Making Sense of Making Sense of Qualitative Data: The Qualitative Data: The

Grounded Theory Grounded Theory Approach to Discovery Approach to Discovery

Karen Locke, Ph DKaren Locke, Ph DW. Brooks George ProfessorW. Brooks George ProfessorMason School of BusinessMason School of Business

College of William and MaryCollege of William and Mary

ContextContext

•What is the situation in What is the situation in which we come to be which we come to be participating in a participating in a workshop on grounded workshop on grounded theory today?theory today?

Qualitative Research in Qualitative Research in management & management &

Organization studiesOrganization studies

•Prosecuted within an Prosecuted within an increasingly increasingly differentiated differentiated institutional contextinstitutional context

•Without an infrastructure Without an infrastructure of courses and of courses and apprenticeships to match apprenticeships to match interestinterest

•An expanding “umbrella An expanding “umbrella domain” domain”

Where is the Where is the grounded theory grounded theory tradition todaytradition today

7,640,000

Contest & Contest & evolutionevolution

GROUNDED THEORY IN GROUNDED THEORY IN MANAGEMENT & ORG. MANAGEMENT & ORG.

STUDIES TODAYSTUDIES TODAY

• GT as a signifier typifying non hypothetico-GT as a signifier typifying non hypothetico-deductive research (the theory building)??deductive research (the theory building)??

• GT as a ceremonial citation masking GT as a ceremonial citation masking “common sensing” your way through “common sensing” your way through data??data??

• GT as site of contested intellectual GT as site of contested intellectual property rightsproperty rights

• GT as part of a new landscape of GT as part of a new landscape of methodological multilingualism??methodological multilingualism??

• GT as part of researchers’ individually GT as part of researchers’ individually shaped methodological vocabularies and shaped methodological vocabularies and practices??practices??

• GT as one vocabulary and set of practical GT as one vocabulary and set of practical heuristics evident in “discovery oriented” heuristics evident in “discovery oriented” research practice.research practice.

Workshop Workshop ObjectivesObjectives

• Understand grounded theory’s Understand grounded theory’s intellectual traditionintellectual tradition

• Understand the general Understand the general contours of and logic contours of and logic underlying this foundational underlying this foundational tradition in qualitative researchtradition in qualitative research

• Learn and experience the Learn and experience the practice of its operational practice of its operational procedures (e.g. theoretical procedures (e.g. theoretical sampling, category sampling, category development, constant development, constant comparison, memoing etc) comparison, memoing etc)

• Appreciate their contribution to Appreciate their contribution to “discovery”“discovery”

Method Separates Method Separates From “Discovery”From “Discovery”

•““Discovery concerns the Discovery concerns the origin, creation, genesis, and origin, creation, genesis, and invention of scientific theories invention of scientific theories and hypotheses. Justification and hypotheses. Justification concerns their evaluation, concerns their evaluation, test, defense, success, truth, test, defense, success, truth, and confirmation. Discovery and confirmation. Discovery is for description alone, for is for description alone, for psychology and the history of psychology and the history of the sociology of science. the sociology of science. Justification, however, is for Justification, however, is for the philosophy of science and the philosophy of science and epistemology epistemology “ (Kordig, 1978; “ (Kordig, 1978; p. 110). p. 110).

YetYet… advantages of … advantages of discovery oriented discovery oriented

qualitative approaches?qualitative approaches?

• Allow the “real” world of work Allow the “real” world of work to inform, press against and to inform, press against and shape theorizing (urges shape theorizing (urges theoretical open mindedness)theoretical open mindedness)

• Can capture complexity Can capture complexity through multi-faced accounts through multi-faced accounts of actionof action

• Identify the process or “how” Identify the process or “how” discovered outcomes are discovered outcomes are generatedgenerated

• Serendipitous findings can Serendipitous findings can spur new researchspur new research

……advantages of discovery advantages of discovery oriented qualitative oriented qualitative

approaches?approaches?

• Investigate how participants Investigate how participants make sense of events and make sense of events and behaviors at workbehaviors at work

• Identify how local meanings Identify how local meanings influence behaviorinfluence behavior

•Explore in detail how context Explore in detail how context shapes meaning, experience, shapes meaning, experience, and behavior -link to practiceand behavior -link to practice

• Investigate new developments Investigate new developments in the world of workin the world of work

Discovery Discovery AchievementsAchievements

•Documenting Evolution Documenting Evolution and Changeand Change

•Challenging Rational Challenging Rational Perspectives on Perspectives on Workplace BehaviorWorkplace Behavior

•Troubling Existing Troubling Existing Theoretical Theoretical ConceptionsConceptions

(Locke, 2011 Academy of Management (Locke, 2011 Academy of Management Annals)Annals)

Discovery Necessitates A Discovery Necessitates A Recursive, Contingent Research Recursive, Contingent Research

DesignDesign

• ““Funnel Shaped”Funnel Shaped” (Hammersley & (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1983)Atkinson, 1983)

• ““Garbage Can II”Garbage Can II” (Grady and (Grady and Wallston, 1988)Wallston, 1988)

• ““An iterative process that An iterative process that involves “tacking” back and involves “tacking” back and forth between implications of forth between implications of components of design”components of design” (Maxwell,2005)(Maxwell,2005)

ImplicationsImplications• ““The complete analysis isn’t” The complete analysis isn’t”

(Michael Quinn Patton, 2002)(Michael Quinn Patton, 2002)• Flexibility in research question, Flexibility in research question,

data gathering, theoretical data gathering, theoretical formulationsformulations

• The experience of ambiguity and The experience of ambiguity and instability in the processinstability in the process

An Interactive An Interactive /Recursive Model of /Recursive Model of

Research DesignResearch Design

Purposes Conceptual Context

Research Questions

Methods Quality

(Maxwell, J. 2005. Qualitative Research Design. Sage)

Openness & Openness & EmergenceEmergence

Embarking on a project without Embarking on a project without knowing where we will end up. knowing where we will end up. That is being unsureThat is being unsure• As to what our specific As to what our specific

research question will be research question will be (Barley, 1990)(Barley, 1990)

• What data we will have What data we will have gathered (Van Maanen, 1998)gathered (Van Maanen, 1998)

• What the project will end up What the project will end up being ‘a case of’ (Becker/ being ‘a case of’ (Becker/ Ragin, 1992)Ragin, 1992)

• What concepts we will have What concepts we will have developed (Agar 2006)developed (Agar 2006)

Observed Observed ParticularsParticulars

Dave is research scientist who owns Dave is research scientist who owns pants with duct-taped pockets to pants with duct-taped pockets to accommodate a set of forty-odd accommodate a set of forty-odd keys carried on two separate rings keys carried on two separate rings connected by a spring clip.connected by a spring clip.

In the 4 years since Dave In the 4 years since Dave configured his keys in this way, configured his keys in this way, “the only times Dave has actually “the only times Dave has actually used the spring clip feature to used the spring clip feature to separate his keys were to separate his keys were to temporarily loan out one side or temporarily loan out one side or the other, take a leisure trip to the other, take a leisure trip to Europe, and once while he moved Europe, and once while he moved house” house” (Nippert-Eng, 1996; p. 49). (Nippert-Eng, 1996; p. 49).

Karen Locke Ph D College of Karen Locke Ph D College of William and MaryWilliam and Mary

Conjectural WorkConjectural Work

“ “There is nothing but imagination that can There is nothing but imagination that can

ever supply [us] an inkling of the truth. ever supply [us] an inkling of the truth.

[We] can stare stupidly at phenomena; [We] can stare stupidly at phenomena;

but in the absence of imagination they but in the absence of imagination they

will not connect themselves together in will not connect themselves together in

any rational way” any rational way” (C. S. Peirce CP 1:46)(C. S. Peirce CP 1:46)

The ability to engage the confounding array The ability to engage the confounding array

of talk, action, feelings, images, and texts of talk, action, feelings, images, and texts

that is field data. And, in the context of that is field data. And, in the context of

this engagement, [without recourse to a this engagement, [without recourse to a

prior theoretical specification] to imagine prior theoretical specification] to imagine

processes, structures, or characterizations processes, structures, or characterizations

such that were they operative, they would such that were they operative, they would

render the data intelligible. render the data intelligible.

GT practices drive GT practices drive this interplaythis interplay

The Grounded The Grounded Theory ApproachTheory Approach

An approach to qualitative An approach to qualitative analysis that develops analysis that develops

abstract conceptualizations abstract conceptualizations through microscopic data through microscopic data

analysis. analysis.

Exercise: For your Exercise: For your selected study…selected study…

• What “phenomenon” was the What “phenomenon” was the researcher/s interested in researcher/s interested in exploring – what was the study’s exploring – what was the study’s purpose? purpose?

• What did they do – what was What did they do – what was their research design?their research design?• What references to GT did they What references to GT did they

make?make?• What practices did these point What practices did these point

to?to?

• How well did the study’s design How well did the study’s design and data gathering approach and data gathering approach access the phenomenon? access the phenomenon?

• What did the study yield? What What did the study yield? What categories? What theoretical categories? What theoretical narrative?narrative?

What practices What practices make a theory make a theory

grounded?grounded?• approach your study leary of the ways approach your study leary of the ways

in which the phenomena has been in which the phenomena has been framed and explainedframed and explained

• organize your data gathering so that organize your data gathering so that you can access in detail the you can access in detail the perspectives of the actors involved in perspectives of the actors involved in the phenomenon (how they understand the phenomenon (how they understand their world, what they are doing and their world, what they are doing and why)why)

• sample theoreticallysample theoretically

• Conceptualize and code microscopicallyConceptualize and code microscopically

• analyze the data systematically and analyze the data systematically and comparativelycomparatively

• continually enrich your thinking by continually enrich your thinking by reading widely around the phenomenareading widely around the phenomena

• grow your theory by going back and grow your theory by going back and forth between forth between progressively more progressively more focused datafocused data and and successively more successively more abstract conceptualizationsabstract conceptualizations of them of them

• integrate the emergent categories integrate the emergent categories around a narrativearound a narrative

Analysis: “Heads Analysis: “Heads Up”Up”

• Assigning meaning to unstructured Assigning meaning to unstructured and ambiguous data, within a flexible and ambiguous data, within a flexible recursive processrecursive process

• Begin analysis as you gather Begin analysis as you gather data NOT afterdata NOT after

• Progressively narrow to one Progressively narrow to one process within the data (this process within the data (this will not be linear!)will not be linear!)

• Narrow to one part of that Narrow to one part of that processprocess

• Data gathering and analysis Data gathering and analysis are iterative (expect analysis are iterative (expect analysis to impact data collection)to impact data collection)

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTUAL CATEGORIES (c.f. Grounded Theory)

Theoretically Driven Data Sampling

Fracture, Chunk and Name Data

Compare, Compile & Rename

Data Fragments

Generate Provisional Conceptualizations with their Indicators

Develop Robust WorkingConceptualizations

Process is “finished” when core categories are theoretically saturated – (in theory)

Character and Experience Character and Experience of Grounded Theory Data of Grounded Theory Data

Sense Making ProcessSense Making Process

•Creative opened-Creative opened-ended dimensionended dimension

•Mechanical Mechanical procedural dimensionprocedural dimension

• Individual analyst is Individual analyst is central agentcentral agent

•Meaning making is Meaning making is richer when the richer when the process is a social oneprocess is a social one

I. Sampling in I. Sampling in Grounded TheoryGrounded Theory

Information not statistical Information not statistical generalizationgeneralization

NOT random … never, never, NOT random … never, never, never, never …never, never …

BTW, did I mention sampling BTW, did I mention sampling is never random?is never random?

Purposive & Theoretical Purposive & Theoretical Sampling Sampling

--Driven by Information NeedsDriven by Information Needs

• The logic of theoretical or purposive The logic of theoretical or purposive sampling is that you select units sampling is that you select units which will provide you rich which will provide you rich information relative to your orienting information relative to your orienting research questionsresearch questions

• Theoretical sampling to expand, Theoretical sampling to expand, check and refine conceptual check and refine conceptual categories. Conceptually-driven categories. Conceptually-driven sequential sampling- usually not sequential sampling- usually not wholly pre-specified, but can evolve wholly pre-specified, but can evolve once fieldwork begins.once fieldwork begins.

• Sampling reflects researcher Sampling reflects researcher interests in the evolving fit between interests in the evolving fit between gathered data and the emerging gathered data and the emerging theory. theory. You sample for the purpose of You sample for the purpose of developing developing your emerging theoryyour emerging theory. .

Ensuring Sampling Ensuring Sampling Focus: CFocus: Clarifying units of larifying units of

Social Organization Expressing Social Organization Expressing Our PhenomenaOur Phenomena

• Social Practices – recurring categories Social Practices – recurring categories of normal talk or action of normal talk or action

• Episodes – significant events in the life Episodes – significant events in the life of…of…

• Encounters – 2 or more persons Encounters – 2 or more persons mutually involvedmutually involved

• Roles – categories of person (formal Roles – categories of person (formal roles, informal roles, social types)roles, informal roles, social types)

• Relationships – parties interacting Relationships – parties interacting over period of time, viewing over period of time, viewing themselves as connected in some way themselves as connected in some way (vary in a gazillion ways, (vary in a gazillion ways, interdependence, power, trust, interdependence, power, trust, information regarding each other, etc)information regarding each other, etc)

• GroupsGroups

• Organizations – goal pursuing entities Organizations – goal pursuing entities with formal and informal strategies with formal and informal strategies

• ProcessesProcesses

• May have interpretive, emotional as May have interpretive, emotional as well as agency aspectswell as agency aspects

((Adapted from Lofland & Lofland, 1995)Adapted from Lofland & Lofland, 1995)

Data FormsData Forms

• Interview transcripts – e.g. accounts Interview transcripts – e.g. accounts of people’s experiencesof people’s experiences

• Field notes – observations of what Field notes – observations of what people do, say, and understandpeople do, say, and understand

• Documentary evidence – policy Documentary evidence – policy documents, texts, memos, emails, documents, texts, memos, emails, accident reports, etc.accident reports, etc.

• Visual elements, e.g. drawings, Visual elements, e.g. drawings, photographs, graphics, etc.photographs, graphics, etc.

(We end up with a large (We end up with a large amount of unstructured and amount of unstructured and uncategorized data) uncategorized data)

Ensuring Data Ensuring Data QualityQuality

• Is it the right data for the job?Is it the right data for the job?• Does the data fit with your Does the data fit with your

phenomenon?phenomenon?

• Is it “thick” enough?Is it “thick” enough?• Do you have a detailed record of Do you have a detailed record of

what those you are researching, what those you are researching, do, see, hear, experience and do, see, hear, experience and understandunderstand

• Do you have examples, histories, Do you have examples, histories, stories, explanationsstories, explanations

• Do you only have “opinions” … Do you only have “opinions” … I I thinkthink

Creating “Data” Creating “Data” and “Making and “Making

Meaning”Meaning”•Interactive, Recursive, Interactive, Recursive, and Interdependentand Interdependent•Relying on multiple Relying on multiple “meaning making” “meaning making” activitiesactivities

Articulating What Your Articulating What Your Data Might MeanData Might Mean

• Meaning Making ActivitiesMeaning Making Activities• Developing contact summariesDeveloping contact summaries• Creating data units Creating data units • Creating ideas about /Inventively Creating ideas about /Inventively

naming data chunks (developing naming data chunks (developing categories) categories)

• Conceptually developing categories Conceptually developing categories through constant comparisonthrough constant comparison

• Analytic Memoing Analytic Memoing • Creating an overarching organization Creating an overarching organization

for your data (Action strategy models, for your data (Action strategy models, conditions/consequences models, conditions/consequences models, stage models, typologies, etc.)stage models, typologies, etc.)

• Framing theoretical implications – Framing theoretical implications – contributing to the literaturecontributing to the literature

A Different Analytic A Different Analytic Procedure: Domain Procedure: Domain

AnalysisAnalysis

Professor(Cover Term)

Is a kind ofSemantic Relationship

Motivator Decision maker

DOMAIN

Included Terms

Spradley, J. (1980) Participant Observation

Other Potential Other Potential Semantic Semantic

RelationshipsRelationships• SpatialSpatial X is a place in Y / X is a part of Y X is a place in Y / X is a part of Y

• Cause-effecCause-effect X is a result of Yt X is a result of Y

• RationaleRationale X is a reason for doing Y X is a reason for doing Y

• Location Location for action X is a place for doing for action X is a place for doing

YY

• FunctionFunction X is used for Y X is used for Y

• Means-end Means-end X is a way to Y X is a way to Y

• Sequence X Sequence X is a step (stage) in Yis a step (stage) in Y

• Attribution X Attribution X is a characteristic of Yis a characteristic of Y

Articulating What Articulating What Your Data Might Your Data Might

MeanMean

How does identity How does identity expanding learning expanding learning

(learning that (learning that transforms who you are) transforms who you are)

occur?occur?

II. Contact II. Contact SummariesSummaries

Begin actively thinking about dataBegin actively thinking about dataCreate a general indexing systemCreate a general indexing systemMiles & Huberman 1994Miles & Huberman 1994

• What people, events or situations What people, events or situations were involved?were involved?

• What were the main themes or What were the main themes or issues?issues?

• What research questions did the What research questions did the contact bear most closely on?contact bear most closely on?

• What new speculations or guesses What new speculations or guesses were suggested by the contact?were suggested by the contact?

• Where should you place most Where should you place most energy during the next contact, energy during the next contact, what sorts of information should be what sorts of information should be collected?collected?

[Miles & Huberman, 1994][Miles & Huberman, 1994]

Contact Summary-How does identity expanding

learning occur?

III. Chunking III. Chunking Observations to Observations to create “data” create “data”

How do you take streams How do you take streams of observations (field of observations (field notes, archival notes, archival documents, transcripts) documents, transcripts) and turn them into little and turn them into little pieces of data that can be pieces of data that can be worked with analytically? worked with analytically?

The Development of Conceptual Categories (c.f. Grounded Theory)

Theoretically Driven Data Sampling

Fracture, Chunk and Name Data

Compare, Compile & Rename

Data Fragments

Generate Provisional Conceptualizations with their Indicators

Develop Robust WorkingConceptualizations

Process is “finished” when core categories are theoretically saturated – (theoretically)

How would you How would you chunk this data?chunk this data?

SUBJECT: So right away, I know I'm notSUBJECT: So right away, I know I'm not

3 making a decision, I'm making a3 making a decision, I'm making a

4 recommendation which is always easy to 4 recommendation which is always easy to wafflewaffle

5 on, apologize for, or mitigate.5 on, apologize for, or mitigate.

6 This also allows me to make, sort of –6 This also allows me to make, sort of –

7 I won't feel as constrained. I can 7 I won't feel as constrained. I can probablyprobably

8 actually make a little bit more, the kind of8 actually make a little bit more, the kind of

9 decision I want to make here, which is 9 decision I want to make here, which is moremore

10 gut based than factual.10 gut based than factual.

11 I can already tell this is going to get11 I can already tell this is going to get

12 political. I can already discern this is12 political. I can already discern this is

13 going to be a powder keg.13 going to be a powder keg.

Developing Conceptual Developing Conceptual Categories: Chunking Categories: Chunking

Fracturing and Naming DataFracturing and Naming Data

• Convention is line by lineConvention is line by line

• In practice this may be a few In practice this may be a few words, a sentence, several words, a sentence, several sentencessentences

• It should be a meaningful, It should be a meaningful, discrete unitdiscrete unit

• Name what’s happening (keep Name what’s happening (keep it active and dynamic)it active and dynamic)

* * You are trying to avoid You are trying to avoid generating impressionistic generating impressionistic “themes” rather than data “themes” rather than data specified grounded categoriesspecified grounded categories

IV. Meaning IV. Meaning Making / Open Making / Open

CodingCoding

Active Naming Active Naming Imagining Imagining ComparingComparing

Data as an indicator Data as an indicator – “Seeing as…”– “Seeing as…”

Ceci n’est pas la soupe!

““SEEING AS” INVENTIVE SEEING AS” INVENTIVE NAMING OR NAMING OR

CONCEPTUALIZINGCONCEPTUALIZING

[We] “can stare stupidly at phenomena; but in the absence of imagination they will not connect themselves together in any rational way.” Peirce, 1896

This work of imagining what might be – accounting for, and at the same time remaining accountable to the data - is our concern

It was more than fifteen years ago that I It was more than fifteen years ago that I entered the laboratory of Professor Agassiz, entered the laboratory of Professor Agassiz, and told him I had enrolled my name in the and told him I had enrolled my name in the scientific school as a student of natural scientific school as a student of natural history. He asked me a few questions about history. He asked me a few questions about my object in coming, my antecedents my object in coming, my antecedents generally, the mode in which I afterwards generally, the mode in which I afterwards proposed to use the knowledge I might proposed to use the knowledge I might acquire, and finally, whether I wished to acquire, and finally, whether I wished to study any special branch.study any special branch.

To the latter I replied that while I wished to be To the latter I replied that while I wished to be well grounded in all departments of zoology, well grounded in all departments of zoology, I purposed to devote myself specially to I purposed to devote myself specially to insects. insects.

"When do you wish to begin?" he asked. "When do you wish to begin?" he asked.

"Now," I replied. "Now," I replied.

This seemed to please him, and with an This seemed to please him, and with an energetic "Very well," he reached from a energetic "Very well," he reached from a shelf a huge jar of specimens in yellow shelf a huge jar of specimens in yellow alcohol. alcohol.

"Take this fish," he said, "and look at it; we call "Take this fish," he said, "and look at it; we call it a Haemulon; by and by I will ask what you it a Haemulon; by and by I will ask what you have seen." have seen."

With that he left me, but in a moment returned With that he left me, but in a moment returned with explicit instructions as to the care of the with explicit instructions as to the care of the object entrusted to me. object entrusted to me.

"No man is fit to be a naturalist," said he, "who "No man is fit to be a naturalist," said he, "who does not know how to take care of does not know how to take care of specimensspecimens."."

Generative questions to pose to Generative questions to pose to your data that facilitate your data that facilitate

conceptualizationconceptualization

• What is happening?What is happening?

• What might this be a case of / what What might this be a case of / what can I think of this as being about?can I think of this as being about?

• What is the actor doing?What is the actor doing?

• What is the basic problem faced by What is the basic problem faced by the actor/s here?the actor/s here?

• What do these actions and What do these actions and statements take for granted?statements take for granted?

• What question about my topic does What question about my topic does this data suggest?this data suggest?

• What imagery or metaphor does this What imagery or metaphor does this data evoke?data evoke?

How is this fragment the same as How is this fragment the same as and different from others?and different from others?

V. Meaning V. Meaning Making Making

Developing Developing Conceptual Conceptual CategoriesCategories

The Development of Conceptual Categories (c.f. Grounded Theory)

Theoretically Driven Data Sampling

Fracture, Chunk and Name Data

Compare, Compile & Rename

Data Fragments

Generate Provisional Conceptualizations with their Indicators

Develop Robust WorkingConceptualizations

Process is “finished” when core categories are theoretically saturated

Developing Categories Developing Categories From Data ChunksFrom Data Chunks

Category Working Label:

Data Source:

Data Samples Constituting Category:

Interview #

Interview #

Constant Constant ComparisonComparison

How is this fragment the same How is this fragment the same as and different from others?as and different from others?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nxIErzX3aQQ&feature=related

Constant comparison: Constant comparison: How are these the same How are these the same

and different?and different?

• ““Slowly I drew forth that Slowly I drew forth that hideous fish, and with a hideous fish, and with a feeling of desperation again feeling of desperation again looked at it.” looked at it.”

• ““When I had finished, he When I had finished, he waited as if expecting more, waited as if expecting more, and then, with an air of and then, with an air of disappointment:” disappointment:”

• “…“…so I walked home by so I walked home by Charles River in a distracted Charles River in a distracted state, with my two state, with my two perplexities.” perplexities.”

Constant Comparison: Constant Comparison: HowHow are these the same and are these the same and

different?different?

• Finally, just to start some kind of Finally, just to start some kind of action, I began copying. In my action, I began copying. In my slow, painstaking ragged slow, painstaking ragged handwriting, I copied into my handwriting, I copied into my tablet everything printed on that tablet everything printed on that first page, down to the first page, down to the punctuation marks.punctuation marks.

• I pushed my fingers down its I pushed my fingers down its throat to see how sharp its teeth throat to see how sharp its teeth were. I began to count the scales were. I began to count the scales in the different rows until I was in the different rows until I was convinced that that was convinced that that was nonsense. At last a happy nonsense. At last a happy thought struck me --- I would thought struck me --- I would draw the fish; and now with draw the fish; and now with surprise I began to discover new surprise I began to discover new features in the creature.features in the creature.

The Development of Conceptual Categories (c.f. Grounded Theory)

Theoretically Driven Data Sampling

Fracture, Chunk and Name Data

Compare, Compile & Rename

Data Fragments

Generate Provisional Conceptualizations with their Indicators

Develop Robust WorkingConceptualizations

Process is “finished” when core categories are theoretically saturated

Out of his comfort zone Out of his comfort zone /floundering /floundering

• I turned it over and around; looked it in the face -- I turned it over and around; looked it in the face -- ghastlyghastly; from behind, beneath, above, sideways, at a ; from behind, beneath, above, sideways, at a three-quarters view -- three-quarters view -- just as ghastlyjust as ghastly. I was in . I was in despairdespair; at an early hour, I concluded that lunch was ; at an early hour, I concluded that lunch was necessary; so with necessary; so with infinite reliefinfinite relief……

• Slowly I drew forth that Slowly I drew forth that hideoushideous fish, and with a fish, and with a feeling of desperationfeeling of desperation again looked at it.again looked at it.

• When I had finished, he waited as if expecting more, When I had finished, he waited as if expecting more, and then, with an air of and then, with an air of disappointment:disappointment: "You have "You have not looked very carefullynot looked very carefully; why," he continued, more ; why," he continued, more earnestly, "you haven't seen one of the most earnestly, "you haven't seen one of the most conspicuous features of the animal, which is as plainly conspicuous features of the animal, which is as plainly before your eyes as the fish itself. Look again; look before your eyes as the fish itself. Look again; look again!" And he left me to again!" And he left me to my my misery misery

• I was I was piquedpiqued;; I was I was mortifiedmortified. Still more of that . Still more of that wretched fishwretched fish……

• professor inquired “Do you see it yet?" "No," I replied. professor inquired “Do you see it yet?" "No," I replied. ""I I am certain I do notam certain I do not, but I see how little I saw , but I see how little I saw before." before."

• This was This was disconcertingdisconcerting; not only must I think of my ; not only must I think of my fish all night, studying, without the object before me,…fish all night, studying, without the object before me,…

• "Do "Do you perhaps meanyou perhaps mean," I asked, "that the fish has ," I asked, "that the fish has symmetrical sides with paired organs?“symmetrical sides with paired organs?“

• I became I became increasingly frustratedincreasingly frustrated at not being able to at not being able to express what I wanted to conveyexpress what I wanted to convey

• It It was sadwas sad; ; I couldn’t evenI couldn’t even write a straight line write a straight line• I spent two days I spent two days just rimming uncertainlyjust rimming uncertainly through through

the dictionary’s pagesthe dictionary’s pagesLearning to see / be involves stepping out of your comfort zone—voluntarily or involuntarily— how tentative and unsure of himself he is (bolded words)

Portraying a divided Portraying a divided literatureliterature

Unfortunately, the relevantUnfortunately, the relevant literature offers literature offers contradictory assessments contradictory assessments of the ability of of the ability of the social sciences to account for these the social sciences to account for these phenomena. phenomena. One the one hand One the one hand we are told we are told that “Max Weber was the first to consider that “Max Weber was the first to consider bureaucracy as the problem of industrial bureaucracy as the problem of industrial society () that he articulated the “classical society () that he articulated the “classical theory of bureaucracy () …All this clearly theory of bureaucracy () …All this clearly conveys the impression that Weber’s work on conveys the impression that Weber’s work on bureaucracy constitutes …a bureaucracy constitutes …a paradigm...On paradigm...On the other hand the same literature contends the other hand the same literature contends that that all theories of bureaucracies, including all theories of bureaucracies, including Weber’s are “underdeveloped” ()..Weber’s are “underdeveloped” ()..

As with any new perspective, its [culture’sAs with any new perspective, its [culture’s] ] vagaries, disjunctions and confusions vagaries, disjunctions and confusions must must be carefully addressed for the research be carefully addressed for the research tradition to advance. One of tradition to advance. One of the most the most depressing disputes organizational culture depressing disputes organizational culture research research is what, exactly, constitutes a is what, exactly, constitutes a culture… Although culture… Although the dichotomy the dichotomy is not is not exact, exact, two major research traditions two major research traditions are are emerging …functionalist… interpretive ()emerging …functionalist… interpretive ()

Stress has been studied from a number of Stress has been studied from a number of perspectives, but perspectives, but rather than producing rather than producing consensusconsensus,, this this research has portrayed stress research has portrayed stress variously…variously…

Previous Labels: Previous Labels: Research results confusedResearch results confused

Links with: Negative findings, Literature Links with: Negative findings, Literature progressingprogressing

Recommendations Recommendations when developing when developing

categoriescategories

• Generate multiple category names Generate multiple category names for data fragments (c.f. for data fragments (c.f. brainstorming)brainstorming)

• Do assign data fragments to more Do assign data fragments to more than one category (discreteness will than one category (discreteness will come later, don’t force it)come later, don’t force it)

• Do not use technical jargon, ie prior Do not use technical jargon, ie prior specified theory as category names specified theory as category names (bracket it out)(bracket it out)

• Category names are flexible, use Category names are flexible, use images, phrases, sentencesimages, phrases, sentences

• Category names should be a good Category names should be a good fit for the data incident being fit for the data incident being describeddescribed

• When a category has 6-12 data When a category has 6-12 data indicators, write a formal definition indicators, write a formal definition of that categoryof that category

Recommendations Recommendations when developing when developing

categoriescategories

•Do be on the look out for Do be on the look out for developing major or “core” developing major or “core” categoriescategories

•Be aware how many Be aware how many conceptual categories you conceptual categories you have in developmenthave in development

•Too many categories? Too many categories? Make a list of all the Make a list of all the category names; ask category names; ask yourself, which ones are yourself, which ones are similar which ones are similar which ones are different?different?

VI. Theoretical VI. Theoretical SamplingSampling

In light of your developing In light of your developing categories, what kinds of categories, what kinds of data do you need to data do you need to develop them further?develop them further?

The Development of Conceptual Categories (c.f. Grounded Theory)

Theoretically Driven Data Sampling

Fracture, Chunk and Name Data

Compare, Compile & Rename

Data Fragments

Generate Provisional Conceptualizations with their Indicators

Develop Robust WorkingConceptualizations

Process is “finished” when core categories are theoretically saturated

VII. MemoingVII. MemoingCentral to emergence, i.e. Central to emergence, i.e. growing your theorygrowing your theoryA methodological practice A methodological practice An exploration An exploration

Analytic Analytic MemoingMemoing

• Central analytic procedureCentral analytic procedure

• Any writing that is done in Any writing that is done in relationship to the research other relationship to the research other than actual field notes, transcription than actual field notes, transcription or coding.or coding.

• A way of getting things down on A way of getting things down on paper to facilitate reflection and paper to facilitate reflection and insightinsight

• A way of helping you understand and A way of helping you understand and make sense of your topic and your make sense of your topic and your datadata

• Prose that tell what your conceptual Prose that tell what your conceptual categories, matrices, contact categories, matrices, contact summary elements are aboutsummary elements are about

• Connect ideas, data, and Connect ideas, data, and theorytheory

MemoingMemoing

• p. 34 it is imperative to engage in a p. 34 it is imperative to engage in a written conversation with yourself. written conversation with yourself. Imagine yourself sitting at a desk in a Imagine yourself sitting at a desk in a year or so , actually beginning to year or so , actually beginning to write, ore confident then than now, write, ore confident then than now, having a firmer sense of the having a firmer sense of the patterning of things, perusing all the patterning of things, perusing all the notes, transcripts and documents that notes, transcripts and documents that you have gathered. Those materials you have gathered. Those materials are, in effect, messages to a future are, in effect, messages to a future self, and they will lose some of their self, and they will lose some of their immediacy and context. What is clear immediacy and context. What is clear NOW will not be so clear later on. NOW will not be so clear later on. Patiently explain to a future self what Patiently explain to a future self what you are doing, why you think it is you are doing, why you think it is interesting, why you have chosen to interesting, why you have chosen to record what you have, what relevance record what you have, what relevance it will haveit will have

Rock: Handbook of EthnographyRock: Handbook of Ethnography

Types of Types of Memo:Memo:From simple to complexFrom simple to complex

• Simple, elemental memos – a Simple, elemental memos – a rendering of emerging thinking on a rendering of emerging thinking on a specific category on research specific category on research question in more general terms.question in more general terms.• How you personally relate to actors How you personally relate to actors

and/or the phenomenonand/or the phenomenon• Your code/ category choices and Your code/ category choices and

working definitions/understandingsworking definitions/understandings

• More complex memos – render More complex memos – render thinking on categories’ thinking on categories’ relationships, include exploration of relationships, include exploration of possible links to existing theory.possible links to existing theory.• Relationships among categories and Relationships among categories and

your research questionsyour research questions

Excerpt from early Excerpt from early memomemo

The second clearest category comprises those The second clearest category comprises those papers that perhaps create an intellectual papers that perhaps create an intellectual imperative for what is to follow. There seem to imperative for what is to follow. There seem to be two textual acts that are key here. be two textual acts that are key here. The first The first is to launch a serious critique of the literature, is to launch a serious critique of the literature, (even though it –the lit- is used to establish (even though it –the lit- is used to establish consensus on the importance of the topic for consensus on the importance of the topic for organization studies)organization studies) They seriously impugn They seriously impugn the existing literature literature as the existing literature literature as demonstrating that it is not up to the task of demonstrating that it is not up to the task of dealing with the investigatory domain dealing with the investigatory domain identifiedidentified. So, Barley suggests that existing . So, Barley suggests that existing approaches haven’t got at the social approaches haven’t got at the social construction of meaning, Gephart suggests that construction of meaning, Gephart suggests that existing approaches haven’t got at how existing approaches haven’t got at how succession is produced, Hirschhorn and succession is produced, Hirschhorn and Gilmore suggest that existing organizational Gilmore suggest that existing organizational change traditions cannot deal with change traditions cannot deal with organizations in crisis type situationsorganizations in crisis type situations. There . There seem to be various ways in which the literature seem to be various ways in which the literature is shown to be not up to the task, one might be is shown to be not up to the task, one might be that it cannot address certain phenomena, that it cannot address certain phenomena, another might be that it is contradictory or in another might be that it is contradictory or in confusion, another may be that it is not confusion, another may be that it is not studying what it thinks it is studying, etc. The studying what it thinks it is studying, etc. The second act is to introduce and/or legitimate the second act is to introduce and/or legitimate the new and more fruitful traditionnew and more fruitful tradition

Ideas about what you think is happening, contact with the categories you are developing, contact with literature?

Excerpt from Memo – Excerpt from Memo – Embodiment in Org. Embodiment in Org.

StudiesStudies• Last night’s class focused on Last night’s class focused on

meditation and mantra got me thinking meditation and mantra got me thinking about two things. First how much about two things. First how much mantras or particular kinds of practices mantras or particular kinds of practices are present for example the sports are present for example the sports psychology stuff. See the current issue psychology stuff. See the current issue of running journal. Second, discussion of running journal. Second, discussion of the state one was trying to achieve of the state one was trying to achieve in meditation reminded me of in meditation reminded me of Czsenkmihalyi’s work on flow … a Czsenkmihalyi’s work on flow … a particular kind of mind/body particular kind of mind/body consciousness disposition. What about consciousness disposition. What about mindfulness? Think about the edited mindfulness? Think about the edited volume on embodied … and it is an volume on embodied … and it is an example of such practices already example of such practices already entering organization studies. The entering organization studies. The question is where else does the question is where else does the embodied piece enter organization embodied piece enter organization studies… the practice work – not really studies… the practice work – not really have practices disconnected from have practices disconnected from bodies (*possible contribution). bodies (*possible contribution).

VIII. Growing TheoriesVIII. Growing Theories

More than a collection of More than a collection of categories – how do the categories – how do the categories relate to each categories relate to each other?other?What stories/ narratives can What stories/ narratives can be developed from be developed from observations and in process observations and in process conceptualizations?conceptualizations?

Some Vocabulary Some Vocabulary Questions/Theoretical Elements- Questions/Theoretical Elements-

what’s, how’s and why’s, when’swhat’s, how’s and why’s, when’s

• Types – exclusive categories of Types – exclusive categories of social units, aspectssocial units, aspects

• Structure – constituent dimensions, Structure – constituent dimensions, detailed organizationdetailed organization

• Process – operations over time Process – operations over time expressed as phases or cycles …expressed as phases or cycles …

• Agency – strategies used to deal Agency – strategies used to deal with particular situationwith particular situation

• Causes – conditions and contexts Causes – conditions and contexts that engender that engender

• Consequences – of and for what …Consequences – of and for what …

Adapted from Glaser, 1973 & Strauss & Corbin, 1998

Open Coding to Strauss & Open Coding to Strauss & Corbin’s Axial Coding Corbin’s Axial Coding

ParadigmParadigm

Open Coding Categories

Category

Category

Category

Category

Category

Axial Coding Paradigm

Context

Causal Conditions

CoreCategory

orPhenomenon

Strategies Consequences

InterveningConditions

One open codingcategory as corephenomenon

After Creswell 2e

Key TermsKey Terms

• Axial coding- Intense analysis focused on Axial coding- Intense analysis focused on one category at a time that treats the one category at a time that treats the category as an ‘axis’ around which further category as an ‘axis’ around which further coding and category building is done. coding and category building is done.

• Categorizing – an analytic Categorizing – an analytic conceptualizationconceptualization

• Coding – process of naming what data is Coding – process of naming what data is about about

• Coding families or coding paradigm – a Coding families or coding paradigm – a fund of abstract theoretical terms to aid fund of abstract theoretical terms to aid thinking about categories and their thinking about categories and their relations to each otherrelations to each other

• In-vivo or substantive coding – captures In-vivo or substantive coding – captures substantive aspects of research setting, substantive aspects of research setting, often in research participants’ own termsoften in research participants’ own terms

• Theoretical sampling – Ongoing sampling Theoretical sampling – Ongoing sampling specifically for the purpose of developing specifically for the purpose of developing the theorythe theory

• Theoretical saturation – the point at which Theoretical saturation – the point at which gathering data yields no new properties gathering data yields no new properties nor any new theoretical insights nor any new theoretical insights