GrammarGrammar is a way of thinking about

language.Four Levels of Grammar:• Parts of Speech• Parts of the Sentence• Phrases• Clauses

Parts of Speech: the eight kinds of words in English

•nouns•pronouns•verbs•adjectives•adverbs•prepositions•conjunctions•interjections

Nouns

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

Examples: Mozart, Chicago, epidermis, rock, freedom

Proper nouns are capitalized; common nouns are not.• Mozart (proper), epidermis (common)Concrete nouns are names of objects; abstract

nouns are names of ideas.• rock (concrete), freedom (abstract)

When we address someone directly, the person’s name or title is called the noun of direct address.

• Karen, meet me at the library.• Meet me at the library, Karen.A collective noun names a group.• flock

Singular nouns name individual things; plural nouns name multiple things.• boat, flock, kindness (singular)• boats, flocks, kindnesses (plural)

PronounsA pronoun is a word that takes the

place of a noun.Noun: Pronoun:Ike passed the ball. He passed the ball.

Pronouns may be masculine gender (he, him, his), feminine gender

(she, her, hers), or neuter gender (it).

Pronouns may have person and number.

First Person

Second Person

Third Person

SINGULAR PLURALI we

you youhe, she, it they

Subject Pronouns:

The pronoun’s antecedent is the noun the pronoun replaces.

Example:Ike caught the ball, and then he passed it. ↑ ↑antecedent pronoun

*There isn’t always an antecedent.Example:Anyone who is registered may vote. (no antecedent)

Use subject pronouns as subjects; use object pronouns as objects.

Example:They bought the tickets and gave them to us. ↑ ↑ ↑subject pronoun object pronouns

MEMORIZE the subject and object pronouns!

Singular

SUBJECT PRONOUNS

OBJECT PRONOUNS

I meyou youshe, he, it her, him, it

Pluralwe usyou youthey them

MEMORIZE the subject and object pronouns!The quiz will be on _________________.

Possessive pronouns are used to indicate ownership or possession.

Example:Diego lost his pesos.The dog found its doghouse.

Singular

SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVEI me my, mineyou you your, yoursshe, he, it

her, him, it

her, hers, his, its

Pluralwe us our, oursyou you your, yoursthey them their, theirs

Possessive pronouns DO NOT need apostrophes (because they are already in the possessive form).

Its or It’s?

Example:It’s too late to lock its cage.

Possessive Pronoun Contractionits it’s = it + is

Its is a possessive pronoun. It’s is a contraction of it and is. The apostrophe replaces the missing i.

Using the Right Word:it’s/its

Examine the use of the word “its” in the following sentence.

“She approached the monster cautiously and bravely touched its cold, steel claw.”

Its is a possessive pronoun. Example: The dog lost its collar.

It’s is a contraction for the words it is.Example: The dog barks because it’s hungry.

Using the Right Word: it’s/itsCopy the following sentences. Choose the

correct word according to its use in the sentence.

1. The snake shed ______ (its, it’s) skin.2. Did you hear the bell? ____ (Its, It’s) ten

minutes early.3. Trying is not hard; ______ (its, it’s) easy.4. Sometimes success is ______ (its, it’s)

own reward.

Using the Right Word: it’s/itsCopy the following sentences. Choose the

correct word according to its use in the sentence.

1. The snake shed ______ (its, it’s) skin.The snake shed its skin.

2. Did you hear the bell? ____ (Its, It’s) ten minutes early.Did you hear the bell? It’s ten minutes early.

3. Trying is not hard; ______ (its, it’s) easy.Trying is not hard; it’s easy.

4. Sometimes success is ______ (its, it’s) own reward.Sometimes success is its own reward.

Using the Right Word: Your TurnWrite sentences, using the word in

parentheses correctly.5. (its) 6. (it’s)

Singular

SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVEI me my, mineyou you your, yoursshe, he, it

her, him, it

her, hers, his, its

Pluralwe us our, oursyou you your, yoursthey them their, theirs

So far, we have studied personal pronouns.

Other Kinds of Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions.

who, whose, whom, which, what

Example:Who went to the park?

Demonstrative pronouns are used to demonstrate or point out.

this, that, these, thoseExample:This is the dog I want to adopt.

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates an adjective clause to a main clause.

who, whose, whom which, that

Example:I called the man who lost his wallet.

Indefinite PronounsAn indefinite pronoun does not refer to a

specific person or a specific thing.

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

another anything

everybody

neither

one

anybody

each everyone nobody

somebody

anyone either everything

no one someone

Possessive pronouns must agree in number with indefinite pronouns.

Example: Neither believed his eyes. (Not

their eyes)

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

both many few several

Examples: Several reported their findings.Many are absent.

The following pronouns may be singular OR plural, depending on their meaning in the sentence:

all some any none

Singular: Plural:All of my story is true. All of the reporters are

here.None of the lake is foggy. None of the photos are

sharp.

Using Who and Whom

Who is the subject form; whom is the object form.

Who will play the lead? (Who= subject)Whom do you see? (Whom=direct object)From whom do we buy the tickets?

(whom=object of the preposition)

Reflexive and Intensive PronounsPronouns that end in –self or –selves are

either intensive or reflexive pronouns.Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns:myself yourself herself himself itselfourselves yourselves themselves

A reflexive pronoun reflects back to a word used previously in the sentence. The sentence’s meaning is incomplete without it.

Example: Linda reminded herself to buy film.

An intensive pronoun adds emphasis to a noun or another pronoun. The meaning of the sentence is complete without it.

Example: I myself agree with that idea.

AdjectivesDefinition: An adjective is a word

that modifies a noun or pronoun. Example:

The red car looked good.

An adjective often tells what kind, which one, or how many.

Examples: broken robotthose wirestwo technicians

Proper AdjectivesWhen adjectives are made from proper

nouns, they are called proper adjectives. They are always capitalized.

Examples: Friday nightJune dayItalian dressing

ArticlesThe words a, an, and the are special

adjectives called articles. The is the definite article; it points

out one specific person, place, thing or idea.

Example: Please hand me the book. A and an are indefinite articles; they

are less specific.Example:Please hand me a book.

Good and WellThe word good is an adjective that may be

used to modify nouns or pronouns; the word well is an adverb that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Example:The good athlete runs well. adjective adverbmodifying the modifying thenoun athlete verb runs

Three Degrees of AdjectivesUse the positive degree of an

adjective to describe one thing.• This is a long movie.

Use the comparative degree of an adjective to compare two things.

• This movie is longer than the one I watched yesterday.

Use the superlative degree of an adjective to compare more than two things.

• This is the longest movie I have ever watched.

Short adjectives change their forms by adding

–er for the comparative and –est for the superlative.

Positive ComparativeSuperlativehot hotter hottestripe riper ripestcreamy creamier creamiestspicy spicier spiciest

Longer adjectives use more for the comparative and most for the superlative.

Positive Comparative Superlativefragrant more fragrant most fragrantwell-done more well-done most well-doneflavorful more flavorful most flavorful

The comparative and superlative forms of some adjectives are totally different words.

Positive Comparative Superlativegood better bestwell better bestbad worse worstmany more most

VerbsDefinition: A verb is a word that

shows action, or being, or links a subject to a subject complement.

Examples:• The skaters raced around the

park.• He is.• He is tired.

Action VerbsDefinition: An action verb says

what the subject of the sentence does.

• Shanna knew the winner.• Students gathered their books.

If the verb is an action verb, it might show action on a direct object.

• Verdi composed the opera. (direct object)

Or, an action verb might show simple action not on a direct object.

• Verdi composed.

Linking VerbsDefinition: A linking verb links

the subject of the sentence with a subject complement.

Examples:

• He is a poet.

• My skates are fast.

Principal Parts of Verbs

Infinitive Present Participle

Past Past Participle

to do (do) doing did doneto go (go) going went goneto think (think) thinkin

gthought thought

to dream (dream)

dreaming

dreamed

dreamed

Regular VerbsMost verbs make the principal

parts in the same regular way; therefore, we refer to them as regular verbs.

Infinitive Present Participle

Past Past Participle

to work working worked (has) workedto spill spilling spilled (has) spilled

Irregular VerbsMany verbs do not follow a

regular pattern. Instead, they have principal parts which are unique.

Infinitive Present Participle

Past Past Participle

to shrink shrinking shrank

(has) shrunk

to write writing wrote (has) written

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

A verb that has a direct object is called a transitive verb.

•Rocks hit Sue. (Sue is the d.o.)A verb that does not have a direct

object is called an intransitive verb.•Rocks flew. (No d.o.)

Why We Call Them “Transitive”

Transitive verbs are action verbs that are called “transitive” because of the transit of action or energy that takes place when the subject acts on the object.

If I kick the bucket, the energy transfers from me to the bucket I am kicking.

The stem trans means “across.”In an intransitive verb, there is no

transfer of energy.

Transitive or Intransitive?

• Laura saw a snake. Saw what? snake (d.o.) Saw is transitive.

• The snake moved quickly.

Moved what? no d.o. Moved is intransitive.

Transitive or Intransitive?

• Ian shouted a warning. shouted--transitive

• He shouted loudly. shouted--intransitive

• The reptile exhibit will open soon.

will open--intransitive

• The snake opened its jaws.

opened--transitive

Copy each sentence. Underline the verb and label it as transitive or intransitive.

Active and Passive VoiceAn active voice verb is an action verb

that shows the subject actually acting.

•The meteor struck the ship. A passive voice verb is an action verb

that shows the subject passively being acted upon.

•The ship was struck by the meteor.

Six Verb Tenses•Present•Past•Future•Present Perfect•Past Perfect•Future Perfect

Conjugating a Verb

Present Tense Singular Plural“to protest”

1st Person

I protest. We protest.

2nd Person

You protest.

You protest.

3rd Person

He, she, it protests.

They protest.

Conjugating a Verb

Past Tense Singular Plural“to protest”

1st Person

I _______. We _______.

2nd Person

You ______. You _______.

3rd Person

He, she, it _________.

They ______.

protested

protested

protested

protestedprotestedprotested

Conjugating a Verb

Future Tense Singular Plural“to protest”

1st Person

I _______. We _______.

2nd Person

You ______. You _______.

3rd Person

He, she, it _________.

They ______.

will protest

will protest

will protest

will protestwill protestwill protest

Conjugating a VerbPresent Perfect

Tense Singular Plural

“to protest”

1st Person

I _______. We _______.

2nd Person

You ______. You _______.

3rd Person

He, she, it _________.

They ______.

have protested

have protested

has protested

have protestedhave protested

have protested

Conjugating a VerbPast Perfect Tense Singular Plural“to protest”

1st Person

I _______. We _______.

2nd Person

You ______. You _______.

3rd Person

He, she, it _________.

They ______.

had protested

had protested

had protested

had protestedhad protested

had protested

Conjugating a VerbFuture PerfectTense

Singular Plural

“to protest”

1st Person

I _______. We _______.

2nd Person

You ______. You _______.

3rd Person

He, she, it _________.

They ______.

will have protestedwill have protested

will have protested

will have protested

will have protestedwill have protested

Why We Call Them “Perfect”Tenses

The three perfect tenses are called perfect because the word perfect comes from

the Latin word perficere (“to finish”). Stem Meaningper throughfac makeperficere = to finish (to be through making

something; to make it perfect) The perfect tenses, therefore, are the

tenses of things which are finished.

Present Perfect—action which is finished nowExample: I have returned.

Past Perfect—action which was finished then (in the past)Example: I had returned.

Future Perfect—action which will be finished in the futureExample: I will have returned.

Progressive Verb FormsProgressive verb forms show

action still in progress. (always end in –ing)

Present Progressive: I am playing.

Past Progressive: I was playing.

Future Progressive: I shall be playing.

Present Perfect Progressive: I have been playing.Past Perfect Progressive: I had been playing.

Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been playing.

AdverbsDefinition: An adverb is a word that

modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. Examples:

• The movie started early.

• My report is too long.

• He and she swim very well.

Adverbs help make meaning clear by telling how, when, where, or to what extent.

Examples:

• The guide spoke softly. (How?)

• The speaker arrived late. (When?)

• He approached the cave and looked inside. (Where?)

• The cave was very dark. (To what extent?)

PrepositionsDefinition: A preposition is a word that shows a

relationship between its object (the object of the preposition) and another word in the sentence.

Examples:• The book is on the shelf.

(prep.) (object of prep.)

• I have a one hundred dollar check for you. (prep.) (obj. of prep.)

Prepositions show relationships of time, relationships of space, and relationships of direction.

Examples:

• I took the test before lunch. (Time)

• I will save you a seat beside me. (Space)

• My relatives are traveling from Chicago. (Direction)

ConjunctionsDefinition: A conjunction is a word

that joins (junct) two words or two groups of words together (con).

Examples:• Bob and Jane were here. • I am eating outside since it is sunny.

Types of Conjunctions•Coordinating conjunctions•Subordinating conjunctions•Correlative conjunctions•Conjunctive adverbs

Coordinating Conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions are used to

join words which are equal (co) in importance.

Coordinating Conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet

Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions join

unequals. They join something of lesser importance (sub) to something of greater importance.

Words Often Used as Subordinating Conjunctionsafter because so that whateveralthough before than whenas if though wheneveras if in order

thattill where

as long as

provided unless wherever

as though

since until while

Correlative Conjunctions Correlative conjunctions are multiple-

word conjunctions.

Correlative Conjunctions: either...or not only...but alsoboth...and neither…norwhether…or

Conjunctive Adverbs Conjunctive adverbs are words which act

both as adverbs and conjunctions. They are commonly used to begin clauses.

Conjunctive Adverbs: therefore, however, hence, so, then, moreover, nevertheless, yet, consequently, besides

InterjectionsDefinition: An interjection is a word which

shows emotion but has no grammatical purpose. In other words, they just throw (ject) and exclamation into (inter) a sentence.

Examples:• Whew!• Wow!• Oh, look at that beautiful valley.