Major Perspectives of Major Perspectives of PsychologyPsychology

By Ms. R. MarcilliatBy Ms. R. MarcilliatAdapted from AP Psychology TOPSS List Serv 2011-2014Adapted from AP Psychology TOPSS List Serv 2011-2014

AP PSYCHOLOGYAP PSYCHOLOGYEXAM REVIEW 2015EXAM REVIEW 2015

SUPER, DUPER IMPORTANT STUFF THAT SUPER, DUPER IMPORTANT STUFF THAT IT WOULD BEHOOVE YOU TO STUDYIT WOULD BEHOOVE YOU TO STUDY

THINK ABOUT THE FACT THAT ALL OF THINK ABOUT THE FACT THAT ALL OF WHAT YOU’VE LEARNED THIS YEAR CAN WHAT YOU’VE LEARNED THIS YEAR CAN BE SUBCATEGORIZED IN THESE BE SUBCATEGORIZED IN THESE PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVES.PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVES.

THIS IS A REVIEW AND IS INTENDED TO THIS IS A REVIEW AND IS INTENDED TO SERVE AS A COURSE SUPPLEMENT.SERVE AS A COURSE SUPPLEMENT.

PerspectivesPerspectives

PsychoanalyticPsychoanalytic BehaviorismBehaviorism HumanismHumanism CognitiveCognitive EvolutionaryEvolutionary Biological/BiomedicalBiological/Biomedical SocioculturalSociocultural

I. PsychodynamicI. Psychodynamic The psychodynamic The psychodynamic

perspective originated perspective originated with the work of with the work of Sigmund Freud. This Sigmund Freud. This perspective perspective emphasizes the role of emphasizes the role of the the unconsciousunconscious mind, mind, early childhood early childhood experiences, and experiences, and interpersonal interpersonal relationships to explain relationships to explain human behavior and to human behavior and to treat people suffering treat people suffering from mental illnesses.from mental illnesses.

Our personality is a conflict between Our personality is a conflict between our (iceberg metaphor):our (iceberg metaphor):

Id…(below water line…the little Id…(below water line…the little child)child)

Ego (mostly above water line…child Ego (mostly above water line…child learns they can’t act on every learns they can’t act on every impulse)impulse)

Superego (mostly under surface of Superego (mostly under surface of water line…last to develop…water line…last to develop…pursues perfectionpursues perfection

Id and superego battle…leaves ego Id and superego battle…leaves ego to refereeto referee

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms

(Note: Below you have a summary of Freud’s Defense (Note: Below you have a summary of Freud’s Defense Mechanisms that you are most likely to encounter on the AP PSY Mechanisms that you are most likely to encounter on the AP PSY Exam. Use class handouts/notes/text/D&S for examples.)Exam. Use class handouts/notes/text/D&S for examples.)

Freud's Defense Mechanisms include:Freud's Defense Mechanisms include: Denial: claiming/believing that what is true to be actually false : claiming/believing that what is true to be actually false Displacement: redirecting emotions to a substitute target Displacement: redirecting emotions to a substitute target Intellectualization: taking an objective viewpointIntellectualization: taking an objective viewpoint Projection: attributing uncomfortable feelings to othersProjection: attributing uncomfortable feelings to others Rationalization: creating false but credible justificationsRationalization: creating false but credible justifications Reaction Formation: overacting in the opposite way to the fear Reaction Formation: overacting in the opposite way to the fear Regression: going back to acting as a childRegression: going back to acting as a child Repression: pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the subconsciousRepression: pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the subconscious Sublimation: redirecting 'wrong' urges into socially acceptable actions Sublimation: redirecting 'wrong' urges into socially acceptable actions SuppressionSuppression: a conscious attempt to push something out of your mind: a conscious attempt to push something out of your mind

PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is the form of treating Psychoanalysis is the form of treating psychological disorders, invented by Freud.psychological disorders, invented by Freud.

It is famous for the couch. It is famous for the couch.

A. What are Psychoanalytic methods of A. What are Psychoanalytic methods of therapy?therapy?

1. Free Association – 1. Free Association – patient reports patient reports anything that comes to his/her mind. anything that comes to his/her mind.

The psychoanalyst listens for links & The psychoanalyst listens for links & themes that might tie the patient’s themes that might tie the patient’s fragmentary thoughts or remarks together. fragmentary thoughts or remarks together.

B.B. Dream analysisDream analysis::

Dreams have two types of content:Dreams have two types of content:

Manifest contentManifest content- actual events in dream.- actual events in dream. Latent contentLatent content – hidden message in dream. – hidden message in dream.

Freud thought that each dream represents a Freud thought that each dream represents a form of wish fulfillment. The wish may be form of wish fulfillment. The wish may be disguised, but it is always there. disguised, but it is always there.

C. C. TransferenceTransference

Feelings of love or other emotions (hatred) Feelings of love or other emotions (hatred) are expressed toward the therapist.are expressed toward the therapist.

These feelings are actually unconsciously These feelings are actually unconsciously felt toward others; the patient is felt toward others; the patient is projectingprojecting these feelings onto the therapist.these feelings onto the therapist.

This provides clues about the client’s This provides clues about the client’s feelings about these other people.feelings about these other people.

D. HypnosisD. Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a psychoanalytic therapeutic Hypnosis is a psychoanalytic therapeutic technique.technique.

Supposedly reaches into the unconsciousSupposedly reaches into the unconscious

Psychoanalysis summaryPsychoanalysis summary

All methods deal with accessing the All methods deal with accessing the unconscious mind.unconscious mind.

Psychoanalysis is therapist-centered, meaning Psychoanalysis is therapist-centered, meaning the therapist has all the answers, not the the therapist has all the answers, not the patient.patient.

Personality assessmentPersonality assessment

Psychoanalysts use projective tests like the Psychoanalysts use projective tests like the Rorschach Ink Blot test or the TAT testRorschach Ink Blot test or the TAT test

TAT – Assessing achievement TAT – Assessing achievement motivationmotivation

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed by Henry Murray, a student of psychoanalytic thought. The TAT consists of numerous cards with black and white and grayscale pictures. These pictures where chosen for two reasons. First, they are ambiguous to some extent and portray emotion and thought without specifying details. An example would be a silhouette of a man looking off into the distance. While there is obvious emotional and intellectual activity, the details are not revealed.

Second, they correspond to the major themes of psychoanalytic thought, such as the oedipal complex, where the son develops an attraction for the mother and then identifies with the father. There are relationship cards and several that portray both sexual and aggressive undertones without depicted actual violence, aggression, or sexual activity.

AllPsych: Dr. Christopher L. Heffner

Criticisms of Freud’s theory:Criticisms of Freud’s theory:

1.   1.   Freud had no scientific data to support his theories.Freud had no scientific data to support his theories.

2.   Freud’s theories (unconscious, libido, etc.) cannot 2.   Freud’s theories (unconscious, libido, etc.) cannot be observed.be observed.

3.   Theory explains behavior (post-hoc) after the fact.3.   Theory explains behavior (post-hoc) after the fact.

4.    Observations not representative of population 4.    Observations not representative of population (very sexist and not multicultural).(very sexist and not multicultural).

Pros of Freud’s theoryPros of Freud’s theory

1. Argued that 1. Argued that childhood experienceschildhood experiences are are important in personality development.important in personality development.

2. Information outside of awareness 2. Information outside of awareness does does influence usinfluence us..

3. Defense mechanisms—good descriptions 3. Defense mechanisms—good descriptions of some of our behaviors.of some of our behaviors.

II. BehaviorismII. Behaviorism

BehaviorismBehaviorism

By the 1950s, Psychoanalysis seemed very By the 1950s, Psychoanalysis seemed very unscientific. Behaviorists will bring science unscientific. Behaviorists will bring science back into psychology, even if they overdo it a back into psychology, even if they overdo it a little.little.

Behaviorism is NOT interested in the Behaviorism is NOT interested in the unconscious mind since it cannot be observed unconscious mind since it cannot be observed in a laboratory.in a laboratory.

Very telling quote!!Very telling quote!!

Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.race of his ancestors.--John Watson, --John Watson, BehaviorismBehaviorism, 1930 , 1930

Thorndike “law of effect”Thorndike “law of effect”

Basically, he was Skinner “lite.” The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that responses closely followed by satisfaction will become firmly attached to the situation and therefore more likely to reoccur when the situation is repeated. Conversely, if the situation is followed by discomfort, the connections to the situation will become weaker and the behavior of response is less likely to occur when the situation is repeated.

Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov He was not a psychologist but a Russian He was not a psychologist but a Russian

physiologist. He discovered classical physiologist. He discovered classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is conditioning. Classical conditioning is associative learning. He trained a dog to drool associative learning. He trained a dog to drool to a bell.to a bell.

Dog associates food with bell.Dog associates food with bell.

B.F. Skinner B.F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner is the most famous of the B.F. Skinner is the most famous of the Behaviorists. He is famous for Behaviorists. He is famous for operant operant conditioningconditioning. Operant conditioning (aka . Operant conditioning (aka shaping) is learning through reinforcements shaping) is learning through reinforcements (rewards) and punishments.(rewards) and punishments.

BehaviorismBehaviorism Albert Bandura did a famous experiment that Albert Bandura did a famous experiment that

said our said our behaviorbehavior does not have to be does not have to be classically conditioned or operant conditioned. classically conditioned or operant conditioned. We can simply observe behavior and copy it. We can simply observe behavior and copy it. We have a lovely tee shirt to remind us! We have a lovely tee shirt to remind us!

Thanks, Yildiz. Thanks, Yildiz.

BehaviorismBehaviorism The behavioral perspective can explain:The behavioral perspective can explain: why people get addicted to gambling why people get addicted to gambling

(positive reinforcement = (positive reinforcement = encourageencourages a s a behavior by adding something pleasurable)behavior by adding something pleasurable)

why someone takes an aspirin to remove/ why someone takes an aspirin to remove/ subtract the pain of a headache (negative subtract the pain of a headache (negative reinforcement = reinforcement = encouragesencourages a behavior when a behavior when an unpleasant condition is removed when the an unpleasant condition is removed when the desired behavior is met)desired behavior is met)

Reinforcement, continuedReinforcement, continued

The behavioral perspective can explain:The behavioral perspective can explain: positive punishment = adding something positive punishment = adding something

unpleasant to unpleasant to discouragediscourage a behavior…i.e.,, you a behavior…i.e.,, you break dress code and receive a referralbreak dress code and receive a referral

negative punishment (also known as omission negative punishment (also known as omission training!) = subtracting/removing something training!) = subtracting/removing something pleasant to pleasant to discouragediscourage a behavior…i.e., you a behavior…i.e., you break your curfew, your parents take your car break your curfew, your parents take your car away for a weekaway for a week

Behavioral TherapyBehavioral Therapy

Focuses on maladaptive behaviors (mal means Focuses on maladaptive behaviors (mal means bad) and changing them.bad) and changing them.

Token economyToken economy uses positive reinforcement uses positive reinforcement to get large groups of students or mental ward to get large groups of students or mental ward patients or employees to do something like patients or employees to do something like clean up or attend group therapy…i.e., $100 clean up or attend group therapy…i.e., $100 each if you pass your exam…just an example each if you pass your exam…just an example

Behavioral therapyBehavioral therapy

Systematic desensitization – treatment of Systematic desensitization – treatment of phobias and anxiety. Treat the behavior of not phobias and anxiety. Treat the behavior of not freaking out over spiders (or pickles).freaking out over spiders (or pickles).

Behavioral therapyBehavioral therapy

Aversive Aversive conditioning – There conditioning – There is a drug that when is a drug that when mixed with alcohol, mixed with alcohol, makes you sick. makes you sick. Motivated alcoholics Motivated alcoholics will take this and will take this and begin to associate the begin to associate the sickness with alcohol sickness with alcohol and possibly stop and possibly stop drinking.drinking.

Behaviorism SummaryBehaviorism Summary

Behaviorism says we do what we do because Behaviorism says we do what we do because of classical conditioning, operant conditioning of classical conditioning, operant conditioning or we simply learn the behavior from watching or we simply learn the behavior from watching or copying it. or copying it.

In its extreme, they think we are simply rats in In its extreme, they think we are simply rats in a cage pressing buttons. WE HAVE NO a cage pressing buttons. WE HAVE NO FREE WILL!FREE WILL!

III. HumanismIII. Humanism

HumanisticHumanistic Humanism came about in the 1960s in

reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual’s potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology was that people are innately good.

We are not rats in a cage! We are not id-driven animals! We are humans with free will.

HumanismHumanism

Abraham Maslow said we have a Abraham Maslow said we have a hierarchy of hierarchy of needs.needs.

HumanismHumanism

Carl Rogers Carl Rogers revolutionized talk therapy. His therapy revolutionized talk therapy. His therapy is client-centered, where the client has all the answers is client-centered, where the client has all the answers instead of the therapist. Therapists treat the client instead of the therapist. Therapists treat the client with unconditional positive regard (no judgments). with unconditional positive regard (no judgments). Group therapy comes from Humanism.Group therapy comes from Humanism.

Incongruent (incompatible) self: neurosis

REAL IDEAL

REAL IDEAL

Incongruent self: psychosis (shattered self)

Fully-Functioning Individual

Congruence!

Open to experiences

Feeling of freedom

Creativity

Carl Rogers’ fully functioning Individual

Humanism summaryHumanism summary Humanists are really touchy-feely, Humanists are really touchy-feely,

but without them we are just rats but without them we are just rats in a cage.in a cage.

Rogers and Maslow put the Rogers and Maslow put the “human” element back into “human” element back into psychology and therapy.psychology and therapy.

Their philosophy: We are all Their philosophy: We are all humans striving to maximize our humans striving to maximize our potential. A therapist’s job is to potential. A therapist’s job is to remove obstacles to remove obstacles to self-self-actualization.actualization.

Positive psychology comes from Positive psychology comes from Humanism.Humanism.

IV. Cognitive PsychologyIV. Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive PerspectiveCognitive Perspective

What does the word cognitive mean? How What does the word cognitive mean? How about cognition? Reabout cognition? Recognitioncognition??

It is the study of how people perceive, It is the study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems.remember, think, speak, and solve problems.

Cognitive therapy is about changing the Cognitive therapy is about changing the maladaptive maladaptive thoughtsthoughts of a person. of a person.

Cognitive PsychologistsCognitive Psychologists

1968, Atkinson-Shiffrin model for STM 1968, Atkinson-Shiffrin model for STM memorymemory

Supported idea that information, if not Supported idea that information, if not encoded, is lostencoded, is lost

Cognitive PsychologistsCognitive Psychologists 1974, Baddeley and Hitch studied memory. They are 1974, Baddeley and Hitch studied memory. They are

famous for this model for short-term memory (STM).famous for this model for short-term memory (STM). Today, dominant view but research continues…Today, dominant view but research continues… Know the names of the researchers, the timelines of Know the names of the researchers, the timelines of

studies, and that STM models of memory differ.studies, and that STM models of memory differ.

Cognitive PsychologistsCognitive Psychologists Jean Piaget studied cognitive development in Jean Piaget studied cognitive development in

children.children.

Cognitive perspective on Cognitive perspective on depressiondepression

We are depressed because we are irrational. We are depressed because we are irrational. Our expectations are too high and misplaced. Our expectations are too high and misplaced. We want everyone to love us and accept us. We want everyone to love us and accept us. We want every thing to go our way. We stay We want every thing to go our way. We stay angry about stuff that happened a looong time angry about stuff that happened a looong time ago. WE MUST CHANGE THE WAY WE ago. WE MUST CHANGE THE WAY WE THINKTHINK TO BE HAPPY AND TO BE HAPPY AND SUCCESSFUL.SUCCESSFUL.

Cognitive TherapyCognitive Therapy Cognitive therapy is about changing the Cognitive therapy is about changing the

maladaptive (bad) thoughts. Albert Ellis, maladaptive (bad) thoughts. Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck and William Glasser are famous Aaron Beck and William Glasser are famous for reality therapy. They challenged for reality therapy. They challenged their patients to consider, “Are their patients to consider, “Are

my thoughts realistic or rational?” my thoughts realistic or rational?” Cognitive therapy also “educates” Cognitive therapy also “educates”

the client and teaches them proper the client and teaches them proper

behaviors/thoughtsbehaviors/thoughts

V. Evolutionary PsychologyV. Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary psychologyEvolutionary psychology examines examines

psychological traits — such as memory, psychological traits — such as memory, perception, or language — from a modern perception, or language — from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional products of adaptations, that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection.natural selection or sexual selection.

Applies Charles Darwin’sApplies Charles Darwin’s

principles of evolution.principles of evolution.

Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary Psychology

This branch explains why humans do what This branch explains why humans do what they do in terms of adaptive value (survival of they do in terms of adaptive value (survival of the species). Why do women usually prefer the species). Why do women usually prefer the guy on the right for long-term the guy on the right for long-term relationships?relationships?

Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary Psychology Why do women spend so much money on a weekly Why do women spend so much money on a weekly

basis but men will surprise their wives with a brand basis but men will surprise their wives with a brand new car (without asking her)?new car (without asking her)?

Evolutionary psychologists try to explain this Evolutionary psychologists try to explain this behavior with comparisons to hunter-gather cultures.behavior with comparisons to hunter-gather cultures.

Why do women have more bug phobiaWhy do women have more bug phobias?s?

VI. Biological PerspectiveVI. Biological Perspective(Neuroscience)(Neuroscience)

This perspective is among This perspective is among the most respected right the most respected right now. Researchers focus now. Researchers focus on our brain, nervous on our brain, nervous system, neurotransmitters system, neurotransmitters and hormones to explain and hormones to explain our behaviors.our behaviors.

Biological PerspectiveBiological Perspective

““I don’t know why you are depressed or I don’t know why you are depressed or anxious, but here is some medicine!”anxious, but here is some medicine!”

Love is simply oxytocin in your brain.Love is simply oxytocin in your brain.

SurgeriesSurgeries

The Lobotomy damages The Lobotomy damages your frontal lobe to relieve your frontal lobe to relieve anxiety.anxiety.

SurgerySurgery

Cut the Corpus callosum to keep seizures from Cut the Corpus callosum to keep seizures from spreading to the other side of the brain.spreading to the other side of the brain.

Electroconvulsive Therapy ECTElectroconvulsive Therapy ECT

Common medicinesCommon medicines

Prozac – antidepressant – blocks reuptake of Prozac – antidepressant – blocks reuptake of serotonin.serotonin.

Xanax – anti-anxiety (side effect of Xanax – anti-anxiety (side effect of drowsiness)drowsiness)

Thorazine – replaced the lobotomyThorazine – replaced the lobotomy

VII. SocioculturalVII. Sociocultural(Social-cultural)(Social-cultural)

How behavior and thinking vary across How behavior and thinking vary across situations and culturessituations and cultures

How are we alike as members of one human How are we alike as members of one human family?family?

How do we differ as products of our How do we differ as products of our environment?environment?

Someone from the sociocultural Someone from the sociocultural

perspective might explore how perspective might explore how

expressions of beauty or expressions of beauty or

leadership vary across cultures.leadership vary across cultures.

Remember this guy?Remember this guy? Theorist: Lev VgotskyTheorist: Lev Vgotsky What develops: As children plan and cooperate with What develops: As children plan and cooperate with

others, they learn what is important in their society and others, they learn what is important in their society and advance cognitively in their understanding of the world.advance cognitively in their understanding of the world.

How development proceeds: Approach emphasizes how How development proceeds: Approach emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members.interactions between members.

Principles: Development is a Principles: Development is a reciprocal transaction reciprocal transaction between people in the child’s environment and the child.between people in the child’s environment and the child.

Other key terms: social interactions, zone of proximal Other key terms: social interactions, zone of proximal development (ZPD)…if you don’t remember these terms, development (ZPD)…if you don’t remember these terms, look them up!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! look them up!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!