty.

Creatin Alien $aces Finally, the part you have been waiting for. Lou have in mind the alien

civiliation, their history and culture, and maybe a drawing of what they look like. o

lets make an alien. This system only concerns itself with the biological aspects of thealien itself, and has nothing to do with their culture or psychology.



"reating aliens is broken down into ten systemsB ?orm, !hysical &xterior,

"ardiovascular ystem, :espiratory ystem io)tats, %ocomotion, ?eeding, ensory

and "ommunications, +eurological ystem, and pecial (daptations. +ot all systems areessential for a race to survive, but in many cases &! is astronomical for such a lac7 of a

system. ?or instance it costs 20 &! not to have a respiratory system, which is actually a

huge evolutionary advantage not needing to breathe.(s a general rule, all aliens must have the followingB form <formless counts as a

form>, cardiovascular system, respiratory system, bio)stats, feeding method and

neurological system. pecial adaptations include evolutionary advantages as well asUsuper powersU such as psionics or magic.

=n ?orm, the sie <relative to human> should be selected from between '0kg to

'00kg. This is to keep alien creation as level as possible. ;nce the alien is completed, it

may be scaled up or down as a Mekton. This is done last, as the scaling modifier affectsthe final &! of the race.

Example Alien

elow is a standard &arth human. This can be used as a guideline and as atemplate to Kuickly alter into other humanoid races. &xtra cosmetic features such as Ubald

with bone crest on the back of the headU or Upointed earsU are cosmetic effects with no &!cost.

:aceB 7uman eing

+ative CesignationB 7omo apiens apien7omeworldB &arth <aka Terra>

?ormB Multi)cellular "arbon)based, 30kg average &!N

!hysical &xteriorB kin with hair follicles # &!N

"ardiovascularB "lose centralied, # heart 5 &!N?luid TypeB 8arm blooded &!N

:espiratoryB (ir lungs, hold breath 5 minutes average &!N

%ifespanB 0 year unaugmented #2 &!Nleep TimeB '0I of the time 5 &!N

ulnerabilitiesB

:adiation, &xtreme, tunning ) &!Nacuum, trong, Hilling )5 &!N

=mmunities

/)?orcesB 3/ &!N

%ocomotioniped %ateral 8alker &!N

!artial wim 2 &!N

?eedingB ;mnivore &!Nensory

ight, ;ptical &!N

mell ' &!NTaste 2 &!N

Touch, Cirect 2 &!N

7earing, onic ' &!N

"ommunication



ocal "ommunication, onic 2 &!N

ody "ommunication # &!N

+eurologicalB +euro)&lectrochemical, "entralied 5 &!Npecial ?eatures

econdary %imbs, # pair &!N

?ine Manipulators <both hands> &!Nestige Manipulators <both feet> 0 &!N

estige Tail 0 &!

"rushing Aaw # &!N:acial "omplicationsB none racially

caleB x# <human>

Total "ostB 15 &!

;! "ostB ))

.orm

(ll alien races must have a form. This determines the aliens biochemistry,

structure and physical properties. &ven if an alien is formless, that is its form.!roto)cellular "arbon ased # &!N

"arbon based biochemical structures, lacking unified cellular organiation.!rimarily reserved for single)cell organisms. 7owever, large, macro)scale organisms

could display proto)cellular organiation. Most shapeshifters should be proto)cellular.

:eKuires water and basic carbon based cellular nutrients to support life. &nvironmentaltolerance reKuires either oxygen or ";2 for reparations, temperature range from between

)#0 to 0 " <at extremes>. 7igh intolerance to radiation and violently reactive chemicals.

( !hysical &xterior must be chosen, and it must be carbon based.

Multi)cellular "arbon ased &!N( multi)cellular carbon based form is typical of most &arth and &arth)like

creatures. (ll biological systems are comprised of specialied groups of microscopic

cells, clustered to form organs and internal structures that are the mechanisms of life.:eKuires water and basic carbon based cellular nutrients to support life. asic chemical

and biological structure is controlled by C+(. &nvironmental tolerance reKuires either

oxygen or ";2 for reparation, temperature range from )#0 to 0 " <at extremes>. 7ighintolerance to radiation and violently reactive chemicals. ( !hysical &xterior must be

chosen, and it must be carbon based.

Multi)cellular ilicate ased 5 &!N

imilar to carbon based, except silicon is a primary base element. "ells arecomprised of silicon crystal structures, but water is still essential. /rowth of biochemical

structures governed by a crystalline form of C+(. ilicon based organs, structures and

silicate chemical reactions are the mechanism of life. =t does reKuire water and basicsilicate nutrients. &nvironmental tolerance reKuires either oxygen or methane for

reparation, temperature range from )'0 to 50 " <at extremes>. 7igh intolerance to

radiation and violently reactive chemicals. ( !hysical &xterior must be chosen, and itmust be silicon based.

ilicon "rystalline 3 &!N

( silicon crystalline form is a complex structure organied in the form of silicon

based crystals. There are no cells, rather, the life forms existence is based purely on the



dynamics of the energy and growth patterns of the silicon crystals. *nlike non)living

crystals, a silicon crystal life form has a crystal)morphic bodyG that is, it can shape and

reform its crystals, allowing for a wide range of mobility, growth, and adaptation seen incarbon based life forms. ( silicon crystalline life form does not reKuire water. 7owever,

it does reKuire an abundant source of energy, typically in the form of solar radiation

<?eeding type is olar &nergy>. &nergy distribution can be chemically induced <select;smosis "irculatory ystem>. ;ther reKuirements should be similarly selected.

Temperature range from )'0 to 50 " <at extremes>. 7igh intolerance to radiation and

violently reactive chemicals. ( !hysical &xterior must be chosen, and it must be silicon based.

ilicon +on)"rystalline 3 &!N

&ssentially this is a living rock. (morphic mineral patterns within the non)

crystalline silicon stone form the energy conductive pathways for the basis of the beings brain <+eurological ystem type is electrical semiconductor>. Most rock beings lack

limbs and mobility. 7owever, UgolemU)like silicon rock creatures are possible with the

addition of limbs and mobility. Temperature range from )'0 to 50 " <at extremes>. 7igh

intolerance to radiation and violently reactive chemicals. ( !hysical &xterior isunnecessary, but may be taken. caled up to &xcessive scale, this might represent a

sentient planet.Metallic "rystalline #0 &!N

uch life is comprised of metallic compounds, crystals and often silicon as well.

These are not robots or machines, they are naturally evolved on worlds of metallic crystallife. ( metallic crystalline life form does not reKuire water <and should actually avoid it>.

(n abundant supply of energy is needed, with any conceivable feeding method

<"arnivorous in this case would be eating metals>. :espiratory and "irculatory systems

can be taken or select +one. Temperature range from )0 to 0 " <at extremes>. Most donot fare well in water <rusting>, and it may be vulnerable to other things such as radiation,

energy spikes, electricity, etc. !hysical &xterior is unnecessary but may be taken.

Mechanical ) (rtificial #0 &!NThis is a robot. :ealistically such a life form should be built using Mekton mecha

rules and scaled down as appropriate. =f the /M really wants to use this system for

making a robotic or cybernetic race, treat them as Metallic "rystalline above, except thatthey are, in fact, machines and not crystalline.

/aseous #5 &!N

The life forms body is made up of chemically active gasses clustered into a

cohesive cloud <typically colored or even glowing>. /enerally, the UgasU is simply billions of complex molecules interacting with one another. ( gaseous being can float,

but will drift aimlessly with the wind unless some kind of locomotion is taken </lide or

(ir Aet are most appropriate>. ?eeding method is usually solar, and many gaseous beingsreKuire respiration of some sort of reactive gas <oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, etc>.

"irculation should be ;smosis. +o !hysical &xterior is needed.

%iKuid 20 &!NThis life form has a gelatinous or cohesive body of chemical liKuid. This liKuid is

usually made of organic compounds, perhaps hydrocarbons, but can also be a silicate

compound. ?ully swim or slither <or both> is most appropriate for locomotion. "irculation

should be ;smosis. +o !hysical &xterior is needed.



onic :esonance '0 &!N

This life form does not exist within a physical body, rather, it resides in a

conscious pattern of sonic vibration, resonating through the molecules in the air or othernearby matter. =t must obtain energy to maintain its resonance, or it will fade away and

vanish. =t is impervious to kinetic damage, but energy does normal damage. onic attacks

can disrupt and even kill such a being. =t will die if exposed to a vacuum where soundcannot exist. This is an extremely exotic form, the precise nature of which should be

determined by the /M. +o !hysical &xterior needed.

!ure &nergy 0 &!N!atterns of energy comprise the form and consciousness of this life form. The

energy can be any formG light, radiation, magnetic, electrical, thermal, atomic

<fusion@fission>, Kuantum or whatever. The beings body is of pure energy, so it will not

have physical traits. +eurological system should be uperconductive. &nergy beings areimpervious to physical attacks, but energy attacks inflict normal damage. This is an

extremely exotic form, the precise nature of which should be determined by the /M. +o

!hysical &xterior needed.

pace)Time tructure Matrix 50 &!Neyond pure energy are conscious beings that exist within the folds and patterns

of space)time itself. 8here space can warp, bend and crumple, a powerful space)timeUmatrixU can form into a crystal)like pattern. This patter, like all patterns, can conceivably

develop self)awareness. This is an extremely exotic form, the precise nature of which

should be determined by the /M. +o !hysical &xterior needed.

Phsical Exterior

(ll physical beings must have a physical exterior. *nless the form selected states

one is unnecessary, pick one from below.kin # &!N

=f a race has nothing else, it must take skin. =n most cases, skin will have some

hair follicles, but not enough to count as fur.?ur 2 &!N

The species has a layer of fur. uch a being automatically has skin as above and

need not buy it again. !rimarily, this exterior helps in keeping warm in coldenvironments. ?ur may be taken in addition to other exteriors, such as shell or

exoskeleton.

cales 5 &!N

"ommon among reptile races. The scales are tough enough to provide J5 HC <5! against killing damage>.

?eathers &!N

(ll bird races should have this, although some dinosaur)like species may havethis as well. ?eathers provide J2 M( to flight.

hell 5 &!N

"ommon among shellfish and mollusks, and some dinosaurs. This provides J#5HC <#5 ! against killing damage>. Cue to the restricted mobility, the species has )#

(/=%.

&xoskeleton #0 &!N



This type is found on all insects and crustaceans. =t provides J#0 HC <#0 !

against killing damage>, but because it is fully articulated there is no penalty.

Car/iovascular Sstems

This is how nutrients are transported through the species body and how waste is

removed. =n some cases, this is not UcardiovascularU at all, but this category is the bestdescriptor for it. (ll races must select this category, even if +one is chosen. oth the

system and the fluid must be picked.

;pen "entralied "irculatory ystem )#0 &!NThis is a very primitive system where blood is pumped into a lung or gill, then

into a cavity where it is absorbed by surrounding tissues, then pumped back out. This

makes the species very fragile <)2 ;C>.

"losed "entralied "irculatory ystem 5 &!NThis is the normal system found on most animalsG consisting of a heart and

vessels. ome may have multiple hearts, helping ensure that if one is damaged that the

being can continue survival. &ach additional heart costs J' &! and adds J2 7its to the

torso@pool up to a maximum of J for a total of four hearts."losed Cecentralied "irculatory ystem #2 &!N

ame as closed centralied, however there is no central pumping organ. Musclesin the body pump the blood to the organs. The effect is that there is no central heart to

damage. The being gains J5 hits to the torso@pool.

;smosis "irculation #5 &!NThis can be considered open decentralied circulatory system, but is far more

advanced than any other circulation system. This should be used to describe highly exotic

forms of circulation, where energy, light, radiation or other forms of nutrient circulation

is necessary. asically, the fluid <or nutrient source> is simply filtered through the body. +one '0 &!N

This is for races with no circulatory system. e sure you understand what this

means before you select it. =n most cases, ;smosis should be taken. &ven if the being is pure energy, it must circulate fresh energy and expel waste heat somehow, and this is

usually ;smosis. Machines would use closed decentralied circulatory system, conveying

electrons through circuitry."old looded 2 &!N

uch beings are at the mercy of the environment. 8hen it gets too cold, they slow

down. 8hen it gets too hot, they also slow down. (t the extremes, they will die. ;nly at

certain temperatures are they at peak performance.(emp !odiiers

0)#0 " :&?@M(@!C x0.2 )5

##)20 " :&?@M(@!C x0.5 )'20)25 " :&?@M(@!C x0.15 )#

25)'0 " :&?@M(@!C x#.0 J0

'#)'5 " :&?@M(@!C x#.2 J2')0 " :&?@M(@!C x#.0 J0

#)5 " :&?@M(@!C x0.5 )'

J " Ceath or Cying

8arm looded &!N



uch beings are able to sustain their body temperature despite the outside

environment, to certain levels. Typical operating parameters are from )20 " to 0 " at the

extremes."hlorophyll 2 &!N

"hlorophyll is a green organic compound comprised of oxygen, hydrogen,

nitrogen, carbon and magnesium. =t absorbs solar radiation, used for photosynthesis. Loumust have ?eeding method olar and take (bsorption :espiration <"; or ";2>.

"hlorophyll is usually circulated via closed decentralied circulatory system, as found in

plants.;xygenated 7ydrocarbons 5 &!N

%iKuid hydrocarbon compounds that are oxygenated <or carrying ";2> can be

used to deliver oxygen and nutrients through a body. This may be found in multi)cellualr

carbon based aliens. 7ydrocarbons should be used on races in an &arthlike environment."hlorofluorocarbons and "hlorofluoromethane are similar, though more exotic,

derivatives of this. "hlorofluorocarbons can carry ;2 or ";2, but work at low

temperatures <below freeing> allowing for a temperature range of )50 " to 0 ".

"hlorofluoromethane works at even lower temperatures where ";2 is froen, so methaneis the choice chemical for respiration <that is, methane breathers use

"hlorofluoromethane for circulation>.(cidic "hemicals &!N

The race has acid for blood. This usually implies a highly exotic environment

<such as a sulfuric acid atmosphere>, but can also evolve in an &arthlike world <in whichcase oxygen is delivered by chemical reaction through the body>. uch a race is usually

impervious to acid itself. y default, the acid is not dangerous or corrosive. =t costs J# &!

for every #d 7its the acid blood can inflict, up to a maximum of #0d for compounds

such as hydrofluoric acid or aKua regia.&xotic "hemical &!N

;ther chemicals could also transport oxygen, ";2, methane, chlorine, fluorine

and other highly exotic gasses and nutrients. This is up to the /M. =f the chemicals caninflict damage like acid, this costs J# &! per #d damage up to #0d.

&nergy 5 &!N

&nergy is the UfluidU of circulation, be it thermal, electrical, light or whatever.*sually this is reserved for crystalline, silicate, energy or mechanical beings, and works

in con6unction with ;smosis or closed decentralied circulatory systems.

$espirator Sstem

Most races need to breathe a gas of some sort. 8hen picking a respiratory system,

the /M should indicate what gas or gasses the species inhales and what they exhale. +o

respiratory system should be picked if the species has no circulatory system. Multiplerespiratory systems may be selected, such as amphibious creatures.

(bsorption # &!N

The species absorbs gasses directly through its skin. Cue to the fragile nature ofraces with this, they suffer a )# penalty to ;C. =t should be specified whether this works

in air or water. =t costs 2 &! for it to work in both.

8ater /ills 2 &!N



/ills are external structures filled with gas absorbing tissue. /ills are vulnerable

to direct attack <x#.5 damage but ) called shot>.

8ater %ungs ' &!Nasically the same as water gills, except they are fully internal. These are found in

higher evolved non)terrestrial aKuatic life forms.

(ir /ills 2 &!NThis is a primitive oxygen extraction system, usually in the form of feathery fans

or fleshy external frills that absorb gasses. /ills are vulnerable to direct attack <x#.5

damage but ) called shot>.(ir %ungs 5 &!N

These are fully internal gas absorbing organs used for respiration <most &arth land

animals use these>.

7old reath # &! per 5 minutesNThis may be taken with any of the above systems. =t is assumed most average

beings can safely hold their breath for up to # minute. &ach &! spent on this increases the

safe time by 5 minutes. &arth whales can typically hold their breath for up to '0 minutes,

sometimes more. +o :espiration #5 &!N

This is for species that dont need to breathe at all. uch beings extract neededgasses from chemical synthesis and highly advanced anaerobic metabolic regulation.

*io&Stats

This is a collection of non)related biological traits.

%ife pan # &! per 5 yearsN

(ll races have a life span, even if that is rated in millennia. The average human

life span, un)augmented by medical@cybernetic technology, is approximately 0 years,which is #2 &!.

*n)(ging 5 &!N

This option is added to life span above. The species in Kuestion does not appear toage past full maturity <20)25 years as a human>. The race is not immortal, simply they do

not age, and will simply die <with a young corpse> at the end of their life span.

=mmortal 0 &!N=nstead of choosing a life span, this race does not age and can live eternally,

barring death from violence or accident.

leep Time variable &!N

Most races reKuire down time to rest and recover fatigue, heal and allow their brains to refresh. This is accomplished through sleep. This UsleepU time can also represent

meditation, lucid dreaming or any other process so long as the being is UincapacitatedU

during the rest period. The &! cost is based on the I of a 2)hour day <or I of howeverlong their planets day is> that they reKuire rest. ?or reference, humans need '0I of their

day for sleep <1 hours>.

Sleep 40I 30I 10I 0I 50I 0I '0I 20I #0I 0I %# )# 0 # 2 ' 5 3 #0

7ulnerabilities



These are evolutionary flaws. They might be caused by a lack of a substance on

their homeworld <such as * rays>, and when exposed to such, members of that race

have no protection and suffer damage. The range of vulnerabilities are as infinite as thenumber of substances and forms of energy in the universe, thus they cant all be listed.

The following will cover some of the most common ones.

Three things must be considered when choosing vulnerabilities. ?irst is howcommon the substance is to the campaign <not their homeworld>. econd is how much

damage it does. Third is whether this damage is stunning or killing damage.

?or exampleG radiation is extremely common in space, though earth is protected.Thus humans reKuire radiation protection on spacecraft and space stations. =f exposed to

radiation, we take damage.

8hile it might be tempting to list out every possible vulnerability a race might

have, such as water@drowning, only 2)' ma6or ones should be listed. Fre&uency )alue %0amples

ery :are # exotic matter, dark matter, anti)matter

:are 2 rare element, exotic chemical

*nusual ' radiation, chemical, vacuum"ommon metal, plastic, noise

ery "ommon 5 light, oxygen, water, salt 6ntensity )alue Damage

Mild # #d per turn

trong 2 2d per turnevere ' 'd per turn

&xtreme 5 5d per turn

Damage (ype !odiier

Mental @5tun @2

Hilling x#

Mental damage is essentially a psychological phobia and UdamagesU the beingsMental tability, which recovers at a rate of # per minute away from the source. Most

vulnerabilities are actually stun damage.

&xampleG humans have a vulnerability to intense radiation. Camage is extreme, but is only stun damage. This has a value of <' J5> ^ 3 @2 ^ G thus humans get &!

back.

<mmunities

These are the opposite of vulnerabilities. They make a race immune to something

that usually does damage. Lou cannot have an immunity to something you have a

vulnerability to. The &! is only half if the immunity only protects from stun damage. Thelist can be expanded by the /M as needed.

(ype %#

/)?orce <per 2/> #Cisease <per type> 2

(ll Ciseases #5

!oison <per type> 2

(ll !oisons #5



(cid #0

?ire@7eat #0

&lectricity #5:anged !hysical 25

Melee !hysical 20

*narmed !hysical 20onic #5

%ight@%aser 20

;ther &nergy Type 20 <ion, particle beam, plasma, etc>?or exampleG Total immunity to kinetic damage can be accomplished by

combining :anged, Melee and *narmed for 5 &!. Total immunity to energy would be

covered by combining ?ire@7eat, %ight@%aser, onic and ;ther &nergy if applicable for

0 &!.=mmunities are rare, and there should be an evolutionary explanation for having

one. 7aving immunity to 7eat@?ire may arise from evolving on a hot, volcanic planet.

Most immunities will be Cisease, !oison, (cid and &lectricityG the rest are more comic

book superhero than realistic.

Locomotion

=f a species is to be mobile, it must have some form of locomotion. Many races

have more than one form of locomotion. 7umans have iped <lateral walker> and partial

wim, while birds have 8inged ?light and iped <lateral 6umper>, and flying fish havefull wimming and /lide ?light.

+one 0 &!N

The species cant move and has 0 M(.

?ull wimming &!NThe race is designed for swimming in water or other liKuid. Members will have

fins and are aKuadynamic. They have 2x M( swim speed.

!artial wimming 2 &!NThe race isnt designed to swim, but has a form of locomotion that allows them to

swim, such as arms and legs that allow swimming. They have #x M( swim speed.

8inged ?light 5 &!NThe race has wings of some sort, which flap and allow them to fly without

restriction up to #000m attitude. They have 'x M( flight speed. =t costs J2 &! if the race

can hover.

/lide ?light ' &!NThe race has wings of some sort, but they can only use them to glide. They may

glide down or catch upward air currents, and it has to 6ump off higher levels to achieve

flight. They have 2x M( flight speed. uch beings will drop 2m per turn unless theycatch upward air currents.

/as ag ?light # &!N

The race has a large bag of hydrogen gas to support them on the air <hydrogen because helium is impossible to form biologically>. This race is very slow and normally

floats with the wind. Most will have fleshy fins or sails for maneuvering. They have #x

M( flight speed. (ir 6ets or winged flight could be used to make it fly faster. The gasbag

is very vulnerable to explosions, and lightning is the ma6or killer of such beings.



Aelly ag wimming # &!N

This is a bag of 6elly material in the form of a bubble <like a 6ellyfish>. =t allows

for floatation in water, either on the surface or underwater. (Kua 6ets or ?ull wimmingmust be taken for it to move on its own.

(Kua Aets 5 &!N

This is a water propulsion system seen on sKuid, octopi and 6ellyfish. 8ater issucked in and 6etted out the back, causing the creature to thrust forward. They have 'x

M( swim speed. =f 6elly bag swimming is also taken, the creature will not sink while

resting.(ir Aets 3 &!N

This is basically a turbo fan for flying creatures. =nstead of winged or glide flight,

this race has a 6et)like UengineU which sucks in air, then shoves it out at a faster rate,

using muscles or a biological eKuivalent of a turbo fan. They have 5x M( flight move.7over costs J2 &!.

lither 2 &!N

This is the motive system of snakes, snails and slugs. They have 0.5x M( move

speed.Monoped ' &!N

This race moves by hopping on a single large leg. =n most cases, the single legseems to have evolved from two legs that grew together. =t cannot walk and can only

6ump. They have 2x M( %eap.

iped <%ateral 8alker> &!NTypical for most bilateral bipedal races such as humans. Two legs, with the ability

to walk, run or 6ump. Movement is as per the basebook.

iped <%ateral Aumper> ' &!N

This is a two legged 6umper, like a kangaroo. =t cannot walk, only 6ump. Theyhave 2x M( for %eap.

iped <%inear 8alker> &!N

This is basically an evolved Kuadruped whose legs grew together to form twolegs, one in front and one in back. The creature is less stable but more agile. They have

x2 M( move, x M( run and x0.5 M( leap. They can only 6ump sideways.

Ouadruped &!NThe race has four legs, making them fast and good 6umpers. They have x' M(

move, x M( run and x# M( leap.

n)taped J &!N

This is a creature with any number of evenly paired legs above four. ase speedsare the same as Kuadruped. &ach additional pair of legs beyond ' pairs is J2 &! and will

increase move, run or leap <chosen when selected> by Jx#.

.ee/in +etho/

*nless the race does not reKuire food or liKuid, all races must have a feeding

method. The precise nature of its diet should be determined, based on the feeding methodand its homeworlds environment.

?or instance, a carnivore evolved on a silicone)based life planet would only be

able to eat Usilicate)meatU, and would not be a flesh)eating space monster.



:arely ever should food or life forms from another planet be digestible, and may

even be highly toxic. 7umans, for instance, would not be able to eat biomaterial native to

other worlds, unless an extremely cinematic view is taken.7erbivore # &!N

This race eats plant material, or the eKuivalent on their world. !lants should be

plentiful, however, they are not very filling. %arge herbivores must eat almost constantly."arnivore ' &!N

This race eats meat and fleshy material, or the eKuivalent on their world. =t must

hunt to find food, or if developed, operate farms and breed livestock. Most carnivores aresatisfied with one large meal per day.

cavenger 2 &!N

This race can eat any sort of dead or partially decayed material. =t does not hunt,

rather it scavenges. ( civilied scavenger society may have strict religious laws on howlong the food must be dead before it can be eaten.

;mnivore &!N

This race can eat both meat and plant material <J2 &! if they can scavenge>.

+ormally a few small meals or one large meal per day is enough.%iKuivore 2 &!N

This race feeds on liKuids. The exact method is up to the creator. This can be likevampire bats or spiders, or in6ecting digestive 6uice into a victim and slurping the broken

down matter out like many insects.

!arasite 0 &!NThis race must latch onto another organism and live off the hosts metabolism like

chiggers and tapeworms. 8ithout a host, the parasite dies.

olar &nergy #@'@@4 &!N

This race absorbs solar energy. This can be used for plants, or races that use photoelectric or other solar powered chemical processes. The &! cost is based on the

level of need.

%# Re&uirement # "onstant exposure

' 7alf of a day exposure <typical>

Ouarter of a day exposure4 ;ne hour exposure per day

Thermal &nergy ' &!N

Many bacterial and worms flourish on the deep)sea thermal vents on &arths

oceans. uch a feeding method could exist with alien races. 7ot thermal energy is used tocause the chemical reactions that sustain life. ulfur)based metabolism often fits well

with this type.

+one #5 &!NThe race does not reKuire food or water or energy intake. This is generally

unavailable, but some extremely evolved entities may have this ability.

Sensor an/ Communication

=n order to perceive and react with the environment, all creatures must have some

form of sensory input. The lack of sensory input affects the !erception checks of the race.

?or instance, lacking sight might increase hearing and scent. This is not a handicap,



rather, it is how the race evolved. The races history, culture, language and technology

must reflect their senses, or lack thereof.

ight, ;ptical pectrum &!NThis is basic sight as humans perceive it. ight is normally through UeyesU similar

to those of mammals or insects. Many exo)biologists believe that eyes are a Uuniversal

traitU found on all life on all planets, as they have evolved more)or)less the same onthousands of completely different &arth life forms. The cost is reduced by )2 &! if the

race is colorblind, and increased by J2 &! if the race has +ightvision.

ight, =nfrared pectrum &!NThis is sight in the low red to infrared range. =t allows the race to see primarily in

heat, making it less susceptible to the penalties of darkness. This may evolve on races

which life is underground or on planets with such dim stars that they live on Utwilight

worldsU.ight, :adio 8ave 3 &!N

:adio wave sight organs must be Kuite large, usually in the form of long antenna

or UfanU of connected antennae <for parabolic radio reception>. This only allows the race

to see radio waves, not interpret them as a radio message <unless it is blinking in alanguage they can understand, like Morse "ode>. 7owever, races with :adio

"ommunication must take this <or :adio 7earing> to receive messages.ight, *ltraviolet pectrum &!N

This is a form of sight that uses the ultraviolet portion of the &M spectrum. This

may evolve on worlds where a great deal of * radiation penetrates the atmosphere.(lternatively, the race may have * UflashlightU organs to illuminate their surroundings

for J# &!.

mell ' &!N

This sense works by taking in a sample of air and tasting it with specialiedorgans or tissues, which determine the chemicals and particles in the air. ignals are then

sent to the brain for interpretation.

Taste 2 &!NTaste evolved from the same system as mell, and generally the two are linked.

Taste is much more acute, but localied to food or items placed in the mouth. This can

help determine the Kuality of the food and if it is edible or poisonous. ?or taste sensors onthe outside, such as on the hands or feelers, this costs J# &!.

Touch, Cirect 2 &!N

ensors throughout the skin are able to detect pressure, damage <pain>, heat@cold

and other similar sensations.Touch, :anged &!N

asically the same as touch, but works at range. =t is used to feel pressure changes

and movement at long range. harks and other super)predators often have this ability.7earing, onic ' &!N

onic hearing is the sound perception sense familiar to humans and most &arth

animals. 7earing is usually parabolic, enabling the race to determine the source of thesound.

7earing, ubsonic ' &!N

This is hearing in the range below what humans can hear. :aces with this ability

often communicate in subsonic ranges as well.



7earing, *ltrasonic ' &!N

This is hearing in the range above what humans can hear. :aces with this ability

often communicate in ultrasonic ranges as well.7earing, :adio 5 &!N

This is hearing in the radio wave band of the &M spectrum. :aces with radio

hearing can pick up radio waves, although they may not be able to interpret them. peciesthat communicate via radio waves may use something similar to Morse "ode or a more

complex form of wavering radio sKueaks and whines. :aces with :adio "ommunication

must take this <or :adio ight>, to receive the radio message.onar 5 &!N

This race sees by sending out subsonic pings to roughly image its surroundings.

This works in either water or air, but not both. ?or both, this system must be purchased

twice.:adar 3 &!N

This race sees by sending out pulses of electromagnetic radiation, and receives the

reflection to image its surroundings. This is effective only in the air, but has a much

longer range and generates a crisper images than sonar can.&lectromagnetic ense 5 &!N

This is basically the ability to sense the polariation of strong &M fields, such as a planetary magnetic field. This is only used as a navigation aid and is found on most

flying animals. =t gives a J# bonus to +avigation, and may have other benefits.

&lectromagnetic =maging 3 &!NThis race can see electromagnetic fields created by magnets, electronics and even

natural brainwave patterns. =t can sense anything electrical, neuro)electrical, metallic or

magnetied.

(ntenna J2 &! per senseNThis is a set of sensory antenna which assist in sensing the environment through

subtle odors, shifts in the air and direct contact. (ny sensory system enhanced by antenna

gain a J# bonus to !erception checks.(cute ense J' &! per senseN

(s per the !erk.

&nhanced ense J5 &! per senseN(ny of the above systems can be enhanced beyond that of 6ust UacuteU. This

grants a J' bonus to !erception checks with that sense.

'0)degree ense J' &! per senseN

(ny of the above senses can be augmented to cover a full '0 degree arc. 7earingand smell are automatically '0 degree senses for free.

ocal "ommunication, onic 2 &!N

This is the form of communication used by most &arth creatures. =t is reKuiredthat the race has 7earing, onic to receive such communication.

ocal "ommunication, ubsonic ' &!N

(s per ocal "ommunication, onic except that the races noise is in the subsonicrange. =t is reKuired that the race has 7earing, ubsonic to receive such communication.

ocal "ommunication, *ltrasonic ' &!N



(s per ocal "ommunication, onic except that the races noise is in the

ultrasonic range. =t is reKuired that the race has 7earing, *ltrasonic to receive such

communication."hemical "ommunication # &!N

This is a fairly short)ranged <perhaps touch only> form of communication. =t is

accomplished by sending chemical signals in the form of odors of pheromones to othermembers of its race. :ange is limited to a maximum of #0m or less. (nts communicate in

this manner. =t is reKuired that this race has the mell sense, unless the range is Touch

only, in which case it needs Taste or mell. This can be boosted by (ntenna.ody "ommunication # &!N

&veryone knows what flipping the bird communicates. This form can be

complicated sign language or a full body dance. Cepending on the species physiology,

this can be a beautiful and exotic display to other races, even if they have no idea what is being communicated. =t is reKuired the race has some kind of sense to UseeU the gestures.

:adio "ommunication 5 &!N

The race can communicate through naturally evolved radio transmission. This has

extremely long range, and the airwaves around communities are filled with radio chatter.=ndividuals may have their own uniKue freKuency, or the entire race may share the same

one. :adio communication can come in two formsG :adio ight or :adio 7earing, andreKuires the appropriate receiving sense.

7ighly &xotic "ommunication 3 &!N

There are other, more exotic forms of communication that are possible. uchforms as tachyon, mental or psychic, intra)dimensional phase shifting or whatever. The

race must have an appropriate sense to receive the communication.

7ive Mentality 5 &!N

ome races are members of a large hive whose mind is spread out among manyindividuals instead of 6ust one. *sually this implies a shared or group memory,

centralied command <Kueen> and various levels of hierarchy <workers, drones, breeders,

etc>. &xactly how this works is up to the creator, but generally "hemical, :adio or &xoticcommunication are the choices. =t is unlikely such a race can be a !" unless it somehow

breaks from the hive and has enough self)intelligence.

(euroloical Sstem

=n &arth life, the neurological system encompasses the brain and nervous system.

?or alien races, this could be semi or super conductive circuitry, intra)cellular

communication or or other signal carrying methods. "urrent exo)biology studies showthat neurosystems similar <at least in form> to those on earth may be a universal trait, as

there are no successful examples of an alternate system. &ven computer processing can

be considered a primitive artificial neurological system. +euro)&lectrochemical, "entralied 5 &!N

This is the basic neurological system for all &arth life)forms. "hemical singles are

passed through nerves, special cells designed to Kuickly processes information, andtransport the singles to a central cluster of highly interconnected neurons. These neurons

communicate in a complex matrix of electrochemical signals, which translates to nothing

less than the eKuivalent of sentient bio)computer. Camage to the central processing center



<the brain> is can cause extreme critical damage. This is the base, default neurosystem,

and there are no characteristic modifiers for taking it.

+euro)&lectrochemical, Cistributed 5 &!Nimilar to above, however, there is no central processing center. Thought and

memory are distributed through the neural system of the entire body. =t is impossible to

make a direct hit on the brain. ;n the down side, severe in6ury to any part of the body cancause mental trauma or memory lose. ecause of the distribution, thinking tends to be

slower, but reflexes are somewhat enhanced. This grants J# (/=% but )# =+T.

iochemical, "entralied )5 &!NThere is no real nervous system, rather, each cell communicates directly with the

cells beside it, passing information by chemical osmosis. There is a central processing

center, a group of specialied cells with a high level of interconnectivity and rapid

chemical processing capability. Camage to the central processing center <the brain> is cancause extreme critical damage. This system is much slower and more primitive than

+euro)&lectrochemical. =t incurs )# =+T and )# (/=%. This gives $ac7 5 &!.

iochemical, Cistributed 0 &!N

imilar to above, but there is no need for a central processing center. Thought andmemory are distributed on a cellular basis, with each cell performing a small portion of

the brain function. =t is impossible to make a direct hit on the brain. ;n the down side,severe in6ury to any part of the body can cause mental trauma or memory lose. Thinking

and memory recall is not improved, but the added distribution helps alleviate the reflex

impediment by giving a Kuicker reaction time. This system only incurs a )# =+T.emiconductive, "entralied #0 &!N

This may be in the form of crystalline)metallic conduction, or a naturally evolved

silicon)based neural network. 8hatever the case, thought and memory are processed by

electrical impulses carried through semiconductor material. ignals are carried throughthe body in a similar fashion. Camage to the central processing center <the brain> is can

cause extreme critical damage. This should be the default system for all silicon)based

life)forms. This system works faster and better than neuro)electrochemical, giving a J#=+T and J# (/=%.

emiconductive, Cistributed #5 &!N

imilar to above, but there is no central processing center. Thought and memoryare distributed through the entire system, much like a network of billions of processing

nodes. =t is impossible to make a direct hit on the brain. ;n the down side, severe in6ury

to any part of the body can cause mental trauma or memory lose. Thinking and memory

recall is not improved, but the added distribution allows for faster reflexes. This grants aJ# =+T and J2 (/=%.

uperconductive, "entralied 20 &!N

imilar to semiconductive, however, the signals are carried on superconductivematerial. This may be optical, or it may be superconductive electrical. uch as system

would be possible on a race native to an extremely cold environment <such as a

crystalline being on a froen methane world>, or other such exotic life forms. ecause itcan think and react so fast, this grants J2 =+T, J2 (/=%.

uperconductive, Cistributed 25 &!N

imilar to above, but there is no central processing center. Thought and memory

are distributed through the entire system, much like a network of billions of processing



nodes. =t is impossible to make a direct hit on the brain. ;n the down side, severe in6ury

to any part of the body can cause mental trauma or memory lose. This is the default

system for energy beings, sentient worlds and stars, and other such super)entities wherethought and memory are processed by Kuantum weirdness, psionics, or 6ust plain magic.

This system grants J' =+T and J2 (/=%.

lind :eaction J2 &!NMembers of this race can counterstrike with no negative modifiers for darkness in

hand)to)hand, even if they cant see their opponent.

"ombat ense J2 &!@%evelNMembers of this race automatically react faster to danger. ?or every level taken

<up to 5>, this race gains a J# to =nitiative rolls in combat.

&idetic Memory J2 &!N

Members of this race can never forget anything, and can easily recall memoriesand information.

%ightening "alculator J2 &!N

Members of this race can automatically perform complex mathematics operations

withoutusing aids.

"ommon ense J2 &!NThis race has the "ommon ense Talent.

=ntuition J2 &!N

Members of this race have an uncanny feel for hunches, as per =ntuition Talent.Cirection ense J2 &!N

Members of this race never get lostG they always know there they are and can

orient without external clues.

Time ense J2 &!NMembers of this race always know what time it is and how much time has elapsed

between the present and the last time you checked.

Special .eatures

tuff to customie your alien race.

econdary %imbs variable &!NMost races that have limbs have only legs. These are covered in the %ocomotion

section. 7owever, many sentient life)forms have arms as well. =t costs &! points to

have one pair of arms. =t cost J5 &! each additional pair of arms <higher cost because it is

so rare>. uch limbs may be used to grasp, strike, and hold things. ?ine manipulators may be added <long fingers and an opposable thumb>, otherwise the limb is not automatically

capable of fine manipulation. estige %imbs are limbs that have atrophied over the

course of evolution. These may still have a slight value, able to move a bit, and perhapshold a very small or light ob6ect. ( vestige limb only costs # &! per pair, and should have

little use. (mbidexterity costs J2 &! per pair of limbs. Couble)Aointed also costs J2 &!

per pair of limbs.Tentacles &! per pairN

Many alien races seem to have tentacles. These are like limbs, but far more

flexible. Tentacles are basically the same as limbs <that is, they can grasp, strike, and

hold>, however, they cannot have fine manipulators. ;n the other hand, tentacles are far



more flexible than normal limbs, with an amaing degree of motion and grasping

capability. ;f then, this flexibility can more than make up for a lack of fingers or thumbs.

&ach pair of tentacles cost &!. ome races have only one tentacle <a trunk> and thiscost 6ust 2 &!. To have four pairs of tentacles <eight

tentacles> would cost #2 &!. ( tentacle can do striking damage eKual to normal punching

damage of the same trength. estige tentacles are called Tendrils, see below.Tendrils # &! per pairN

Co not mistaken tendrils with tentacles. Tendrils are smaller miniature tentacle)

like structures. They serve little practical functions, are often evolutionary leftovers fromgills, swimming fins, or other such structures. Tendrils may hang down from the face,

and serve as UlipsU or food)shoveling organs, which help in eating.

?ine Manipulators ' &! per limbN

?ine manipulators are those such as fingers, thumbs, or something eKuivalent.They enable delicate or fine manipulation of small ob6ect, tools, buttons, and other such

abilities familiar to us all. =t cost ' &! per limb, therefore, to give fine manipulators on

both limbs would cost &!. estige manipulators are fine manipulators that have

atrophied over the course of evolution. ;n humans, the toes of our feet have becomevestige manipulators. They still served a small purpose, but are not very useful for fine

manipulation. estige manipulators cost 0 &!.Tails # &! for oneN

Tails can be used for stabiliation, arboreal movement, or striking. Many animals

have tails that serve only to assist in movement <bird tails and so on> or have no purposeat all, as is the case for horses and dogs. (s this is 6ust the nature of their design, these

cost # &!

7owever, tails that can strike, or are used as a UtentacleU cost 2 &! <basically, this

is a tentacle, and should be treated as such>. estige tails are simple, useless flaps of skin,and normally completely vanish within a few generations <though a bone structure may

remain where they were>. uch vestige tails cost 0 &!.

:apid :egeneration #0 &!NThis ability allows the race to heal at a much faster rate. =nstead of days, this race

will recover a number of hits eKual to its :&" every hour when resting.

=nstant :egeneration 20 &!NThis ability allows the race to heal at an astounding rate, even faster the :apid

:egeneration. =nstead of days, this race will recover a number of hits eKual to its :&"

every minute when resting.

:egrowth #0 &! per levelNThis ability allows the race to regrow lost limbs or body parts. (t %evel #, it can

regrow tails, fingers, toes and other small, simple parts. (t %evel 2 it can regrow limbs,

ears, and will not get permanent scar tissue. (t %evel ' it may regrow more complexorgans such as eyes, vital organs, and even recover from neurological damage to the spin

and brain. The time it takes to regrow one lost body part is eKual '0 days, divided by the

level taken <so at %evel ' it would only take #0 days>. =f :apid :egeneration is alsotaken, cut this time by half. =f =nstant :egeneration is taken, cut the time by X.

+atural (rmor # &! per !CN

+ormally, an race has ero !C armor. 7owever, a shell, exoskeleton, thickly

matted hair, tough skin, and so forth and call provide armor protection. =t cost # &! to add



# !C of natural armor protection. :emember, 50 !C eKuals one Hill of armor. %arger

races may have as much armor as some vehicles or mecha.

&nhanced Metabolism 5 &!N8ith this characteristic, a races metabolic systems are much more finely tuned

and efficient that the normal. This race uses energy, food, air, and water <or the

eKuivalent> to its utmost advantage, excreting far less waste and thus reKuiring less foodand water. The races eating and drinking reKuirements are half. ?urthermore, it can also

hold its breath twice as long, and can go without water for extreme periods of time.

"hameleon 5 &! per %evelN"hameleon ability allows a race to change color in relation to its surroundings.

%evel # to ' only allows for slight body color shifts and camouflage. %evel is partial

invisibility, and level 5 is full invisibility. Thus, for each level, the race receives a J# to

tealth.(t level the race can turn, effectively, invisible, however, he still has a Ufringe

effectU around him. (n invisible race with a fringe effect can be spotted at a range of 2

meters or less. (t level 5 the race is totally invisible with no fringe effect. ?or %evels # to

', only the tealth bonus is of conseKuence <J# through J'>. ?or %evels and 5<invisible> there is the J and J5 tealth bonus, as well as the bonuses from the

invisibility effect.=f an opponent cannot make a !erception check, then he is at Y <(/=% J kill> in

hand)to)hand and 0 <(/=% J kill> at range. =f the opponent can make a non)targeting

!:& test, he is at Y <(/=% J kill> for both hand)to)hand and ranged combat. =f theinvisible creature is making a visible attack, the attacker is only a )# to his (/=%, even at

:ange.

pines 2 &!N

These can be spiked hair <like a porky pine> or bony spines <like a sea urchin>.&ither way, spines are normally for defense, not attack. ( race with spines will

automatically inflict damage to an attacker if it comes into direct contact. pines

normally do #d damage on contact, but can be poisoned <see !oison /lands>. =f spinesare on a striking tail or limb, that limb becomes a lethal weapon, and will do Hilling

damage instead of tun damage.

pikes &!NThese are normally bony spikes or horns <as on a triceratops or stegosaurs, or

modern horned animals.>. pikes are designed to be used aggressively. ( race with spikes

can make a charging or striking attack <depending on how the pikes are arranged>, and

will do !unching damage J2 C", but as Hilling, instead of tunning. =f spikes are on astriking tail or limb, that limb becomes a lethal weapon, and will do Hilling damage

instead of tun damage, with a J2 C".

"laws ' &! per limbN"laws are weapons that are attached to limbs or fine manipulators, such as a lions

claws or bears claws. They automatically make any damage done by that limb Hilling

instead of tunning.!incer "laws &! per limbN

!incer claws are those such as on crabs, lobsters, or a praying mantis. They act as

semi)fine manipulators, able to do some limited manipulation, but nothing as fine as true

fine manipulators are capable of. !incers are primarily weapons. They can grasp and hold



a target <as per /rab or "hoke 7old maneuvers>, and inflict terrible crushing damage to

the target. 8hen grasp, a pincer will inflict !unching damage to the target, but the

damage is Hilling instead of tunning. "hoke 7old is extremely deadly <giving anadditional J2C" killing damage>.

"rushing Aaw # &!N

This is a 6aw that has strong crushing action. Most large land creatures have thistype of mouth for chewing and eating plants and meat. iting damage is # C" killing

damage.

?anged Aaw 2 &!NThis is a 6aw that consists of two to four sharp fangs. nakes and spider have this

type of mouth. iting does 2 C" killing damaged, but many fangs may also have poison

glands.

:aor Aaw ' &!NThis is a 6aw which consist of doens of raor sharp teeth. Many carnivorous

animals have this type of mouth. iting damage is eKual to ' C".

!oison /lands ariousN

These are glands that secrete deadly poison. They may be placed in fangs, claws,spins, on the skin, or even in the mouth for direct spitting. =t is assumed the races is

immune to its own poison. &ach gland cost a certain amount of &!, depending on how potent it is. ;ne gland supplies poison to only specific body part. The possible parts areB

pines, pikes, "laws, ?angs, kin <for direct contact>, or lood <making the race toxic

to eat>. Thus, to poison both "laws and ?angs this must be bought twice. pittingcapability cost J2 &!, but it can be used at range, up to #0 meters.

#oison #otency Damage Cost

=rritant # C" tun # &!

Mild ' C" tun 2 &!Moderate C" tun ' &!

erious # C" Hilling &!

evere 2 C" Hilling 5 &!Ceadly C" Hilling &!

"orrosive J# C" Hilling J# &!

(cidic J2 C" Hilling J2 &!!aralying pecial J2 &!

=nstant &ffect pecial J2 &!

+ormally, poisons take effect in #C minutes, unless =nstant &ffect is taken. ?or

=nstant &ffect, the poison takes effect in #C seconds. This is common for deadly, acidic,or corrosive poison <(cidic poison is by default instant, but "orrosive is not>. !aralying

poison can paralye its victim <temporarily> by interfering with signals from the nervous

system to the brain. 8hen infected by a paralying poison, the victim must make asuccessful ;C task roll vs. #3 or be paralyed for #C minutes. =t should be remember

that poisons may have a different effect, or no effect at all, on races of a different or alien

metabolism.&lectroshock ' &! per %evelN

The race is able to produce an electric field through a series of electricity

discharging organs. &ach %evel produces # C" tun damage with a range of # meter.

7owever, this uses a lot of energy, and so the creature must expend 2 &+C for every



level used. ?or instance, at level , the creature can generate an electroshock field out to

meters doing C" of tun damage, and it will expend 3 &+C points. This can be made

to Hilling damage for x2 "ost and x2 &+C expenditure. ?or a more superheroic %ightingolt throwing abilities, see uperpowers, !sionics, or Magic.

&nhanced "haracteristics 5 &! per %evelN

This race has characteristic enhancements far greater than what would benormally possible. etter neural connection, stronger bones or denser muscles, greater

constitution, and so forth, &ach J# level to a primary characteristic cost 5 &!.

:educed "haracteristics )5 &! per %evelNThis race has reduced characteristics that are below those which should have

naturally evolved. &ach )# level to a primary characteristic returns 5 &! to use elsewhere.

&nhanced econdary "haracteristics

%ike enhanced !rimary "haracteristics, a race may have better secondary<derived>

characteristics, above and beyond what should normally be possible.

J2 C - &C for 5 &!

J# !C for #0 &!J# :&" for 5 &!

J2 &+C for # &!J' :& for J5 &!

J# T*+ for # &!

J# 7=T for # &!:educed econdary "haracteristics

%ike reduced !rimary "haracteristics, a race may have poor secondary <derived>

characteristics, below what should have naturally evolved.

)2 C - &C returns 5 &!)# !C returns #0 &!

)# :&" returns 5 &!

)2 &+C returns # &!)' :& returns 5 &!

)# T*+ returns # &!

)# 7=T returns # &!(ltered Time cale 5 &!@)#0 &!N

?or some reason, this race is out of sync with the normal flow of time. This may

be an accelerated or decelerated time)scale.

(ccelerated Time cale means the races time scale runs much faster. (cceleratedto 50I above normal <costing 5 &!> the race gains a J# !C, but its apparent life span is

cut by 15I <to that race, however, their life)span is normal>. "ommunication is difficult

<)# !:&> becausemembers of this race talk very fast <but they act naturally to other members of their race>.

There may also be other time effects to consider. (t double speed time scale <costing #0

&!>, the race gains a J2 !C, but its apparent life span is half. (t x' <costing #5 &!>, therace gains J' !C, but its apparent life span is cut by #@'. This can continue for x, x5,

x, and so forth, but it becomes impractical.

Cecelerated Time cale means the races time scale runs much slower. (t 15I

slower <returning #0 &!> the race has a )# !C, but its apparent life span is increased by



50I. "ommunication is difficult <)# !:&> because members of this race talk so slow. (t

half time scale <costing )20 &!> the race has )2 !C, but its apparent life span is double.

This can continue for x.25, x.#', and so forth, but it becomes impractical.Total "oordination &!N

This race has a greatly enhanced coordination ability, able to fully coordinate

their body and balance. This grants (mbidexterity, as well as a J' to any (/=% roll tokeep balance, and skills such as climbing, acrobatics, and athletics.

Metabolic "ontrol &!N

( race with full metabolic control can control all normally involuntary functionsof the body, such as pulse, blood flow, respiration, digestion, endocrine, and adrenaline.

Metabolic control gives the ability to imulate Ceath and also reduces by '0I the

amount of food, water, and oxygen need to stay alive.

=nsubstantiality 50 &!@'0 &!NThis race can become <or is> insubstantial, that is, made of ectoplasm, strange,

Kuasi)physical particle, Kuantum energy)matter, exo)dimensional croutons, or whatever.

?or 50 &! this race can turn from its native form to a fully insubstantial form at will. ?or

'0 &! it is permanently insubstantial. +ote that for races with a /aseous body, or a bodyof energy, sonic, or other strange physics, it may have some partially insubstantial

advantages, but it is not fully insubstantial. =nsubstantiality allows the being to passthrough all solid ob6ects as if they did not exist. 7owever, it cannot carry, hold, or

manipulate physical ob6ects either. !hysical attacks <killing and stunning> have no effect.

&nergy attacks do hal damage, and mental and telepathic attacks will have effect asnormal.

=nsubstantial beings are still visible as a glowing ghostly image. =t must take

"hameleon at level or 5 to be completely invisible and insubstantial.

hapeshifting 5 &!@25 &!NThis is the ability for members of this race to change their form at will. There are

two versions of hapeshift. ;ne is ingular hifting, meaning the race has two forms

which it can shift between <a werewolf, for instance, is a singular shapeshifter>. =t cost J5&! each additional ingular form, so for #5 &!, a race could have ' different forms.

7owever, for a full 25 &! the race could be universal polymorphs, able to shift their

bodies at a cellular or even molecular level, to turn into any creature or ob6ect they desire.&ach form should have the same basic characteristics as the individual. !hysical

"haracteristics, however, can be shifted. That is, if turning into a lion, the points between

C&R, :&?, T:, ";+, ;C, and M;& can be slightly rearranged <by J@) 2 points, or

as the /M wishes>, and this allows the shapeshifter to better fit his new form. Lou cannotadd new points to the "haracteristics when you change form, only exchange your existing

points. Mass should never change in a realistic setting, though the body can become more

or less dense to fit a larger or smaller sie. ( polymorph <one who has many forms> must be familiar with the creature or ob6ect he is morphing into. tudying a form for an hour

should be sufficient to memorie it.

8hen attempting to shift into the form of another being, it may be necessary to mimictheir

voice. This reKuires the shapeshifter to have a skill in Mimicry. The shapeshifter must

also possess that beings native communication method. 7e cannot mimic radio broadcast

or other sophisticated traits unless they are part of his races evolution.



Most hapeshifters are !rotocellular with a +euro)chemical or iochemical

Cistributed neurological system. :espiration is often (bsorption and circulation is

typically by ;smosis. The race must pay points for any traits they are capable of using.That is, if the race has Two (rms and they take a form with four arms, they can only use

two at a time. This applies to all traits and features. There are no free deals in purchasing

hapeshifter.!sionics

ome races may demonstrate psionic powers. !sionic powers <such as telepathy,

teleportation, &!, etc.> can be purchased for a race from (tomik !sioniks. &achcategory of a power can be bought at a certain level <&! level 5>, and there are a number

of different ways to use the power <each method is a separate skill>.

?or instance, in (tomik !sioniks, Telepathy cost 2 !! per level. =f a race has level

5 Telepathy, this would cost #0 !!, or 50 ;!. This translates to 50 &!. 7owever, becauseit is for an entire race, it is only an advantage outside their race. Therefore, racially

granted psionic powers are half cost <a good dealP>. %evel 5 Telepathy, therefore, only

cost 25 &!. The cost of additional enhancements for any individual cost the normal

amount <for additional levels or other powers> and uses ;! or !!. Members of a psionicrace must also have a != characteristic. The race could have a default != which cost 5

&! per level <!= would cost 20 &!>. ee (tomik !sioniks for details.uperpowers

There are many superpowers to chose from in the various Champions' (N!

books. ( superheroic alien race may have many superpowers above and beyond normalalien racial powers. ( race may have superpowers, built as normal in Champions' (N! ,

and the final &! cost <for the race> is the powers !! x '. That is, if the power cost 5 !!, it

would only cost #5 &!. Aust as for psionics, these powers are only special outside their

native race, so the racial cost is lower <it would normally be !! x 5, but is only !! x '>.*sing superpowers is a good way to give aliens even more diverse traits and abilities.

&ach power does reKuire a *se !ower kill.

Magicome aliens may have magical powers. ;ften, these effects are created by

technology, psionics, or superpowers. ut, in a universe where real magic can exist, and

alien race <or fantasy raceP> may inherently have magical abilities. ?or magic, (tomikMagick should be used. ( race with inherent magical powers has some native level of

M(/&. &ach level of M(/& cost 5 &!. Therefore, to have a M(/& characteristic at

level would cost '0 &!. &ach spell is a skill that can be learned, 6ust like any ordinary

skill. ;ther magical options, such as the magical casting system, aptitudes, and so forth,can also be specified for the race. ?or instance, a race of &lves might have a native

M(/& of 5, costing 25 &!, and the spell casting system &lven Magic. =ndividual elves

may purchase a higher level of M(/& at character creation.

Scalin $aces

ometimes you need an alien species that isnt human sied. This works notunlike scaling mecha. 8hen scaling races, x# is human scale rather than x#@#0.Scale *F S#$ CF( +A SP0C General EP

x#@#0 x#@' x#@' )2 x#@2 x#@5 x#@#0 x#@5

x#@5 x#@2 x#@2 )# x2@' x#@' x#@5 x#@'

x# x# x# J0 x# x# x# x#



x5 x' x2 J# x2 x' x5 x5

x#0 x5 x' J2 x5 x#0 x#0 x#0

x#00 x25 x J' x#5 x50 x50 x#00

x#000 x50 x5 J5 x'0 x#000 x500 x2500

/eneral covers anything not already listed.

Micro cale is x#@#0. This is the scale for insects, bugs and itty)bitty things.

Mini cale is x#@5. This is for rodents and larger bugs. This is the smallest youshould go for sentient races.

7uman cale is x#. This covers anything from the sie of a house cat to a bear.

Cino cale is x5. This is up to the sie of elephants and dinosaurs. The 9entraedifrom Macross fit into this scale.

Mekton cale is x#0. This is the same as #B# scale Mekton mecha. The largest of

dinosaurs falls in this scale. Mekton scale creatures would weigh from 20 to #00 tons.uper cale is x#00. This is the same as #B#0 scale "orvette mecha. uch

creatures would be enormous, and likely confined to water, floating in the air of outer

space. Cragons could fall in this scale. "reatures in this scale would range in thehundreds of tons.

*ltra cale is x#000. This is the same as #B#00 scale tarship mecha. uchcreatures would weigh in the tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of tons.

&xcessive cale. This is so large that giving such a creature stats would bemeaningless. 7ow much ;C does a living planet haveV

Aliens (ot from SpaceH

The alien rules are useful for more than 6ust space aliens. They can be used to

detail out fantasy races such as orcs and elves, or even post)apocalyptic mutants on a

war)torn futuristic &arth. %isted below are a handful of races detailed out with this systemto give the /M an idea on how to assemble an alien species.

Kzinti (also, Wing Commander Kilrathi)

Context: Larry Niven's Known Space sagaHomeworld: KzinForm: Multicelluar Carbon Based, !!"g ave#,$ %&Physical Exterior: ur (orange or yello), %&Cardiovascular: Close Centralized, heart, * %&Fluid Type: Warm Blooded, $ %&Respiratory: +ir Lungs, hold breath * min, %&Bio!tats"i#e!pan: *! years (unaugmented), ! %&



!leepTime: -!. o/ the time, * %&$ulnera%ilities:

0adiation, %1treme, 2tunning, 3$ %&4acuum, 2trong, Killing, 3* %&

&mmunities: 53orces, ! 5s, * %&"ocomotion:

Bi6ed, Lateral Wal"er, $ %&&artial 2im, %&

Feedin' (ethod: Carnivore, - %&!ensory:

2ight, 76tical ith Nightvision %&2mell, %nhanced (8- &erc6t#), 9 %&:aste, %&:ouch, ;irect, %&<earing, 2onic, +cute (8), %&

Communication:4ocal Comm, 2onic, %&Body Comm#, %&

)eural: Neuro3%lectrochemical, Centralized, * %&!pecial Features

2econdary Limbs, 6air, $ %&ine Mani6ulators (both limbs), %&Clas (both 6as), %&4estige Mani6ulators (on /eet), ! %&:ail, non3stri"ing, %&Crushing =a, %&:otal Coordination, $ %&%nhanced 2:0 8-, * %&%nhanced B7; 8, ! %&0educed >N: 3, 3* %&0educed &0% 3, 3* %&

Racial Complications: Kzinti Code o/ <onor, 3* %&!cale: 1 <uman3scale

T*T+" P*&)T C*!T: !* %&*P C*!T: -! 7&

The Hinti are a race of feline <lion)like> warriors. The Hinti are a proud and honor drive race,

though brutal and unsympathetic to other races. The Hinti expand their boarders through war and

conKuest, but their recent encounter with humanity proved fatal. +ever once have the Hinti beenvictorious in any of the Man)Hin wars, and the Hinti &mpire has been reduced to a mere fraction of its

former glory. The Hinti race can also double for the Hilrathi of Wing Commander .

$ulcan



Context: 2tar :re"Homeworld: 4ulcanForm: Multicelluar Carbon Based, 9!"g ave#, $ %&Physical Exterior: 2"in (ith hair /ollicles), %&Cardiovascular: Close Centralized, heart, * %&

Fluid Type: Warm Blooded, $ %&Respiratory: +ir Lungs, hold breath * min, %&Bio!tats"i#e!pan: !! years (unaugmented), ! %&!leepTime: !. o/ the time, %&$ulnera%ilities:

0adiation, 2evere, Killing, 3 %&4acuum, 2trong, Killing, 3* %&

&mmunities: 53orces, 9 5s, $ %&"ocomotion:


Feedin' (ethod: 7mnivore, $ %&

!ensory:2ight, 76tical, $ %&2mell, - %&:aste, %&:ouch, ;irect, %&<earing, 2onic, - %&

Communication:4ocal Comm, 2onic, %&Body Comm, %&

)eural:Neuro3%lectrochemical, Centralized, * %&%idetic Memory, Lightning Calc#, $ %&

!pecial Features2econdary Limbs, 6air, $ %&

ine Mani6ulators (both limbs), %&4estige Mani6ulators (on /eet), ! %&4estige :ail, ! %&Crushing =a, %&%nhanced >N: 8, * %&%nhanced 2:0 8, * %&:ele6athy Level , * %&

Racial Complications:No %motions, 39 %&



<onesty, 3* %&!cale: 1 <uman3scaleT*T+" P*&)T C*!T: ?* %&*P C*!T: ! 7&

ulcans are a very humanoid race, the only difference being in their pointed ears and usage of

copper)oxide instead of iron)oxide for blood. ulcans are obsessively logical and suppress their emotions

to the point of effectively nullifying them. ulcans are culturally incapable of lying. They are telepathic.

,enomorph o# "$-./

Context: Aliens motion 6icture seriesHomeworld: @n"nonForm: Multicelluar Carbon Based, -!"g ave#,$ %&Physical Exterior: %1os"eleton ! K;, ! %&Cardiovascular: Close Centralized, heart, * %&Fluid Type: +cidic 3 A;C, %&Respiratory: +ir Lungs, hold breath -! min, %&Bio!tats"i#e!pan: ! years (unaugmented), %&!leepTime: !. o/ the time, %&$ulnera%ilities: None&mmunities:

53orces, ! 5s, * %& +cid, ! %&%lectricity, * %&

"ocomotion:Bi6ed, Lateral Wal"er, $ %&&artial 2im, %&


2mell, %nhanced (8-), 9 %&:aste, %&:ouch, ;irect, %&



:ouch, 0anged, %&<earing, 2onic, +cute (8) %&

Communication:%1otic Comm# (:ele6athy), 9 %&<ive Mentality, * %&


2econdary Limbs, 6air, $ %&ine Mani6ulators (both limbs), %&Clas (both hands), %&4estige Mani6ulators (on /eet), ! %&:ail, (stri"ing tentacle), %&Crushing =a, %&0a6id 0egeneration, ! %&%nhanced Metabolism, * %&Metabolic Control, $ %&%nhanced 2:0 8-, * %&%nhanced B7; 8-, * %&0educed >N: 3, 3! %&0educed &0% 3, 3! %&

0educed :%C< 3, 3* %&Racial Complications: None!cale: 1 <uman3scaleT*T+" P*&)T C*!T: A %&*P C*!T: ! 7&

They are the perfect product of artificial evolution, the epitome of alien genetic engineering and

bio)warfare. "reated by a now extinct alien civiliation, the (liens are the ultimate killing machines. They

exist in four stages of development )) from egg to UfacehuggerU, to chestburster to adult. !resented here is

the adult, though the Oueen (lien is much more powerful. (liens have an exoskeleton giving them #0

HC@C! of natural armor. They do not use visual sight as a sense, but rely on smell, hearing, and ranged

touch <motion sensing>.

!ylvan El#

Context: antasy 5enreForm: Multicelluar Carbon Based, 9!"g ave#, $ %&Physical Exterior: 2"in (ith hair /ollicles), %&Cardiovascular: Close Centralized, heart, * %&Fluid Type: Warm Blooded, $ %&Respiratory: +ir Lungs, hold breath * min, %&Bio!tats"i#e!pan:



!! years (unaugmented), ! %&@naging %nhancement, ! %&

!leepTime: -!. o/ the time, * %&$ulnera%ilities:


&mmunities: 53orces, 5s, - %&"ocomotion:


Feedin' (ethod: 7mnivore, $ %&!ensory:

2ight, 76tical ith Nightvision, %&%nhanced 2ight (8-), * %&2mell, - %&:aste, %&:ouch, ;irect, %&<earing, 2onic, - %&

Communication:4ocal Comm, 2onic, %&

Body Comm, %&)eural:

Neuro3%lectrochemical, Centralized, * %&;irection 2ense, %&

!pecial Features2econdary Limbs, 6air, $ %&ine Mani6ulators (both limbs), %&4estige Mani6ulators (on /eet), ! %&4estige :ail, ! %&Crushing =a, %&:otal Coordination, $ %&%nhanced >N: 8, * %&%nhanced ;% 8, * %&

0educed B7; 3, 3* %&0educed 2:0 3, 3* %&

Racial Complications: None!cale: 1 <uman3scaleT*T+" P*&)T C*!T: !* %&*P C*!T: -! 7&

ylvan elves are a race of magical humanoids who inhabit forests and woodland areas. They are

typically tall, thin, and have beautiful or handsome features. &lves have prominently pointed ears and

sharp facial features. Most have fair skin and hair color ranges from dark to golden blond or even silver white. ylvan &lves have a very long life span, upwards of #00 years on the average, though some

elves live far longer, and they do not age past their mid)twenties. &lves are Kuite magical, and usuallyknow several elemental and nature spells.

0reat 1ra'on



Context: antasy 5enre

Context: antasy 5enreForm: Multicelluar Carbon Based, $ %&Physical Exterior: 2cales (* K;), * %&Cardiovascular: Close Centralized, heart, * %&Fluid Type: Cold Blooded, %&Respiratory: +ir Lungs, hold breath ! min, A %&Bio!tats"i#e!pan: -!! years (unaugmented), ! %&!leepTime: 9!. o/ the time, ! %&$ulnera%ilities:


&mmunities:

53orces, ! 5s, * %&<eatire, ! %&"ocomotion:

Duadru6ed, $ %&Winged light, (M74% 1$), * %&


2ight, 76tical, $ %&2ight, >n/rared, %&2mell, - %&:aste, %&:ouch, ;irect, %&<earing, 2onic, - %&

Communication: 4ocal Comm, 2onic, %&


4estige Mani6ulators (on /eet), ! %&Clas (all four /eet), %&:ail, (stri"ing tentacle), %&26i"es on :ail (8 ;C), $ %&Crushing =a, %&Natural +rmor (8* K;), * %&iery Breath (*;C Killing +ttac"), A %&



%nhanced B7; 8-, * %&%nhanced 2:0 8, ! %&

Racial Complications: None!cale: 1! Me"ton3scale, ($3K +rmor)T*T+" P*&)T C*!T: ??* %&*P C*!T: ?! 7&

/reat Cragons are powerful magical beasts. They are Kuite enormous, most nearly a hundredmeters from head to tail. They have a large body, long neck and tail, and have a similar appearance to a

great reptile or dinosaur. *nlike some lesser dragons, /reat Cragons have mighty wings that enable them

to fly, some upwards of 0 km per hour. /reat Cragons are at x#0 Mekton cale. %esser Cragons are

similar, but x5, and (ncient Cragons are x#00 caleP /reat Cragons have a T: usually ranging between

#0 to #, and a ;C of '0 to 0. Thus, /reat Cragons usually have between #50 to 200 7its, or ' to

Hills. Their scaly bodies also provide Hills of armor protectionP The /reat Cragons ?iery reath does

5C" x #0, x#0 as the /reat Cragon has been scaled. This is 50 C" damage, or simply, a '. Hill attack.

1raenei

Race: ;raeneiNative ;esignationE F<omeorldE +rgus, ;raenor

Form: Multi3cellular Carbon3based, 9!"g average G$ %&HPhysical Exterior: 2"in ith hair /ollicles G %&H Cardiovascular: Close centralized, heart G* %&HFluid Type: Warm blooded G$ %&HRespiratory: +ir lungs, hold breath * minutes average G %&H"i#espan: ! year unaugmented G %&H!leep Time: -!. o/ the time G* %&H$ulnera%ilities:

0adiation, %1treme, 2tunning G3$ %&H4acuum, 2trong, Killing G3* %&H

&mmunities53orcesE 95 G$ %&H

"ocomotionBi6ed Lateral Wal"er G$ %&H&artial 2im G %&H

Feedin': 7mnivore G$ %&H



!ensory2ight, 76tical G$ %&H2mell G- %&H:aste G %&H:ouch, ;irect G %&H<earing, 2onic G- %&H

Communication4ocal Communication, 2onic G %&HBody Communication G %&H

)eurolo'ical: Neuro3%lectrochemical, Centralized G* %&H!pecial Features

2econdary Limbs, 6air G$ %&H:endrils, &air G %&Hine Mani6ulators (both hands) G %&H<ooves (both /eet) G! %&H&rehensile :ail G %&Hanged =a G %&H%nhanced &0% G! %&H%nhanced C77L G! %&H>nherent MagicE M+5% G! %&H

Racial Complications:>ntolerance to 7rcs (3!)Code o/ <onor (3!)

!cale: 1 (human)Total Cost: !! %&*P Cost: * 7&

The Craenei are a race of humanoids with digitigrade U6ackU legs. oth genders have horns andfour small, prehensile tendrilsG males have them from the chin while females have them from the base of

the skull. Males further have a ridged plate at the forehead. They are naturally inclined towards magic, and

tend to take up occupations as priests, paladins or wiards. They have blue blood, and their skin is some

shade of blue, blue)purple or blue)white. Their hair ranges from white, black, brown, deep blue and deep

purple.

(nd the last one..

(artian2 0reen

Race: Martian, 5reenNative ;esignationE F<omeorldE Mars (Ma'aleca'andra in their language)

Form: &roto3cellular Carbon3based, 9!"g average G %&HPhysical Exterior: 2"in ith hair /ollicles G %&H Cardiovascular: 7smosis G* %&H



Fluid Type: Warm blooded G$ %&HRespiratory: No 0es6iration G* %&H"i#espan: %//ectively >mmortal G$! %&H!leep Time: -!. o/ the time G* %&H$ulnera%ilities:

ire, %1treme, 6sychological"illing G3! %&H&mmunities

53orcesE 95 G$ %&H;isease

"ocomotionBi6ed Lateral Wal"er G$ %&H&artial 2im G %&H

Feedin': None G* %&H!ensory

2ight, 76tical G$ %&H2ight, 76tical 3 >n/rared G %&H2mell G- %&H:aste G %&H:ouch, ;irect G %&H<earing, 2onic G- %&H

<earing, 2ubsonic G- %&H<earing, @ltrasonic G- %&H%lectromagnetic 2ense G* %&H%lectromagnetic 0esonance >maging (M0>) G* %&H

Communication4ocal Communication, 2onic G %&HBody Communication G %&H

)eurolo'ical: Neuro3%lectrochemical, ;ecentralized G* %&H!pecial Features

2econdary Limbs, 6air G$ %&Hine Mani6ulators (both hands) G %&H4estige Mani6ulators (both /eet) G! %&H4estige :ail G! %&H

Crushing =a G %&H0a6id 0egeneration G! %&H0egroth - G-! %&HNatural +rmor, -! 2& G-! %&H:otal Coordination G$ %&H2ha6eshi/ter G* %&H>nsubstantiality G*! %&HChameleon $ G! %&H%nhanced 2:0 * G*! %&H%nhanced B7; * G*! %&H%nhanced ;% - G-! %&H%nhanced %N; ! G! %&H&sionics 3 :ele6athy * G* %&H

&sionics 3 :ele"inesis * G-9 %&H<eat 4ision (damage /rom d hits to -K) G* %&HRacial Complications:

&hobia, ire (3!)!cale: 1 (human)Total Cost: *-- %&*P Cost: $*9 7&

The /reen Martians are a race of superhuman shapeshifters, possessing formidable telepathic andtelekinetic abilities. They have a deep fear of fire, the one thing they are really vulnerable to. (s a result of

their powers, they use the Mekton strength chart instead of the human one. Martians can fly, lift around



#00,000kg, shrug off anti)Mecha weapons, control peoples minds, shapeshift into all manner of creatures,

turn invisible, become intangible, fire heat beams and otherwise completely dominate a non)superheroic

campaign.

"rushing 6aw, movement, secondary limbs, hands, etc apply to their UcommonU human)like form.

8hile shapeshifting, they can have all manner of features. Their &! doesnt even really do their race 6usticeand could be as much as twice this amount.

W Les, = am aware that Miss Martian is a 8hite !artian, but they seem to have all the same power sets.

Date post:	01-Jun-2018
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Macross 2050 RPG: Sourcebook 3 - Galaxy

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