17

MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

WATER UTILIZATION IN AGRICULTURE-

A CASE STUDY OF ANDHRA PRADESH

A. Anil Reddy

CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

The economy of any country is resource based. Man has used his technical skills

and knowledge in utilizing the resources in one way or the other. Resources, in

general, are defined as features which are useful and needed by man. It can also

be defined as any thing from living and non living environment to satisfy the human

needs and wants. Natural resources vary greatly in quantity, mutability, and

reusability in space and time. Water is manufactured by the nature and hence, it is

a vital natural resource. Water is needed in almost every sphere of human activity.

It is required for direct consumption for washing, cleaning, cooling, waste disposal

and transportation. Water is essential for the irrigation, industries, live stock

management, thermal power generation, domestic requirements, hydro electric

generation and various human activities.

Indian food security was built on the remarkable agricultural productivity

enhancement that the country witnessed in the „Green Revolution‟ era. Irrigation

through Major and Medium canal systems was a key component of green revolution

that transformed India and made the specter of famines in India history. Irrigated

Thesis submitted to the Osmania University, for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics. Research Scholar under the supervision of Prof. G. Laxmaiah, Department of Economics, Osmania University

18

agriculture is thus responsible for the rapid improvement in the agriculture

productivity in the 1960‟s, 70s, and 80‟s. There is a marked difference in the levels

of contribution from agriculture in the rain-fed and the irrigated areas.

Irrigation projects are viewed as the mechanisms providing opportunities for

reducing poverty. It is well accepted that irrigation reduces poverty substantially. It

is estimated that poverty in irrigated areas is about half of the incidence of poverty

in non-irrigated areas. Moreover, the Integrated Water Resources Management –

guiding and spearheading the reforms agenda in the state focuses on using

irrigation as a pro-poor anti-poverty mechanism. In general irrigation is seen to be

affecting poverty by increasing returns to the physical, human and social capital;

integrating the poor with factor, product and information markets and improving

the overall national growth rates. The range of reforms and the measures unfolding

in AP in recent years incorporates this concern and aims to usher in targeted

productivity improvement. Decentralization of irrigation – PIM, financial reforms,

infusion of integrated and multi-departmental interventions, focusing on water use

efficiency and the decision to initiate targeted agricultural productivity

improvements in recent years have all been focused upon enhancing agricultural

productivity.

The sector wise consumption of water indicates that agriculture sector is the

major consumer of water in India followed by the other sectors in the descending

order of significance which transport and others, power generation, industry, and

domestic sector. (Refer table-1.1)

19

Table-1.1

Sector wise Consumption of Water in India

Sl.No Sector % of water

consumption

1 Agriculture 76.0

2 Power generation 6.2

3 Industries 5.7

4 Domestic sector 4.3

5 Transport and others 7.8

Source: India infrastructure report 2009

With reference to fresh water requirements by the year 2025 it is evident that the

requirements of agriculture sector accounts for a lion‟s share followed by thermal

power generation, industries, domestic sector and livestock management in the

descending order. (Refer table-1.2)

Table-1.2

Estimation of fresh water requirements (in cubic km)

Sl.No sector 1974 2000 2025 %increase

(2000 to

2025)

1 Agriculture 350 630 770 22

2 Thermal power

generation

11 60 160 166

3 Industries 5.5 30 120 300

4 Domestic sector 8.8 26.6 39 44

5 Live stock

management

4.7 7.4 11 38

Source: Compiled from the records of ministry water for the years concerned

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Water Consumption in Indian Agriculture

India is one of the world‟s leading crop Producers. Over the years, there has been

an increase in water consumption in the agricultural sector. The volume of water

used for irrigation in India is expected to increase by 68.5 Trillion (Tr) liters

between 2000 and 2025. A number of demographic and economic factors are

driving the use of water in agricultural production. The rise in demand in domestic

and export market for food grains is one important factor. India‟s demand for food

grain will grow from 178 MM mt in 2000 to 241 MM mt by 2050. Values of

agricultural exports of India have tripled from $5.6 Bn in 2000 to $18.1 Bn in 2008.

Change in consumption Pattern of agricultural products is also driving increase in

water usage. Demand for agricultural products with high water footprint is

projected to rise with increased disposable income and urbanization. Contribution of

non-food grain (sugarcane, fruits and vegetables, etc.) and animal products in daily

food intake for an individual is expected to grow from 35percent in 2000 to 50

percent 2050. Rice; wheat and sugarcane together constitute nearly 90 percent of

India‟s crop Production and are the most water-consuming crops. India has the

highest water footprints among the top rice and wheat Producing countries (China,

US, Indonesia, etc.). States with the highest Production of rice/wheat are expected

to face groundwater depletion of up to 75% by 2050. Agriculturally based industries

such as textiles, sugar and fertilizer are among the top producers of wastewater.

Thus, in totality water conservation and management in the agriculture sector hold

the key to water security in India.

21

Water Consumption by Various Sectors in Andhra Pradesh

The total water resources (surface and ground water) of Andhra Pradesh are

estimated to be 108,200 mcm, of which about 65,169 mcm are currently utilized

for drinking (601 mcm), irrigation (64,252 mcm), industry (288 mcm) and power

generation (28 mcm). Therefore, of the total water utilized in the State, water

supplied for drinking, industrial and power generation purposes constituted only

0.9%, 0.4% and 0.04%, respectively. The remaining utilized water is all supplied

for irrigation (98.66%). However, by 2025, the total water requirement for the

drinking, industrial and power generation purposes is estimated to reach 3,468

mcm, 1,445 mcm and 56 mcm, respectively. At the same time the estimated

requirement of water for irrigation is 108,050 mcm. That would mean a total water

requirement of 113,019 mcm, i.e. about 4,819 mcm more than the total water

presently available in the State.

Table-1.3

Present Water Use and Future Needs-Andhra Pradesh

Description

Present Utilization2001

Needed by 2025 Increase

(mcm) % of Total (mcm) % of Total (%)

Drinking water 601 0.90 3,468 3.10 581

Irrigation 64,252 98.66 108,050 95.55 168

Industries 288 0.40 1,445 1.30 510

Power generation

(consumptive use)

28 0.04 56 0.05 200

Total 65,169 113,019 173 % Source: Irrigation and Command Area Development Department

22

Andhra Pradesh is primarily an agrarian state with nearly 60% of its population

dependant on agriculture and allied activities. While irrigated agriculture constitutes

only about 43.98% of the net sown area in the state its contribution to the overall

Gross Domestic Product of the state is much higher compared to rain-fed

agriculture.

The Net area irrigated in the state which was 27.47 lakh hectares in 1955-56

increased to 48.21 lakh hectares in 2008-2009 and constitutes 29.31% and

43.98% of Net area sown in the State. The Area irrigated more than once has gone

up from 4.53 lakh ha to 19.20 lakh ha in the same period. Similarly, the Gross

area irrigated which was 31.99 lakh hectares in 1955-56 increased to 67.41 lakh

hectares in 2008-2009 which constitutes almost 48.74%percent of total cropped

area in the State. The Net area sown in the state has declined from 113 lakh

hectares in 1955-56 to 109 hectares in 2008-09. However, the net irrigated area in

the state has gradually increased from 27 lakh hectares in 1955-56 to 48 lakh

hectares by 2008-09. (Refer-table-1.4)

23

Table-1.4

Gross Area and Net Area Irrigated in A.P. from 1955-56 to 2008-09

Sl.

No.

Year Net are

sown

Net area

irrigated

Area

irrigated

more than

once

Gross

area

irrigated

Percentage of Net

irrigated area to

gross irrigated

area

Irrigation

intensity

1 1955-56 112.90 27.47 4.53 32.00 85.84 1.16

2 1965-66 109.94 29.77 5.56 35.33 84.26 1.19

3 1975-76 111.72 34.37 10.91 45.28 75.91 1.32

4 1985-86 104.27 35.38 7.99 43.37 81.58 1.23

5 1995-96 106.37 41.23 11.81 53.04 77.73 1.29

6 2005-06 107.45 43.92 16.04 59.96 73.25 1.37

7 2006-07 101.46 44.53 16.17 60.70 73.36 1.36

8 2007-08 107.55 56.18 16.41 72.59 77.39 1.35

9 2008-09 108.68 57.48 19.20 76.68 74.96 1.40

Source: Compiled from year books of Ministry of agriculture Government of Andhra Pradesh

24

STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

At 2518 billion m3, the total water resource base for India, including surface and

ground water, is substantial but highly variable as during the monsoon season 50%

of the annual precipitation falls in less than one month and 90 percent of river flows

occur in only 4 months of the Year. The ability of the current infrastructure to

safeguard that variability is low, making it difficult for accessible, reliable supply to

meet projected demand and thus putting water security of India at stake. With only

200 m3 of water storage capacity Per Person, compared to 2,200 m3 Per Person in

China and some 6,000 m3 Per person in the United States, India‟s accessible,

reliable supply of water amounts lo 744 billion m3, or 29 percent of its total water

resource.

According to the report “Charting our Water Future” by the 2030 International

Water Resource Group (IWRG) released in 2009, in India the low agricultural water

Productivity and efficiency, combined with aging supply infrastructure, would make

severe supply-demand gaps likely in many basins with currently planned crop

choices. India‟s aggregate water demand is expected to double from the current

level of about 700 billion cubic metres to 1498 billion cubic metres by 2030. With

an estimated supply of about 744 billion cubic metres b then, the water gap is

estimated to be 50 per cent. This gap would be driven by a rapid increase in

demand for water for agriculture, coupled with a limited water supply and storage

infrastructure. One key uncertain factor that may affect the size of this gap is

climate change. Its most direct effect is likely to be an accelerated melting of the

25

Himalayan glaciers up on which several of India‟s river systems depend, particularly

the western rivers such as the Indus, which relies on snowmelt for approximately

45 Percent of its flow. Though in the immediate future increased snowmelt should

actually increase flow of these rivers, in the long run the impact is very likely be a

decrease of flow between 30 to 50 Percent.

As the water crisis manifests itself in the form of depleting water tables and water

related conflicts between states, it is high time that water use efficiency becomes a

focal agenda in the irrigation management Policy of India. Proper management of

existing irrigation systems is critical for the success of this agenda; it would also

require integration and adoption of multidimensional approaches that can manage

demand by increasing water use efficiency in agriculture. While the most obvious

way to increase water use efficiency would be to increase crop Yields through

development of high Yielding varieties and efficient use of farm inputs, revision of

electricity pricing to farming sector and reuse of waste water in agriculture can be

also looked upon.

With finite freshwater resources on one hand and increasing demand both in

quantity and in variety of uses on the other, the need for water resources‟

protection and management has now become a major concern. Water problems can

be tackled through integrated management of fresh water by achieving greater

efficiency and equity in the distribution and wise use of available water resources

and improving water supply and sanitation.

26

Improving the efficiency of the water facilities

The present level of efficiency of the irrigation system in India is relatively low and

there is considerable scope for improvement. The National Commission for

Integrated Water Resources Development has assessed that irrigation efficiencies

from surface water in India can be improved from the present level of 35 to 40% to

about 60% and ground water from 65oh to about 75%. With the improvement in

efficiency both through efficient end water use as well as by improving the

efficiency of facilities created for irrigation. Measures such as proper operation and

maintenance, extension, renovation and modernization of projects, repair,

renovation and restoration of water bodies on the one hand and use of agricultural

practices such as moisture conservation, micro-irrigation etc. on the other hand are

required to be adopted urgently. Simultaneously, it is necessary to ensure financial

sustainability through regular revision of water rate and promoting participatory

management by encouraging formation of Water Users‟ Association etc. It is very

important that best technologies and practices are transferred to the farmers to

enable them to translate the slogan “More crop and income per drop of water” into

reality. Ministry of Water Resources is implementing “Farmers‟ Participatory Action

Research Programme (FPARP)” through Agriculture Universities and agricultural

research institutes to demonstrate available technologies for increasing productivity

profitability of agriculture.

The per capita decline in the water availability however does not necessarily

contribute to water scarcity in the absolute sense. There are a few but distinct

cases of community initiatives that have enabled people to survive the scarcity of

water through collective action and prudent water management even with very little

27

water availability. The abundance of water also does not ensure that water will be

available to everyone. History is replete with examples of famine and drought that

have more to do with man-made situations than failure of nature. Why water

scarcity in Cherrapunji-an area with highest rainfall and why 'not' in the villages

with less than 200 mm of rainfall? These questions need to be answered in the

discourse of water debate. Efforts that focus only on the augmentation of water

supply per se and ignore the skewed social control over the extent of water

resources by the privileged minority are fraught with failure.

Table-1.5

Level of efficiencies from different types of irrigation

Factors Sprinkler

irrigation system

Drip irrigation Surface irrigation

Overall irrigation

efficiency

50-60% 80-90% 30-35%

Application

efficiency

70-80% 90% 60-70%

Water saving 30% 60-70% NA

Consequently, the current water use efficiency of canal irrigation is about 35 per

cent - among the lowest in the world. It is estimated-that a 10 percent increase in

water use efficiency can bring about an additional 14 million hectares under

irrigated cultivation. From the table-1.5, it is understood that the application

efficiency of drip irrigation is found to be the highest in relation with other methods.

Hence, the present study is initiated in order to quantify the impact of drip

irrigation on water saving and other crop related matters. In order to avoid

28

duplication in research efforts, to identify the aspects covered in the earlier studies,

and to identify the gaps if any, a modest attempt is made to review the earlier

studies.

REVIEW OF THE EARLIER STUDIES

G. Paramasivan and D. Karthravan1 (2010) has observed that the enthusiasm of

the state in executing large water projects through these groups is not matched

even remotely by the concerned in practice to extend clean water supply to the

poor on a sustainable basis. The need for water is continuous and the quantity

required per capita per day is several times higher than that of food grains.

Availability of clean water, transportation and storage over long distances and

duration are difficult proposition to tackle in crisis situations. Instead of simply

mentioning clean water as an input in food, the right of food campaign should

strongly incorporate right to water in the struggle against hunger and starvation.

A.V.Ramanjaneyulu, T.L.Neelima, S.R.Kumar and V.Vasudeva Rao2 (2010)

highlighted that a blend of indigenous knowledge of old and experienced persons,

some of the beliefs and traditional practices and modern and efficient water

management practices are the need of the hour in order to conserve and utilize the

water resources in an efficient way in order to lead the life in a sustainable way.

1 G. Paramasivan and D. Karthravan, “Effects of globalization on water resource in India”, Kurukshetra, may 2010,

pp 14-17. 2 A.V.Ramanjaneyulu, T.L.Neelima, S.R.Kumar and V.Vasudeva Rao, “Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) and

water management”, Kurukshetra May, 2010, pp26-31

29

Dr. Anju Bhatia and Shreya Vyas3(2010) have noted that the prevailing scenario

in which water consumption is increasing and the ground water table is fast

depleting brings forth the need for reviving old RWH structures. Modern materials

and technology can be used to give a facelift to old RWH structures. Although

efforts have been initiated in this regard yet they require scaling up and

sustainability. For revival of RWH structures, two aspects are crucial. First, the

community requires to be sensitized and mass awareness needs to be created

regarding the alarming situation of water and the need for, harvesting every drop

of water even when the other sources of water are available in their village.

Second, maintenance of community tanks should be under the gram Panchayat or

other local community agencies. Government agencies, non-government-

organizations, activists, media and academic institutions, especially institutes of

technology need to Work together and create a synergy effect to march towards a

common goal, which is to save our thousand years old heritage. Rainwater is

considered as the purest form of water. However, when collected in RWH

structures, its quality depends upon the care taken in cleaning and preparing the

catchments area, the RWH structure as well as its maintenance.

Victor Corral-Verdugo and others4 (2008) have opined that an approach to

resources use and conservation based on the sustainability concept pays attention

to both the physical and the social environment because it acknowledges the

interdependence between the well-being of current and future generations and the

3 Dr. Anju Bhatia and Shreya Vyas, “Present condition of traditional rain water harvesting systems-case study of a

village in western Rajasthan”, Kurukshetra, May 2010, pp 19-22 4 Victor Corral-Verdugo and others, “Environmental beliefs and endorsement of sustainable development principles

in water conservation”, Environment and behavior, Vol.40, No.5, September 2008, pp 702-725

30

current and future quality of ecosystems and, thus, promotes the rational use of

natural resources. According to this perspective, most people would engage in pro

environmental action not only because they think that the environment deserves to

be preserved per se but also because they acknowledge how humankind depends

on nature for its current and future survival and enjoyment. This idea is more

explicitly contained in the items of our proposed NHIP scale.

Michel Windfuhr5 (2005) has observed that the human rights approach alters the

perspective on issues of access to land and water. The state has obligations,

especially towards highly disadvantaged groups relating to both the short and long

term provision of food and drinking water. The state is obligated to demonstrate

that it doing all it can, and using all the resources available to it, to implement the

right food and water as quickly as possible. The beneficiaries have the right to have

the state-instigated measures subjected legal scrutiny. The human rights approach

does not prescribe to the state which instruments which have to use, but direct

attention to population groups with special needs, and demands a differential

assessment of instruments, especially terms of their effects on these groups.

Generating and securing access to productive resources and drinking water core

elements of the right to food.

T.C.Chandrashekar and B.RavindraReddy 6(2010) has opined that India is

facing a looming water crisis that has implications not only for its 1.1 billion people,

but for the entire globe. India‟s demand for water is growing even as it stretches its

supplies. Water infrastructure is crummbling, preventing the government from

5 Michel Windfuhr, “Access to land and water: Key elements of the human right to food?”, Agriculture and rural

development, January 2005 pp 20-22 6 T.C.Chandrashekar and B.RavindraReddy, “Water crisis in India-Issues and implication-Over-View”, Agricultural

situation in India, January, 2010, pp 609-619

31

being able to supply drinking water to its citizens. Pollution is rampant due to

unfettered economic growth, poor waste management laws and practices. Although

many analysts believe that demand will outstrip supply by 2020, there is still hope

for India. Water scarcity in India is predominantly a manmade problem; therefore if

India makes significant changes in the way it thinks about water and manages its

resources soon, it could ward off the impending crisis. India has had success with

water infrastructure development which allowed the country to take advantage of

its water resources in the first place and achieve food security. These projects did

enable the expansion of urban and industrial sectors and increased availability of

safe drinking water, but then they were allowed to dilapidate. India needs to make

water supply a national priority the way it has made food security and economic

growth priorities in the past. India's need for a comprehensive management

program is so severe because of its rapidly depleting water supply, environmental

problems, and growing population. If the country continues with a business as

usual .mentality the consequences will be drastic. India will see a sharp decrease in

agricultural production, which will negate all of the previous efforts at food security.

India will become a net importer of grain, which will have a huge effect of global

food prices, as well as the global supply of food. A rise in food prices will aggravate

the already widespread poverty when people have to spend larger portions of their

income on food. In addition to devastating the agricultural sector of India‟s

economy, the water crisis will have a big effect on India‟s industrial sector, possibly

stagnating many industries. Finally, India could become the stage for major

international water wars, because so many rivers that originate in India supply

water to other countries. India has the power to avoid this dark future if people

32

take action immediately: start, conserving water, begin to harvest rainwater, treat

human, agricultural, and industrial waste effectively, and regulate how much water

can be drawn out of the ground.

Bedanga Bordoloi and Etali Sarmah Bordoloi7 (2010) have cautioned that

unless local and national 'communities come together and dramatically improve the

way we envision and manage water, there will be many hungry villages and

degraded environments and the economic development of the country will be put at

risk. Stakeholders that include farmers, industries, policy makers, administrators,

non government organizations etc will need to come together to formulate an

integrated road map towards water resources security in India. Some resolution in

this road map may require potentially unpopular policy changes and the adoption of

water-saving techniques and technologies. The dialogue needed amongst

stakeholders, then, is about India‟s economic and social priorities and the

challenges that are worth tackling to deliver or achieve water security, when every

child in India would have easy access to water of the right quality in the right

quantity and at the right place.

Jayanta Bandyopadhyay8 (2007) has observed that south Asia, with its high

level of poverty, rapid process of industrialisation and urbanisation, and larger than

average water availability per unit terrestrial area, presents real challenges in

research for water systems management. The challenges are trans-disciplinary and

involve expertise as much from the engineering sciences, as the social, political and

medical sciences. The region is rich in potential disciplinary expertise for

7 Bedanga Bordoloi and Etali Sarmah Bordoloi, “Water security in India”, YOJANA, July 2010, pp9-12 8 Jayanta Bandyopadhyay, “Water systems management in south Asia”, Economic and political weekly, March

10,2007, pp863-873

33

undertaking such research. The topics outlined range from eco-hydrological

understanding of surface and groundwater to social aspects, (specifically access,

gender and health) of water use to greater role for economics in policymaking for

water systems, etc. Among the various topics, professional research on regional

cooperation and conflict resolution has the potential of making the most important

inputs to the challenge of the use of water systems for poverty alleviation and

sustainable development in this region. Without the support of such an

interdisciplinary research, management of water systems in south Asia will surely

have a conflict-prone and difficult future.

A. K. Gosain and M.Rama Mohan Rao9 (2006) have opined that in the past, to

overcome water shortages, small, medium and large structures were built to direct

water for irrigation, flood control and other purposes. However, the extent of such

interventions was relatively small. Over the Past two decades, however, the

number of small-scale watershed management interventions has increased

exponentially, paid for by generous government funding. In addition, groundwater

has been considered unlimited and the property of the overlying land owner;

pumping was therefore uncontrolled, and indeed was supported by a power

subsidy. For several decades the economy has flourished on this basis. These two

interventions have been considered benign and the authorities felt that there was

no need for scientific analyses to evaluate their impacts. The reality is that the gap

between demand and supply in the water sector has been aggravated, leading to

disputes between the various users.

9 A. K. Gosain and M.Rama Mohan Rao, “Water woes in India” Waterlines, Vol.24, Nio.4, April 2006, pp19-22

34

The time has come when there is no other alternative but to apply the integrated

watershed philosophy on the ground and not just on paper. This requires

integrating all the line departments and other stakeholders and using a common

information base to depict the availability of water resources in the drainage

systems on the one hand and the present and future demands of all the

stakeholders on the other. Any new intervention should be validated with respect to

this base to see whether the system could bear any further stress. This will allow

for continuous water resource audit and provide a decision base to manage the

resource in a sustainable manner.

Paul Sherlock10(2006) has observed that at last it is becoming clear that the

world is now engaging a little more in the water and sanitation sector and realizing

the importance of this sector to people‟s survival. But there is no time for

complacency, as new solutions, greater preparedness and more widely shared

training all need to be put in place if we are going to be effective in saving people‟s

lives in future emergencies.

Barbara van koppen and Stef Smits11 (2010) have suggested the following

measures to make MULTIPLE-USE WATER SERVICES (MUS) effective which include

Better meeting women‟s and men‟s priority water needs at any site of

multiple uses.

Potential cross-subsidization or substantive cost-recovery of domestic uses,

especially for the still unserved poorest and women, while also allowing for

flexible productive uses that can mitigate shocks.

10 Paul Sherlock, “Water and sanitation for refugees and internally displaced people”, Waterlines, Vol.24, No.3,

January 2006, pp2-4 11 Barbara van koppen and Stef Smits, “Multiple-use water services: Climbing the water ladder”, Water lines,

Vol.29, No.1, January 2010, pp 5-19

35

Building on communities‟ existing institutions and infrastructure, while

recognizing intra-community differentiation and the need to effectively target

external support to all

Tapping community-scald economies of scale in bulk infrastructure

Re-using water and nutrients and pollution prevention at the optimal levels

Combining multiple water sources for more efficiency, resilience and setting

aside of cleanest sources for drinking and cooking

Lowering transaction costs of participatory Processes, because water

development for various uses by the same community is improved

simultaneously

Allocating water holistically considering all uses and users, including the Poor

and women

Strengthening local government planning and implementation processes and

identifying possibilities to pool engineering and water management

resources, with the domestic sector moving up to community-scale MUS and

the productive sector moving down to also include homesteads as sites of

multiple water uses.

Enhancing returns from any water investment.

Monique Mikhail12 ( 2010) has observed that although in many ways it is easier

to create a set model that can be replicated, what has been shown by the Nepal

experience is that each setting has unique opportunity and constraints for service

development. The fact that the MUS systems were designed largely through the

organic process of community engagement, problem solving, feed back and

12 Monique Mikhail, “Opportunities revealed by the Nepal Multiple-use water services experience”, Water lines,

Vol.29, No.1, pp22-35

36

iteration grounds the myriad lessons generated in one primary truth: projects must

be designed to address expressed community needs. There fore, a menu of options

should be offered to each community for their selection, understanding the local

context. It is further observed that several critical factors in MUS implementation

surround the physical systems: the development of community institutions for long

term management; equity of allocation and marketing facilitations; inclusion of the

appropriate project partner in a learning alliance; connection of community to

external resources (financial and technical); assistance in negotiating with

neighbors for water access; and development of community and individual

household skills. The critical importance of these „soft‟ project components can not

be overstated.

Seema Kulkarni 13(2011) has found that the irrigation sector has completely

missed out the agenda of women and this largely comes from its acceptance of the

dominant narrative of the normative woman who can go far enough to participate in

welfare/health and hygiene oriented sectors of sanitation and drinking water but no

further. This image dominates and is reflected in the lethargy of the government to

provide any active policy or programmatic incentives for women to participate.

Women's incentive for water management - underlying their agency- is not just

related to their resource dependence, but also to social and institutional structures,

which do not allow them the same access to resource rights, economic

opportunities or decision-making as it does for men. Engendering governance is not

merely a technical exercise - increasing the number of women in organizations or

political spaces, such as water committees, but about redefining the nature of

13 Seema Kulkarni, “Women and decentralized water governance: issues, Challenges and the way forward”,

Economic and political weekly, Vol. XLVI, No.18, April 30, 2011, pp64-72

37

public space and acknowledging that the private domain - where much gendered

socialization takes place-cannot be seen as distinct or separate. However, there is

little recognition of the implications of the public-private divide or the terrain of

households and to a lesser extent within communities, and the intra- and inter-

dynamics of power that characterize institutional sites and that set the boundaries

for participation by women and men. Not only are institutions assumed to be

neutral, the public-private divide that determines women‟s exclusion from the

public domain is used to reinforce gendered power relations in “organizations” at all

levels. It is further observed that the success of decentralized water governance is

constrained by the conceptualization of the larger reform in water at one level and

the conceptualizations of the normative woman, communities, public and the

private domains and institutions at another. Unless all of these are altered

decentralized processes will not be truly democratic. Decentralisation provides (or

at least, appears to do so) legitimate space and a framework for women‟s

participation in water governance at the community level. Decentralisation has the

potential for reshaping the institutional infrastructure of water management and of

facilitating equitable community representation and inclusion.

Chetan Pandit 14(2011) has observed that there are two ways to draft a water

policy. The ideological approach decides a priori the actions that are acceptable and

ones that are not acceptable. This approach makes no prior commitment to

achieving any particular targets. The management approach decides a priori what

targets need to be achieved, and tries to formulate a policy to achieve those

targets, to the extent feasible. This approach makes no prior commitment to

14 Chetan Pandit, “Alternative national water policy: A critique”, Economic and political weekly, Vol. XLVI, No.37,

September 10, 2011

38

include or exclude any particular actions. The management approach is flexible,

because the targets can be modified to strike a balance between what is desired

and what is acceptable. The ideological approach is inflexible because ideology

cannot be changed to achieve any particular target. During the short history of

drafting an NWP for India, the experience has been that alternate water policies

drafted by civil society invariably follow the ideological approach.

Civil society can contribute a lot towards formulating a NWP. However, they need to

accept that policy is a statement of the path to be taken to reach a specified set of

targets; the stated path has to be feasible, and demonstrably so. The targets

should determine the policy, and not the other way round.

Bedanga Bordoloi15 (2010) has opined that water management strategies are

required to be carefully designed so that they lead to overall development of the

country benefitting each and every member of the society. We need local and

distributed water resources infrastructure. All sections of the society have to join

hands and contribute to addressing the challenges in the water sector – be it the

centre, the states, Panchayati Raj Institutions, Urban Local Bodies, industrial

houses, or the civil society-so that the demand for water by different sectors can be

adequately met. While doing so, it is necessary to ensure that environmental issues

are properly addressed.

Niranjan Pant16 (2005) has concluded that the most important aspect of

agriculture in UP has been the stupendous growth of private tube wells (PTWs)

which rose in UP from about three thousand in l95l to 600 thousand in 1977 and to

15 Bedanga Bardoloi, “water security in India”, Yojana, July 2010 16 Niranjan Pant, “Control of and access to ground water in UP” Economic and political weekly, June 25 2005,

pp2672-2680

39

1.05 million by March 1980.ln fact, by mid-1970s, tube well irrigation had

overtaken canal irrigation, which was the dominant mode of irrigation earlier to

that. On an average, there were 21.1 PTWPS per 100 ha in UP. This compares

favorably in relation to other regions of south Asia (including north-west

Bangladesh), except north-west India.

Marginal farmers, particularly SCs/STs, the ownership of mechanical water

extraction devices and modem agricultural implements remain out of their reach.

This is despite the high sounding success of the free boring scheme as only about

10 per cent scheduled castes own a WED. Judging water markets from this angle

opens a debate pointing to two opposite positions. On one end of the spectrum, are

those who hold that water markets lead to more egalitarian distribution of gains

from groundwater development and, at the other end, are those who question the

very premise of equity in water markets.

Manzoor K. P17 (2011) has opined that the impact of water crisis is very

dangerous, because the unlimited use and pollution of water resources creates an

adverse effect on our bio diversity. A strong environmental law is necessary to save

the world from water pollution and water scarcity. The government can play an

important role in detaining the water exploitation by the strict water policy and

strong water regulation. But, instead of protecting our water resources, some

industrialist nations privatize the water supply that creates water conflicts in the

society. Public controls 97% of water distribution in the poor countries and private

investments in water supply on these countries can have a negative impact on the

living status of poor people.

17 Manzoor K. P, “The global water crisis: Issues and solutions”, Kurukshetra, February 2011, pp15-18

40

Michael Kugelman 18(2011) if demand-side management policies are

implemented successfully, South Asian nations would become more judicious in

their use of existing water resources, and therefore less threatened in the short-

term by the spectre of scarcity. To be sure, new demographic and environmental

realities may well call into question the continued relevance of decades-old trans-

national water arrangements. Still, these mechanisms need not stop functioning

simply because of the presence of factors not at play fifty years ago.

Harender Raj Gautam and Rohitashw Kumar19 (2005) have suggested the

following measures for the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems and socio

economic upliftment of the community. They include

People‟s participation must be ensured right from the inception of the

project.

Peoples‟ participation is difficult to be achieved unless they are first

convinced that they can derive direct and visible benefits from the project.

The needs and the problems of the people must be identified at the outset.

Unless a project is aimed at meeting their needs, solving their problems and

mitigating their hardship, it may not succeed.

There must be flexibility right from planning stage to the implementing stage

i.e. the implementing agency should have the option to modify/revise the

components of the project if required by the villagers.

18 Michael Kugelman, “Safeguarding South Asia‟s water security”, Seminar 626, October 2011, pp15-22 19 Harender Raj Gautam and Rohitashw Kumar, “water crisis and rain water harvesting”, Kurukshetra, September

2005, pp3-19

41

The project should have a short gestation period. The benefits should be

available to the people in the shortest possible time.

The emphasis should be on sustainability and equity.

Constitution of a village society must be a prerequisite.

A. Chelladurai20 (2005) has cautioned about improper management of water in

India, even the people living in Cherapunji, the place that has world‟s highest

rainfall, experience water scarcity. Hence, the Government should adopt latest

water management technology to construct and maintain the dams, reservoirs,

ponds and lakes, etc. The Government should take necessary steps to create

awareness among farmers, industrialists and public in general about the need for

minimizing wastage of water. Therefore, water, the most important natural

resource, should be preserved for future generations. Generating social

consciousness ' among the public, farmers and industrialists for obtaining their full I

co-operation is essential for successful management of water resources.

Joyashree Roy and others 21(2004) have concluded that majority of the surveyed

households are already incurring expenditure for drinking quality water. It supports

the feasibility of a public policy to supply drinking quality water through

implementation of a water charge. However, non-willingness to pay among low

income families may be taken care of through alternative pricing mechanism like

block pricing instead of flat pricing, cross subsidization, etc. People do attach

20 A. Chelladurai, “New approach to prevent water scarcity”, Kurukshetra, September 2005, pp 5-6 21 Joyashree Roy, Subhorup Chattopadhy, and sanghamitra Roy, “An economic analysis of demand for water quality

case of Kolkata”, Economic and political weekly, January 2004, pp186-192

42

positive value to good quality water. This justifies any public provision of drinking

quality water with a water charge.

Tushaar Shan, Christopher Scott and Stephanie Buechler22 (2004) have

analyzed a decade of water sector reforms in Mexico with the specific purpose of

drawing useful lessons for Indian water policy. Particularly after 1992, Mexico has

implemented serious, comprehensive and far-reaching water sector reforms that

required the government to create a new legal framework; restructure existing

water administration; promote and support a plurality of new autonomous and

quasi-autonomous water institutions; modify incentives in water use to different

user groups; and struggle with a vast complex of unresolved operational issues in

implementing the reforms. Mexico may not be a model for India but Mexico‟s

experience does suggest that changing the way a nation manages its water

resources necessitates far-reaching changes in administration, institutional

structure, law and operating rules, incentives and power structures, and above all

consistent commitment to the reform process.

Y. K.Murthy23 (2006) has observed that an accelerated and massive national

programme envisaged for development of water resources to meet the needs of

growing population, will encounter challenging technical issues for planning and

design of major projects. It is essential not only to strengthen the existing Design

Engineering organizations with emphasis on specialization in multiple subjects and

assessment of environment impacts but also set up Independent Design Review

22

Tushaar Shan, Christopher Scott, Stephanie Buechler, “Water Sector Reforms in Mexico lessons for India‟s New

Water Policy”, Economic and political weekly, January 24, 2004, pp 361-370

23 Y. K.Murthy, “Design engineering services in water resources development in India”, Bhagirath, Vol.VIII, July-

September 2006

43

Boards from the initial stages of planning of the project, so that the planning and

design process respond to the advancing technology and changing socio-economic

aspects and facilitate the effective completion of the projects with less risk within

the target dates without cost over-runs.

Dinesh Chand24 (2006) has observed that with a good programme of harvesting

rainwater we can avoid droughts even in times or places considered to have low

rainfall. Although, rainwater harvesting techniques appear to be simple but the full

benefit could only be gained by adopting a scientific approach of implementation

together with community awareness, their involvement and legislative measures for

protection of ground water from over exploitation.

Kerstin Danert25 (2009) has concluded that there is no doubt that there is scope

for further improving rural water supplies with hand-drilled wells. There are a

number of techniques available, but they are only suitable in particular niche

environments. The promotion and support of these technologies are just as

important as finding what can work in which particular environment. In order to

prevent the same lessons being learnt each time, promoters and developers should

pay more attention to what others have already done. There is also much that

could be learned from good conventional drilling practices and applied to hand

drilling, particularly in terms of well completion to prevent silting or groundwater

contamination. Lack of proper understanding of groundwater resources is one of the

barriers to full exploitation of hand-drilling technologies. Much more emphasis is

24 Dinesh Chand, “Water harvesting for drinking water security”, Kurukshetra, August 2006, pp4-12 25 Kerstin Danert, “Realizing the potential of hand-drilled wells for rural water supplies”, Waterlines, Vol.28, No.2,

April 2009, pp108-129

44

needed to monitor the long-term sustainability of hand-drilled wells as well as water

quality and to properly diagnose reasons for breakdown or rejection by water users.

ASPECTS COVERED IN THE EARLIER STUDIES

Lack of concerns for clean water supply to the poor

The role of indigenous knowledge for efficient water management

Rain water harvesting structures

Rational use of natural resources

Human rights approach to water

Water crisis in India

Community participation in water management

The need for trans-disciplinary approach in research in the field of water

Aggravation of the gap between demand and supply of water

The need for more attention in water and sanitation sectors

The effectiveness of multiple-use water services

The development of community institutions for water management

Missing women‟ agenda in water management

Approaches to water policy

The need for local and distributed water resource infrastructure

Growth of private tube wells

Pollution of water resources and its adverse effects on bio-diversity

Rethinking of trans-national water arrangements

Measures for rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems and socio-economic

upliftment

45

Improper management of water

Water pricing

Water reforms in Mexico

Technical issues confronting the development of water resources

Prevention of droughts through the means of rain water harvesting

Rural water supplies

GAPS IN THE EARLIER STUDIES

Majority of the studies are aggregative and macro in their scope

Relationships covering water and economic development are not empirically

established

Efficiency of water use systems did not due attention

The role of micro irrigation systems in agriculture development is not

evaluated empirically

In order to fill up the said gaps the present study entitled “MANAGEMENT OF

NATURAL RESOURCES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO WATER UTILIZATION

IN AGRICULTURE-A CASE STUDY OF ANDHRA PRADESH” is initiated with the

following objectives and hypotheses.

46

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To analyze the socio-economic and psychographics of the sample farmers

covered under drip irrigation

2. To assess the direct benefits attributable to drip irrigation in the study area.

3. To analyze the indirect benefits attributable to drip irrigation in the study area.

4. To discuss the expectations of farmers using drip irrigation systems

5. To suggest measures to augment the efficiency of water use in agriculture.

HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

1. The impact of drip irrigation on water saving is insignificant.

2. The impact of drip irrigation on crop management is insignificant.

3. The impact of irrigation is farm size neutral.

METHODOLOGY

For the purpose of the present study, the following methodology is adopted.

SAMPLE DESIGN

Towards the end of the objectives and hypotheses, 200 farmers covered under drip

irrigation are selected from two villages namely Chillavaripalli of Narapala mandal

and Mukundapuram of Garladinne mandal of Ananthapur district of Andhra Pradesh.

The sample farmers are selected from the said villages mostly by adhering to the

principles of stratified random sampling. The criteria of stratification are farm size

and social status.

47

Table-1.6

Social status

Category

Number of farmers Percent Cumulative

Percent

OC 119 59.5 59.5

BC 42 21.0 80.5

SC 26 13.0 93.5

ST 13 6.5 100.0

Total 200 100.0

Table-1.7

Size of the farmer

Size of the farmer

Number of farmers Percent Cumulative

Percent

Marginal 19 9.5 9.5

Small 28 14.0 23.5

Medium 106 53.0 76.5

Big 47 23.5 100.0

Total 200 100.0

SOURCES OF DATA

The present study made use of both primary and secondary sources of data. The

secondary sources of data included the annual reports of ministry of Agriculture,

Irrigation department, Central water commission etc. The primary data are

collected directly from the respondents by administering a pre designed

questionnaire/ schedule.

48

PERIOD OF THE STUDY

The present study covers a period of five years covering 2006-2011.

SCOPE OF THEW STUDY

The present study covers only the micro irrigation methods (application efficiency)

with a focus on drip irrigation. The other methods of irrigation are not analyzed.

The impact of drip irrigation on crop management is analyzed. A comparative

analysis of different irrigation methods and their efficiencies are not covered.

TECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS

The present study will make use of various tools of statistics including simple

percentages, frequency distribution, coefficient of correlation and regression

technique, Chi-Square statistic will also be employed to test the significance of

relation between two qualitative variables.

6 d²

R= 1- ------------ N (n² - 1)

Where r= Spearman‟s rank correlation coefficient

d= deviations

n= number of items

(0i – Ei)²

χ² = ------------

Ei

When χ² = Chi-Square statistic

0i = Observed frequencies of the ith class

Ei = Expected frequencies of the ith class