Management of Pregnant and NeonatalDogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets

Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets

Edited by

Cheryl LopateDVM, MSDiplomate, American College of Theriogenologists

Reproductive Revolutions and Wilsonville Veterinary ClinicWilsonville, OR

A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication

This edition first published 2012 © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Management of pregnant and neonatal dogs, cats, and exotic pets / edited by Cheryl Lopate. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8138-0793-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Dogs–Breeding. 2. Cats–Breeding. 3. Wild animals as pets. 4. Veterinary neonatology. I. Lopate, Cheryl. SF427.2.M36 2012 636.7'1–dc23

2012002592

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1 2012

v

Contents

Contributors viiPreface ix

1 KennelManagementandNutritionoftheBitchandHerOffspring 1Jill Cline

2 CatteryManagementandNutritionoftheQueenandHerOffspring 15Jill Cline

3 ReproductivePhysiologyofCaninePregnancyandParturitionandConditionsofthePeriparturientPeriod 25Cheryl Lopate

4 ReproductivePhysiologyofFelinePregnancyandParturitionandConditionsofthePeriparturientPeriod 43Daniele Zambelli

5 AssessmentofFetalWell-BeingandGestationalAgeintheBitchandQueen 55Cheryl Lopate

6 NeonatalResuscitation:CanineandFeline 77Cheri A. Johnson and Margret L. Casal

7 CanineNeonatalPhysiology,Behavior,andSocialization 93Cheryl Lopate and Kersti Seksel

8 CanineNeonatalDisorders 129Margaret V. Root Kustritz

9 FelineNeonatalPhysiology,Behavior,andSocialization 145Daniele Zambelli

10 FelineNeonatalDisorders 159Margaret V. Root Kustritz

11 CanineandFelineCongenitalDefectsandGeneticCounseling 169Margret L. Casal

12 ManagementofOrphanPuppiesandKittens 207Margret L. Casal

13 ReproductivePhysiology,NormalNeonatology,andNeonatalDisordersofRabbits 217Cynthia R. Bishop and Mark E. Burgess

14 ReproductivePhysiology,NormalNeonatology,andNeonatalDisordersofCavies(GuineaPigs) 239Cynthia R. Bishop and Mark E. Burgess

vi  Contents

15 ReproductivePhysiology,NormalNeonatology,andNeonatalDisordersoftheSmallRodents(Hamsters/Gerbils/Rats/Mice) 259Mark E. Burgess and Cynthia R. Bishop

16 ReproductivePhysiology,NormalNeonatology,andNeonatalDisordersofHedgehogs 273Mark E. Burgess and Cynthia R. Bishop

17 ReproductivePhysiology,NormalNeonatology,andNeonatalDisordersofSugarGliders 283Mark E. Burgess and Cynthia R. Bishop

18 ReproductivePhysiology,NormalNeonatology,andNeonatalDisordersofChinchillas 295Mark E. Burgess and Cynthia R. Bishop

Index 309

Color plates are located between page 54 and 55.

Cynthia R. BishopDepartment of Biology and Pre-Professional

Health Sciences, Seattle Pacific UniversitySeattle, WA; Bothell, WA

Mark E. BurgessSouthwest Animal Hospital/The Exotic Animal

PracticeBeaverton, OR

Margret L. CasalSection of Medical Genetics, School of Veterinary

Medicine, University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, PA

Jill ClineScience Officer, K9 Crazy ConsultingPine Bluff, AR

Cheri A. JohnsonCollege of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State

UniversityEast Lansing, MI

Contributors

Cheryl LopateReproductive Revolutions and Wilsonville

Veterinary ClinicWilsonville, OR

Margaret V. Root KustritzVeterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary

Medicine, University of MinnesotaSt. Paul, MN

Kersti SekselSydney Animal Behaviour ServiceSeaforth, Australia

Daniele ZambelliDipartimento Clinico Veterinario, Servizio di

Riproduzione Animale, Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria

Ozzano Emilia (Bo), Italy

vii

This book is dedicated to all the dog, cat, and exotic breeders in the world who are striving to improve their breeds through ethical and thoughtful breed­ing practices. These breeders always ask “Why?” when things go wrong and then make every effort to correct them on the next breeding. They also take note when things go right and try to recreate the positives while constantly making improve­ments in their lines and breeds. Many of these clients have been breeding for countless years, while others are new to the arena; yet both ends of the spectrum seek accurate, scientific information and research on which to base their breeding prac­tices. It is these clients who make us strive to con­stantly learn more, study more, and work harder in order to help them achieve their goals. I am proud to work alongside these clients every day.

I would also like to thank all those who have mentored me in my career. From Gail Todter, the breeding farm manager at Bentwood Farms in Waco, Texas, who first piqued my interest in repro­duction; to Ed Squires and Peter Elsden at Colo­rado State University, who cultivated that interest; and finally, to Walter Threlfall at The Ohio State University, who delivered me into the world of small animal reproduction (as well as many other species) and further taught me to be a critical thinker. After graduating from veterinary school, it was all the members of The Society for Therio­genology and the Diplomates of the American

Preface

College of Theriogenologists who were always willing to teach and mentor anyone with an inter­est in reproduction, always seeking to draw another into their fold who was as eager as they were to assist with the creation of new life in whatever species happened to walk through their doors. Specifically, the mentorship and collegiality of Peggy Root Kustritz from the University of Min­nesota, Cathy Gartley from the University of Guelph, as well as Jim Callahan and Larry Horst­man from Purdue University were pivotal in my growth first as a resident and then as a new Diplo­mate. Without the guidance of each of these people, as well as countless others, I would not be sitting where I am today, writing the preface to this text­book on small animal neonatology.

Credit and thanks also go to each of the other contributors to this textbook, who gave of their time and extensive knowledge to create this work.

The textbook literature is sparse in the area of small animal neonatology. This is what inspired me to agree to edit this text on small animal neo­natology. As the editor of this text, I hope that vet­erinarians, veterinary technicians, educators, and breeders will all find this book a valuable resource to place on the shelves of their libraries and to have a resource to reach for when questions arise.

Cheryl Lopate

ix

Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets, First Edition. Edited by Cheryl Lopate.© 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1 Kennel Management and Nutrition of the Bitch and Her Offspring

Jill Cline

There is no denying that kennel management, hus-bandry, and nutrition play equal roles in determin-ing the success of a mating to bear live, viable puppies. Simple management of each of these factors will significantly improve the likelihood of a healthy breeding stock and puppies.

Kennel Management

The facilities which house breeding dogs are a con-tributing factor to the success of the breeding program. In many cases, the “facilities” may be as simple as a whelping box tucked into the corner of the laundry room, but the facilities could be as complex as a multibuilding campus requiring elab-orate husbandry, record-keeping, and sanitation programs. Building styles and materials and outdoor kennel areas affect sanitation and hus-bandry practices. Whelping and raising puppies requires certain changes in sanitation and hus-bandry procedures when compared with caring for adult, nonbreeding dogs.

Building Management

Most hobby breeders prefer to keep their dogs in their homes, but some breeders may choose to provide a separate building for breeding and kennel activities. There are three main types of kennel con-struction materials: wood, metal, or concrete or poured walls. Many buildings are combinations of the available materials. Table 1.1 outlines the advan-tages and disadvantages of each construction mate-rial as it pertains to kennel management and Table 1.2 details the advantages and disadvantages of dif-ferent outdoor kennel types. Over the past few years, kennel design has moved away from tradi-tional linear kennels and toward building shapes which improve quality of life and decrease stress in dogs. Figure 1.1 shows a V-shaped kennel design which allows all dogs’ line of sight to exits as well as the central feeding and grooming areas. Round buildings provide the same effect and have been shown to decrease stress hormones and barking by 40% when compared to linear kennels. Providing safe, clean, and enriched environments for breeding

1

2 Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets

bitch and the puppies, both in utero and on the ground, in mind. Sanitation programs can be divided into four main areas: the overall building, monthly sanitation, periodic cleaning, and daily cleaning. Most sanitation practices are common-sense and need only to be refreshed in the mind of the primary caregiver. Table 1.3 provides a list of activities for areas of the sanitation program. Figure 1.2 illustrates the order in which kennels should be cleaned.

dogs and puppies decreases stress and improves overall health and well-being (Lawler, 1995).

Sanitation and Husbandry

Sanitation programs are ideally established before a breeding program is developed; however, it is important to intermittently review the sanitation practices with the health and safety of the breeding

Table 1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of different kennel building types.

Wooden buildings Metal buildings Concrete/poured wall buildings

Advantages ● Relatively inexpensive to build

● Relatively easy to repair

● More durable than wood● Longer lasting

● Most durable● Long lasting● Easy to clean● Easy to prevent bacteria/

parasite infestation● Does not harbor odor

Disadvantages ● Hard to maintain● Porous (potential

bacterial infestation)● Dries slowly● Wood rot/splintering● Termites● Dogs can chew

● Susceptible to rodent invasion

● Not easy to control temperatures

● More expensive than wooden buildings

● Floors will be of different material

● Expensive● Floors must be slightly

roughened to improve traction

Adapted from Lawler (1995).

Table 1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of different outdoor kennel or run surfaces.

Dirt Grass Gravel Concrete

Advantages ● Inexpensive● Few building

materials needed

● Easy on the joints of the dogs

● Inexpensive● Few building

materials needed● Easy on joints

● Relatively inexpensive

● Improved parasite control

● Ideal for small kennel operations

● Easy to clean● Durable

Disadvantages ● Harbors parasites and bacteria

● Dogs may dig● Puddles will

form after rain● May increase

opportunity for dogs to get dirty

● Harbors parasites and bacteria

● Dogs may dig or eat grass

● Must rotate animals out of kennel periodically to preserve grass

● Must be 2 or more feet thick to be effective

● Requires periodic replacement

● Feces may stick to rocks

● Dogs may dig

● Requires periodic sealant application to prevent bacteria infestation

● Must be the correct texture to prevent foot pad trauma

● Expensive initial cost

Figure 1.1 V-shaped kennel building decreases barking and increases line of sight for all dogs in kennel.

Table 1.3 Sanitation practices for kennel and outdoor areas.

Daily Monthly Quarterly Overall building

Kennel● Follow established protocol

each day● Remove dog before cleaning● Reintroduce dog after

kennel is dry● Do not allow dog to drink

soapy water or disinfectant● Ensure dog door, if present,

is in correct working order

Rodent control● Use poison

sparingly if at all and never near dog areas

● Check rodent traps and replace as needed

Insect control● Use pesticides

approved for use around pets

● Never use pesticides directly in dog areas

Building● Clean fan blades

and motors● Clean overhead

lights● Repair cracks, rust,

or holes● Clean heating/

cooling vents and replace filters

Food room● Dedicate a separate space,

away from animals for all food

● Keep open food in sealed containers

● Do not put garbage bin in same room as food bins

● Keep room cool and dry

Food and water bowls● Use soap and disinfectant

to kill bacteria● Allow bowls to dry before

adding food● If automatic waterers are

used, check to make sure water is flowing

● Follow manufacturer directions for soap and disinfectant use

Food and storage rooms● Empty and clean all

surfaces

Kennels● Repair cracks, holes, or

rust● Prevent weeds, debris

from buildup around kennel to decrease pest population

Cleaning supplies● Only combine soaps and

disinfectants as suggested by manufacturer

3

4 Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets

Figure 1.2 Kennel cleaning order of events.

for providing a thermal neutral or comfortable temperature for the bitch and puppies. If it is too cool, there is an increased risk of respiratory com-plications and if it is too warm, an increased risk of infections. Puppies do not have the shiver response until they are over 5 days old, so one cannot rely on the puppies’ reaction to their envi-ronment as an indicator of appropriate tempera-ture (Case et al., 2000).

Heat lamps are a viable alternative only if placed so that they warm only one-half to two-thirds of the whelping box rather than the entire box so that both the bitch and the puppies can move away from the direct heat if they become too warm. Heating pads should be used with caution, espe-cially when the pups are very young. Prolonged exposure to a too-warm heating pad can cause tissue degeneration and breakdown of organs. Never warm chilled puppies quickly on a heating pad; instead, use body heat to slowly warm chilled puppies over 1–2 hours.

The opposite problem, attempting to cool the bitch and puppies, also requires careful consider-ation. Fans circulate air, but can also blow potential infectious agents onto the puppies. Fans may also cause drafts which could lead to chilling. Cold, wet towels can be used to cool the bitch but should not be used with young puppies.

The whelping box should be 1.5 to 2 times the length of the bitch from nose to base of tail. There are many different whelping box options. Exam-ples of simple boxes would include a child’s hard plastic wading pool or a plastic box open at the top so the dam can come and go, or an open fronted plastic box with a piece of plastic blocking the bottom half of the open side to keep the puppies contained. More elaborate commercial boxes can be purchased which contain safeguards like a rail along the inside (pig rail) which prevents the bitch from accidentally smothering a puppy between her body and the side of the whelping box. Whelping nests are available to build into the center of the whelping box. The heat to the nest itself is controlled by a rheostat, while the sur-rounding edges of the box are cooler for the bitch. Once the puppies are older they will start to leave the nest and explore the cooler areas of the box. The temperature rheostat is adjusted as the puppies age.

Puppies are inoculated with their initial micro-flora milieu from their dam and their environment; therefore, it is essential to manage both in such a way to provide a healthy start to life. Transmission of potentially infectious agents and expression of infection depend on the type of contact and sus-ceptibility of the host animal. Transmission can be direct and immediate between the current reservoir host and the potential new host, or through surfaces or other vectors (Lemarie & Hosgood, 1995). Factors which influence the likelihood of infection of the host include age, nutritional status, immune health, and environ-mental factors like season, overcrowding, ventila-tion, and sanitation. For example, increases in seasonal humidity can affect the incidence of mastitis, metritis, and neonatal mortality (Case et al., 2000).

In preparation for whelping, the bitch should be introduced to the whelping area, if different, at least 5 days prior to whelping. This allows her to acclimatize and “nest” to make the area her own prior to the onset of labor. The whelping area should be draft free and preferably temperature controlled, regardless of season. Optimal room temperature is 70°F if the dam is present to provide additional warmth (Case, 1999). If central heating/cooling is not possible, provisions should be made

Kennel Management and Nutrition of the Bitch and Her Offspring 5

Further discussion will be found in the neonatal disease chapter (Chapter 8). Weighing puppies daily for the first 2 weeks and then every third or fourth day until 4 weeks of age makes it easy to determine if the pups are continuing to grow appropriately and allows the caregiver a quick daily physical exam of each puppy. A general rule of thumb is a puppy should gain 1–2 g/day for each pound of anticipated adult body weight. As an example, a puppy that is predicted to weigh 40 lb as an adult should gain 40–80 g or 1.6–3.3 oz/day for the first 4 weeks.

Nutrition of the Bitch and Offspring

Planning the Plane of Nutrition

It can take several weeks for a dog to entirely adjust to a new food. The endogenous gut bacteria require approximately 3 weeks to adjust to a new food (Czarnecki-Maulden & Patil, 2002). During this time there are increases and decreases in certain bacterial populations based on the ingredi-ent and nutrient matrix of the food. In addition, enzymes for digestion of nutrients have to be adjusted for the new nutrient matrix. Therefore, abrupt changes in diet can cause gastrointestinal upset in some dogs and result in flatulence, soft stool, or diarrhea.

Dog skin cells turn over every 21 days, which means visible changes due to diet are often not seen for the first few weeks after diet change. The muscle cells take even longer to turn over, approxi-mately 45 days for striated muscle and the subse-quent changes in metabolic enzyme concentrations are dependent on consistent delivery of nutrients.

Therefore, it is often recommended to switch to the chosen food for gestation and lactation at least by the day of breeding, but in reality it is preferred to switch to the food well in advance (at least 21 days) of breeding to allow the dog to adjust to the new diet before the stress of egg production and to maximize breeding potential.

Good kennel or breeding program management requires considering not only the ancestry, physi-cal, and behavioral attributes of the breeding stock but also an element of preplanning, espe-cially with regard to plane of nutrition of the

All whelping boxes should be nonporous and easy to clean. In the first few weeks, the bedding will have to be changed multiple times per day. Appropriate bedding would include old towels, mattress pads, cloth diapers, or indoor/outdoor carpeting. Newspapers are often used for the first few days but should be discontinued when the puppies begin to move around and use their mouths to explore. As puppies grow and begin to explore their environment, surrounding the whelping box with a wire or epoxy-coated wire exercise pen is advisable. This allows the puppies to move away from the whelping box and ob -serve the surrounding environment through the open wire of the pen but still keep them safely contained.

Puppies are very fragile for the first few weeks of life. A multiyear analysis of breeding kennel records indicated the highest risks for neonatal mortality were either being stillborn (29%) or death between 0 and 3 days of age (49.6%) (Lawler, 2008). After the first week, mortality dropped consider-ably. There appears to be a strong correlation between postwhelping weight and survival. It is not uncommon for puppies to lose a small amount of their initial birth weight, similar to human babies. However, a postwhelping loss of 10% or greater was linked with lower survival rates. Table 1.4 contains general causes of mortality in pups.

Table 1.4 General causes of mortality in pups.

Environmental/management Biological

Stress Birth weight

Sanitation Hypoxia

Noise Acid–base balance

Humidity (and barometric pressure)

Temperature

Temperature Infection

Feeding (malnourishment/unable to feed)

Trauma

Cannibalism

Adapted from Lawler (1995).

6 Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets

dogs at time of breeding. Many things can affect conception rates, the incidence of pseudopreg-nancy, and the number of viable offspring; for example, appropriate detection of estrus, the number of oocytes released, and the parity or number of prior litters. Two other factors that can influence conception rates and pseudopregnancy are plane of nutrition (or nutritional status) and body condition.

Body condition score is a predefined set of crite-ria used to estimate the relative composition (or proportion of body fat and muscle) of animals (Figure 1.3). Each score equates to an approximate body fat percentage. Bitches with appropriate body condition are less likely to have conception prob-lems or pseudopregnancy. If the body condition score is less than 4.5 out of 9 (Figure 1.3), then the dog is considered underweight. Bitches who do not have adequate body reserves are considered physiologically stressed from the lack of available nutrition. Dogs that are stressed have been shown to ovulate fewer follicles than dogs that are not experiencing stress, therefore, underweight dogs may not release as many oocytes as a bitch that has appropriate body condition score under the same environmental and health conditions (Lawler et al., 1999).

Overweight bitches, or those whose body condi-tion scores are in excess of 5.5 out of 9, are subjected to physiological stress from excess adipose tissue. Fat tissue produces hormones and cytokines which have been linked with immune system compro-mise. The more fat tissue an obese dog has the more pro-inflammatory mediators it produces. Obese dogs may not conceive as readily as dogs with appropriate body condition score and are more likely to have pseudopregnancy and dystocia (Lawler et al., 1999). It is important that clients of breeding stock are aware of the role of plane of nutrition on breeding performance before they begin to breed.

Feeding for Gestation

Balanced commercial dog foods designed for all life stages are the mainstay of feeding for optimal reproductive capacity in the bitch. In general, preg-nant bitches should be fed a high energy, highly digestible commercial dog food that is balanced

for vitamins and minerals. The food should be labeled adequate for “all life stages.” Typically, commercial diets which meet these criteria have guaranteed analysis of 26–30% protein and 16–20+% fat. During the first few weeks of pregnancy, there are many developmental changes in the fetuses; however, there is little increase in size of the fetuses. Food intake should not increase during the first 5 weeks of gestation, however, the food intake requirements will increase to 1.25–1.5 times maintenance during the last third of gestation. Several small meals per day should be fed in the last third of gestation because puppies are taking up all the abdominal space. Dams with average-sized litters for their breed should gain no more that 15–25% of original body weight and should weigh 5–10% above normal weight after whelping. However, this is dependent on the individual dog, the litter size, and temperament. Table 1.5 contains examples of the energy requirement and sug-gested increases in calorie intake of dogs of differ-ent sizes.

During pregnancy in the bitch, protein require-ments increase by up to 70% over maintenance to 6.3 g of protein per 100 calories fed (Kirk, 2001). High-quality, digestible animal-based pro-teins are preferred. Protein deficiency during preg-nancy can result in lower birth weights, higher neonatal mortality, and potential decreased placen-tal size and function (Ontko & Phillips, 1958). In other species, subclinical protein deficiency of the dam results in decreased birth weight, brain weight, and altered fat metabolism of the progeny.

Fats and essential fatty acids, such as linoleic, are in increased demand during pregnancy and lacta-tion in the bitch. Essential fatty acid deficiency during gestation has been associated with preterm labor, poor placental development, small litter size, low birth weights, and delayed puberty in the female progeny (Kirk, 2001). Recently it was con-firmed that dams fed a diet rich in the omega-3 fatty acid decosohexanoic acid (DHA) will deliver puppies that have improved learning ability, memory, and vision. Although there is no “ideal” food for increasing litter size, a study of a large colony of breeding dogs showed decreased litter size in dogs fed diets with low digestibility and low levels of omega-3 fatty acids (like the fats found in cold water fish) compared with breeding

Figure 1.3 Body condition score for dogs. Scores between 4 and 5 are ideal. Source: Nestle Purina Petcare.

7

8 Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets

to alleviate midline closure defects such as spina bifida and cleft palate. A study in dogs showed that supplementation of folate in Boston terriers resulted in a decrease in the percentage of puppies with cleft palates (Elwood & Colquhoun, 1997). Unfortunately, the study was performed with dogs fed a homemade diet deficient in grains which contain large amounts of folate. Another study in Rhodesian Ridgeback bitches supplemented with folic acid, starting at the time of breeding or prior, had a markedly reduced (55%) incidence of dermoid sinuses (Roberts & Nicholis-Grzemski, 1996).

There are also some nutritional supplements which are commonly administered to bitches during pregnancy that should be avoided. Red raspberry supplements, commonly used in humans to augment strength of contractions, actually have the opposite effect in the bitch, predisposing them to eclampsia. Fish oil supplements should be assessed for mercury content and only used if they are mercury free or have <2 ppm mercury. Flaxseed oils should not be used to top dress foods as they may contain phytoestrogens, which can result in abnormal hormonal profiles.

Clients who prefer to offer raw or other home-made foods rather than commercial foods will have to supplement the diet offered with vitamin and minerals supplements. In this case, it is strongly recommended that the client work with a trained veterinary nutritionist or animal nutritionist to develop a balanced diet prior to breeding. There is no regulation or policing of raw food or homemade formulas for nutrient content or efficacy and it is a risk to both the dam and the puppies to use a homemade diet without extensive research, even if the bitch has been maintained on the diet prior to

bitches fed diets with high digestibility and high levels of omega-3 fatty acids (Case et al., 2000).

Pregnant bitches do not require vitamin or mineral supplementation as long as they are fed a diet which meets the requirements for all life stages. Supplementation, particularly of fat-soluble vitamins (Vitamin A or D), can cause subclinical toxicity, thereby decreasing breeding efficiency. Certain minerals, including calcium, phosphorus, zinc, or selenium can cause imbalances in the absorption of other vitamins or minerals, creating an abnormal metabolic state which can be detri-mental to the pups. In the past, breeders have supplemented the diets of pregnant bitches with calcium. High dietary calcium during gestation does not seem to increase the risk of, nor offer protection against, eclampsia in dogs. However, excessive oral calcium signals the parathyroid gland to downregulate calcium mobilization from body tissues, resulting in a change in calcium homeostasis or balance. This change in calcium homeostasis can result in a decreased amount of calcium available for use by the tissues, which can result in clinical or subclinical hypocalcemia. Bitches do have an increased vitamin and mineral requirement during gestation; however, these needs are met by the increased consumption of a complete and balanced diet.

Supplementation with certain vitamins (such as vitamin E and folate) has, in the past, been consid-ered not harmful and may in fact be beneficial to pregnant bitches. Unfortunately, recent studies in humans and other species have suggested that vitamin E supplementation in excess may be harmful and lead to a pro-oxidant state with increased inflammation. Prenatal folate supple-mentation has been promoted in human medicine

Table 1.5 Energy requirement and suggested increases in calories.

Maintenance weight in pounds

Maintenance weight in kilograms

Maintenance calorie requirement (calories/day)

25% increase in calories over maintenance

50% increase in calories over maintenance

200% increase in calories over maintenance

300% increase in calories over maintenance

10 4.5 400 500 600 800 120040 18.2 1012 1265 1518 2024 303680 36.4 1610 2012 2415 3220 4830

Kennel Management and Nutrition of the Bitch and Her Offspring 9

whereas bitches fed diets with an energy density of 3200 calories/kg (1455 calories/lb) of food were not able to consume enough calories and lost weight during lactation even when allowed to eat free choice (Case et al., 2000). Feeding multiple times a day, with concentrated high-quality food, is essential to maintain body condition of the bitch, otherwise milk production will suffer and neonatal growth will be affected. It is not unexpected for bitches to lose some body weight during lactation but the loss should not exceed 10% of normal body weight.

Fat delivers more calories per gram of food (2.25 more calories) than carbohydrates or protein, making it an essential component of an energy- rich diet for late gestation and lactation. DHA, mentioned previously for its importance in fetal development, is also important during lactation. This omega-3 fatty acid is transferred through the dam’s milk to the puppies and has been shown to improve puppy trainability in addition to aiding in brain and eye development in young puppies (Bauer et al., 2004; Heinemann & Bauer, 2006).

It is most appropriate to maintain lactating bitches on the same diet as they were fed during gestation to minimize any complications that might be associated with food transition. In many cases, diets that are designed for all life stages are growth diets intended for use in growing puppies, as well as pregnant and lactating bitches. One note of caution: in general, large breed puppy foods are not suitable for gestating or lactating bitches because the calcium : phosphorus (Ca : P) ratio is often less than 1.0:0.8. Read the label or call the pet food manufacturer before using large breed puppy foods for pregnancy and lactation.

Pregnant and lactating bitches do not seem to require calcium supplementation unless to balance a homemade diet or to treat eclampsia if present. The proper Ca : P ratio in diets for pregnant and lactating bitches is between 1:0.8 and 1.2:1.0. During lactation in the bitch, the demand for calcium increases exponentially (Adkins et al., 2001). In particular, small breed dogs such as Chihuahuas may be at increased risk for eclamp-sia, particularly if they are being fed homemade diets such as boiled chicken and rice, without calcium supplementation. All treatments for the

breeding. Furthermore, raw diets may predispose the bitch to systemic infection due to passage of bacteria from the raw food in the bloodstream in later pregnancy, when the bitch’s immune function is decreased due to prolonged exposure to elevated progesterone concentrations. Systemic infection may manifest as placentitis or pyometra due to the greatly increased blood supply to the uterus and placentas.

The stress associated with reproduction will manifest even the smallest nutrient inadequacy in diets assumed to be complete. The inadequacies of the diet may not be enough to prevent the bitch from reproducing, but these inadequacies will prevent her from performing at her genetic poten-tial and/or will require increased nutrient mobili-zation from her body stores to meet the nutrient requirements of the progeny. As stated previously, deficiencies in maternal nutrition can be associated with adult disorders in the progeny.

Feeding for Lactation

Lactation is the most energy-demanding metabolic state and energy requirements may increase by three times over basal requirements by the time of weaning, particularly in large litters. Lactation during weeks 1–4 is the most demanding for the bitch (Table 1.6). During lactation, protein and energy requirements are even higher, particularly in large litters.

Research in lactating bitches indicated that dams fed a diet with an energy density of 4200 calories/kg (1900 calories/lb) of food lost little or no weight and maintained milk production during lactation,

Table 1.6 Recommended increases in food intake for lactation.

Week of lactationAmount of food to feed over maintenance requirement

1 1.52 23 2.5–34 2.5–37 1.25–1.5

10 Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets

that the newborn pups receive colostrum during the first 24 hours after birth. Colostrum contains specific growth factors which help the puppies’ gastrointestinal tract and immune systems to begin the maturation process. In addition, colostrum con-tains immunoglobulins, specialized immune pro-teins which provide passive immunity from the dams to the pups. The immunity received from the bitch can protect the puppies for the first 12–16 weeks of life.

Puppies will begin to be interested in their dam’s food at between 3 and 4 weeks of age. Mixing the dam’s food with warm water will make a thick gruel which the puppies can taste and begin to consume. It is important to use water and not cow’s milk to make the gruel because cow’s milk has much higher lactose content than dog’s milk and can cause diarrhea in puppies. For the first few days, the puppies will waste more than they eat, but they will soon learn the process of eating semi-solid food. Gruel should be provided to the puppies several times per day but should not be left out for long periods of time as it will become dry, hard, and unpalatable for the puppies. By 5 weeks of age, pups should be consuming semisolid food and by 6 weeks can be transitioned to dry, solid food. Toy breeds may take longer before they are ready to eat dry food and the kibble size chosen should be appropriate for the size of puppy. Puppies should be fed three times per day until 16 weeks of age and then can be fed twice per day after that. As dogs reach maturity, many people choose to feed one time per day. Dogs are evolutionarily gorgers and do not require multiple meals per day under normal circumstances.

At weaning, it is appropriate to begin providing a growth diet for the puppies’ special nutritional needs. There are a variety of different growth foods available from which to choose. Some growth diets are formulated to provide extra immune protection while others are targeted for specific size-based nutrition.

Growth rates differ dramatically between small and medium, large, and even giant breed puppies. For example, a miniature poodle may be sexually and physiologically mature at 6–8 months of age, whereas a Great Dane may not achieve maturity until 28–36 months (3 years) of age. As a result of these breed size differences in the rate of growth, food companies have designed foods for small,

prevention of alleviation of eclampsia should be closely monitored by a veterinarian, not self- prescribed.

In addition to increased energy and nutrient needs, there is an increased need for water. A general rule of thumb is 1 mL of water for every calorie consumed. So if a 40-lb bitch is consuming 3036 calories a day during peak lactation, she needs to consume a minimum of 3 L of water per day. Insufficient fluid intake can result in decreased milk production and compromised growth of the litter. Always provide access to clean, fresh water at all times.

In order to facilitate weaning, the dam should be fed fewer calories in the 3–5 days prior to the weaning date to help decrease milk production. On the day of weaning, withhold all food from the dam, provided she is in good physical condition. Then each day after weaning, increase her food intake by 25% until 100% of her maintenance daily food intake is achieved (Table 1.7). This facilitates the cessation of milk production. This is also the best time to begin converting her diet back to the original, nongestating, nonlactating diet used during maintenance, if different.

Feeding Puppies for Optimal Growth

Newborn puppies are fragile and need to be pro-vided with all the possible tools to start their lives off in the best way; therefore, it is vitally important

Table 1.7 Weaning protocol.

Day of weaningAmount of food to feed dam

1 None

2 25% of maintenance requirement

3 50% of maintenance requirement

4 75% of maintenance requirement

5 100% of maintenance requirement

Kennel Management and Nutrition of the Bitch and Her Offspring 11

the addition of a minimum of 0.05% DHA into growth diets to optimize growth and sensory development (Heinemann et al., 2005).

Differences in mineral requirements between large and small breed puppies may be one of the most important aspects of puppy nutrition. While miniature poodle puppies will grow and develop normally on a wide range of calcium intake, Great Dane puppies require a much nar-rower calcium range for normal skeletal growth. Skeletal defects (hip dysplasia, panosteitis, etc.) and depressed growth were observed when high levels of calcium were fed to Great Dane puppies (Schoenmakers et al., 2000). Small, large, and giant breed puppy foods have varying amounts of calcium and phosphorus in the proper ratios to control growth and development of bones and cartilage. Puppy foods developed for all breed sizes, like the growth diets with immune boosters, tend to have a Ca : P ratio considered safe for all sizes.

The adult size of a puppy is not determined by the rate of growth (accelerated beyond normal), but by the genetic makeup of the puppy (the size of the parents). Again, slower, more controlled growth of the skeleton is associated with more normal development. Rapid growth has been asso-ciated with the development of OA, osteochondro-sis dissecans, hip dysplasia, and metabolic bone disease in large and giant breed dogs (Kealy et al., 2000). Calcium supplements should not be used because of the detrimental effects on bone growth, particularly in large breed puppies. Natural sup-plements such as yogurt and cottage cheese contain excessive amounts of calcium; for example, yogurt contains 450 mg of Ca per cup.

Puppies can be susceptible to diarrhea, particu-larly at the time of weaning or if insufficient colos-trum has been ingested. The microflora in the gastrointestinal tract consists of normal and patho-genic microflora. When diarrhea occurs, the admin-istration of probiotics is warranted. Enterococcus faecium will repopulate the intestine with “helpful” bacteria to allow repair and stabilization of gut flora (Benyacoub et al., 2005). Probiotics are avail-able from several different pharmaceutical and pet food companies. It is important to pick a probiotic designed for puppies that has undergone rigorous clinical trials and studies to prove efficacy. Yogurt contains too much calcium to be used as a probiotic

medium, large, and giant breeds. The smaller puppy diets are higher in energy and protein, while the large and giant breed diets are lower in caloric content yet still high enough in protein to allow proper growth and development. Overfeed-ing large breed puppies has been shown to increase the incidence of osteoarthritis (OA) and obesity (Kealy et al., 2002). Mismatch in the amount of protein and energy in the diet may result in relative protein deficiency that can cause immune prob-lems and carbohydrate intolerance later in life (Nap et al, 1991).

Puppy foods that match the amount of protein to the amount of energy in the diet provide the most ideal diet for growth in small, large, and giant breed puppies. Ideally, foods for growing puppies should contain at least 25% protein on a percent energy basis. Feeding instructions should be con-sidered guidelines as individual puppies have dif-ferent metabolic rates and may require adjustments to keep them in a lean body condition (between 4 and 5 on the body condition scale). Excess body weight is recognized as a risk factor for OA in both humans and dogs, while avoiding obesity can help reduce OA. Dogs maintained in lean body condition through food restriction experienced decreased severity, and delayed onset, of OA (Kealy et al., 2000).

Puppies, like human babies, develop the major-ity of the adipose tissue cells they will have for their lifetime during the first few months of growth. Fat puppies develop more fat cells than leaner puppies and are more likely to become obese as adults. A 14-year life span study in dogs showed that dogs maintained in lean body condition (between 4 and 5 on the body condition scale) from 8 weeks of age lived 15% longer (approximately 2 years longer) than their littermates who weighed more. In addition, there was a delayed onset of chronic disease and OA in the lean dogs compared with dogs with a body condition score of 5.5 or more (Kealy et al., 2000).

The amount of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is essential to promoting a healthy immune system, skin, and haircoat both in utero and in developing puppies. Foods should contain the proper amount of essential fatty acids, including linoleic acid, for growth and development (Wright-Rodgers et al., 2005). Most recently, the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) has recommended

12 Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets

Czarnecki-Maulden, G.L., Patil, A. (2002) The effect of trial length on canine fecal microflora response to chicory ingestion. In: Proceedings of the Joint Nutri-tion Symposium, Antwerp, Belgium.

Elwood, J.M., Colquhoun, T.A. (1997) Observations on the prevention of cleft palate in dogs by folic acid and the potential relevance to humans. New Zealand Veteri­nary Journal, 45(6), 254–256.

Heinemann, K.M., Bauer, J.E. (2006) Docosahexaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 228(5), 700–705.

Heinemann, K.M., Waldron, M.K., Bigley, K.E., et al. (2005) Long-chain (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids are more efficient than alpha-linolenic acid in improv-ing electroretinogram responses of puppies exposed during gestation, lactation, and weaning. The Journal of Nutrition, 135(8), 1960–1966.

Kealy, R.D., Lawler, D.F., Ballam, J.M., et al. (2000) Evalu-ation of the effect of limited food consumption on radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 217(11), 1678–1680.

Kealy, R.D., Lawler, D.F., Ballam, J.M., et al. (2002) Effects of diet restriction on life span and age-related changes in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Asso­ciation, 220(9), 1315–1320.

Kirk, C.A. (2001) New concepts in pediatric nutrition. The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Prac­tice, 31(2), 369–392.

Lawler, D.F. (1995) The role of perinatal care in develop-ment. Seminars in Veterinary Medicine and Surgery (Small Animal), 10(1), 59–67.

Lawler, D.F. (2008) Neonatal and pediatric care of the puppy and kitten. Theriogenology, 70, 384–392.

Lawler, D.F., Johnston, S.D., Keltner, D.G., et al. (1999) Influence of restricted food intake on estrous cycles and pseudopregnancies in dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 60(7), 820–825.

Lemarie, R.J., Hosgood, G. (1995) Antiseptics and disin-fectants in small animal practice. Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinary, 17, 1339–1351.

Nap, R.C., Hazewinkel, H.A., Voorhout, G., et al. (1991) Growth and skeletal development in Great Dane pups fed different levels of protein intake. The Journal of Nutrition, 121(11 Suppl.), S107–S113.

Ontko, J.A., Phillips, P.H. (1958) Reproduction and lacta-tion studies with bitches fed semipurified diets. The Journal of Nutrition, 65, 211–218.

Roberts, J.G., Nicholis-Grzemski, F.A. (1996) A role for folic acid in the prevention of dermoid sinus in the Rhodesian Ridgeback. Rhodesian Ridgeback Club of America.

and most yogurts do not contain measurable amounts of beneficial bacteria to be considered probiotics. One should determine if the probiotic has stability (doesn’t revert to a pathogenic strain), and whether it survives in the gut for at least 14 days. The beneficial microorganisms in the probi-otic contribute to intestinal mucosal integrity, metabolism, and immune status (both local and systemic). In addition, probiotics or live active cul-tures have been shown to have beneficial effects in the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance. However, one of the most inter-esting studies on the effects of E. faecium found that there were statistically significant increases in immunoglobulin A (IgA) observed in animals fed the probiotic (Benyacoub et al., 2003). This boost-ing of the immune system in young puppies has tremendous implications for vaccination and improving the immune response to early vaccina-tion. This may be particularly true for viruses such as distemper and parvovirus, which directly affect the intestinal tract.

References

Adkins, Y., Lepine, A.J., Lönnerdal, B. (2001) Changes in protein and nutrient composition of milk throughout lactation in dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Re ­search, 62(8), 1266–1272.

Bauer, J.E., Heinemann, K.M., Bigley, K.E., et al. (2004) Maternal diet alpha-linolenic acid during gestation and lactation does not increase docosahexaenoic acid in canine milk. The Journal of Nutrition, 134(8 Suppl.), 2035S–2038S.

Benyacoub, J., Czarnecki-Maulden, G.L., Cavadini, C., et al. (2003) Supplementation of food with Entero­coccus faecium (SF68) stimulates immune functions in young dogs. The Journal of Nutrition, 133(4), 1158–1162.

Benyacoub, J., Pérez, P.F., Rochat, F., et al. (2005) Entero­coccus faecium SF68 enhances the immune response to Giardia intestinalis in mice. The Journal of Nutrition, 135(5), 1171–1176.

Case, L.P. (1999) Feeding management throughout the lifecycle. In: The Dog: Its Behavior, Nutrition, and Health. Wiley Blackwell, pp. 311–329.

Case, L.P., Carey, D.P., Hirakawa, D.A., et al. (2000) Preg-nancy and lactation. In: Canine and Feline Nutrition: A Resource for Companion Animal Professionals, 2nd ed., ed. L. Duncan. Mosby, pp. 217–222.

Kennel Management and Nutrition of the Bitch and Her Offspring 13

Schoenmakers, I., Hazewinkel, H.A., Voorhout, G., et al. (2000) Effects of diets with different calcium and phos-phorus contents on the skeletal development of growing Great Danes. The Veterinary Record, 147(23), 652–660.

Wright-Rodgers, A.S., Waldron, M.K., Bigley, K.E., et al. (2005) Dietary fatty acids alter plasma lipids and lipo-protein distributions in dogs during gestation, lacta-tion, and the perinatal period. The Journal of Nutrition, 135(9), 2230–2235.

Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets, First Edition. Edited by Cheryl Lopate.© 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

2 Cattery Management and Nutrition of the Queen and Her Offspring

Jill Cline

Breeding and raising cats is no easy task given their physiology of spontaneous ovulation, susceptibil-ity to disease, stoic natures, and unrecognized stress-related behaviors. There are a few simple steps in the management of the cattery environ-ment, the cats, and the nutrition provided for the cats which will improve their reproductive success.

Cattery Management

Many cat breeders prefer to keep their breeding colony within their homes or in small buildings on the same property. Both types of housing can be efficient places to raise cats, and both have their merits.

There are five basic behavioral spatial needs of cats. They require an area for sleeping, eating and drinking, elimination, a resting place separate from the sleeping area, and a “hunting” area. Hunting is an activity for indoor cats which involves sitting in a raised area where they can observe outside and simulate prey-seeking behaviors. Breeding cats in a home will establish these areas within the differ-ent rooms and on different pieces of furniture throughout the house. Some breeders may set up cages within their home which range in size from

3 ft × 3 ft × 3 ft to 4 ft × 8 ft × 12 ft, or they may choose to convert an extra room into a few “kitty condos” to keep cats separated. To decrease stress in the cats, it is useful to provide the same five behavioral areas within the cage. Food and water should not be placed near the litter pan and it is best if the hunting and sleeping areas do not border another cat’s cage. Studies with feral cats show that most cats will tolerate the use of their living spaces by another cat as long as there is no competition for the space at the same time each day.

In the event of inappropriate elimination or spraying, first confirm there is no medical reason, then that the litter pans are cleaned often enough, and finally that there are enough litter pans for the number of cats present in the cattery. If all these conditions are normal or acceptable then consider moving the cats to different cages. It may be that the inappropriate elimination is a stress response because a particular cat does not like its neighbor.

Cats kept in a dedicated cattery building have the same behavioral needs. In many cases it is easier to fulfill these needs in a purpose-built building rather than retrofitting a house. Mini-mally, cages should have multiple perches at varying heights. If multiple cats are housed together, there should be at least two more perches

15

16 Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets

respiratory disease (Lawler & Bebiak, 1986). If it is too cool, there is an increased risk of respiratory complications and if it is too warm, an increased risk of infections. Kittens, like puppies, do not have the shiver response until they are over 5 days old, so do not rely on the kitten’s reaction to their environment as an indicator of appropriate temperature.

Heat lamps are a viable alternative only if placed so they warm only one-half to two-thirds of the queening box rather than the entire box so that both the queen and kittens can move away from the direct heat if they become too warm. Using the same rule of thumb with heating pads, allow the heating pad to warm only one-half to two-thirds of the queening box. Heating pads should be used with caution, especially when the kittens are very young. Prolonged exposure to a too-warm heating pad can cause tissue degeneration and breakdown of organs. The opposite problem, attempting to cool the queen and kittens, also requires careful consideration. Fans circulate air, but can also blow potential infectious agents on the kittens and cause drafts.

Queens require a quiet, warm, dry, stress-free area to rear kittens. A stressed queen will have compromised mothering ability and milk produc-tion. Maternal stress, malnourishment, or hor-monal insufficiency can contribute to cannibalism or infanticide (Kirk et al., 2000). Queens may spend almost their entire time with the kittens during the first few weeks, therefore food and water should be close at hand. In some cases, it may be necessary to remove the kittens for 30–60 minutes as needed to allow the queen the opportunity to use the litter pan and eat (Lawler & Bebiak, 1986). If the kittens are removed they should be placed in a clean warming box until returned to the nesting area.

Sanitation

Established breeders and cattery managers have sanitation programs in place but it is important to review those procedures before mating to ensure that there are safeguards and appropriate proce-dures for queens and kittens, both in utero and postpartum. Cats are very susceptible to commu-nicable diseases when housed together, either in

or hides than there are cats in the cage. Each multiple-cat cage should have one more food and water station and one more litter pan than there are cats in the housing unit.

Tomcats should be housed separately in most cases. If the partitions between tomcats are wire, it is advisable to erect nonporous dividers between tomcat cages to prevent spraying outside the cage. Some experts suggest bred queens can be housed together until day 40 of gestation (Pedersen & Wastlhuber, 1991). It is probably safer from a stress and disease point of view to house gestating queens in the cage in which they will be eventually queen-ing soon after mating. Minimally, queens should be introduced to the queening area 2 weeks before their expected date of parturition. Queening areas should be quiet, out of the traffic path, and private so the queen feels secure.

Each queening area should contain a queening box 1.5 to 2 times longer than the queen’s body from head to base of tail. Boxes should have four sides, a top, and a bottom. One side should have a cutaway hole large enough and low enough for the queen to enter comfortably but high enough to contain the kittens for the first few weeks. Boxes should be nonporous and easy to clean. Wooden boxes painted with nontoxic paint or fiberglass boxes work well and are easy to clean and keep free of hair and debris. In the first few weeks, the bedding will have to be changed multiple times per day. Appropriate bedding would include old towels, small squares of mattress pads or blankets, or cloth diapers. Newspapers are often used for the first few days but should be discontinued when the kittens begin to move around and explore. The litter box should be set in the opposite area to the queening box and food and water should be avail-able at all times in an area away from the litter box. Kittens are very small and can fit in tiny places so it is advisable to either keep the queen in a cage with the kittens or to surround the queening box with a wire or epoxy-coated wire exercise pen to contain the kittens as they begin to explore.

Optimal temperature is between 75 and 80°F if the queen is present to provide additional warmth. If central heating/cooling is not possible, provi-sions should be made for providing a thermal neutral or comfortable temperature for the queen and kittens. Fluctuations in temperature and humidity can increase the possibility of upper

Cattery Management and Nutrition of the Queen and Her Offspring 17

or trackless litter is best for keeping queening areas clean and preventing kittens from scattering litter as they begin to use the litter pan.

Careful consideration must be given to the type of detergent and disinfectant to be used in the cattery. A good disinfectant should be nonir-ritating, nontoxic, and kill a wide spectrum of microorganisms. In addition, it should have good penetration and surface activity, be chemically stable, and noncorrosive to floors, walls, and the environment. Cats should be removed from the cage or queening area during cleaning and allowed back into the area only after it is completely dry. Caregivers should wash their hands and change soiled clothing before cleaning the next cage to help prevent the spread of disease.

Nutritional Management of the Queen and Kittens

Almost everyone knows that cats are carnivores, but most people do not fully understand the nutri-tional idiosyncrasies of the cat. Cats are obligate carnivores, which means they require certain nutri-ents which can only be found in meat. Dogs and people, on the other hand, are conditional carni-vores, which means these species can benefit from meat in the diet but are capable of sustaining them-selves on a plant-based diet. Cats are classified as obligate carnivores because of their very high protein requirements, high taurine requirement, arachadonic acid requirement, and preformed vitamin A requirement.

multicat homes or in catteries. Cats are the main source of infection for other cats and there are three common vectors of contamination when cats are housed together—excretion, secretion, and exfolia-tion. Exposure of cats to microorganisms in body excretions (urine and feces), secretions (saliva), and exfoliations (hair and dander) can contribute to disease transmission. Direct contact with other cats, contact with outside animals, or contact with contaminated air or objects may also contribute. In a review of 218 catteries and private households with multiple cats, the risk factors associated with feline herpesvirus, feline aclicivirus, Chlamydophila felis, and Bordetella bronchiseptica were significantly higher if there was less than excellent hygiene, contact with dogs, or if there were large numbers of cats in the household or cattery (Helps et al., 2005).

When queens are kept in a home environment with opportunities to roam the household, it is dif-ficult to maintain controlled sanitation. However, many cat breeders feel that an in-home environ-ment provides the best socialization for growing kittens. Table 2.1 details a potential program for that type of environment. Details for sanitation procedures for queens kept in cages in homes and for queens and kittens kept in catteries are also found in Table 2.1. Litter pans, queening boxes, food bowls, and water bowls should be cleaned daily. In some cases, litter pans may need to be emptied multiple times per day. Disposable litter pans and food bowls can be a good alternative for large catteries or for small breeding operations with multiple litters of kittens at one time. Dustless

Table 2.1 Sanitation schedule.

Home Caged in home Cattery

Food and water bowls Daily with hot soapy water

Daily with hot soapy water Daily with hot soapy water

Litter pans Empty daily. Wash and disinfect weekly.

Empty multiple times per day. Wash and disinfect twice weekly

Empty multiple times per day and wash daily.

Floors Sweep/vacuum or mop twice weekly

Sweep or vacuum daily, mop if possible twice weekly

Sweep and mop daily

Queening box Change bedding multiple times per day. Wash and disinfect weekly.

Change bedding multiple times per day. Wash and disinfect weekly.

Change bedding multiple times per day. Wash and disinfect twice weekly.

18 Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets

requirement for this vitamin, which is four times higher than that of dogs. The same is true for vitamin B6 (pyroxidine).

Planning the Plane of Nutrition

Preplanning is required to ensure that the body condition and plane of nutrition are within accept-able bounds before breeding occurs in queens. Cats require a minimum of 2–3 weeks to adapt to a new diet. Depending on environmental conditions and stress levels in the cat, it may take even longer for cats to fully adapt to a new food. Most domestic cats will consume food slowly compared to dogs. If fed free choice, cats prefer to nibble many times throughout the day rather than consume one large meal. Typically, cats will consume between 9 and 16 meals per day (Russell et al., 2000). This behav-ior can be attributed to the cat’s wild ancestors that consumed many small rodents throughout the day. The typical caloric value of a small rodent is approximately 25–30 calories; therefore, approxi-mately 10–20 rodents would be required to provide for the energy needs of a typical wild cat.

Many owners prefer to feed at certain times in the day, particularly if they are feeding wet or canned food. Most cats adapt readily to this feeding regime as well. In some cases, owners prefer to feed dry food free choice during most of the day and then feed small amounts of canned food at specified times during the day. This feeding regime is most adaptable, particularly if adjustments need to be made for increased energy needs, like gesta-tion and lactation. One word of caution about feeding free-choice dry food: it is recommended to fill the bowl with the correctly measured amount of food for a 24-hour period one time per day and not to refill the bowl each time the cat finishes the dry food. Cats should begin to consume the diet chosen for gestation and lactation the day of breed-ing at a minimum and ideally 3 weeks in advance of breeding in order to maximize egg production and minimize the stress associated with a diet change.

Body condition of cats is more difficult to deter-mine than that of dogs because of the difference in anatomy (Figure 2.1). However, using the 9-point scale, cats within ideal body condition will have a score of 5. Ensuring the queen is at an ideal body

Cats preferentially use protein as their primary energy source and can readily convert amino acids into glucose via gluconeogensis to meet the body’s energy requirements. The maintenance protein requirement of cats is unusually high when com-pared to other animals. Cats are sensitive to argi-nine, methionine, and cystine levels in their diets and have higher requirements for these amino acids when compared to other species. However, these amino acids are abundant in meat-based diets.

Taurine is a required β-amino acid for cats but it is neither incorporated into proteins nor degraded by the cat’s tissues. Interestingly, taurine is impor-tant in almost all body functions, including bile salt production, retinal, cardiac, immune, neurological, platelet, and reproductive functions. It is required for normal fetal development and in some cases acts as an endogenous antioxidant. Taurine is required from an exogenous source in cats for two reasons: the liver of cats has a limited capacity to synthesize taurine and cats lose taurine during bile salt production and secretion. In general, taurine is abundant in animal tissues and absent in plants, which means that cats are unable to sustain them-selves on vegetarian diets or dog food diets unless each is supplemented with extra taurine.

Cats have the ability to digest and use high levels of dietary fat, which is easy to understand when the diets of feral cats or the diets of the pre-decessors of the domestic cat are considered. These diets consist primarily of small rodents, insects, crustaceans, and small fish. Cats lack sufficient quantities of the enzyme needed to convert linoleic acid to arachadonic acid. Therefore, unlike dogs who only require one essential fatty acid (linoleic acid), cats require two essential fatty acids, linoleic and arachadonic. Arachadonic acid is abundant in animal tissues, particularly in organ meats and neural tissues. Therefore, the dietary requirement for arachadonic acid is easily met through a meat-based diet.

Vitamin A comes in many forms in the natural world, ranging from carotinoids like β-carotene in some plants to readily usable vitamin A in meat. Cats can only metabolize vitamin A from animal tissues because they lack the intestinal enzyme to convert precursors of vitamin A into its active form. In addition, cats cannot synthesize niacin, a B vitamin, in sufficient quantities and have a