81
Final Management Indicator Species Report Sunflower Allotment Grazing Analysis July 2015
Final Management Indicator Species
Report
Sunflower Allotment Grazing Analysis
July 2015
Page 2 of 81
Table of Contents Background ......................................................................................................................... 4
Alternatives Considered ...................................................................................................... 4
Alternative 1: No Action – No Grazing .......................................................................... 4
Alternative 2 – Proposed Action ..................................................................................... 5
1) Authorization .......................................................................................................... 5
2) Range Improvement Infrastructure ....................................................................... 11
3) Monitoring ............................................................................................................ 14
4) Management Practices and Mitigation Measures ................................................. 17
Status of Management Indicator Species Populations ...................................................... 23
Management Indicator Species Status and Trends ........................................................... 31
Data Sources ................................................................................................................. 31
Breeding Bird Survey ............................................................................................... 31
Christmas Bird Counts (National Audubon Society)................................................ 32
NatureServe............................................................................................................... 32
Arizona Game and Fish Department Data ................................................................ 33
Arizona Wildlife and Fisheries Comprehensive Plan (USFS & AZGFD, 1990) Data
................................................................................................................................... 33
Effects for the PJ/Woodland Habitat & Selected MIS ...................................................... 33
Ash-throated Flycatcher ................................................................................................ 33
Effects determination PJ/Woodland habitat type:..................................................... 37
Effects for the Chaparral Habitat Type and Selected MIS ............................................... 37
Rufous-sided (spotted) towhee ..................................................................................... 37
Black-chinned sparrow ................................................................................................. 41
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Effects determination chaparral habitat type: ........................................................... 45
Effects for the Desert Grassland Habitat Type and Selected MIS .................................... 45
Horned Lark .................................................................................................................. 45
Savannah sparrow ......................................................................................................... 49
Effects determination desert grassland habitat type: ................................................ 53
Effects for the Desert Scrub Habitat Type and Selected MIS .......................................... 53
Black-throated sparrow ................................................................................................. 54
Canyon Towhee ............................................................................................................ 58
Effects determination desert scrub habitat type: ....................................................... 61
Effects For the Riparian (high/ low elevation) Habitat Type And Selected MIS ............. 62
Bell’s Vireo ................................................................................................................... 62
Common black hawk .................................................................................................... 64
Effects determination high & low riparian habitat type: .......................................... 66
Effects For the Aquatic Habitat Type & Selected MIS .................................................... 66
Aquatic Macroinvertebrates .......................................................................................... 66
Effects determination aquatic habitat type: ............................................................... 69
References ......................................................................................................................... 71
Appendix A ....................................................................................................................... 79
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Background The Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP) for the Tonto National Forest (Tonto NF),
adopted in 1985, identified thirty management indicator species (MIS). The reason these species
were selected as MIS is described in the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), Tonto National
Forest Plan, 1985. The objective was to select species which would indicate successional stages
of each vegetation type and serve as an indicator for detecting major habitat changes (LRMP p.
211). A forest level MIS report was prepared in 2002 and updated in 2005. Specifics on trends for
MIS species across the forest can be found in that report.
The purpose of the report was to summarize current knowledge of population and habitat trends
for species identified as MIS for the Tonto NF. Population trends needed to be monitored as the
LRMP was implemented, and relationships to habitat changes over time determined (36 CFR
219.19). It is a dynamic document, subject to change as new inventory, monitoring, and habitat
information is acquired and evaluated during the life of the Tonto NF LRMP.
Management guidance for MIS, other wildlife and fish resources, and diversity of plant and
animal populations, is found in several key documents. The 1982 National Forest Management
Act Regulations (Planning Regulations) at 36 CFR 219 set forth a process for developing,
adopting, and revising land and resource management plans for the National Forest System (CFR
219.1), and identify requirements for integrating fish and wildlife resources in Forest Land
Management Plans (CFR 219.13 and CFR 219.19). Key provisions for fish and wildlife resources
require that fish and wildlife habitat be managed to maintain viable populations of existing native
and desired non-native vertebrate species in the planning area, where a viable population is
considered to be one that has the estimated numbers and distribution of individuals to ensure its
continued existence is well distributed through the planning area (CFR 219.19). By definition, the
planning area is the area covered by a regional guide or forest plan (CFR 219.3). The Planning
Regulations require that certain species, whose population changes are believed to indicate the
effects of management activities, be selected and evaluated in forest planning alternatives (CFR
219.19). Additionally, the regulations require that the population trends of management indicator
species be monitored and relationships to habitat changes determined (CFR 219.19).
Specific management direction for MIS is also found in Forest Service Manual (FSM) 2600.
Policy and direction that tiers to CFR 219.19 is provided for MIS for application at the Forest
Plan and project levels relative to species selection, habitat analysis, monitoring and evaluation,
and other habitat and planning evaluation considerations, in FSM 2620. FSM 2630 provides
guidance on improving MIS habitat, and conducting habitat examinations, and project level
evaluations for MIS within the project area.
Alternatives Considered
Alternative 1: No Action – No Grazing Under this alternative the term grazing permit for Sunflower allotment would be cancelled
following guidance in 36 CFR 222.4 and Forest Service Manual (FSM) 2231.62. Existing
improvements no longer functional or needed for other purposes, including interior fences, cattle
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guards, and water developments would be evaluated for continued usefulness and removed as
necessary.
Alternative 2 – Proposed Action The following prosed action was modified from the one scoped on November 14, 2014, and does
not include the use of prescribed fire techniques in portions of the allotment to address fire
condition class regimes. These treatments were removed to focus the actions of this analysis on
actions specifically related to the reauthorization of grazing.
The proposed action consists of four components: authorization, improvements, monitoring, and
management practices. The proposed action follows current guidance from Forest Service
Handbook 2209.13, Chapter 90 (Grazing Permit Administration; Rangeland Management
Decision making).
1) Authorization
The Mesa Ranger District, Tonto National Forest, proposes to authorize livestock grazing in the
project area under the following terms:
Permitted Livestock Numbers: Proposed permitted use would vary between 2,700 to 6,300
Animal Unit Months (AUMs) year-long. Table 1 depicts this range of numbers per unit based on
estimated capacity numbers. A rotational system of grazing would be implemented which would
allow plants an opportunity for growth or regrowth.
Table 1: Proposed Stocking Numbers Based on Estimated Production
Unit Estimated Initial
Stocking
(cow/calf pairs)
Maximum
Stocking – Upper
Limit
(cow/calf pairs)
Capacity Numbers Based on
2014 Production Data
AUMs/Number
Cottonwood East 50 – 75 100 – 125 3,599/300
Cottonwood West 50 – 75 100 - 125
Cline 75 – 100 125 - 150 1,841/153
Dos S 50 – 75 100 - 125 2,524/210
Total 225 - 325 425 - 525 7,964/664
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These capacity numbers are based on 2014 production data collected at 22 Terrestrial Ecosystem
Unit Inventory (TEUI) map units throughout the allotment1, trend data, apparent trend ratings,
historical grazing numbers and management, and permittee knowledge and experience (Error!
Objects cannot be created from editing field codes. Figure 1).
Error! Objects cannot be created from editing field codes. Figure 1: Sunflower Allotment
Proposed Action, Key Areas
1 Capacity estimates are based on average herbaceous forage production collected from March through May
2014, considering forage consumption of ungulates, per AUM. Capacity adjustments were made for
conservative forage utilization guidelines (30-40%) distance from water and percent slope (Holechek et al.
2004).
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Availability of forage for livestock is based upon topography (slope), distance to water, and type
or class of livestock. Adjustment to the total production for these variables can have a significant
effect on stocking rate and identify opportunities for installation of additional range infrastructure
such as water developments (NRCS 2009). Table 2 below indicates the general guidelines for
determining the amount of adjustment.
When determining capacity numbers, Tonto NF Geographical Information System (GIS) data
were used to evaluate forage availability based upon topography. Locations of all existing range
improvements on the Tonto NF, including the Sunflower allotment, have not been inventoried
using a Global Positioning System (GPS) device and added to the Structural Improvement GIS
layer in the corporate database. Therefore, the District used available GIS data, range
improvement maps, satellite imagery, and permittee/ District personnel knowledge to identify
improvement locations to adjust capacity based on distance to water.
Table 2: Adjustment Factors in Determining Capacity
Distance to
Water (ft)
Percent
Adjustment Percent Slope
Percent
Adjustment
2640 100% 0 - 15 100%
5280 90% 15 - 30 70%
7920 70% 31 - 60 40%
10560 50% >60 0%
Initial stocking, within any given unit, would not occur until all existing water developments
(windmills, pipelines, storage tanks, dirt tanks, and troughs) and new and/or existing unit/pasture
fences (interior and allotment boundary) are functional and maintained to Forest Service Standard
as required in FSM 2240.41a. Prior to any livestock returning to the allotment, a unit/pasture
inspection would be conducted by Forest Service personnel and the permittee/manager to
evaluate range condition, water distribution and availability, and ensure improvements are
functional.
Initial stocking numbers, within any given unit, will not exceed those listed in the
“Estimated Initial Stocking’ numbers listed in Table 1. Annual authorized livestock
numbers may be adjusted from initial stocking levels. A stock and monitor approach,
consistent with regional Forest Service direction R3 Supplement to FSH 2209.13 chapter
90, will be used to establish grazing capacity over the long term (five to ten years).
Actual permitted levels of grazing will be determined annually by the Mesa District
Ranger with the permittee based on the results of monitoring and successful
implementation of management practices. Other considerations include development of
new range improvements, forage utilization patterns, economic factors, and climate
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forecasts. Typical increases may be around 15 percent annually, up to the upper limit
shown in Table 1. For example, for the Cline Unit it would take four to five years to
reach the maximum stocking limit at an approximately 15 percent increase per year.
Grazing System: Livestock will be grazed using a rotational system. Stocking rates,
within each unit, will be independent from the other units and managed as separate herds.
The Otero, Ranger Station, Sycamore Creek Riparian, and Adams—west of State Route
87—pastures within the Dos S Unit, and the Desert Unit, will be placed into non-use
(approximately 56,724 acres total). Non-use within these units/pastures will benefit
riparian resources and sensitive species concerns associated with Sycamore Creek and
Mesquite Wash. Additionally, non-use will benefit Sonoran Desert tortoise populations
and habitat known to occur in the Adams pasture and remove conflict between heavy
recreational pressure and livestock grazing practices. Non-use will continue until such
time as a new environmental analysis is conducted to show the need for these pastures
and the effects of authorizing grazing within them. Table 2 includes the proposed
unit/pasture scheme, as well as the 2014 estimated AUMs and approximate acreage of
each.
Error! Objects cannot be created from editing field codes. Figure 2: Sunflower Allotment
Proposed Action with Improvements
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The reconfiguration of the Cline, Cottonwood (East and West), and Dos S Units would primarily
be accomplished using existing fencing and natural barriers; however, there are a couple of
known locations where short sections of new unit and/or pasture boundary fences or gap fencing
will be required. When natural boundaries are used, livestock drift can occur along roads, trails,
and drainages, if accessible to livestock. Active management practices such as herding and salting
can be used to minimize this. However, if these management practices don’t correct livestock
from drifting between pastures, the permittee would be responsible for immediately locating areas
of drift and installing fence to ensure livestock remain in the appropriate pasture. Additionally,
each unit herd would be ear tagged using different colored tags in order to differentiate between
unit herds. This would be required to ensure that livestock are within their designated units; and if
not, identify locations where additional gap fencing may be needed.
Table 3: Proposed Unit/Pastures Including Estimated and Proposed AUMs and Acreage
Unit Pastures
Approximate
AUMs Based on
2014 Production
Data
Proposed
AUMs/Unit Acreage
Cline Ballantine
Cline
Mud Springs
708 AUMs
714 AUMs
419 AUMs
900 – 1,800
AUMs
6,228
5,613
4,307
Total: 16,148
Cottonwood
Unit West
Adams
North
South
283 AUMs
1159 AUMs
550 AUMs
600 – 1,500
AUMs
2,426
12,469
9,819
Total: 24,714
Cottonwood
Unit East
Alder Creek
Cane Springs North
Cane Springs South
648 AUMs
388 AUMs
571 AUMs
600 – 1,500
AUMs
11,051
5,167
10,822
Total: 27,040
Dos S Maverick
Picadilla
567 AUMs
1089 AUMs
600 – 1,500
AUMs
5,296
11,205
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Pine Creek 868 AUMs 13,482
Total: 29,983
Totals 7,964 AUMs 2,700 – 6,300
AUMs 97,885 Acres*
*This number does not include the acreage associated with the various traps and corrals used for livestock
management.
Each unit would be managed using a rotational grazing system, in which pastures within each unit
would receive periodic deferment allowing for plant physiological needs in order to achieve
desired resource conditions2. Pasture use periods would be kept flexible to the extent possible in
consideration of estimated AUMs. Actual pasture season of use each year would depend on
observed resource conditions. The grazing period within each pasture would be based upon
weather/climate conditions, water availability, current growing conditions, and the need to
provide for plant regrowth following grazing. The length of the grazing period within each
pasture would also be considered and managed for the desired grazing intensity and utilization
guidelines.
Management Tools
If monitoring indicates that desired resource conditions are not being achieved, in the desired
time frame or areas for this allotment, there are tools, or administrative actions that would be used
to modify management. Such changes may include annual administrative actions to adjust the
specific number of livestock and/or animal unit months, specific dates for grazing, class of
animal, or pasture rotations. These changes would not exceed limits for timing, intensity,
duration, and frequency, as described in the proposed action.
Necessary changes would be implemented through AOIs, which will adjust use to be consistent
with current productivity and resource conditions. The AOI will also include mitigation measures
and Best Management Practices (BMP) to avoid or minimize effects to wildlife, soil, and water
quality. Modifications to the AOI may be implemented at any time throughout the grazing season
in response to unforeseen environmental concerns such as drought, fire, flood, etc., or
management and livestock operation concerns.
The following is a list of when administrative actions would be necessary in the management of
this allotment:
Monitoring shows management objectives have not been achieved or that trend toward
achieving desired conditions is not improving or improving at an adequate rate.
2 Desired resource conditions and management objectives for each resource area are identified and
discussed in Chapter 3 of this analysis.
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Annual indicators of grazing use or grazing guidelines are not met.
Climatic events, fire, flood, or uses and activities detrimentally impact resource
conditions and a modification of grazing use is needed to provide for recovery of the site.
There are several types of administrative actions that could take place within the allotment.
These actions would comply with the Forest Plan and mitigations detailed later in this section.
The following list includes some of these actions:
Extending or shortening time in a pasture based on utilization levels in uplands and
riparian areas;
Assessing the readiness of a pasture and changing its position in the rotation for the
season;
Time or season of pasture use;
Resting a pasture for one or more growing seasons;
High intensity, short duration, or other grazing system;
In the event of extended drought, severe fire, or depleted rangelands, complete removal
of livestock until rangelands have recovered;
Decrease or increase herd size within the limits of the permitted numbers;
Temporarily closing off water in a portion of a pasture to manipulate grazing pressure
and intensity of use;
Use of salting and mineral blocks to aid in distribution, especially away from critical
areas such as riparian areas;
Herding livestock;
Excluding livestock from specific areas temporarily or permanently for other resource
objectives; or
Changing or limiting season of use to minimize impacts to riparian vegetation and water
quality.
If monitoring indicates desired conditions are not being met, the range specialist, in consultation
with the permittee and resource specialists as appropriate, will:
Evaluate the potential cause for not meeting desired condition or indicator such as
utilization;
Evaluate the need to implement alternative actions under an adaptive management
strategy;
Generate documentation necessary in the AOI and/or permit and allotment files for the
action to be implemented; and
As necessary, conduct additional site specific surveying, such as for cultural resources.
2) Range Improvement Infrastructure
Adding fencing, constructing livestock handling facilities, protecting springs, and developing
additional watering sources may be beneficial to livestock management, facilitate better livestock
distribution, reduce undesirable effects to riparian vegetation and wildlife habitat, or otherwise
improve the rangeland resource. Existing range improvement infrastructure must be brought up to
agency standard prior to installing any new developments. An exception to this could be that a
particular existing improvement is determined, because of location, competing uses, livestock
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needs, or type is determined to no longer be feasible or necessary to maintain. Such
improvements would then be removed. Allotment administration would determine whether
identified structural improvements are necessary or need to be modified.
The effects of adding infrastructure such as fencing or waters to achieve resource objectives in
the future will be disclosed in this document and tiered to this EA. All new structures would have
heritage clearances prior to implementation. Additional sideboards include the following:
New spring developments would be constructed with the spring box designed so that
residual flow is left at spring head to prevent dewatering.
Any new spring developments will be fence to exclude livestock access, with a trough(s)
provided outside of the exclosure to provide water to livestock and wildlife.
New troughs would be placed in the uplands, at least 300 feet away from riparian areas.
New fencing would be constructed using a “wildlife friendly” design which includes;
upper three strands barbed wire, top wire not to exceed 42 inches and lowest strand
smooth wire set at 18 inches to allow wildlife to safely pass under.
New troughs, supplements, and/or salt would not be located within .25 miles of the
Sonoran desert tortoises’ preferred habitat, which includes rocky, boulder-covered hills
and mountains in Sonoran desert scrub habitat. This would help ensure that livestock
congregation areas (near water) are outside of tortoise foraging areas.
Place supplements where forage is abundant and current grazing use levels are low.
Supplements should not be placed at any one location more than once during the grazing
season to prevent concentration of livestock.
Improvements proposed within Sonoran desert tortoise habitat, would require pre-
construction surveys and monitoring to ensure that individual tortoises are not present
within the action area.
The following improvements would be constructed in order to facilitate livestock distribution
throughout the allotment and assist in achieving the desired conditions and management
objectives set forth in this analysis. The proposed fencing projects listed below will be installed
prior to any livestock returning to the affected units/pastures. However, it is not necessary for the
proposed additional water developments to be completed in a specific order or even in the same
year. At present, funding has not been secured for the implementation of the proposed water
developments. Examples of potential funding sources include individual allotment permittee
funding, permittee labor matches, a variety of potential grants and Range Betterment Funds.
Implementation of the proposed range improvement infrastructure will be based on available
funding and management objectives (Figure 2).
Proposed Fencing:
Installation of an exclosure fence above and below Hidden Water Spring (T3N, R9E,
Section 21) to allow riparian vegetation above and below the spring to improve. The
spring itself is currently fenced to exclude livestock access to protect an established Gila
topminnow population. The trough located outside of the current exclosure, which is fed
by the spring, will remain in place to provide water for livestock. This location is within
the Four Peaks Wilderness, so no mechanized or mechanical equipment can be used
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during installation. The installation of this type of improvement is provided for under the
Wilderness Act establishing the Four Peaks Wilderness and the Forest Plan for MA 3D.
Two sections of fence separating the Dos S Unit, Picadilla Pasture and the Ballantine
Pasture of the cline Unit (T5N, R9E, Section 31). The remaining unit division will be
accomplished using natural barrier.
Installation of two sections of fence within the proposed Cottonwood West Unit to
separate the North and South pastures (T4N, R9E, Sections 29 and 32; and T3N, R9E,
Section 3).
Proposed Water Developments:
Addition of a ≤10,000 gallon storage tank off of Forest Road (FR) 3484 (T4N, R9E,
Section 3) to supply water to a new 300 gallon trough in the Cline Unit/Cline Pasture
(T5N, R9E, Section 34).
Install a new pipeline from the existing Mountain Spring pipeline, to convey water to a
new 300 gallon trough in Cline Unit/Ballantine Pasture. This pipeline currently conveys
water to four troughs along its length (T5N, R9E, Section 34).
Addition of a ≤10,000 gallon storage tank off of FR 3537 in the Dos S Unit/Maverick
Pasture (T6N, R8E, Section 35). Water would be hauled to fill new tank. Pipeline would
convey water from tank to a new 300 gallon trough (T5N, R8E, Section 2).
Addition of a ≤10,000 gallon storage tank on the existing Mud Springs pipeline in the
Dos S Unit/Pine Creek Pasture. This pipeline currently conveys water to four troughs
along its length (T5N, R9E, Section 5).
Addition of a ≤10,000 gallon storage tank in Rolls Trap (Cottonwood West Unit/South
Pasture) (T3N, R8E, Section 1) to supply water to a new 300 gallon trough (T3N, R9E,
Section 6). Water to fill the storage tank would be hauled to tank.
In the Cottonwood West Unit/South Pasture, install approximately 1 mile of pipeline
from an existing well (Cottonwood) to convey water to a new trough to be located in the
uplands south of the well (T3N, R9E, Sections 8 and 17).
Addition of a ≤10,000 gallon storage tank at the head of Mine Mountain Spring in
Cottonwood West Unit/North Pasture (T4N, R9E, Section 9). Tank would supply water
to the existing five troughs along the pipeline. Additionally, a pipeline and trough would
be added to an existing trough along the pipeline (T4N, R9E, Sections 17 and 20). The
new pipeline and trough will be installed within the Four Peaks Wilderness. The
installation of this type of improvement is provided for under the Wilderness Act
establishing the Four Peaks Wilderness and the Forest Plan for MA 3D.
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3) Monitoring
Forage utilization would be managed at a level corresponding to light to moderate grazing
intensity in order to provide for grazed plant recovery, increases in herbage production, and
retention of herbaceous litter to protect soils. Conservative use equates to 30 to 40 percent on
herbaceous species and less than 50 percent use on browse (current year’s leaders). Consistent
patterns of utilization in excess of 40 percent on key species in key areas would be used as a basis
to modify management practices or take administrative actions necessary to reduce utilization in
subsequent grazing seasons. It is inherent in the term “conservative use” that watershed
conditions and vegetative ground cover would be optimized as appropriate to various range sites.
At no time would excessive use be considered acceptable.
The goal is to achieve conservative use in the uplands over successive years. This strategy
recognizes the importance of adaptive management. Management actions include, but are not
limited to; adjustments of timing, intensity, frequency, and duration of grazing to reach resource
objectives (FSH 2209.13 - Chapter 90). The document “Principles of Obtaining and Interpreting
Utilization Data on Southwest Rangelands” (Smith et al. 2005) would provide guidance for
utilization data collection and interpretation.
The objective of monitoring is to determine if management is being properly implemented and if
the actions are effective at achieving or moving toward desired conditions.
Effectiveness monitoring includes measurements to track long-term condition and trend of
upland and riparian vegetation, soil, and watersheds. Examples of effectiveness monitoring
indicators include, but are not limited to pace transects, pace quadrat frequency, dry weight rank,
ground cover, Parker 3-step, repeat photography, and Common Non-forested Vegetation
Sampling Procedures (CNVSP) which measures; frequency, fetch, dry-weight rank, production,
and utilization. Monitoring would occur at established permanent monitoring points. Both
qualitative and quantitative monitoring methods would be used in accordance with the
Interagency Technical References (ITA 1999), Region 3 Rangeland Analysis and Management
Training Guide (USDA-FS 1997), and the Region 3 Allotment Analysis Guide. These data are
interpreted to determine if management is achieving desired resource conditions, if changes in
resource condition are related to management, and to determine if modifications in management
are necessary.
Changes in riparian vegetation and stream channel geomorphology condition and trend would be
measured at five to ten year intervals (effectiveness monitoring using methods described in
Burton, et al., (2011), Harrelson, et al., (1994), photo point monitoring, or the most current
acceptable method.
Implementation monitoring would occur yearly and would include such things as inspection
reports, forage utilization measurements in key areas, livestock counts, and facilities inspections.
Utilization measurements are made following procedures found in the Interagency Technical
Reference (ITA 1999), or the most current acceptable method, and with consideration of the
Principles of Obtaining and Interpreting Utilization Data on Southwest Rangelands. The purpose
of implementation monitoring is to determine if grazing meets conservative use guidelines in
upland and riparian areas.
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Utilization would be monitored on key forage species, which are native perennial grasses or
browse species that are palatable to livestock. At a minimum monitoring would include use in key
areas, but may include monitoring outside of key areas. The Mesa Ranger District range
personnel, the permittee, and cooperators would be responsible for monitoring livestock grazing
utilization. Over time, changes in resource conditions or management may result in changes in
livestock use patterns. As livestock use patterns change, new key areas may be established and
existing key areas may be modified or abandoned in cooperation with the permittee and
cooperators.
Information would be collected through routine pasture inspections and end of season utilization
monitoring. Specific schedules for monitoring would be flexible from year to year based upon
resource needs, which could change with climatic variations and management changes.
Monitoring for plant cover, vigor, recruitment, and diversity, using techniques described in
aforementioned publications, would ensure that wildlife needs and riparian and watershed
conditions were moving toward desired conditions.
Monitoring methods could include, but are not limited to utilization and stubble height
monitoring, annual riparian monitoring, and photo point protocols. Data will be used, along with
supporting information to determine when livestock must be moved from one pasture to another
and to make any necessary adjustments to livestock numbers and/or season of use (determined in
AOI).
Key areas are described in “Sampling Vegetation Attributes” (Interagency Technical Reference,
1996) as indicator areas that are able to reflect what is happening on a larger area as a result of
on-the-ground management actions. A key area should be an area representative of the range as a
whole, an area where livestock use occurs, located within a single ecological site and plant
community, and be a minimum of 100 yards from fence lines, exclosures, roads, and trails.
While monitoring techniques as described above would be conducted in key areas, these would
not be the sole locations for gathering information from the grazing allotment to make decisions
about the timing, intensity, duration, or frequency of livestock grazing in a given grazing season.
The overall condition of the allotment, and such things as distribution patterns or rangeland
improvement conditions could be assessed at any given time to help make those decisions.
Riparian Utilization Monitoring
Riparian components in key reaches would be monitored using riparian utilization measurements
(implementation monitoring) following methods in “Sampling Vegetation Attributes and
Utilization Studies and Residual Measurements” (ITT 1999) and “Multiple Indicator Monitoring
(MIM) of Stream Channels and Streamside Vegetation” (Burton, et al. 2011) or the most current
acceptable method.
In order to achieve Forest Plan Standards and Guidelines the following use guidelines for riparian
components are as follows: obligate riparian tree species – limit use to less than 50 percent of
terminal leaders (top one third of plant) on palatable riparian tree species accessible to livestock
(usually less than 6 feet tall); deergrass – limit use to less than 40 percent of plant species
biomass; emergent species (rushes, sedges, cattails, and horsetails) – maintain six to eight inches
of stubble height during the grazing period.
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The Forest Plan limits use to 20 percent of tree and shrub annual production by volume. The
percent of leaders browsed was chosen as a surrogate guideline in place of percent volume
because volume is an extremely difficult parameter to assess on an annual basis. The method
employed for determining the percent of leaders browsed is an expedient and repeatable sampling
technique. Mathematical relationships between the number of twigs browsed and percent of
current annual growth removed have been established in previous studies (Stickney 1966, USDA
Forest Service 1991a).
Utilization limits for herbaceous riparian vegetation are intended to do two things: 1) protect plant
vigor and 2) provide physical protection of streambanks or the sediment on the greenline that
could develop into a bank feature. Deergrass was selected as the key species to monitor because it
is the most common obligate, riparian, native, perennial grass on the Tonto NF. Additionally,
deergrass exhibits a number of traits that make it an ideal stream-stabilizing plant. The above
ground attributes of deergrass aid in preventing soil loss through decreasing flow velocity, they
also trap sediment which aids in the rebuilding of stream banks. Furthermore, deergrass is a
bunchgrass with an extensive root system which acts to stabilize streambanks (Cornwall 1998,
Coppin 1990, Clary and Kruse 2003).
Monitoring short-term indicators, such as stubble height and woody utilization, during the grazing
season, can help determine if grazing use criteria is moving riparian conditions toward
management objectives over time (Burton, et al. 2011).
Once riparian utilization guidelines are met, cattle would be moved from the riparian area or to
the next scheduled pasture, even though forage may still be available in the uplands. Actual use
records in combination with utilization measurements will inform if it may become necessary to
minimize or remove access to riparian habitat, if grazing pressure becomes a limiting factor in the
use of pastures. Allowable use for riparian and upland vegetation is summarized in Table 4
below.
Table 4: Upland and Riparian Utilization Guidelines
Vegetation Use Threshold
Upland Herbaceous Use 30-40% of current year’s growth
Upland Browse Species 50% of current year’s growth
Riparian Herbaceous Use Limited to 40% of plant species biomass for deergrass and maintain
6-8 inches of stubble height for emergent species such as rushes,
sedges, cattails, and horsetails; measured during grazing season.
Riparian Woody Species Limited to 50% of leaders browsed on upper 1/3 plants up to 6 feet
tall
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Invasive Species Monitoring
Invasive species known to occur within the project area would be treated as necessary. Permittee,
Forest Service, or cooperators will coordinate weed inventory and treatment. Invasive species
monitoring is carried out at the same time as allotment inspections are conducted. As noxious
weed populations are found they are mapped, monitored, and treated. Treatment methods would
follow guidelines established in the Environment Assessment for Integrated Treatment of
Noxious or Invasive Weeds and DN/FONSI dated August 24, 2012.
Heritage Resources
In conjunction with Forest Archaeologist special care will be carried out to protect heritage
resources (historic and prehistoric sites) from impacts caused by range construction projects or
livestock concentrations. An archaeological survey will be conducted prior to construction of any
new range improvements and/or location selection where impacts to heritage resource sites are
avoided. Existing range facilities (water troughs, corrals) where cattle regularly congregate are
periodically inspected to determine whether or not livestock are causing damage to heritage
resource sites.
4) Management Practices and Mitigation Measures
Range
Livestock management practices such as herding and salting are critical to achieve proper
livestock distribution within each unit/pasture. The permittee would be required to furnish
sufficient riders or herders for proper distribution, protection, and management of cattle on the
allotment. Tonto National Forest Grazing Practices are as follows:
Forest Plan Standards and Guidelines applicable to livestock grazing would be followed
(Forest Plan pg. 24).
Salt and/or supplements will be placed where forage is abundant and current grazing use
levels are low. Salt and/or supplements would not be placed any closer than .25 miles
from developed or live water, recreation sites, or designated trails except where prior
written approval had been obtained from the District Ranger.
No salting would occur within or adjacent to identified heritage sites. Salt would be
removed from pastures when cattle have left an area, and not placed within a pasture until
the cattle arrive. Additionally, salt will not be placed in the same location(s) each year.
All troughs would be left full of water and operational year round for wildlife
accessibility, unless in limited circumstances where extreme freezing conditions may
damage facilities.
When entering the next scheduled pasture, all livestock would be removed from the
previous pasture within two weeks (dependent on terrain). This is critical for pastures
with key riparian reaches.
Permittee would ensure that enough time is allowed to remove livestock to meet the
pasture move date(s) and avoid unauthorized and excess use.
Permittee would ensure all infrastructure is in functioning condition prior to entering the
next scheduled pasture.
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Travel Management
The permittee would continue to access the allotment on existing roads and trails as designated by
Forest maps to avoid the creation of illegal OHV trails. Road maintenance that is required to
access range improvements or livestock management must receive a road use permit for any road
work. Tonto National Forest is currently planning the implementation of Travel Management
Rule. These programs are aimed at reducing non-essential roads for watershed and resource
protection and will require the following:
Travel Management Decision will be followed by the permittee.
If access is needed to enter a motor vehicle restricted area, the permittee must have
special authorization through an OHV Permit or special authorization through the AOI.
Road maintenance that is required to access range improvements or livestock management must
receive a road use permit for any road work. In the event of significant future deviations from
“current access needs” for motorized use as authorized by a Term Grazing Permit, there may be
the requirement for additional NEPA analysis on a site specific basis. The AOI authorizing each
year’s grazing activity will include a brief discussion of the use of vehicles and OHVs within the
designated road system, any single purpose use roads or trails, and a description of the annually
anticipated level of cross-country travel and access consistent with the Part 3 of the Term Grazing
Permit and/or AMP.
Wilderness
Management emphasis for wilderness is on wilderness values. It provides for livestock grazing
and recreation opportunities that are compatible with maintaining wilderness values and
protecting resources. Section 4(c) of the Wilderness Act of 1964 defines minimum requirements
for administrative actions in wilderness areas, which includes grazing. Wilderness resources must
be considered when preparing range improvement construction standards and techniques
(2323.26a).
Section 4(d)(4)(2) in FSM 2320.5 states that “…wilderness designation should not prevent the
maintenance of existing fences or other livestock management improvements, nor the
construction and maintenance of new fences or improvements, which are consistent with
allotment management plans and/or which are necessary for the protection of the range.”
Compliance with the Wilderness Act in the Four Peaks Wilderness area is important and expected
of all users on the allotments. The permittee should strive to maintain the untrammeled, natural
conditions within wilderness areas. No motorized equipment should be used in wilderness areas
without obtaining authorization from the Regional Forester.
Wildlife
Since site specific information regarding precise location and timing of the various and
projects described above (water developments, pastures and fencing) are not available at
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this time, the Forest Service will implement the following actions to protect listed
species:
o The Forest Service will conduct site specific analysis of effects to listed species
and/or proposed species or designated and/or proposed critical habitat before
projects are implemented.
o If the Forest Service determines that projects “may affect” any listed and/or
proposed species or designated and/or proposed critical habitat, section 7
consultation with the Service will be reinitiated.
All water developments would include wildlife access and escape ramps. When possible,
waters would be kept available to wildlife year round.
All fencing would be built to Forest Service standards to provide for wildlife passage
through the fence. At a minimum, this would be a four-strand fence with smooth bottom
wire 18 inches off the ground and a total height of 42 inches or less.
Conservative forage utilization standards (30 – 40%) outlined in the proposed action will
provide for adequate levels of residual plant cover to maintain fruits, seeds, and allow for
plant regeneration in Mexican spotted own critical habitat.
Livestock exclosure fences around Mud and Hidden Water Spring will be maintained to
prevent unauthorized livestock access.
Heritage
Protection measures identified for range improvements include:
Prior to ground disturbing management practices being implemented, archaeological
surveys would be conducted for areas which have no previous survey coverage, or have
outdated surveys which do not conform to current standards.
Relocation or redesign of proposed range improvements and ground-disturbing
management practices to avoid direct and indirect impacts to historic properties.
Fencing or exclosure of livestock from individual sensitive historic properties or areas
containing multiple sensitive historic properties being impacted by grazing.
Riparian Mitigation Measures
Installation of an exclosure fence above and below Hidden Water Spring (T3N, R9E,
Section 21) to allow riparian vegetation above and below the spring to improve. The
spring itself is currently fenced to exclude livestock access to protect an established Gila
topminnow population. The trough located outside of the current exclosure, which is fed
by the spring, will remain in place to provide water for livestock. This location is within
the Four Peaks Wilderness, so no mechanized or mechanical equipment can be used
during installation. The installation of this type of improvement is provided for under the
Wilderness Act establishing the Four Peaks Wilderness and the Forest Plan for MA 3D.
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All existing and new developed springs will be fenced to exclude livestock access. A
trough(s) would be located outside of the exclosure to provide water for wildlife and
livestock.
Livestock would not be trailed through riparian areas.
Salt and/or mineral supplements would be placed at least .25 miles from riparian areas.
New spring developments would be constructed with the spring box designed so that
residual flow is left at spring head to prevent dewatering.
New troughs would be placed in the uplands, at least 300 feet away
Climate
Climate in the project area is characterized by a bimodal precipitation pattern with about 60 percent
occurring as frontal systems in the winter from December to March and about 40 percent occurring as
monsoons in the summer from July to September. Summer storms can be more intense than winter
storms but are generally of shorter duration and smaller aerial extent.
The nearest climate gage to the project area with current data is Roosevelt 1WNW. The period of
record is 1905-present (WRCC 2013) and the average annual precipitation is 16.48 inches
(NOAA 2013). Of the last ten years (2003-2012) the data indicate seven years had below average
precipitation (NOAA 2013). For the period 2002-2011, the temperature was above average eight
of the years (WRCC 2013).
Fire
Vegetative communities found within the Sunflower Grazing Allotment include riparian, Sonoran
desert, semi-desert grassland, interior chaparral, pinyon-juniper chaparral, and ponderosa pine.
The natural fire regimes for each of these vegetative communities’ ranges from frequent, low
severity, to very long-interval, high severity, stand replacement fires. A significant fire event
occurred in 2005, the Edge Complex, which affected a large portion of the allotment east of
highway 87. In 2012, the Sunflower Fire burned roughly 17,500 acres north of the allotment.
Several other fires >100 acres have burned within the allotment boundaries but did not
significantly alter the vegetative types.
Recreation
Dispersed recreational activities in and around the Sunflower Allotment consist of dispersed
camping, hunting, target shooting, OHV activities, hiking, and pack and saddle in the Four Peaks
Wilderness Area.
Management of OHV use in this area is enforced using the 1990 Resource Access/Travel
Management (RA/TM) decision. Roads throughout the area that have been identified and posted
open in RA/TM can be accessed by most vehicles, both licensed and unlicensed. With the
increasing OHV community and limited signing on the ground user created routes have also been
steadily increasing over the years and conflicts are occurring between OHV users and other forest
users. User conflicts typically arise between livestock operations and recreational uses such as
OHV (creation of trails and destruction of forage resource) and target shooting (destruction of
range improvements and direct take of livestock). Range gates have often been left open by
motorized recreationists and fencing has been cut for illegal entry into non-motorized areas.
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Increased law enforcement presence has occurred since 2008, and with the Travel Management
decision occurring in the near future, several user-created OHV riding areas may undergo
administrative changes.
Forest visitors use lands in and around the Sunflower Allotment for target shooting. While many
visitors are responsible target shooters, many are not and some forest visitors leave behind trash,
targets, and shot up vegetation including Saguaro cactus. The Lower Sycamore and Sugarloaf
Mountain areas are commonly used locations for target shooting and are heavily used by OHV
visitors.
Five Outfitter Guides currently hold permits for OHV tours in and through this allotment. Use is
moderate for this activity because of the close proximity to metropolitan areas. There are two
Outfitter Guide permits issued for horseback riding in the Four Peaks Wilderness Area, and two
Outfitter Guide permits for hiking trips. There are also two Outfitter Guides that hold permits for
mountain biking in this allotment. Use is moderate year round.
The Sunflower allotment is adjacent to and in the Four Peaks Wilderness. According to the Four
Peaks Wilderness Implementation Plan (FPWIP), the implementation objective of range is to
provide for livestock grazing as authorized by law, while minimizing its impact on the
Wilderness resource and visitors to it, through practical, reasonable, and uniform application of
established guidelines and policy. (See FSM 2323.2 and FSH 2309.19, chapter 22.)
Heritage
The allotment contains hundreds if not thousands of prehistoric archeological sites representing
the occupation and agricultural modification and use of this area by people related to the
Hohokam archaeological tradition over a period of 8,000 to 10,000 years. It also contains
hundreds of historic sites reflecting its use and occupation by Yavapai and Apache hunters,
gatherers, and farmers, the U.S. military, Anglo and Hispanic ranchers and stockmen, miners and
prospectors, the Works Progress Administration, the Civilian Conservation Corps, and the U.S.
Forest Service.
Only a small fraction of the allotment has been intensively surveyed to produce an inventory of
heritage resources. Known heritage properties include a wide range of features, from the first
Anglo structure on the Forest, the Reno Military Road, to collapsed and buried pithouses. The
great majority of these features, however, consist of collapsed stone masonry structures, various
water control devices such as check dams and terraces, roasting pits for the processing of agave,
and petroglyphs hammered into the surfaces of rock outcrops and boulders. There are also a few
features associated with mining and ore processing. Many other prehistoric and historic
archeological sites are represented by nothing more than a scatter of artifacts on the ground
surface.
No traditional cultural properties, native plant gathering areas or tribal sacred sites are currently
known to be located within the allotment.
From the 1870s to the early 1920s grazing of what would become the Sunflower Allotment was
heavy and unregulated. This resulted in an initial reduction of vegetative cover which may have
affected heritage resources by soil loss, erosion, and trampling. Since the implementation of
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grazing management, the known heritage resources inventoried there have stabilized and in many
cases improved in condition as vegetative cover has returned.
Wildlife
These various vegetation types support a variety of game and non-game species. The allotment is
within Game Management Unit 22. Big game found on the allotment include: Desert bighorn
sheep, black bear, mule deer, whitetail deer, javelina, and mountain lion. Elk do occur in limited
numbers in the pine habitat near the top of Four Peaks. The whitetail inhabit the higher and
brushier areas (Cline unit), while the mule deer use the desert scrub and open chaparral vegetation
types. Mule deer and javelina population trends unit wide are stable with severe localized impacts
in the off-highway vehicle (OHV) recreation corridors. These corridors cover most of Adams
pasture and the southern portion of the Picadilla pasture of the Dos S unit, Desert unit, and the
western portion of Cottonwood unit. The presence of mule deer in these areas is low to non-
existent. White-tailed deer, black bear and mountain lion population trends unit wide are stable.
Elk population in the Four Peaks mountain range is stable (J. Dickson, personal communication
February 28, 2013).
Game birds and small game found on the allotment include; Gambel’s quail, mourning dove,
white-winged dove, cottontail rabbits, black tailed jackrabbit, Abert’s and grey squirrel. Most
small game populations rely heavily on rainfall so populations can fluctuate annually. Currently
small game populations are stable with no concerns (J. Dickson, personal communication
February 28, 2013). Predators such as coyotes, bobcats, and gray fox, are commonly found on the
allotment. Non-game species include a variety of birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians.
Availability of forage, and ground and canopy cover, are essential to sustaining wildlife
populations, as is the availability of water. Wildlife not only use “live water” (perennial or
intermittent streams), but depend on developed waters (dirt tanks, troughs), especially during
times of drought.
Special Status Species are those given status by agencies responsible for managing plants,
wildlife, and their associated habitat because of declines in the species’ population or habitat.
Birds are given provisions under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Special Status Species that
occur, or have suitable habitat on the allotment and will be considered in this assessment are
listed in Table 5 below. Effects to these species will be analyzed through a biological evaluation
(BE), which will be available in the project record.
Table 5: Special Status Species
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME STATUS
Gila Topminnow Poeciliopsis occidentalis occidentalis Endangered
Desert Pupfish Cyprinodon macularius Endangered
Mexican Spotted Owl Critical Strix occidentalis lucida N/A
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COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME STATUS
Habitat
Sonoran Desert Tortoise Gopherus morafkai Candidate,
Sensitive
Lowland Leopard Frog Lithobates yavapaiensis Sensitive
Desert Sucker Catostomus clarki Sensitive
Hohokam Agave Agave murpheyi Sensitive
Endangered – Federally Listed as Endangered Under ESA
Candidate - Fish and Wildlife Service has enough information on file to propose listing as threatened or
endangered but listing has been precluded by other agency priorities.
Sensitive – On Regional Forester’s Sensitive Species List (2013)
Status of Management Indicator Species Populations The Tonto National Forest Plan identified 29 wildlife species and one Macroinvertebrates species
group as management indicator species to monitor the conditions of the Forest’s ecosystems
[USDA Forest Service 1986, (pp. 97-98)] (Appendix A). The Forest Plan provides direction on
managing quality habitat for MIS by “Management Area” (MA). Site-specific occurrence records
are not available for most of these species, but each species’ occurrence in its respective habitat is
assumed, as documented in the “Tonto National Forest Management Indicator Species Status
Report” (USFS 2005) on file at the TNF Supervisors Office.
These indicator species reflect general habitat conditions or habitat components that are of value
to these and other species with similar habitat needs. Habitats for a large number of the Forest
MIS occur on the Sunflower allotment. Because most MIS are not rare species and the allotment
contains a wide variety of vegetation types, it is assumed that at least some individuals of each
MIS are present on the allotment. The ten MIS species that were selected for this allotment (Table
6) were done so based on the premise that livestock grazing and management can have an effect
on habitat components (ground cover, species diversity, etc.) that can impact Forest-wide habitat
and population trends.
Table 6: Tonto NF Management Indicator Species for the Sunflower Allotment Analysis
Area
Habitat Type Indicator of: Rational for Selection
Pinyon/Juniper
Ash throated flycatcher Ground cover Livestock grazing and management can affect
ground cover.
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Habitat Type Indicator of: Rational for Selection
Chaparral
Rufous-sided (spotted)
towhee
Shrub density Livestock grazing and management can affect
shrub density.
Black-chinned sparrow Shrub diversity Livestock grazing and management can affect
shrub diversity.
Desert Grassland
Horned lark Vegetation
aspect
Livestock grazing and management can affect
grassland communities.
Savannah sparrow Grass species
diversity
Livestock grazing and management can affect
diversity of herbaceous species.
Desert Scrub
Black-throated sparrow Shrub diversity Livestock grazing and management practices
can affect shrub diversity in desert scrub
habitat.
Brown (canyon)
towhee
Ground cover Livestock grazing and management practices
can affect ground cover.
Riparian (low & high
elevation)
Bell’s vireo Well-developed
understory
Livestock grazing and management practices
can affect riparian understory (herbaceous
vegetation).
Common black hawk Riparian
streamside
Livestock grazing and management practices
can affect the development of woody riparian
species.
Aquatic
Macroinvertebrates Water
quality/fisheries
Livestock grazing and management practices
can affect water quality.
Rationale for Omission of MIS from Analysis
The following species are omitted from the analysis (Table 7). Although they may occur at some
point in the species life cycle, the alternatives considered are not expected to alter their habitat
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type.
Table 7: MIS Excluded from Analysis and Rational
Habitat Type Indicator of: Rational for Omission
Ponderosa Pine/Mixed Conifer
Elk General Forest Condition Grazing will not affect this
component.
Pygmy Nuthatch Old growth ponderosa pine Grazing will not affect old growth
ponderosa.
Violet-green Swallow Cavity nesting habitat Grazing will not affect cavity nesting
habitat.
Western Bluebird Forest openings Grazing will not affect this
component.
Hairy Woodpecker Snags Grazing will not affect snag density.
Goshawk Vertical diversity Grazing will not affect forest vertical
diversity.
Abert Squirrel Successional stages of
ponderosa pine
Grazing will not affect successional
stages of ponderosa pine.
Townsends Solitaire Juniper berry production Grazing will not affect juniper berry
production.
Pinyon-Juniper
Gray Vireo Tree Density Grazing will not affect pinyon-
juniper density.
Townsends Solitaire Juniper berry production Grazing will not affect juniper berry
production.
Plain Titmouse General woodland
conditions
Grazing will not affect late seral
pinyon-juniper density or canopy
cover.
Common Flicker Snags Grazing will not affect snag density.
Spotted Towhee Successional stages of
pinyon-juniper
Grazing will not affect pinyon-
juniper density
Page 26 of 81
Habitat Type Indicator of: Rational for Omission
Riparian – Low Elevation (1500 – 3500 feet)
Bald Eagle General riparian Riparian in analysis area inadequate
to support this species. Known eagle
nest sites south of analysis area are
located on cliffs.
Summer Tanager Tall, mature trees Grazing will not affect this
component.
Hooded Oriole Medium-sized trees Grazing will not affect this
component.
Riparian – High Elevation (over 3000 feet)
Hairy Woodpecker Snags, cavities Grazing will not affect snag
component.
Arizona Gray Squirrel General riparian Riparian in analysis area inadequate
to support this species.
Warbling Vireo Tall overstory Riparian in analysis area inadequate
to support this species.
Western Wood Pewee Medium overstory Riparian in analysis area inadequate
to support this species.
The Tonto LRMP defines succession as “an orderly process of biotic community development
that involves changes in species, structure, and community processes with time; it is reasonable
directional and therefore predictable”. The publication, “Managing Forested Lands for Wildlife”
page 456, defines succession as ‘the changes in vegetation and in animal life that takes place as a
plant community evolves from bare ground to climax”. Generally, the steps involved in these
changes are called “successional stage” and “seral stage” interchangeably. The publication,
“Managing Forested Lands for Wildlife”, page 454, defines seral stage as, “one step in a series of
steps in the process of ecological succession”. The Tonto LRMP use of the terms “low”,
“moderate”, and “high” equate to the early, mid, and late seral stages respectively.
Vegetation types between 1985 and present are not entirely comparable due to advances in
mapping technology and data collection. Below are the reference acres (1985) and the estimated
current vegetation/habitat tables for the Tonto (TNF 2002).
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Table 8: Chaparral/Pinyon - Juniper, Tonto NF LRMP
Chaparral/Pinyon-Juniper
Trend Forest Wide 1985 Acres
Current Condition 2005
Acres
Declining No Data 102,030
Stable 1,403,817 818,246
Upward No Data 49,3710
Total (s) 1,403,817 1,413,986
Table 9: Desert Grassland, Tonto NF LRMP
Desert Grassland
Trend Forest-wide 1985 Acres
Current Condition
2005 Acres Trend
Declining ND 7,575
Stable 38,370 31,232
Upward ND 171
Total (s) 38,370 38,978 + 1.6% (Upward/Static)
Table 10: Desert Scrub, Tonto NF LRMP
Desert Scrub Trend
Forest-wide
1985 Acres Current Condition
2005 Acres Trend
Declining ND 212,275
Stable 909,418 463,336
Upward ND 221,160
Total (s) 909,418 896,771 -1.4%
(Downward/Static)
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Table 11: Riparian, Tonto NF LRMP
*Riparian Trend
Forest Wide
Riparian Acres
Low Elevation
(1,500-3,500 ft.)
Riparian Acres
High Elevation
(3,500 ft. +)
Total
*I-III IV-VI I-III IV-VI
1985 4,243 26,904 5,782 4,450 41,379
2005 4,243 26,904 5,782 4,450 41,379**
1985 Point of Reference, Aquatic, Tonto National Forest.
The Aquatic Habitat Type has little data within the Tonto Forest MIS Report for
Macroinvertebrate populations.
Trends in Vegetation Type at the Forest Plan Level and Anticipated Effects at the Project
Level
Changes in condition may be due to a number of factors that include natural succession, wildfire,
disease, drought, and human caused influences. In order to evaluate habitat changes associated
with the above MIS, a review of all activities having the potential to change vegetation conditions
was conducted (see Table I-3 through I-7, p. 10-11 and Tables 1-3, p. 261-264 of the Forest MIS
Report (2005) for cumulative totals of vegetation changes since 1985).
Insects/Disease 1985-2007: The Tonto has experienced tree mortality due primarily to drought
conditions, subsequent stress, and western pine beetle infestation. The number of snag trees has
increased substantially the last 10 years. However, changes to the vegetation type as a whole is
insignificant at the Forest scale.
Wildfire 1985-2014: The Tonto has had 5919 fires from 1985-2014. 77 (1.3%) of those were
extended attack fires and burned approximately 929, 750 acres, of which approximately 63,650
acres were considered stand replacing, high severity or type conversion.
Grazing 1985-2015: There have been significant changes in grazing management since 1985 on
the Tonto. Most allotments have been or are undergoing allotment plan revisions and NEPA. The
number of permitted AUMs Forest wide has decreased from approximately 407,163 in 1985 to
approximately 163,147 in 2015 (-40%).
Timber 1985-2007: Only approximately 283,000 acres of the 421,000 acres on the Tonto are
considered operable for timber harvest. Any timber harvest that may have been altered is
reflected in the cumulative tables reported in the Forest MIS Report.
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Table 12: MIS Habitat Within the Sunflower Allotment Action Area
MIS Species Forest Habitat
Trend
Forest Population
Trend
Acres of Habitat
in Project Area
Elk Static Stable Not selected for this project
Turkey Static Stable Not selected for this project
Abert Squirrel Static Decreasing Not selected for this project
Arizona Gray
Squirrel NC Stable Not selected for this project
Ash-throated
Flycatcher Static Stable 198
Bald Eagle NC Stable Not selected for this project
Bell’s Vireo NC Decreasing 3,096
Black-chinned
Sparrow Static Stable 29,642
Black-throated
Sparrow Downward/Static Stable 113,065
Canyon
Towhee Downward/Static Decreasing 113,065
Common
black-hawk NC Decreasing 3,096
Common
Flicker Static Stable Not selected for this project
Goshawk Static Decreasing Not selected for this project
Gray Vireo Static Decreasing Not selected for this project
Hairy
Woodpecker
(Ponderosa
Pine)
Static Stable Not selected for this project
Page 30 of 81
MIS Species Forest Habitat
Trend
Forest Population
Trend
Acres of Habitat
in Project Area
Hairy
Woodpecker
(High Elev.)
NC Stable Not selected for this project
Hooded Oriole NC Stable Not selected for this project
Horned Lark Upward/Static Decreasing 7,756
Plain Titmouse Static Decreasing Not selected for this project
Pygmy
Nuthatch Static Decreasing Not selected for this project
Savannah
Sparrow Upward/Static Stable 7,756
Spotted
Towhee (PJ) Static Stable Not selected for this project
Spotted
Towhee (Chap) Static Stable 29,642
Summer
Tanager NC Decreasing Not selected for this project
Townsend’s
Solitaire Static Stable Not selected for this project
Violet-green
swallow Static Stable Not selected for this project
Warbling
Vireo NC Stable Not selected for this project
Western
Bluebird Static Stable Not selected for this project
Western Wood
Pewee NC Decreasing Not selected for this project
Macro-N/A N/A Not selected for this project
Page 31 of 81
MIS Species Forest Habitat
Trend
Forest Population
Trend
Acres of Habitat
in Project Area
invertebrates
Population Trend for Selected MIS in the Analysis Area
Population trend is most appropriately addressed at scales above the project. Many of these
selected MIS occur and range far beyond a local scale such as a project analysis area.
Individuals, family groups, or herds such as elk, annually use areas much larger than the analysis
area, and population trend must be analyzed on a much larger scale to be meaningful. For
National Forest Management Act (NFMA) implementation, this is at the scale of the Tonto NF.
Evidence from long-term censuses suggests that few natural populations persist at or near
equilibrium at local scales (Martin and Finch 1995). At the site specific project level, there is a
great deal of fluctuation in wide ranging populations. For most species, it would be technically,
and practically, inappropriate to conduct population trend sampling at the scale of individual
projects. For this reason it is not appropriate to determine population trend at the project level.
Management Indicator Species Status and Trends The following section contains an abstract on each MIS. The purpose of these abstracts is to: 1)
present information on species status and trends at national, state and forest scales; 2) show
forestwide distribution; 3) relate TNF management activities implemented since 1985 under
Forest Plan Standards and Guidelines (S&G’s) to habitat trends and MIS; 4) identify Key Habitat
Components (KHC’s) that appear to be critical to reproduction, forage or other MIS
requirements; and 5) identify the population trend of each species on the forest, if population
information is available. The KHC’s and monitoring techniques will be used to conduct MIS
evaluations of individual projects and attempt to obtain information on populations that are not
currently being monitored.
Data Sources A variety of data sources were used to prepare this document. Key sources, used for a number of
species accounts, are summarized below.
Breeding Bird Survey
The Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) is a large-scale, roadside survey of North American birds that is
conducted annually. Started in 1966, it has become a major source of standardized data on
populations of breeding birds. Routes are established throughout the continental United States
and southern Canada, with routes recently initiated in Alaska and northern Mexico. Currently,
there are over 4,100 routes that are surveyed by experienced birders every breeding season.
These data have been processed on a computer system at the United States Geological Survey
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(USGS). The p-value indicates the probability that the trend is different from zero. The p-value
can range from 1.00 to 0.00. This report considers the data significant when the p < 0.05.
The BBS species analyses used the extensive database that appears on the website:
http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/bbs.html. Assessments of continental and regional changes in
bird populations were made for the periods 1966-1995, and 1994 to 1995 (Peterjohn et al. 1996),
and for 1966-1999, 1995-1999, and 1998-1999 (Pardieck and Sauer 2000). Statistical significance
is disclosed for changes and trends observed as appropriate. Occasionally, regional summaries or
state summaries had significant results for species evaluated for this report. Most individual
routes, however, showed too much variability in numbers of birds to show significant trends.
These are discussed as to the amount of variability and the casual appearance of decreasing,
increasing, or stable trends.
There are only three BBS routes on the Forest, Bartlett (Bartlett Reservoir to Seven Springs,
Tonto Village (Kohls Ranch to SR 87 via the Control Road), and Aztec Peak (Junction 188/288
to Salome Creek), only the Bartlett route has data on the USGS website.
Christmas Bird Counts (National Audubon Society)
More than 50,000 observers participate each year in this all-day census of early-winter bird
populations. The results of their efforts are compiled into the longest running database in
ornithology, representing over a century of unbroken data on trends of early-winter bird
populations across the Americas. These data are count data, which represents population trends,
but not population estimates. Data are compiled by the number of birds reported per party hour, to
account for increased effort over time. These data are available at:
http://www.audubon.org/conservation/science/christmas-bird-count. No statistical significance is
associated with this data set, so casual relationships are described based on graphs of the data.
Two Christmas Bird Count Circles are on or in proximity to the Forest: Salt/Verde rivers
confluence and Carefree.
NatureServe
NatureServe was formed in 1999 as the Association for Biodiversity Information. This occurred
when The Nature Conservancy and the Natural Heritage Network jointly established an
independent organization to advance the application of biodiversity information to conservation.
NatureServe works in partnership with 85 independent Natural Heritage programs and
Conservation Data Centers that gather scientific information on rare species and ecosystems.
NatureServe is accessed at http://www.natureserve.org/explorer (NatureServe Explorer 2002).
NatureServe assigns a conservation rank to each species in their database, which is designated by
a whole number from 1 to 5, preceded by a G for Global rank, N for National rank, or S for
Subnational rank (i.e., a State rank). The rankings are explained as follows:
1 = critically imperiled.
Typically 5 or fewer occurrences or very few remaining individuals (<1,000) or acres
(<2,000, globally only) or linear miles (<10).
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2 = imperiled.
Typically 6-20 occurrences or few remaining individuals (1,000-3,000) or acres
(2,000-10,000, globally only) or linear miles (10-50).
3 = vulnerable to extirpation or extinction.
Typically 21-100 occurrences or between 3,000-10,000 individuals.
4 = apparently secure.
Typically >100 occurrences and >10,000 individuals.
5 = demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure.
Typically considerably more than 100 occurrences and >10,000 individuals.
In addition, the website summarizes taxonomy, economic attributes, management issues, ecology
and life history, authors and contributors, and references.
Arizona Game and Fish Department Data
The Arizona Game and Fish Department (AZGFD, Department) is largely responsible for
managing wildlife populations, and the Forest Service is responsible for wildlife habitat.
Accordingly, the two agencies cooperate on matters relating to wildlife and fish management.
The Department collects information on hunted species, and the Tonto relies heavily on this
information for evaluating population trends. AZGFD data is identified as a primary monitoring
method for assessing population status in the Forest Plan monitoring section for turkey, elk,
Arizona gray squirrel and Abert’s squirrel, (USDA Forest Service 1987b). The Department also
collects information on nongame species; the Forest uses this information as well. The AZGFD
reports count data for game species, by Game Management Unit (GMU), annually (AZGFD,
2000, 1998, and 1993). The AZGFD Game Management Units (GMU) that are on the Tonto
National Forest are 21, 22, 23, 24A, and 24B. Several of these GMU’s include areas adjacent to
the Forest.
Arizona Wildlife and Fisheries Comprehensive Plan (USFS & AZGFD, 1990)
Data
This Comprehensive Plan was created in 1990 by the USFS and the AZGFD to provide a link
between the Forest Plan for the Tonto NF and the Arizona Strategic Plan for the AZGFD. It
contains population estimates for game species from 1985 to 1991.
Effects for the PJ/Woodland Habitat & Selected MIS
Ash-throated Flycatcher
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Species Discription
Ash-throated flycatchers are habitat generalists. They have grayish-brown heads and upperparts, a
white throat, pale gray breast, and a pale yellowish belly and undertail coverts. They have two
white wing bars and rufous coloration on the tail, a stout, black bill and black legs and feet.
Length averages 8.5 inches and wingspan averages 14.0 inches (Alsop III 2001).
Distribution
The breeding areas for ash-throated flycatchers range from Kansas, Oklahoma, and
Wyoming in the central U.S. to the west coast according to the NatureServe Explorer
website (2001), which can be found at: http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/ranking.htm.
They are long-distance migrants in most of their U.S. range, and are resident throughout
the year in southeastern California, central Arizona, and parts of Mexico. Winter migrants
range from northern Baja, southeastern California, and central Arizona, south into
mainland Mexico, El Salvador, and casually into Costa Rica (Terres 1980) during the non-
breeding season.
Habitat
Ash-throated flycatchers inhabit elevations ranging from desert scrub below sea level to mountain
regions of oak and pinion-juniper (Pinus edulis-Juniperus spp.) of more than 9,000 feet (AOU
1983, Ehrlich, et al. 1988). Forest types most associated with ash-throated flycatchers in Arizona
are ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and pinyon – juniper; (Scott and Patton 1989). This species
breeds in scrub, chaparral, and open and riparian woodlands, especially in oak (Quercus spp.) and
pinyon – juniper.
In Arizona, this species consists of both year-round residents and winter migrants. Provided there
are open habitats, ash-throated flycatchers can be found anywhere on the Tonto National Forest,
from Sonoran desert scrub to ponderosa pine forests. Ash-throated flycatchers are common in
agricultural areas, golf courses, and parks (Pollock, Tonto National Forest unpubl.).
Breeding
Ash-throated flycatchers’ main breeding season runs from May to June in Arizona. They are
considered cavity nesters, using natural cavities such as old woodpecker holes in dead or dying
trees, holes in fence posts, old cactus wren nests (Bailey and Niedrach 1965, Harrison 1979,
Terres 1980), or bluebird nest boxes (Alsop III 2001), anywhere from 3 to 20 feet above ground
(Ehrlich et al. 1988). They lay an average of 4 to 5 eggs. Incubation takes an average of 15 days,
and the young fledge in another 14 to16 days (Ehrlich et al. 1988). These flycatchers can have
more than one clutch per year (Alsop III 2001).
Food Habits
Prey consists mainly of a variety of insects, some fruit, berries, small lizards, spiders (Alsop III
2001), bees and wasps, ants caterpillars, moths, and grasshoppers (Pollock unpubl. 2002). The
ash-throated flycatcher hawks for prey, perching and then hovering and dropping down, or sallies
from a perch to catch prey in flight (ibid.).
The ash-throated flycatcher (Myiarchus cinerascens) is identified as an indicator of ground cover
and grassland modification in pinyon/juniper vegetation (USFS 2005). The Tonto NF projected
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population trend for this species is increasing. This species uses a variety of habitats, including
the Arizona upland subdivision of Sonoran desert scrub, semidesert grassland, pinyon-juniper
woodland, Madrean evergreen woodland, low elevation riparian, and high elevation riparian
(Corman and Wise-Gervais 2005). Provided there are open habitats, this flycatcher is capable of
using all vegetation types in the project area, although it is only listed as an indicator species in
the pinyon-juniper habitat (USFS 2005).
In the EIS for the Tonto LRMP, page 108 Table 20, the pinyon-juniper/chaparral vegetation type
was determined to cover approximately 1,403,817 acres on the Tonto. Table 10 in Appendix K of
the LRMP (Amendment no. 22, 06/05/96 page 268) indicates that 265,480 acres is the desired
management condition at the end of the fifth period. Current data suggests that the pinyon-
juniper/chaparral vegetation type is approximately 1,413,986 (+ 0.8%) acres in 2005.
Ground cover trend, for which this species was selected to be an indicator of in the pinyon-
juniper vegetation type, is not defined in the 1985 EIS or LRMP. 2005 forest-wide estimates
indicate that ground cover trends are estimated in the following classes:
Declining – 209,986 acres, Stable – 463,142 acres, Upward 219,760 acres. It is likely that based
on wetter precipitation pattern in the late 1980s that ground cover parameters improved at that
time and then were reduced in drought years of the late 1990s and early 2000s. Removing cattle
from allotments during severe drought periods likely improved cover values in some areas. On
the Tonto, habitat parameters for this species have not changed significantly since 1985.
Breeding Bird Survey data indicates an overall population increase in Arizona from 1966 to 2013.
Refer to Figure 3 for a graph provided by the USGS Patuxtent Wildlife Research Center website
for Ash-throated flycatcher trends in Arizona.
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Figure 3: Ash-Throated Flycatcher Trends - North American BBS Data (1966 – 2013)
Two current BBS transects on the Tonto indicate that this species is commonly counted during
survey efforts. In addition, regionally this species continues to expand or remain at current levels
according to the National Audubon Society 2005.
Summary of Key Habitat Components and Alternatives Anticipated Effects
1. Secondary cavities
Alternatives 1 and 2 - There is no proposed alteration of the timber/snag component,
thus no effects.
2. Open habitats
Alternative 1 – No grazing alternative would not affect open habitats.
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Alternative 2 – The grazing alternative is not expected to significantly alter open habitats
due to improved management, rotational grazing, and conservative use levels.
3. Habitat Generalist - desert scrub, pinyon-juniper, ponderosa pine
Alternative 1 – Ground cover will not be altered by livestock grazing.
Alternative 2 – Ground cover parameters may be changed in the above habitat types.
Conservative use, rest, and implementation of a rotational grazing system may improve
ground cover densities, especially in pastures where unsatisfactory soils exist.
Effects determination PJ/Woodland habitat type:
The proposed grazing alternative should provide for maintenance or improvement in ground
cover parameters on slopes less than 40 percent. The no grazing and grazing alternative would
result in increased ground cover from that of historic levels.
Based on the above, impacts from the implementation of the action alternative would not alter
Forest-wide habitat and population trends for the ash-throated flycatcher.
Effects for the Chaparral Habitat Type and Selected MIS
Rufous-sided (spotted) towhee Distribution
The spotted towhee, formerly the western race of the rufous-sided towhee, is distributed from the
Great Plains west, from southern Canada south to Guatemala. The spotted towhee appears to be
well distributed across four Districts of the Tonto, and poorly distributed on the two Districts
(Tonto Basin and Mesa) with large amounts of Sonoran desert, and grassland vegetation.
Habitat
Spotted towhees are year around residents of brush vegetation types found in Arizona. They are
known to inhabit interior chaparral, Gambel’s oak, riparian shrubs, sagebrush and a variety of
other brush vegetation types. It uses dense shrubs for nesting and foraging. Spotted towhees also
inhabit PJ woodland where there is a mid-successional stage of dense shrubs.
This species is commonly observed on the Forest in areas with dense shrubs. Observations are
common in the Pinal Mountains where a dense chaparral mid-story occurs beneath a pine
overstory. They are also observed adjacent to streamside areas where there are dense shrub
habitats. Shrub vegetation types on the Forest are thought to be increasing due to heavy grazing,
fire suppression, timber harvest, and perhaps climatic factors.
Management activities that could reduce the quality of SPTO habitats would include: fragmenting
large dense stands by constructing trails or other developments. Type converting shrub or
woodland vegetation types into grasslands for grazing forage would also reduce habitat. Spotted
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towhees are common cowbird hosts, and apparently do not have effective responses for ejecting
cowbird eggs or young.
Breeding
Nests are usually built in a depression on the ground, in litter, or less often in low shrubs up to 3
feet above the ground. According to Bent (1968) nesting territories are established in early April,
usually before leaves have appeared on oak brush or other deciduous shrubs. During this time,
males are conspicuous as they sing from the tops of shrubs. By the first of May when most of the
nesting activity is under way, leaves have usually appeared on the shrubs and the birds have
ample protective cover.
Food Habits
The spotted towhee feeds primarily on plant materials and lesser quantities of insects (Ehrlich,
et.al, 1988).
Vegetation Status on the Tonto NF
In the EIS for the Tonto LMP, page 108 Table 20, chaparral vegetation type was determined to
cover approximately 1,403,817 acres on the Tonto. Table 10 in Appendix K of the LRMP
(Amendment no. 22, 06/05/96 page 268) indicates that 1,155,722 acres is the desired
management condition at the end of the fifth period (2035). Trends in this vegetation type are
considered stable forest-wide. According to the NatureServe Explorer website (2015),
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/ranking.htm, the Global Heritage Status for spotted
towhees is G5, being common, widespread, and abundant. National Heritage Status is ranked as
N5B, N5N, being common and widespread in breeding and non-breeding areas. In Arizona, this
species is ranked as S5, being common, secure, widespread, and abundant. With a secure global,
national, and state ranking, long-term population trends are stable.
BBS trend data for the years 2002 to 2012 show a non-significant increase of 0.8 percent over 35
survey routes in Arizona. Refer to Figure 4 for a graph provided by the USGS Patuxtent Wildlife
Research Center website for spotted towhees for the years 1966 - 2012 in Arizona.
On the Tonto National Forest the Breeding Bird Atlas has records of approximately 52 sightings.
SPTO appear to be well distributed and moderately abundant across the Forest except in Sonoran
desert and grassland vegetation.
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Figure 4: Spotted Towhee - North American BBS Regional Trend Data (1966 – 2013)
Christmas Bird Count data from 2005 – 2013 appear to show a stable to slight decline in
individuals encountered during that time period.
The spotted towhee (Pipilo maculatus) is identified in the LRMP as an indicator of successional
stages of pinyon/juniper vegetation, indicating high mid-story and shrub densities (USFS 2005).
It is also identified as an indicator of shrub density in the chaparral vegetation type, indicating
overstory composition, crown density, and species diversity. The Tonto NF projected population
trend for this species is increasing. This species uses a variety of woodland and shrubby habitats,
and it is most abundant as a breeding species in the pinyon-juniper woodland and interior
chaparral (Corman and Wise-Gervais 2005).
A Forest MIS report suggested that shrub type habitats may be increasing on the Tonto due to
grazing, lack of fires, timber harvest, etc.
Chaparral
Management direction of the chaparral vegetative type can be found in individual management
units of the LRMP as follows.
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1. Manage the chaparral type to emphasize the production of whitetail deer (page 114).
2. Manage the chaparral type on a 30 year prescribed fire rotation on those sites managed
intensively for forage production and water yield (page 114).
3. Use of approved herbicides on a selective basis where brush encroachment is clearly
inhibiting forage production for wildlife and domestic livestock (page 114).
Summary of Key Habitat Components (Chaparral) and Alternatives Anticipated Effects
1. Maintain adequate large, dense stands of chaparral.
Alternative 1 – Chaparral component would not be affected.
Alternative 2 – Grazing would occur in the chaparral vegetation type under conservative
utilization guidelines. Under the proposed stocking rates and conservative use standards,
the existing large, dense stands of chaparral will not be significantly altered.
2. Avoid fragmenting large shrub stands with trails, livestock water developments, or
other facilities that would attract cowbirds.
Alternative 1 – Fragmentation of shrub stands via livestock trails would not occur, nor
would any other range facilities be planned that would attract cowbirds.
Alternative 2 – The chaparral vegetation type will not be significantly altered under
these grazing alternatives. The proposed action includes the addition of a new water
storage tank and two troughs along an existing pipeline in the Cline pasture of the Cline
Unit. However, these improvements are not anticipated to significantly alter the habitat.
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Black-chinned sparrow
MIS Role: Shrub density in chaparral
Habitat
The black-chinned sparrow is common in arid brushlands
throughout the southwestern U.S. and south-central Mexico
(Tenney 1997). They are found in portions of California
(Garrett and Dunn 1981), Baja, Mexico (Wauer and Ligon
1974), southern Nevada (Alcorn 1988), southwestern Utah,
northwest, the Upper Sonoran desert zone from the
northwest to east-central Arizona (Monson and Phillips
1981, AZ Breeding Bird Atlas unpubl.), central and
southwestern New Mexico (Hubbard 1978), westernmost Texas (Texas Breeding Bird Atlas
unpubl.), and south into central Mexico (Walters 1983, Behle et al. 1985). Their winter range
includes southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and west Texas, and south into central
Mexico (American Orthinologists’ Union 1983, Tenney 1997).
The black-chinned sparrow is thought to be well distributed on the Tonto National Forest.
Arizona began a breeding bird atlas in the early 1990s. Figure BCSP-2 shows the results of this
effort to date on the Tonto National Forest.
During the summer, this species prefers rocky slopes of mixed chaparral, arid scrub, or sagebrush,
from near sea level to almost 8,200 feet in elevation (Tenney 1997). The brush inhabited by
black-chinned sparrows is usually 3 to 6.5 feet tall. Very dense, mixed shrub species interspersed
with scattered tall shrubs or trees and rocky outcrops on slight to steep slopes are preferred
(Shuford 1993, Burridge 1995, Tenney 1997). Black-chinned sparrows prefer young stands with
openings through the brush, and avoid overgrown stands. In montane chaparral, this species is
associated with Ceanothus spp. and scrub oak (Quercus turbinella) dominated habitats (Grinnell
and Miller 1944). Habitat quality may benefit with recurrent fires, dependent on the vegetation
type and region (Tenney 1997).
They are fairly common and widespread in the Tonto Basin and Prescott regions of northwest and
central Arizona, mainly in chaparral dominated by scrub oak (Phillips et al. 1964). They are also
found in Arizona in manzanita (Arctostaphylos pungens; Tenney 1997), and they are uncommon
and local in chaparral and pinyon–juniper (Pinus edulis-Juniperus spp.) woodland in southeastern
Arizona (Davis and Russell 1995). This species is a partial migrant; moving down-slope or south
into desert scrub and dry washes in the winter (Tenney 1997).
Breeding
Breeding season peak activity lasts from mid-May through mid-July for black-chinned sparrows,
throughout their range (Tenney 1997). Their nests are usually located from 1.5 to 3 feet above
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ground (Ehrlich et al. 1988), placed near the center of dense shrubs and well-concealed (Tenney
1997). Nests are compact, but loosely constructed open cups of dried grasses, with finer
materials on the inside of the cup (ibid.). Average clutch size is 2 to 4 eggs (Harrison 1979).
Incubation lasts 12 to 13 days (Wheelock 1910), and young leave the nest 10 days after hatching
(ibid.). They are rarely parasitized by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater obscurus;
Freidman 1963).
Foraging
The main prey items of black-chinned sparrows are adult and larval insects (Weathers 1983).
During the winter food consists mainly of the seeds of grasses and forbs (Oberholser 1974,
Tenney 1997). These sparrows forage on brushy slopes under and within the dense shrub canopy,
in pinyon, juniper, coffeeberry (Garrya wrightii), sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), ephedra (Ephedra
spp.), and chamise (Atriplex spp.) chaparral (Newman 1968, Weathers 1983, Tenney 1997).
They glean insects from inside shrubs and on the ground (Weathers 1983). During the winter in
southern Arizona, they feed on grass seeds, including spangletop (Leptochloa dubia) and side
oats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula) either alone or in groups, and occasionally in flocks of
mixed species.
Heavy grazing on wintering grounds in the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico have reduced
and degraded grasses and forb vegetation, and this may impact winter foraging habitat (DeSante
and George 1994, Tenney 1997). The population has declined in southern California in
conjunction with extensive mining and the use of bike trails and other off-road vehicles (Johnson
and Cicero 1985).
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Figure 5: Black-Chinned Sparrow BBS Trends – Bartlett Reservoir Route (1992 - 2013)
Black-chinned sparrows are ranked with a Global Heritage Status of G5, being common and
moderately widespread, or widespread with spotty distribution, throughout their range on the
NatureServe Explorer website (2001). In the U.S. they are ranked as N5, being widespread and
common throughout their range. In Arizona, they are ranked as S5, being also widespread and
common within the state (ibid.). The LRMP predicted an upward trend of black-chinned sparrows
based on management (amendment 22, pg 269).
Breeding Bird Survey data show steep and significant population declines for the western BBS
region, of –6.7 percent per year, over 47 survey routes. Declines are possibly due to mining, off-
road vehicles, and overgrazing (Tenney 1997). “In contrast to the BBS data, winter Christmas
Bird Counts (CBC) show a moderate but significant increase of 1.7 percent …The highest winter
abundance occurs in southern Arizona (2.4 percent per year; 22 survey routes).” (Sauer et al.
1996). In Arizona for the years 1966 to 2013, the BBS trend showed a decline of –4.04 percent,
over 10 survey routes.
Two current BBS routes on the Tonto include Bartlett Reservoir and Tonto Village. Both routes
have documented this species but appear to be at low densities. Regionally this species continues
to expand or remain at current levels.
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Management direction of the chaparral vegetative type can be found in individual management
units of the LRMP as follows.
1. Manage the chaparral type to emphasize the production of whitetail deer (page 114).
2. Manage the chaparral type on a 30 year prescribed fire rotation on those sites managed
intensively for forage production and water yield (page 114).
3. Use of approved herbicides on a selective basis where brush encroachment is clearly
inhibiting forage production for wildlife and domestic livestock (page 114).
These prescriptions may benefit the black-chinned sparrow by increasing shrub density and
retaining a diversity of size and age classes of chaparral.
Summary of Key Habitat Components and Alternatives Anticipated Effects
1. Brush 3 – 6.5 ft tall
Alternative 1 – Palatable browse species will likely increase under this alternative.
Alternative 2 – Grazing would occur in the chaparral vegetation type under conservative
utilization guidelines. Under the proposed stocking rates and conservative use standards,
the existing large, dense stands of chaparral will be maintained or increase. Livestock
typically only browse new growth on chaparral species, and shrubs taller than six feet in
height will be out of the reach of livestock.
2. Very dense brush of mixed species interspersed with scattered tall shrubs
Alternative 1 – Brush density and diversity would likely increase under this alternative.
Alternative 2 – Grazing would occur in the chaparral vegetation type under conservative
utilization guidelines. Under the proposed stocking rates and conservative use standards,
the existing large, dense stands of chaparral will not be significantly altered.
3. Young stands with openings and passageways in brush
Alternative 1 – Young stands with openings and passageways in brush will not be
affected.
Alternative 2 – Chaparral stands will not be significantly altered under implementation
of the grazing alternative. Passageways may become more abundant if cattle use
chaparral areas. Conservative utilization levels will insure reproduction of chaparral
species.
4. Desert scrub and washes for winter habitat
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Alternative 1 – Desert scrub and washes for winter habitat will not be affected.
Alternative 2 – Desert scrub and washes for winter habitat are not expected to
significantly change, primarily due to the implementation of conservative use levels, and
use of annuals during the winter.
Effects determination chaparral habitat type: Under the grazing alternative, browse utilization is limited to ≤ 50 percent annual growth.
Additionally, the grazing alternative includes rest and/or seasonal deferment, management
practices, and mitigation measures; therefore, chaparral densities, diversity, and structure are
likely to remain stable or improve.
Based on the above, impacts from the implementation of the action alternative would not alter
Forest-wide habitat and population trends for the spotted towhee or black-chinned sparrow.
Effects for the Desert Grassland Habitat Type and
Selected MIS
Horned Lark MIS Role: The LRMP (USDA Forest Service 1985), selected the horned lark as a MIS for the
vegetative aspect of the Desert Grassland Vegetative Type (Appendix G, Tonto FLMP). The most
recent analysis indicates that the quantity of desert grassland varies with elevation, drought, and
grazing pressure. This habitat type is well represented and distributed across the Tonto with a
majority of habitat at lower elevations.
SUMMARY OF KEY HABITAT COMPONENTS
Prefers open, barren country year-round
Indicator of reductions in shrub and grass cover
Avoids forests and wetlands
May respond positively to grazing or wildfire
Occurs from sea level to 4000 meters
Distribution
This species is a common, widespread bird whose distribution is “holarctic, from the Arctic south
to central Asia and Mexico with outlying populations in Morocco and Colombia” (Beason 1995).
They are found from sea level to elevations of over 13,000 feet. Horned Larks live year-round
throughout most of the U.S., excluding the southeast, and occur in Alaska and portions of Canada
during breeding season, migrating south in the winter. They are an open country bird and are not
found in heavily forested areas. Most populations at higher elevations move to lower elevations
during the winter (ibid.). E. a. occidentalis breeds from northern Arizona to central New Mexico
and is a darker colored race than that found in eastern New Mexico and northern Colorado. E. a.
adusta occurs south of E. a. occidentalis, in the grasslands of southern Arizona and New Mexico.
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The E. a. adusta is smaller and has more reddish upperparts than the E. a. occidentalis race
(ibid.).
Habitat
Horned larks inhabit open ground with low vegetation; barren lands such as short, sparsely
vegetated prairies, deserts, brushy flats, bare ground, areas scattered with low shrubs, desert
playas, roadsides, row-crop stubble in agricultural lands (Forbes 1907, Cox 1958, Graber and
Graber 1963, Beason 1970, AOU 1983), and alpine habitat (Beason 1995). “They prefer bare
ground to grasses that are taller than a few centimeters” (Verbeek 1967, Cannings and Threlfall
1981, Beason 1995). Their breeding habitat is not usually associated with any specific vegetation
type (Bigelow 1902, Behle 1942, Bent 1942, Beason and Franks 1974, With and Webb 1993). In
areas grazed by livestock, numbers of horned larks are greatest in the heavily grazed areas, and
are one of the most abundant bird species found in grazed areas (Kantrud and Kologiski 1983,
Bock and Webb 1984). “Highest population densities coincide with the greatest amount of bare
ground” (Beason 1995). Territories in shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia) in Nevada ranged from
1.3 to 1.5 individuals per 2.47 acres (Medin 1990). Block locations where breeding horned larks
are likely to occur are not available at this time, but are generally located in open, low stubble,
herbaceous habitats.
Breeding
Pair formation in non-migratory populations, such as those in Arizona, begins in January, when
the males begin to establish territories and sing. Most breeding activity throughout the horned
larks’ range occurs from mid-March through early July (Beason 1995). Nests are shallow cups
dug by the females, lined with courser plant materials on the outside, such as grass, small roots,
shredded cornstalks; and are lined with finer materials such as down, fur, feathers, etc. (Pickwell
1931, Sutton and Parmelee 1955, Beason and Franks 1974, Verbeek 1967). Females often use a
variety of items such as dirt clods, corncobs, cow dung, or pebbles to “pave” beside the nest, on
the soil excavated from the nest cavity
Food Habits
Diet includes grass and forb seeds, insects fed mostly to young or before breeding or molting, and
spiders (Ehrlich et al. 1988, Beason 1995). Horned larks forage mainly on bare ground or in short
vegetation, by gleaning food as they walk, or by chasing and catching small insects that they flush
out (Beason 1995). They are also reported to dig up larvae and worms with their beaks or pry
them out of weed clumps or the base of corn plants (McAtee 1905, Pickwell 1931). The main
insects taken are grasshoppers (Orthoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), and Lepidopteran larvae
(Pickwell 1931, Beason 1970, Wiens and Rotenberry 1979). Paired males and females often feed
together during the breeding season.
Population Trends
According to the NatureServe Explorer website (2001), which can be found at:
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer, the Global Heritage Status for horned larks is G5, being
common, widespread, and abundant. National Heritage Status is ranked as N5B, N5N, being
common and widespread. In Arizona, this species is ranked as S5, being common, secure,
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widespread, and abundant. With a secure global, national, and state ranking, long-term
population trends are stable. “NatureServe and the Heritage Natural Network was formed in
1999 as the Association for Biodiversity Information when The Nature Conservancy and the
Natural Heritage Network jointly established an independent organization to advance the
application of biodiversity information to conservation” (NatureServe Explorer website 2001)
Figure 6: Horned Lark - Regional BBS Trend Data (1966 - 2013)
This species is not documented on any BBS routes on the Forest due to the location of transects.
Arizona statewide trends have remained relatively static since the 1990s. Based on this statewide
information, it is likely that TNF populations are similar to the rest of the state and have declined
from 1985 populations but are currently stable.
Statistically horned larks have declined approximately 2.8% in Arizona since BBS data collection
was initiated in 1968. However, the downward trend is probably more associated with natural
factors such as drought or changes in succession. Generally speaking this species is more likely
increasing on the Tonto due to its preference for barren landscapes and open habitat types.
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Based on this statewide information, it is likely that the Tonto populations are similar to the rest
of the state.
Forest wide management direction can be found in Amendment No. 21, 5/3/95 replacement page
38 to 52, which also incorporates Amendment No. 22, 06/05/96. Direction that specifically
affects habitat for horned lark include:
Manage suitable rangelands at Level A, B, C or D. Rangeland in less than satisfactory
condition will be treated with improved grazing management.
Integrate habitat needs through prescribed fire with fire suppression objectives.
Improve range condition in management areas that are unsatisfactory.
Achieve a savannah condition in the pinyon-juniper type by leaving a minimum of 40
mature trees per 40 acre cut block.
In addition to Forest Plan standards and guidelines, desired future conditions for the Desert
Grassland Vegetative type include:
Maintain a minimum of 30% ground cover regardless of plant species composition.
Strive for a 60:40 ratio of cool and warm season grasses.
Have all allotments under proper stocking with approved Allotment Management Plans
that defines improved management and proper grazing systems.
Summary of Key Habitat Components and Alternatives Anticipated Effects
1. Prefers open, barren country year-round
Alternative 1 – Habitat for this species may actually decline, due to projected increases
in perennial herbaceous and browse.
Alternative 2 – The grazing alternative will likely contribute to maintaining open
grassland conditions where applicable, although conservative grazing levels are intended
to maintain residual levels of herbaceous and woody plants for watershed, soil protection
and wildlife habitat.
2. Indicator of reductions in shrub and grass cover
Alternative 1 – Populations may show a slight decline with improvement of range
condition.
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Alternative 2 – Shrub and grass cover are expected to be maintained or increase over the
long term under the grazing alternative due to conservative use limits, adaptive
management, and mitigation measures. Moderate slope classes may receive more use
than steeper slopes and may compliment habitat preference for this species.
3. Avoids forests and wetlands
Alternative 1 – No wetland habitat exists on this allotment. Forest habitat is minimal,
comprising roughly 813 acres, and will not be affected by this alternative.
Alternative 2 – No wetland habitat exists on this allotment. Forest habitat is minimal,
comprising roughly 813 acres, and will not be affected by this alternative
4. May respond positively to grazing or wildfire
Alternative 1 – Populations may show a slight decline with improvement of range
condition.
Alternative 2– Shrub and grass cover are expected to be maintained or increase over the
long term under the grazing alternative due to conservative use limits, adaptive
management, and mitigation measures which may cause a slight decline in habitat
preference. Moderate slope classes may receive more use than steeper slopes and may
compliment habitat preference for this species.
5. Occurs from sea level to 4,000 meters
None of the alternatives have the potential to affect this KHC.
Savannah sparrow
MIS Role: Grass species diversity in desert grassland
SUMMARY OF KEY HABITAT COMPONENTS
Prefers open habitats of >20-40 acres on the Tonto such as agriculture fields, meadows,
marshes, weed patches with dense ground cover
Avoids extensive tree cover
Highly sensitive to fragmentation
Winter resident on Tonto
May be indicator of grassland diversity
Distribution
This species is widespread in open habitats throughout North America. Savannah sparrows breed
in the northern two thirds of the continent, from northern Alaska and Canada south of the arctic
islands, east to northern Labrador and Newfoundland, south through the western U.S. and locally
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in Mexico, to southwestern Guatemala, and south to southern Iowa and New Jersey in the east
(AOU 1983). In Arizona, Savannah sparrows are known only to breed in a few high elevation
sub-alpine grasslands in the White Mountains and on the Kaibab Plateau. The Savannah sparrow
is only a migrant and possibly a wintering species in the arid grasslands of the Tonto National
Forest. Their winter range is east of the Appalachian Mountains from Massachusetts south, and
southern Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Kansas, central New Mexico, northern Arizona, and
southern British Colombia south to the Bahamas, Cuba, most of Mexico, Guatemala, and
northern Honduras (ibid.).
Habitat
Savannah sparrows are found in a variety of open habitats across their range during breeding
season, including agricultural fields, especially alfalfa (Medigo sativa), meadows, roadsides,
marshes, coastal grasslands, and tundra (Wheelright and Rising 1993). They avoid areas with
extensive tree cover, usually being found in areas with herbaceous plants or weeds. In the more
arid parts of their range they are restricted to irrigated areas or to the grassy margins of ponds or
river edges (ibid.), although they are more often found breeding in idle native grasslands or
retired croplands than in active agricultural or grazed fields (The NatureServe Explorer website
(2001). They prefer dense ground vegetation, especially grasses, and moist microhabitats (Wiens
1969). Short to intermediate grass heights with a well-developed litter layer are preferred
(Wheelright and Rising 1993).
Savannah sparrows may occupy small areas (< 12.4 acres) of suitable habitat but a minimum
grassland size of 20 to 40 acres was suggested by (Jones and Vickery 1997); and Herkert et al.
(1993) categorized the species as highly sensitive to habitat fragmentation, based on data
collected in Illinois. Population density is not limited by nest sites or materials (Wheelright and
Rising 1993). Breeding territories within habitat are small, ranging from 0.1 to 3.1 acres
(Wheelright and Rising 1993). Management should promote grassland restoration with an
emphasis on limiting fragmentation of habitat. “Restoration projects should be over 123 acres and
preferably over 247 acres in size (Herkert 1991). Avoid disturbance by mowing, burning, or
moderate-to-heavy grazing during breeding season, approximately 1 May to 1 August (Swanson
1996). During the migration and in the winter, which is the period when most savannah sparrows
would be present in Arizona, they occupy varied habitats, including cultivated fields, pastures,
golf courses, and roadsides (ibid.).
Breeding
The birds arrive on their breeding grounds between late March and early May (NatureServe
Explorer 2001). Main breeding activity begins approximately the second week of June and
continues into mid-to-late August (Wheelright and Rising 1993). Cup nests are built by the
female, usually in a shallow depression on the ground, which occurs naturally among the
goldenrods (Solidago spp.) or is created by the birds. Nests are well concealed by overhanging
vegetation or tucked under a tussock with a tunnel averaging 13.5 inches in length (Dixon 1972).
The nest is made of course grass and lined with closely woven finer materials (ibid.). Nests are
usually located in open areas, but can be as close as 10.0 feet from coniferous forest edge (ibid.).
Females often lay more than one clutch per season, and their later nests may be close to their first
nest, but they seldom reuse nests or nest materials (ibid.). Polygyny is routine in many
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populations (ibid.). Parasitism of Savannah sparrow nests by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus
ater) is low, but does occur in areas where the two species overlap (Friedmann et al. 1977).
Incubation lasts 12 to 13 days on average, and the young fledge in 7 to 10 or more days after
hatching (Ehrlich et al. 1988). Block locations where breeding savannah sparrow are likely to
occur are not available at this time but are generally located in open, low stubble, herbaceous
habitats.
Food Habits
During breeding season, savannah sparrows eat mainly adult insects, larval insects, insect eggs,
small spiders, millipedes, isopods, amphipods, decapods, mites, small mollusks, seeds, and fruits
(Wheelright and Rising 1993). In migration and during the winter they mainly eat small seeds,
fruits, and insects, when available (Judd 1901, Martine et al. 1951, Baird 1968). This species uses
a variety of foraging techniques, including hunting for prey or fallen seeds while walking or
scratching on the ground, or sometimes leaping from the ground in short sallies to capture
butterflies or flies in flight (ibid.). They feed on caterpillars in great enough numbers to
sometimes reduce caterpillar populations, “altering interactions between plant-feeding insects and
patterns of herbivory on host plants” (Karban 1989).
Tonto MIS Status
The LRMP (USDA Forest Service 1985), selected the Savannah sparrow as a Management
Indicator Species for grass species diversity in the Desert-Grassland Vegetative Type (Appendix
G, Tonto FLMP). In the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the Tonto LRMP, page 108
Table 20, the desert vegetation type was determined to cover approximately 316,894 acres on the
Tonto. Table 10 in Appendix K of the FLMP (Amendment no. 22, 06/05/96 page 268) indicates
that this is also the desired vegetative condition at the end of the fifth period.
Forest wide management direction can be found in Amendment No. 21, 5/3/95 replacement page
38 to 52, which also incorporates Amendment No. 22, 06/05/96. Direction that specifically
affects habitat for savannah sparrow include:
1. Manage suitable rangelands at Level A, B, C or D depending management emphasis.
Rangeland in less than satisfactory condition will be treated with improved grazing
management
2. Integrate habitat needs through prescribed fire with fire suppression objectives
3. Improve range condition in management areas that are unsatisfactory
4. Achieve a savannah condition in the pinyon-juniper type by leaving a minimum of 40
mature trees per 40 acre cut block
In addition to Forest Plan standards and guidelines, desired future conditions for the Desert
Grassland Vegetative type include:
1. Maintain a minimum of 30% ground cover regardless of plant species composition.
2. Strive for a 60:40 ratio of cool and warm season grasses.
3. Have all allotments under proper stocking with approved Allotment Management Plans
that defines improved management and proper grazing systems.
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Global Heritage Status for the Savannah sparrows is ranked as G5, being common and
widespread throughout its range on the NatureServe Explorer website (2001). National Heritage
Status in the U.S. for this species is N5B, N5N, being considered widespread, common and
abundant in breeding and non-breeding areas. In Arizona, this species is listed as S5, secure,
common, widespread, and abundant (ibid).
Breeding Bird Survey trend estimates are not available at the USGS Patuxtent Wildlife Research
Center website for the state of Arizona, since this species is more common as a migrant and is
extremely local as a breeding bird in this state. The Savannah sparrow has only been found
breeding in a few high elevation sub-alpine grasslands in the White Mountains and on the Kaibab
Plateau. Survey-wide, for the states they commonly breed in, the BBS trend data indicates a non-
significant decline of –5 percent for the years 1996 to 2000, over 1,111 routes surveyed, as
reported on the USGS Patuxtent Wildlife Research Center website.
There are three breeding bird survey routes on the Tonto National Forest (ARI-065, ARI-071,
ARI-122), but due to the migratory nature of this species and absence of breeding habitat,
breeding bird surveys are not a reliable indicator of status on the Tonto. Statewide CBC data
indicates that this species is wide spread and within the normal range of variability. Based on this
statewide information, it is likely that the Tonto populations are similar to the rest of the state.
Savannah sparrow population trend for the Arizona region 1985-2004 (National Audubon Society 2005)
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Summary of Key Habitat Components and Anticipated Effects from Proposed
Alternatives
1. Prefers open habitats of >20-40 acres on the Tonto such as agriculture fields, meadows,
marshes, weed patches with dense ground cover.
Alternative 1 – The most rapid increase in ground cover would likely occur under this
alternative.
Alternative 2 – Conservative utilization levels are anticipated to allow for maintenance
of or increased density of perennial ground cover.
2. Avoids extensive tree cover
Alternative 1 – Would not affect the tree cover component on the allotment.
Alternative 2 – Grazing alternative will not affect tree cover parameters.
3. Highly sensitive to fragmentation
Alternative 1 – The least amount of fragmentation would occur under this alternative.
Alternative 2 – Grazing alternative is not likely to increase fragmentation due to
conservative grazing limits, adaptive management, and mitigation measures.
4. May be indicator of grassland diversity
Alternative 1 – Most rapid increase in species diversity under this alternative.
Alternative 2 – Species diversity is likely to increase due to conservative utilization
limits, rest and deferred use, and improved distribution.
Effects determination desert grassland habitat type: Under the implementation of alternative 2, overall species diversity and productivity should be
maintained or increase. Habitat for these MIS and other grassland species would likely improve.
Implementation of the no grazing alternative would likely result in an increase in ground cover,
overall species diversity, and productivity more rapidly than under the grazing alternative.
Based on the above, impacts from the implementation of the action alternative would not alter
Forest-wide habitat and population trends for the horned lark or savannah sparrow.
Effects for the Desert Scrub Habitat Type and Selected
MIS
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Black-throated sparrow
MIS Role: Shrub density in desertscrub.
SUMMARY OF KEY HABITAT COMPONENTS
Occurs primarily in desert-scrub with a preference for rocky uplands, mesquite, yucca,
and cacti
Prefers < 25% vegetative cover
Vegetative density appears to be more important than vegetation type
Closely associated with creosote bush throughout southern range
Eats primarily insects and seed depending on time of year
Distribution
Black-throated sparrows are found throughout the southwestern U.S. and Mexico in arid
habitats. They breed locally as far north as eastern Washington and Oregon; and in desert
lowlands throughout Nevada, south and western Utah, possibly in southern Wyoming,
western Colorado, southeastern California, most of Arizona, southern New Mexico and
Texas, into Baja and central mainland Mexico, in areas that are not forested. The northern
populations migrate south during the non-breeding season, while they are year-round
residents in southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico (Johnson et al.
2002).
Habitat
This species occurs semi-open habitat with evenly spaced shrubs and trees from approximately 3
to 9 feet tall (Johnson et al. 2002), and especially in rocky uplands in desert scrub (Ehrlich et al.
1988). On the coast, it is found in chaparral (Stokes and Stokes (1996). “Black throated sparrows
occur in desert alluvial fans, canyons, washes, flats, badlands, and desert scrub type such as
creosote bush (Larrea tridentata), ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens), cholla (Opuntia spp.),
mesquite (Prosopis spp.), catclaw acacia (Acacia greggii), blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima),
sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), antelope brush (purshia tridentata), and rabbitbrush (Chrysothammus
spp.), interspersed with taller plants such as Joshua trees (Yucca brevifolia), piñon-juniper (Pinus
edulis-Juniperus spp.), and crucifixion thorn (Canotia holacantha)” (Johnson et al. 2002). Desert
scrub habitat with less than 25 percent vegetative cover is preferred, and water sources during the
dry season are necessary for this species in the southwest (USDA Forest Service 1994). Moderate
grazing on a semi-desert grassland in southern Arizona appeared to promote the desert shrub
habitat used by this species (Bock et al. 1984). The black-throated sparrow is closely associated
with creosote bush throughout its southern range, and vegetation density appears to be more of a
factor in habitat selection than specific species (ibid.). Black-throated sparrow population density
in a study in creosote-burrobush habitat in California was 7 individuals per 99 acres (Kubik and
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Remsen 1977). During the non-breeding season, this species can be found in riparian areas,
grasslands, and weedy fields, as well as in xeric shrub habitats (AOU 1983, Rising 1996).
Breeding
Black-throated sparrows breed mainly from early April through mid-July throughout their range.
Nest-building timing is variable, depending on rainfall, elevation, and food availability (Johnson
et al. 2002). In central Arizona, nest building begins in mid-April (van Riper and Johnson in
press). Nesting is triggered by summer rains, but they may begin nesting in early spring in years
of adequate winter rainfall. In south-central Arizona, out of 11 nests, 46 percent were built in
teddybear cholla (Opuntia bigelovii), 27 percent in brittlebrush (Encelia farinosa), 18 percent in
box thorn (Lycium andersonii), and 9 percent in buckhorn cholla (Opuntia acanthocarpa) (Torres
1983). In central Arizona, of 56 nests, 65 percent were in creosote bush, 29 percent in crucifixion
thorn, 2 percent in one-seeded juniper (Juniperus monosperma), 2 percent in catclaw acacia, and
2 percent in algerita (Berberis haematocarpa) (van Riper and Johnson in press).
Nests are loose cups built in cactus or shrubs from ground-level to 2.0 feet above ground (Ehrlich
et al. 1988). Nests are made of course grasses, plant stems, fine branches, weeds, rootlets; usually
lined with hair (Delesantro 1978), built in cactus or shrubs from ground-level to 2.0 feet above
ground (Ehrlich et al. 1988). Clutches usually consist of 3 to 4 eggs (Banks 1968, Rising 1996).
Second clutches are common in years with adequate rainfall and prey items. In Arizona,
incubation lasts approximately 12 days, and the young fledge in 9.5 days, on average (Johnson
and van Riper in press). In a study in the Verde Valley, Arizona, the cowbird parasitism rate for
56 black-throated sparrow nests was 52 percent (Johnson and Van Riper in press).
Feeding Habits
During the breeding season, black-throated sparrows prey items include grasshoppers
(Acrididae), butterfly and moth (Lepidoptera) larvae, mantids (Mantidae), robber flies (Asilidae),
walking sticks (Phasmatidae), and dragonflies (Ansioptera) (Johnson et al. 2002). In a study in
New Mexico by Zimmer (1993), clutch sizes were lower in a year when grasshoppers were
scarce. This species feeds mainly on the ground, taking a variety of insect prey and seeds during
breeding season, and seeds such as fillaree (Erodium spp.), large grasses (Schizmus spp.), small
grasses, creosote plant material, and prickly-pear cactus (Opuntia spp.) (Johnson et al. 2002).
They also glean foliage on the lower portions of shrubs and trees and occasionally flush and make
short aerial chases to capture prey (Zimmer 1983). During the non-breeding season, this species
may forage in mixed flocks (Ehrlich et al. 1988, Rising 1996).
This species was selected to be an indicator of shrub diversity of the desert scrub vegetation type.
Forest-wide estimates indicate that shrub diversity has decreased (-1.4%) from 1985 to 2005.
Desert scrub acres decreased from 909,418 acres in 1985 to 896,671 acres in 2005. The desert
scrub component has decreased across the Forest primarily due to natural and human caused fires.
The desert scrub vegetation type is not fire adapted and is often replaced by annual grasses and
non-native plants and grasses post-fire.
Breeding Bird Survey data “suggest the highest average numbers of black-throated sparrows
occur in Nevada, Arizona, California, and Utah, where four major deserts, the Great Basin,
Sonoran, Chihuahuan, and Mojave deserts, overlap (Johnson et al. 2002). Of these four deserts,
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the lowest density occurred on the Sonoran Desert. In Arizona, at Organ Pipe National Monument
within creosote bush habitat,
black-throated sparrow density was 56 individuals per 247 acres (Parker 1986). In the Verde
Valley within creosote-brush and crucifixion thorn habitat, densities ranged from 49 individuals
per 247 acres in 1995, to 47 individuals per 247 acres in 1996, which was a drought year
(Johnson 1997). Drought affects food availability, and black-throated sparrow nesting
productivity (i.e. increased morality, smaller clutches, lower density, and fewer breeding attempts
per season) and return rates (Martin 1987).
Loss of habitat due to clearing of desert and mesquite for agricultural and residential
developments may threaten some populations, since black-throated sparrows do not use urban
landscaped vegetation (Emlen 1974, Mills et al. 1989). Both black-throated sparrows and canyon
towhees are especially susceptible to urban development and were found in greatly reduced
numbers in urban environments, regardless of the use of native vegetation (Mills et al. 1989). Fire
suppression in the southwest has allowed shrub species to become thicker and taller, reducing
black-throated sparrow habitat and creating the possibility that high-intensity wildfires could
destroy much desert-shrub vegetation (Cooperrider and Wilcove 1995). The spread of cheatgrass
(Bromus tectorum), which is fire-tolerant, slows or prevents native plants from recovering
(Hastings and Turner 1965, Cooperrider and Wilcove 1995). Agricultural and urban areas that
enhance cowbird feeding also significantly reduces the reproductive success of black-throated
sparrows (Johnson et al. 2002).
Only one breeding bird survey route is active on the Tonto National Forest (Bartlett Reservoir).
Due to the small sample size for this species the data at this scale is not adequate to determine
trend. In addition to the BBS route, regional Christmas Bird Counts indicate that percent change
from year to year is quite static in Arizona.
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Figure 7: Black-Throated Sparrow - Regional BBC Trend Data (1966 – 2013)
Summary of Key Habitat Components and Anticipated Effects by Alternative
1. Occurs primarily in desert-scrub with a preference for rocky uplands, mesquite, yucca,
and cacti.
Alternative 1 – Desert scrub habitat will like improve under this alternative.
Alternative 2 – Through implementation of conservative utilization, adaptive management, and
mitigation measures, desert scrub habitat is expected to remain stable or improve.
2. Prefers < 25% vegetative cover.
Alternative 1 – Vegetative cover is expected to increase under this alternative.
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Alternative 2 – Conservative utilization guidelines and adaptive management are expected to
maintain or improve vegetative cover.
3. Vegetative density appears to be more important than vegetation type.
Alternative 1 – Vegetative density is most likely to increase the fastest under this alternative.
Alternative 2 – Vegetative density will likely be maintained or increase under this alternative.
Conservative utilization levels, rest, and improved livestock distribution will ensure vegetation
density is maintained or improved over time.
4. Closely associated with creosote bush throughout southern range.
Alternative 1 – The no grazing alternative will not affect creosote populations on the allotment.
Alternative 2 – Creosote occurs on the allotment, although limited, and for the most part is not
utilized by livestock. Therefore, grazing alternatives are not expected to reduce the occurrence or
range of creosote on the allotment.
Canyon Towhee
MIS Role: Ground cover in desert scrub
SUMMARY OF KEY HABITAT COMPONENTS
Found primarily on Tonto in sonoran desert scrub, dry washes, grasslands, mesquite, and
sometimes pinyon-juniper and conifer
Forage on open ground and use shrubs for hiding cover
Exhibit site fidelity and permanent territories
Appear to be susceptible to development and fragmentation
Distribution
Canyon towhees are “sedentary, permanent residents of the southwest” (Johnson and Haight
1996). They occur from southeast Colorado (Andrews and
Righter 1992), extreme northwest Oklahoma (Baumgartner
and Baumgartner 1992), northern New Mexico (Hubbard
1978), central and western Texas (Texas Breeding Bird
Atlas unpubl.), central and western Arizona (Monson and
Phillips 1981), south through central Mexico, (Howell and
Webb 1995). They do not occur in the hottest deserts of
Mexico (Johnson and Haight 1996).
Habitat
This species occurs in a variety of the drier habitats in the
southwest, except in heavily urbanized areas. Elevations
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range from near sea level in Mexico to over 8,000 feet in New Mexico and occasionally in
Colorado. They most typically are found in the Upper Sonoran desert grasslands, often in remote,
rocky areas with dense shrubs. They also occupy scrub along dry desert washes, desert mesquite
in riparian areas, upland desert scrub at lower elevations, plus grasslands with dense stands of
chaparral or pine-oak-juniper (Pinus-Quercus-Juniperus spp.) and some coniferous forest
(Johnson and Haight 1996). Miller (1995) reports their occurrence in “canyon mouths and open,
rocky canyon walls up to 5,200 feet, with scattered mesquite (Prosopis spp.), catclaw (Acacia
spp.), and algerita (Berberis spp.) shrubs. “Canyon towhees prefer open spaces for feeding on
bare ground, plus dense shrubs or trees for hiding…in rural areas they can be found around sheds
and woodpiles (Marhsall and Johnson 1968). In New Mexico they are reported to occupy riparian
vegetation along irrigation ditches, the edges of streams, and irrigated fields near villages. In
upland habitats they nest near creeks but not in the creek bottom area. This species “appears to be
particularly susceptible to the negative effects of development” (Mills et al. 1989). In a suburban
Tucson paloverde mixed cactus-desert scrub vegetation area, breeding density was reported as 1
pair per 74 acres (Johnson and Haight 1996); in riparian mesquite-desert scrub vegetation, density
was reported as 1 pair per 17.3 acres (Marshall 1960). Density in higher elevation mature oak
woodland was 1 pair per 131 acres (Balda 1970). Canyon towhees exhibit site fidelity, inhabiting
permanent territories (Marshall 1960).
Breeding
According to Marshall (1960), “pairs persist normally for the life of the mates and exist only in
conjunction with the holding of a territory.” Main breeding activity begins in mid-March and
goes through mid-October (Johnson and Haight 1996). They often have 2 to 3 clutches per season
in the southwest, often timed for spring and late summer or fall, coinciding with Sonoran desert
bi-modal precipitation periods; winter and summer rains; that are thought to correlate with high
insect populations after rains (Marshall 1963). Canyon towhees create bulky cup nests made of
stems, grasses, and sticks, and lined with finer materials. They often have plant stems and
“garlands of yellow flowers, of daisies or mustard flowers,” woven through the nest (Brandt
1951). Nests are usually built inside the thickest parts of a shrub, tree, or vine; usually 3 to 12 feet
above ground (Marshall and Johnson 1968). Nest plants used include juniper and pinyon pine
(Pinus edulis) and Clematis species in the higher elevations (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). In New
Mexico, sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata; Jensen 1923, Ligon 1961), cholla cactus (opuntia spp),
and Yucca species (Anthony 1892) are used. At lower elevations or latitudes, Mesquite (prosopis
glandulosa), paloverde (Cercidium spp.), Mexican elderberry (Sambucus mexicana), and net leaf
hackberry (Celtis reticulata) (Marshall and Johnson 1968) are often used for nesting. In general,
nests are found lower to the ground at higher elevations, and higher at lower elevation sites
(Johnson and Haight 1996).
Clutches usually consist of 3 eggs (range of 2 to 5) (Marshall and Johnson 1968). Incubation lasts
11 days on average and the young stay in the nest for 8 to 9 days (Alsop III 2001). Nest
parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater and M a. obscurus) is uncommon
(Johnson and Haight 1996).
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Population Trends
According to the NatureServe Explorer website (2001), which can be found at:
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer, the Global Heritage Status for canyon towhees is G5, being
common, widespread, and abundant. National Heritage Status is ranked as N5B, N5N, being
common and widespread in breeding and non-breeding areas. In Arizona, this species is ranked as
S5, being common, secure, widespread, and abundant. With a secure global, national, and state
ranking, long-term population trends are stable. “NatureServe and the Heritage Natural Network
was formed in 1999 as the Association for Biodiversity Information when The Nature
Conservancy and the Natural Heritage Network jointly established an independent organization to
advance the application of biodiversity information to conservation” (NatureServe Explorer
website 2001).
Breeding Bird Survey trend data for the years 1996 to 2000 show a non-significant increase of
1.14 percent over 38 survey routes. Refer to figure 2 for a graph provided by the USGS Patuxtent
Wildlife Research Center website for canyon towhees for the years 2003 - 2013 in Arizona.
Figure 8: Canyon Towhee - Regional BBS Trend Data (1968 - 2013)
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There are three breeding bird survey routes on the Tonto National Forest (ARI-065, ARI-071,
ARI-122). However, because of the small sample size for this species the data at this scale is not
adequate to determine trend.
Overall, data for Arizona, as well as range wide data, suggest that the canyon towhee populations
are stable, or slightly decreasing. Populations may decline on a short-term basis but recover when
habitat conditions become more favorable. The resolution of the data is such that a population
trend for the Tonto National Forest is not possible.
Summary of Key Habitat Components and Anticipated Effects by Alternative
1. Found primarily in Sonoran desert scrub, dry washes, grasslands, mesquite, and
sometimes pinyon-juniper and conifer.
Alternative 1 – Desert scrub and grassland communities will likely show an increase in
herbaceous density more rapidly under this alternative. Pinyon-juniper and coniferous vegetation
will are not expected to change significantly under this alternative.
Alternative 2 – Conservative utilization levels and adaptive management are expected to
maintain and or improve desert scrub, grassland, and mesquite dominated communities which
will benefit this species.
2. Forage on open ground and use shrubs for hiding cover.
Alternative 1 – There will likely be an increase in the amount of herbaceous vegetation for
foraging, and increase shrub density for cover. Open ground may decrease as cover increases.
Alternative 2 – Herbaceous vegetation and shrub density will likely increase due to conservative
utilization levels and associated monitoring to trigger pasture moves. Open ground may decrease
as cover increases, though likely not as rapidly as Alternative 1.
3. Exhibit site fidelity and permanent territories.
Alternatives 1 and 2 – None of the alternatives are expected to significantly affect habitat for the
species, thus not affecting site fidelity or permanent territories.
4. Appear to be susceptible to development and fragmentation.
Alternatives 1 and 2 – Neither of the alternatives involve development of new facilities that may
displace habitats and conservative utilization is not expected to contribute to habitat
fragmentation.
Effects determination desert scrub habitat type:
Under the implementation of grazing alternative it is expected that the desert scrub habitat type
will be maintained or improved over time under conservative utilization levels, pasture rest and/or
deferment, adaptive management, and mitigation measures. Overall vegetation diversity and
productivity should continue to increase. Habitat for these MIS and other desert scrub species
may improve over longer periods.
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Based on the above, impacts from the implementation of the action alternative would not alter
Forest-wide habitat and population trends for the black-throated sparrow or canyon towhee.
Effects For the Riparian (high/ low elevation) Habitat
Type And Selected MIS
Bell’s Vireo In the EIS for the Tonto LMP, Page 108 Table 20, the riparian vegetation type was determined to
cover approximately 35,022 acres on the Forest. Table 10 in Appendix K of the LMP
(Amendment no. 22, 06/05/96 page 268) indicates that 35,022 is also the desired vegetation
condition at the end of the fifth period. Current data states that the Riparian vegetation type is
approximately 41,379 (+13%) acres in 2005.
This species was selected to be an indicator of the well-developed understory of the riparian
vegetation type. 2005 Forest-wide estimates indicate that well developed understory trends are
estimated in the following classes are stable and encompass 41,379 acres. It is likely that riparian
acres remain unchanged from 1985 to 2005 due to no net loss or gain of riparian habitat because
emphasis has been placed Forest-wide on proper management within riparian areas. The late
1980s involved wetter precipitation patterns and the late 1990s involved significant drought. It is
likely that riparian acres have remained unchanged due to the effects of drought and wet cycles
over the past 20 years and active management of riparian areas throughout the Forest. Removing
cattle from allotments during severe drought periods and stocking conservatively since livestock
returned has likely improved riparian conditions in some areas. On the Tonto, habitat parameters
for this species have not changed significantly since 1985.
Bell’s vireos breed in the central and southwestern U.S. They are widespread in the central and
southwestern U.S. and in northern Mexico; although habitat loss, cowbird parasitism, and other
changes have negatively affected nesting vireos in the southwestern U.S. (Brown 1993). The least
Bell’s vireo subspecies has been designated an Endangered Species and the State of California
(ibid.). Their winter range extends “from southern Baja California and southern Sonora south
along the west coast of Mexico and Central America to the Honduras and casually to northern
Nicaragua. There are also scattered winter records from southern California, southern Arizona,
southern Texas, Louisiana, and southern Florida (Barlow 1980).
Although the population of Bell’s vireo as a whole is apparently stable, population numbers of
Bell’s vireos have exhibited sharp declines in some localities, as in the central U.S., as indicated
by the Breeding Bird Survey data. In Arizona for the years 1966 to 2000, the BBS trend showed a
non-significant decline of –1.7 percent over 22 survey routes. Refer to the above graph provided
by the USGS Patuxtent Wildlife Research Center website (Sauer et al. 2001) of Bell’s vireo
trends for the years 1968 to 2003 in Arizona. The percent change per year in BBS counts in
central Arizona, appears to be low.
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On the Tonto National Forest, this species appears to be well distributed. Arizona began a
breeding bird atlas in the early 1990s. Figure BEVI-2 shows the results of this effort to date on
the Forest. There are 50 blocks with BEVI sightings distributed across the Forest. The points
displayed in the figure represent “atlas blocks” (survey areas) within which, one or more BEVI’s
was sighted. Atlas blocks are relatively large survey areas that were established at the beginning
of the atlas survey work to insure adequate sampling of the various biomes within the state.
Statewide CBC suggests low detection of this species with peaks in the late 1990s. During the
breeding season this species has been documented on the Bartlett reservoir BBS route on a
regular basis. On the Tonto Basin Ranger District in 2003, this species was detected 23 times on
11 different dates on 10 different transect points (Plank 2005). Low elevation riparian habitat has
improved in some areas but has declined in others due to grazing, drought, and wildfire. Based on
this data the population on TNF appears to be declining.
Figure 9: Bell's Vireo - Regional BBS Trend Data (1966 - 2013)
Summary of Key Habitat Components and Anticipated Effects by Alternative
Page 64 of 81
1. Provide dense stands of understory (shrubs, small trees) vegetation for nesting,
underneath a tree canopy (shade) for optimum microclimate (cool).
Alternative 1 – Riparian vegetation throughout the entire allotment most likely to improve at a
more rapid rate than under the grazing alternative.
Alternative 2 – Riparian vegetation is likely to improve through adherence to conservative
utilization guidelines, monitoring, and rest. The proposed non-use within Sycamore Creek,
Mesquite Wash, Rock Creek, and Log Corral Canyon will likely result in an increase in
understory vegetation density at the same rate as Alternative 1.
2. Manage for large, contiguous blocks (70 acres, >100yds. wide) of riparian habitat rather
than for small fragmented areas. Large, continuous blocks of habitat reduce cowbird
parasitism.
Alternative 1 – Riparian habitat throughout the entire allotment, most likely to improve at the
most rapid rate under this alternative; however, there are currently no contiguous blocks meeting
the 100 yard width requirement. Continuous blocks of riparian vegetation are dependent upon
perennial and/intermittent water in order to establish and be maintained.
Alternative 2 – Currently there are no contiguous blocks meeting the 100 yard width
requirement. Portions of Sycamore Creek may have the potential to develop larger blocks of
riparian habitat. Utilization limits, rest, and non-use within Sycamore Creek, Mesquite Wash,
Rock Creek, and Log Corral Canyon are anticipated to improve riparian habitat on the allotment.
Common black hawk In the EIS for the Tonto LMP, Page 108 Table 20, the riparian vegetation type was determined to
cover approximately 35,022 acres on the Forest. Table 10 in Appendix K of the LMP
(Amendment no. 22, 06/05/96 page 268) indicates that 35,022 is also the desired vegetation
condition at the end of the fifth period. Current data states that the Riparian vegetation type is
approximately 41,379 (+13%) acres in 2005.
This species was selected to be an indicator of riparian streamside vegetation for high elevation
riparian vegetation type. It is likely that riparian acres remain unchanged from 1985 to 2005 due
to no net loss or gain of riparian habitat because emphasis has been placed Forest-wide on proper
management within riparian areas. The late 1980s involved wetter precipitation patterns and the
late 1990s involved significant drought. It is likely that riparian acres have remained unchanged
due to the effects of drought and wet cycles over the past 20 years and active management of
riparian areas throughout the Forest. Removing cattle from allotments during severe drought
periods have likely improved riparian conditions in some areas. On the Tonto, habitat parameters
for this species have not changed significantly since 1985.
Page 65 of 81
On the Tonto National Forest, the common black-hawk is an "obligate riparian nester." It is
generally dependent on mature broadleaf trees along perennial streams for nest sites (Porter and
White 1977, Schnell et al. 1988), although a few nests are situated along intermittent
watercourses where small impoundments may persist through the breeding season (Schnell et al.
1988). A reliable supply of riparian associated vertebrate and invertebrate prey is also required
for successful nesting (Millsap 1981).
Its nesting territories are restricted to, and disjunct
within, riparian communities (Millsap 1981). Riparian
communities (Brown et al. 1980) in which the species is
found include the cottonwood-willow series of the
Sonoran Riparian Deciduous Forest (< 3,900 feet elev.),
the cottonwood-willow series and mixed broadleaf series
of the Interior Southwestern Riparian Deciduous.
The migrant common black-hawk population is limited
by the availability of suitable riparian habitat. The
migrant population is thought to be self-sustaining
(Snyder and Snyder 1975, Schnell 1994). Estimates of
historic population size for migrant common black-
hawks are not available; most historical information is in
anecdotal form. A survey in the mid-1970s suggests
220-250 pairs of common black-hawks nest in the
southwestern U.S. (Schnell et. al. 1988). Currently, 183
nest territories are known in Arizona, New Mexico, and
Utah. Most of the available information is occupancy data only and has been collected
sporadically.
There is a known nesting pair in Sycamore Creek north of the project boundary.
Summary of Key Habitat Components and Anticipated Effects by Alternative
1. Cottonwood-willow vegetation type in Low Elevation Riparian areas (<3,900 feet elev.)
and cottonwood-willow and mixed broadleaf vegetation types in High elevation Riparian
areas (>3,600 feet elev.).
Alternative 1 – Riparian vegetation is most likely to increase in density and vertical structure
under this alternative.
Alternative 2 – Non-use within Sycamore Creek, Rock Creek, Mesquite Wash, and Log Corral
Canyon will result in an increase in density and vertical structure at the same rate as Alternative
1. Utilization limits, seasonal deferment and rest, and mitigation measures will help minimize
impact to the remaining riparian areas; thereby, increasing riparian vegetation.
Page 66 of 81
2. Isolated groves of mature broadleaf trees rather than single mature trees along perennial
streams for nesting
Alternative 1 – Riparian vegetation is most likely to increase in density and vertical structure
under this alternative.
Alternative 2 – Non-use within Sycamore Creek, Rock Creek, Mesquite Wash, and Log Corral
Canyon will result in an increase in density and vertical structure at the same rate as Alternative
1. Utilization limits, seasonal deferment and rest, and mitigation measures will help minimize
impact to the remaining riparian areas; thereby, increasing riparian vegetation.
3. Low branches, downed trees, exposed roots, and prominent rocks are important for
hunting perches.
Alternatives 1 and 2 – None of the alternatives will affect the KHC’s above.
4. A reliable supply of riparian associated vertebrate and invertebrate prey aquatic
vertebrates and reptiles are primary prey but a diverse array of prey species may be
necessary.
Alternative 1 – Under the no grazing alternative, riparian herbaceous and woody vegetation
density is likely to increase; thereby improving habitat for prey species. Improvement in overall
riparian health rating would occur most rapidly throughout the entire allotment.
Alternative 2 – Non-use within Sycamore Creek, Rock Creek, Mesquite Wash, and Log Corral
Canyon will result in an improvement in the riparian health rating at the same rate as Alternative
1. Utilization limits, seasonal deferment and rest, and mitigation measures will help minimize
impact to the remaining riparian areas; thereby, resulting in improved riparian health ratings,
water quality and likely, prey species abundance.
Effects determination high & low riparian habitat type: Under the implementation of the grazing alternative it is expected that the riparian habitat type
will be maintained or improved over time under conservative utilization limits, rest and/or
deferment, non-use, and appropriate monitoring to trigger livestock moves into other pastures.
With increased vegetation density, habitat available for prey species will be improved, benefiting
MIS species.
Based on the above, impacts from the implementation of the action alternative would not alter
Forest-wide habitat and population trends for Bell’s vireo or common black hawk.
Effects For the Aquatic Habitat Type & Selected MIS
Aquatic Macroinvertebrates Macroinvertebrates (class Insecta) are the most abundant and diverse group of animals found on
earth. Aquatic macroinvertebrates inhabit a diverse array of aquatic environments including
springs, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, and wetlands. These animals lack a backbone, are greater
Page 67 of 81
than 0.5 mm in body size, and require an aqueous environment to persist and reproduce.
Aquatic macroinvertebrates were selected as a management indicator (MIS) for late-seral riparian
and aquatic habitats across elevational gradients for the Tonto National Forest.
Macroinvertebrates can be used to monitor the effects of land use activities such as mining,
timber extraction, grazing, and road building in a watershed. Developing baseline data on groups
or species of aquatic macroinvertebrates enables scientists and lands managers to evaluate the
ecological health and productivity of the system. Groups or species of macroinvertebrates are
classified by habitat preferences and life history characteristics. A main distinction between
species or groups is their tolerance to pollution. Species are classified as Pollution Intolerant
taxon or a Pollution Tolerant taxon. Monitoring of macroinvertebrate populations on a regular
basis can detect negative land use activities that are impacting watersheds. The Monitoring Plan
for the Tonto National Forest Land Use and Monitoring Plan specifies monitoring of aquatic
ecosystem health through the systematic field sampling The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA 1989) identifies the following advantages of using macroinvertebrates
for bioassessments and indicators of aquatic ecosystem health and functioning:
Because aquatic macroinvertebrates have limited migration patterns they are well suited for
assessing localized, site-specific impacts in aquatic habitats.
Macroinvertebrates complete their life cycle in 1 – 2 years. Short-term perturbations or
environmental stressors in the aquatic environment can is often reflected the structure and
abundance of aquatic invertebrate communities.
Long-term degraded environmental conditions are reflected in the species composition and
abundance of aquatic macroinvertebrate communities.
Sampling of macroinvertebrate communities is relatively simple and cost effective.
Aquatic macroinvertebrates are the primary food source of many recreationally and commercially
important fish. An understanding of the macroinvertebrate community lends insight into the
sustainability of forest fish resources.
Macroinvertebrates are often present in small aquatic systems where other higher-level aquatic
life forms are absent.
Federal, State, and local governments routinely use aquatic macroinvertebrates evaluate aquatic
health. Protocols for collection and evaluation are standardized which allows for comparison by
various agencies.
Monitoring Methodology
To evaluate stream ecological health and water quality trends the following guidelines and
methods have been established for the Tonto National Forest:
Page 68 of 81
Establish aquatic macroinvertebrate sampling stations in 15 streams and conduct a Biotic
Condition Index Survey (BCI) at each station in each stream.
Each stream and each station will be sampled 2 times per year every 5 years. Three
macroinvertebrate samples will be taken at each sampling location. Macroinvertebrate
samples will be collected using modified Hess or Surber samplers with 280 micron mesh.
Samples will be preserved for analysis using 95% ethanol.
Samples will be analyzed by the Bureau of Land Management Aquatic Ecosystem
Laboratory - Logan, Utah or other qualified macroinvertebrate analysts.
Table 13: Watershed Health Criteria and Biotic Condition Indices
Ecosystem Health
Rating
Diversity Index1
(DAT)
Standing Crop2
Dry g/m2
Biotic Condition3
Index (BCI)
Excellent 18-26 4.0-12.0 Above 90
Good 11-17 1.6-4.0 80-90
Fair 6-10 0.6-1.5 72-79
Poor 0-5 0.0-0.5 Below 72
1 DIVERSITY INDEX is a measure of dominance and number of taxa where dominance of
one taxon indicates stress and numerous taxa indicate health in an aquatic system.
2 STANDING CROP is the dry weight or biomass in grams of macroinvertebrates per
square meter.
3 BIOTIC CONDITION INDEX (BCI) is a value expressed as a percent of expected. A
community tolerance quotient is predicted based on its potential as determined by natural
physical and chemical characteristics, then divided by the community tolerance quotient
estimated from samples.
Population Trend:
Macroinvertebrates have been sampled in 15 perennial streams on the Tonto National Forest from
1986 to 2005. The nearest four sampling location are listed in Table 14 below.
Page 69 of 81
Table 14: Nearest Sampling Locations to the Sunflower Allotment Project Area
Stream Station Location District Elevation (ft)
Sycamore Creek 3 Round Valley Mesa 2,060
Sycamore Creek 4 Mesquite Wash
Mesa 2,345
Sycamore Creek 1 Bushnell
Mesa 3,389
Sycamore Creek 2
Bushnell
Gauge Mesa 3,321
Aquatic Conditions
Sycamore Creek - The macroinvertebrate community in this stream is currently dominated by
sediment tolerant taxa. Cleanwater taxa were absent from the community. BCI values for this
stream were 67 and 76 in 1986 and 1987, respectively. BCI declined to 54 and 57 by 2005
indicating declining biotic conditions in this stream.
Summary
Data from Sycamore Creek indicate the system is impaired to some degree. This data indicate that
opportunities exist for managers to improve conditions in the watersheds. Analysis of grazing
regimes, timber harvest, recreation, and road networks needs to be conducted so that management
practices contributing to impairment can be identified.
Summary of Anticipated Effects by Alternative:
Alternative 1 – The discontinuation of grazing would likely result in improvement in biotic
conditions.
Alternative 2 – Non-use with Sycamore Creek and its tributaries west of SR 87 will likely result
in improvement in biotic conditions similar that of Alternative 1. However, some of these
tributaries originate within units/pastures proposed for grazing, so there may be some upstream
impacts to habitat. These impacts are not expected to significantly affect aquatic habitats due to
upland and riparian utilization levels, adaptive management, and mitigation measures.
Effects determination aquatic habitat type: Under the implementation of grazing alternatives it is expected that the aquatic habitat type will
be maintained or improved over time under conservative utilization levels, adaptive management,
and mitigation measures. Aquatic conditions will likely improve under conservative use
guidelines compared to past use. Implementation of the no grazing alternative would likely result
in improved aquatic habitat, especially compared to past conditions.
Page 70 of 81
Based on this information the alternatives considered will not negatively affect Forest
population or habitat trends for macroinvertebrates.
Prepared By:___/s/ Kelly M. Kessler_________________ Date:____04/30/2015___
Page 71 of 81
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Appendix A
Table 15: Tonto LRMP Management Indicator Species List
Managemen
t Indicator
Species
Potential Natural
Vegetation
Crosswalk w/
Forest Plan
Vegetation
Indicator of Habitat
Trend
Populatio
n Trend
Elk PPM, MCA general forest conditions Static Stable
Turkey PPM, MCA vertical diversity – forest
mix
Static Stable
Pygmy
Nuthatch PPM Old growth pine
Static Decrease
Violet-green
swallow PPM, MCA Cavity-nesting habitat
Static Decrease
Western
Bluebird PPM, MCA Forest openings
Static Stable
Hairy
Woodpecker PPM, MCA Snags
Static Stable
Goshawk PPM, MCA Vertical diversity Static
Decrease
Abert
Squirrel PPM, MCA Successional stages of pine
Static Decrease
Ash-throated
Flycatcher PJC, PJG, Ground cover
Static Stable
Gray Vireo PJC, PJG Tree density Static
Decrease
Townsend’s
Solitaire PJC, PJG Juniper berry production
Static Stable
Page 80 of 81
Managemen
t Indicator
Species
Potential Natural
Vegetation
Crosswalk w/
Forest Plan
Vegetation
Indicator of Habitat
Trend
Populatio
n Trend
Juniper
Titmouse PJC, PJG
General woodland
conditions
Static Decrease
Northern
Flicker PJC, PJG Snags
Static Stable
Spotted
Towhee PJC, PJG
Successional stages of
pinyon-juniper
Static Stable
Spotted
Towhee IC Shrub density
Static Stable
Black-
chinned
Sparrow
IC Shrub diversity Static
Stable
Savannah
Sparrow CPG, PJG Grass species diversity
Upward/s
tatic Stable
Horned Lark CPG, PJG Vegetation aspect Upward/s
tatic Decrease
Black-
throated
Sparrow
DC Shrub diversity Downwar
d/static Stable
Canyon
Towhee DC Ground cover
Downwar
d/static Decrease
Bald Eagle CWRF General riparian No
change Stable
Bell’s Vireo CWRF
Well-developed understory No
Decrease
Page 81 of 81
Managemen
t Indicator
Species
Potential Natural
Vegetation
Crosswalk w/
Forest Plan
Vegetation
Indicator of Habitat
Trend
Populatio
n Trend
change
Summer
Tanager
CWRF
Tall, mature trees No
change Decrease
Hooded
Oriole
CWRF
Medium-sized Trees No
change Stable
Hairy
Woodpecker MBDRF Snags, cavities
No
change Stable
Arizona Gray
Squirrel
MBDRF
General riparian No
change Stable
Warbling
Vireo
MBDRF Tall overstory
No
change Stable
Western
Wood Pewee
MBDRF
Medium overstory No
change Decrease
Common
black-hawk
MBDRF
Riparian streamside No
change Decrease
Marcro-
invertebrates Aquatic Water quality N/A N/A
CPG - colorado plateau grassland, CWRF - cottonwood willow riparian forest, DC -
desert communities, IC - interior chaparral, MBDRF - mixed broadleaf deciduous
riparian forest, MCA - mixed conifer w/ aspen, MWRF- montane willow riparian forest,
PJC - PJ chaparral, PJG - PJ grassland, PPM - ponderosa pine – mild, SDG - semi-desert
grassland.
