“The use of Impression Management use of Impression Management use of Impression Management use of Impression Management tactics in groups tactics in groups tactics in groups tactics in groups overtime overtime overtime overtime and and and and the effect the effect the effect the effect on the interpersonal outcomes on the interpersonal outcomes on the interpersonal outcomes on the interpersonal outcomes of liking, competence and of liking, competence and of liking, competence and of liking, competence and performance performance performance performance” University of Maastricht Faculty of Economics and Business Administration Maastricht, September 12 th 2007 Merel M.C. Schokker I111791 Master of Organizational Change and Consultancy 1 st Supervisor: Sara Safay 2 nd Supervisor: Stefanie Lorenz Final Master Thesis
Transcript
“The use of Impression Management use of Impression Management use of Impression Management use of Impression Management
tactics in groups tactics in groups tactics in groups tactics in groups overtime overtime overtime overtime
and and and and
the effect the effect the effect the effect on the interpersonal outcomes on the interpersonal outcomes on the interpersonal outcomes on the interpersonal outcomes
of liking, competence and of liking, competence and of liking, competence and of liking, competence and performanceperformanceperformanceperformance”
University of Maastricht
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration
Maastricht, September 12th
2007
Merel M.C. Schokker
I111791
Master of Organizational Change and Consultancy
1st Supervisor: Sara Safay
2nd
Supervisor: Stefanie Lorenz
Final Master Thesis
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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Executive Summary
This thesis studies the relation between the use of impression management strategies
and interpersonal outcomes over time within groups. The interest in impression
management and also the research on this topic has increased noticeably over the past
25 years in the field of organization. Yet most attention has been devoted to studying
dyadic situations and only in some cases group situations (Bolino & Turnley 2003).
This study adds to existing literature by studying impression management in a
longitudinal manner within groups were there are lateral/equal relations with each
other.
For this study the five impression management tactics identified by Bolino and
Turnley (1999) were used to measure the use of impression management as they are
often used in interactions and the evaluations of their peer group members were used
to measure the interpersonal outcomes. It was hypothesized that the use of the
impression management tactics of ingratiation, self-promotion and exemplification
were positively related to the interpersonal outcomes of liking, perceived competence
and perceived performance; and that the tactics of supplication and intimidation were
negatively related to the above interpersonal outcomes.
After the analysis of the results no significant results were found on the longitudinal
characteristic for any of the five impression management tactics. A striking result was
found for intimidation on a group level. A positive relationship appeared between
intimidation and the three dependent variables, further research in the future will be
needed to investigate the specific characteristics of this relationship. Furthermore a
positive relationship was also found between the control variable professional
experience and self-promotion. This research also suffered from limitations such as
common method bias and immense effort should be devoted in the future to study the
longitudinal aspect of the use of impression management tactics within groups as no
significant results were found in this study.
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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Preface:
Hereby I would like to take the opportunity to thank my supervisor, Sara Safay, for all
her critical remarks and patience during this thesis process and the time she was able
to make free in her tight schedule to supervise me. Furthermore I would also like to
thank Sjir Uitdewilligen for his remarks and valuable information.
Last but not least I would like to thank my parents for all their support (also financial)
over the past years, and my loyal thesis friends that kept me motivated also during the
1. Introduction “The dynamic effect of Impression Management; the relation between
the use of Impression Management strategies and interpersonal
outcomes will be investigated over time within student project groups”
1.1 Introduction
In social interactions people are constantly, consciously and unconsciously,
attempting to control the images that are projected in social interactions (Schlenker,
1980, p.V). This behavior is referred to as impression management. Gardner&
Martinko (1988) describe impression management as the behavior used to create and
maintain desired images of the self. The overall definition that is used by scholars is
the process through which individuals attempt to influence the impressions other
people form of them.
Over the past 40 years a considerable amount of research has been devoted to the
topic of impression management. In today’s organizations, impressions are of great
importance. Impression management is generally regarded to be a fundamental part of
organizational life and vital to effective organizational communication; it has become
clear that one needs to understand impression management to completely understand
organizational life ( Rosenfeld, Giacalone, & Riordan, 1995, p.13). Examples of the
importance and presence of impression management are applicants trying to make a
good impression at a job interview, managers bringing across the correct image to
their employees and a representative of a company bringing across and image of
quality and professionalism.
Considerable theory (Bozeman & Kacmar, 1997; Ferris & Judge, 1991) and research
suggest that impression management use and the effectiveness may vary across
situations. According to Schneider (1981) there are a number of ways in which
individuals may manage their impressions. A first distinction would be verbal and
nonverbal impressions management tactics. Often in real life situations these two
types appear in a mixed form. Jones and Pittman (1982) taxonomy is another form of
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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distinguishing different forms of impression management. This one consists of
ingratiation, self-promotion, exemplification, intimidation and supplication.
Most research is confined to the effects of impression management in a dyadic
situation, so a one-to-one interaction. For example: applicants trying to make a good
first impression at a job interview. In organizations at the present time the use of
teams and groups has become important, therefore it is also important to consider the
actual effects and also the use of impression management in group situations within
organizations which up to date has not been researched in depth.
1.2 Problem statement
Often in impression management literature, a longitudinal study is mentioned as a
measure of interesting future research (Turnley&Bolino, 2001; Wayne&Ferris, 1990).
It is often stated that the level of impression management strategies being used and
also the type of strategies being used, could be studied over time. It is likely that a
member of a project team will use impression management more often in the
beginning when all the team members are not yet acquainted with each other very
well. As time passes it is likely that these practices will decrease. This in turn leads to
my central problem statement:
How will the frequency of using Impression Management strategies and the type
of Impression Management strategies vary over time within a group? The
relation between the use of Impression Management strategies and interpersonal
outcomes will be studied over time.
In order to measure interpersonal outcomes of impression management in a group
situation, measures of perceived performance, perceived competence and liking will
be used. Each of the impression management strategies has as a final goal to achieve a
certain image. For some it is being seen as likeable and for others to be seen as
competent. Also performance has been researched before by Wayne & Liden (1995)
and a relationship was found with impression management tactics. This study will
research whether over time the use of the same impression management strategies will
have a different effect on liking, competence or performance.
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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1.3 Method
In order to be able to answer the above mentioned problem statement a longitudinal
study will be done. The relationship of the use of impression management strategies
and the interpersonal outcomes will be studied overtime. The collection of data will
be done via surveys/ questionnaires.
Several project teams of students studying at the University of Maastricht, taking the
course Value-Based Management, will be asked to fill out these questionnaires in
week one of a block and a second questionnaire in the final week of working together
(week seven). In these questionnaires group members will be asked to answer
questions concerning their own impression management strategies, and about how
they perceive their fellow group members according to the variables of liking,
perceived competence and perceived performance. It is expected that as time passes
group members will know each other better and the use of impression management
tactics will decrease, so the level of (created) positive impression will decline and so
the values of the variables of liking, perceived competence and performance will most
likely vary.
1.4 Outline of the thesis The thesis will be build up in several chapters, each of them focusing on a distinctive
element that will aid the reader to understand the building up of the problem statement
as well as the answering of it in a quantitative manner. The first part of the thesis is a
literature review consisting of three separate sections. In the first section the historical
background of the concept of impression management will be considered as well as
the several definitions of impression management and the motives that individuals
have to pursue impression management. In the second chapter a look shall be taken at
the different impression management tactics, and the perceptions that these create on
the targets. A specific focus will be given to the Jones&Pittman taxonomy that will be
used to set up the questionnaire. In the third chapter a specific look will be taken at
the importance of Impression management within organizations. In the second part of
this thesis the empirical research will be set up. First in chapter five the hypotheses
will be build and the research model shall be presented to the reader and in chapter six
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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the methodology will be explained in more detail. Finally in the last part of the thesis
the results of the empirical study with the aid of SPSS will be elaborated on, and the
results will be interpreted to end with the limitations and overall conclusion of the
thesis.
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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Chapter 2: Theoretical Background on Impression Management 2.1 Introduction This chapter introduces a theoretical review on impression management. It will start
of by trying to answer what impression management is. Secondly an in depth look
will be taken at what has been found and proved by analysts over the past decades and
were it originates from. The chapter will continue to look at the several motives that
people may have to engage (or not) in impression management. Finally a conclusion
shall be drawn.
2.2 What is impression management?
Overtime the concept of impression management has been interpreted and defined in
various ways. “ Impression management is a universal and ubiquitous feature of
social life” (Schneider, 1981, p.23). This is how Schneider denoted impression
management at the beginning of his research, he continued by stating that people form
impressions of others and that people try to influence the impressions that some others
have of them. That is the way people are. Impression management positioned itself
right up with conformity, aggression, interpersonal attraction and person perception in
the sense of it being commonly discussed in daily life (Schneider, 1981, p.23).
Sociologist Erving Goffman (1959) described impression management as involving
attempts to establish the meaning or purpose of social interactions and that it guided
our actions, and helped us anticipate what to expect from others (Goffman, 1959).
According to him people are performers, with their main task being the playing of
many different roles to construct their social identities.
Schlenker and Weigold (1992) labeled and described a more positive definition: the
expansive view. This perspective assumed that people actively carried out impression
management in ways that helped them achieve their objectives and goals both
individually and as part of groups and organizations. This impression was sometimes
done in a conscious way while in some other situations it was automatic or
They also described the restrictive view, as a form of interpersonal manipulation
occurring in confined settings and only applying to limited behaviors ( Schlenker &
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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Weigold, 1992). The above stated restrictive view supports a common misperception
of impression management being something bad, involving actions performed mainly
to attain the upper hand over others or even deceit.
An example of the restrictive definition would be by Jones (1964) who was the first
laboratory oriented social psychologist to investigate self-presentational aspects of
social behavior. According to him the basic process involved was ingratiation which
he defined as “a class of strategic behaviors illicitly designed to influence a particular
other person concerning the attractiveness of one’s personal qualities” (Jones, 1964,
p.11).
A definition given within the expansive perspective is that impression management is
the regulation of “information about some object or event, including the self”
(Schlenker &Weigold, 1992, p.138). Individuals need to define the situation and the
several roles played by other people in that situation, and this is done through
communicating each others identities and goals. Interactions will be good and with no
problems if people stick to their identities and respect that of others (Schlenker
&Weigold ,1992).
In 1981 a similar definition was given by Tedeschi and Riess, who described
impression management as any behavior by a person that has the purpose of
controlling or manipulating the attributions and impressions formed of that person by
others.
In today’s world it is very important to understand who is playing which role, how
one should act, and why other people are doing what they are doing. We impression
manage in very different manners: what we do, how we do it, what we say, how we
say it, the arrangement of our offices, and our physical appearance- such as clothes
and make-up as well as facial expressions. All these behaviors in some way help us
define who we are (Rosenfeld et al., 1995, p.4). They form an identity and express
want we want and expect from other people around us. These social identities
constitute how individuals are “defined and regarded in social interaction” (Schlenker,
1980, p.69).
The general definition used by scholars is that impression management is the process
through which individuals attempt to influence the impressions other people form of
them (Gardner, 1992).
Individuals manage their impressions when they wish to present a favorable image of
themselves to others (Jones &Pittman, 1982). Ways in which individuals manage their
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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impressions can vary from verbal statements to their physical appearance or by using
non-verbal gestures and expressions. These different forms will be analyzed and
discussed in more detail in the next chapter. Before doing so, a historical overview
will be presented with the research done in impression management over the past
decades.
2.3 Historical review on Impression management A distinction will be made between before and after the 1980s. The idea that people
actively manage the impressions that others form of them has existed for centuries,
but it was in the early 1900’s that social philosophers incorporated these ideas into
their thinking. It was only during the 1980s that the topic of impression management
started to become widely accepted as an element of organizational life and
communications.
2.3.1 Impression management before the 1980’s
“ The concept of impression management relates back to prehistoric and primitive
people who also were concerned about self-presentation. Cosmetics, clothing, jewelry
and other aids to physical attractiveness were universally used to present positive
identities to others” (Tedeschi, 1981, p.xv). The idea that people project identities to
one another and form identities from the reactions of others to them, has existed for a
long period of time; yet it has not been until this century that social philosophers have
incorporated this interactive process into their thinking (Cooley, 1902; Mead, 1934)
The word person relates back to the Latin word persona, which meant a mask used by
a character in a play (Schlenker, 1980, p.33). Hobbes also stated that “ a person is the
same as an actor is, both on the stage and in common conversation” (Hobbes,
1651/1952, p.96). The full impact of the life/theater analogy on social science did not
occur until Erving Goffman explored its implications in various insightful and elegant
books (Schlenker, 1980).
Goffman (1959) first conceptualized the phenomenon of impression management
within his dramaturgical model of social life. People in social interaction function as
“actors” whose “performances” depend upon the characteristics of both the situation
and the audience at hand. These “actors” on the stage of life strive to control the
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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images or identities that they portray to relevant others in order to obtain desired end-
states, be they social, psychological or material (Leary & Kowalski, 1990).
The idea that people actively manage impressions that others form of them was first
part of the sociological literature (e.g., Goffman, 1959) and did not filter into the
experimental social psychological thought until the pioneering work of Jones (1964)
provided a systematic view of the strategy of ingratiation (Tedeschi, 1981).
During the 1960’s impression management was seen as a contaminant of laboratory
research that needed to be eliminated or controlled so that important, “real”
relationships among variables could be observed (Rosenfeld et al., 1995, p.10). Jones’
Ingratiation (1964) was the first and only full scale attempt to unite two separate
strains into a comprehensive theory. Goffman discussed the strategies and structural
aspects of impression management, and according to him impression management
was not necessarily generated by any specific kind of individual motivation.
Exchange theorists put more focus on the motivation such as desire for approval, and
Jones was able to capture them together (Tedeschi, 1981).
In the 1970’s it was progressively acknowledged that impression management was not
just an artifact of laboratory research but that it played an important role in behavior.
Impression management was interpreted by many people during the 70s as meaning
the impression manager was consciously trying to betray others (Rosenfeld et al.,
1995, p.10). In the mid 1980’s more organizational studies began to pay more
attention to impression management (Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
2.3.2 Impression management after the 1980s
Prior to the 1980s generally social psychologists regarded impression management as
a peripheral concept. It was rarely regarded as a fundamental interpersonal process on
its own (Schlenker & Weigold, 1992, p.135) .
In the second half of the 1980’s interest for impression management started to
increase and the concept of impression management became more important. In 1989
two books were published by Giacalone and Rosenfeld about impression management
in organizations. These two books served as sourcebooks for what is nowadays the
distinctive field of organizational impression management (Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
Impression management in organizations consists of strategic communications
designed to establish, maintain, or protect desired identities (Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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Since the 1980’s impression management has been studied in organizational contexts
such as leader-member exchange, job interviews and performance appraisal. The
study of impression management in organizations is of great importance (Bozeman &
Kacmar, 1997, p.9).
As popularity among researchers and practitioners grew it also started to be viewed as
a mainstream rather than a peripheral concept. It is difficult to understand how
impression management could have been overlooked in many theoretical discussions.
Incorporating impression management into current research and practice is started to
provide a better understanding of how organizational processes were to a large extent
affected by individuals concerns over how they were being perceived by others
(Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
Most social psychological investigations have focused on intentional behaviors that
decorate or modify ongoing behavior. Impression management is assumed to become
more intentional and focused when people believe that they will gain valued outcomes
by encouraging certain impressions in others (Schlenker & Weigold, 1992).
Since the 80s analysts have applied and studied the concept of impression
management to a wide range of social phenomena, such as attitude change, nonverbal
behavior, social anxiety and recently also to concepts such as eating behavior,
organizational behavior. While in specifics being different, the analyses share in
common the idea that people attempt to control information for one or more salient
audiences in ways that try to facilitate goal-achievement (Schlenker & Weigold, 1992,
p.136). The concept of impression, specifically in the field of organizational life, has
received much more importance than ever before. Impression management is a
commonly occurring part of organizational life and it is seen as essential to effective
organizational communication (Rosenfeld et al., 1995). In the next section a look will
be taken at the motives people have to engage or use impression management.
2.4 Motives to engage in impression management
Being skilled in the process of impression management is becoming more significant
for managers and it is especially true in work settings with high pressure and where
quick decisions need to be made in a dynamic environment. Individuals who are not
aware of this aspect of organizational life run the risk of performing poorly, or even
being moved to lower positions in the organization (Gardner, 1992).
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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The statement and explanation given above by Gardner might in some way explain
why people would attempt to use impression management at work with their
colleagues. Yet in general people “wish to be perceived as intelligent, friendly and
morally good” (Rosenfeld, Giacalone&Tedeschi, 1983, p.60). This explanation is
given for the question of why people laugh more often at humorous stimuli when
others are present than when they are own their own, the answer being to establish an
identity of oneself as a friendly person.
People engage in impression management for many reasons that are influenced by
social, personal and situational factors. Some theorists describe the process as a quick
cost-benefit analysis (Schlenker, 1980). At the same time people are assessing the
benefits that might be achieved by presenting one image rather then another one, they
are also considering the costs of presenting that particular image (Rosenfeld et al.,
1995).
Some situations in which impression management is less likely to occur were
described by Jones and Pittman (1980). Under conditions of high task involvement,
where the individual becomes absorbed in the task itself. In another research on the
use of impression management in assessment centers it was mentioned that the
process of impression management required much of an individual’s cognitive
resources and so it could interfere with effective performance of the individual
(McFarland, Ryan, & Kriska, 2003). Other situations mentioned by Jones and Pittman
(1980) are purely expressive behaviors such as anger and joy and situations in which
the person is most of all concerned with presenting his/her true self, such as therapy
sessions (Gardner & Martinko, 1988).
Next to situational factors also social and personal factors influence the motives of
individuals to engage in impression management.
Leary and Kowalski (1990) believed that impression management could be used to
increase personal well-being in three interrelated goals. First of all by maximizing
one’s reward-cost ratio in social relations. As mentioned earlier, self-presentation
also allows individuals to optimize their benefit-cost ratio when dealing with others
(Schlenker, 1980). Being able to form a good impression will increase the probability
of a desired outcome, be it a interpersonal one such as friendship or power or be it
material such as raise in salary due to being seen as more competent (Leary &
Kowalski, 1990, p.37).
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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The second goal that Leary and Kowalski (1990) mention is enhancing one’s self
esteem. People might employ in impression management, to regulate their self-esteem
in a two-fold manner. One reason was that reactions that other individuals have will
positively (compliments) or negatively (criticism) affect your self-esteem. So
individuals will act in a manner to be able to inflate their self-esteem by trying to
receive positive feedback (Leary & Kowalski, 1990, p.37). A second reason is that the
self esteem of individuals is also influenced by the self-evaluation of their
performances and the feedback that you as an individuals will expect to receive from
others (Leary & Kowalski, 1990).
The third and final goal proposed by Leary and Kowalski (1990) is facilitating the
development of desired identities. According to Cooley (1902) and Mead (1934) our
identity is in the end derived from society, and individuals sometimes engage in
certain behaviors to indicate the ownership of such identity-relevant characteristics
(Leary & Kowalski, 1990). People may even engage in impression management
activities as protection if they feel there is a threat to their social image. As can be
seen above there are several motives for people to engage in impression managing.
Aside of situational and social factors there are also some personality traits that will
affect the degree of impression management being used. For example the extent to
which an individual possess the trait of machiavellianism might have an impact on the
degree of impression management being used. In today’s world it is defined as “ one
who employs aggressive, manipulative, exploiting and devious moves in order to
achieve personal and organizational objectives” (Calhoon, 1969, p. 241). From this
definition it seems obvious to conclude that the higher the score for machiavellianism
the more likely the individual will engage in impression management to achieve
personal objectives. A second and final trait that can be decisive for the degree in
which an individual engages in impression management is self-monitoring.
Individuals differ in the way they monitor their self-presentation and expressive
behavior (Snyder, 1974, p.536). Individuals with high levels of self-monitoring can
effectively use this skill to create impressions they want. Furthermore these
individuals are also better at purposely communicating and expressing emotion in
verbal and non verbal manners (Snyder, 1974).
Before reaching the overall conclusion of this chapter it can be said that indeed
personality as well as social and situational factors play a clear role and deciding what
individual will or will not use impression management in certain situations.
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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2.5 Conclusion
In this chapter an in depth look was taken at the historical background of impression
management and it can be said that since the mid 80s the topic has increasingly
received attention from social psychologists and the awareness of its importance is
also dramatically increasing in organizational life. Furthermore a look was taken at
the several definitions of the concept by different researchers. The definition that will
be employed throughout this paper will be the process through which individuals
attempt to influence the impressions other people form of them.
In the final part of this chapter the several factors that might affect the motives of
individuals to engage in impression management where studied. It was found that
several situational, social and personality factors affect an individual’s decision to
employ impression management. In the next chapter a look will be taken at the choice
of the type of impression management style or tactic that and individuals will choose.
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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Chapter 3: Impression management behavior 3.1 Introduction Given that a person has the motivation to engage in impression management, and is
motivated to create an impression on others, the concern is determining accurately the
type of impression one wants to make and deciding how one will go about making
that impression (Leary & Kowalski, 1990, p.39).
In this chapter a look will be taken at the different types and styles of impression
management and with a specific focus on the Jones and Pittman taxonomy. The
chapter will end with a conclusion.
3.2 Types of impression management tactics.
It was Leary and Kowalski in 1990 that made a difference between impression
motivation and impression construction. Impression motivation has received attention
in the previous chapter and is concerned with the desire an individual has to create a
certain impression in others. Impression construction on the other hand is the process
of deciding what type of impression one wants to make and how to reach that goal
(Leary & Kowalski, 1990) .
When deciding what type or form of impression management one wants to use there
are several categories from which one can decide. In this section a clear separation
will be made between verbal and nonverbal tactics.
3.2.1 Non-verbal tactics
Today we realize that numerous types of nonverbal behaviors can be used with
impression management (Rosenfeld et al., 1995, p.61). Facial expressions, touching,
body orientation, posture and interpersonal distance can all strongly influence the
impressions that others form of us and we form of other individuals (DePaulo, 1992).
Some reasons why nonverbal expressions play a major role in impression
management are that it is irrepressible, it is very difficult not to make an impression
in a nonverbal manner. Even if someone does not move his/her posture might give
away signals. Furthermore, nonverbal behavior is closely linked to emotion and may
be stronger than a verbal impression that an individual tries to make. Moreover a
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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nonverbal expression may transmit a more sincere impression than a verbal behavior
would, the reason being that nonverbal behavior is usually a quick reaction to an event
and the lack of time does not provide much chance to fake (DePaulo, 1992) .
Several researchers have recognized the importance of nonverbal behavior. Schlenker
(1980) recognized that a nonverbal expression such as an erect body posture, dynamic
movements and a steady look could be used to create an impression of power. In
another research done on the use of impression management across assessment
centers it was also found that nonverbal behavior such as smiling, head nodding and
hand shaking could also affect the evaluations of the assessors during the assessment
center (McFarland, Yun, Harold, Viera Jr, & Moore, 2005).
Goffman (1959) noted that when trying to form an honest impression of others,
people often looked at less manageable behavioral expressions such as body posture
and facial expression to see if it matched the impression they were displaying. In other
words, verbal behavior is most of the time backed-up by non verbal expressions. It
seems important to note that even though most attention, also in research, has been
devoted to verbal behavior, a good combination with nonverbal behavior seems to
optimize the chances of influencing the target.
3.2.2 Verbal impression management
Almost any verbal statement may be constructed as a self-presentation.(Schneider,
1981) In the article by McFarland et al., (2005) it is stated that verbal impression
management tactics can be split up into two separate categories. On the one hand
there are assertive impression management tactics and on the other hand defensive
impression management tactics. Assertive or acquisitive tactics are those that actively
reveal a favorable image and are typically classified as either other-focused or self-
focused (Kacmar, 1992). Other-focused are those directed at a person. When active
they make the target individual feel good about him/herself. Self-focused tactics are
aimed at oneself to make it seem that one has relevant skills and possesses other
positive qualities (Kacmar, 1992). On the other hand there still are the defensive
tactics which are mostly used in response to perceived, or potential threat to ones self-
image (Gardner & Martinko, 1988). Another interesting separation that can be made
is the difference between self-presentation and other-enhancement. Self –presentation
tactics are aimed by an individual to make him or her more attractive to the target
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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(Jones, 1964) and can be accomplished both by using verbal as well as nonverbal
clues (DePaulo, 1992). Other-enhancement refers to the positive evaluation of the
target individual. Flattery and favor-doing are some of the common forms (Tedeschi
& Melburg, 1984). It may be wise for people to use both verbal and nonverbal tactics,
as their combines use was not proven to have any negative effects and cases where
both types where used often resulted in more positive ratings by the target
(McFarland et al., 2005, p.976).
Another division that can be made is the purposiveness of the impression management
behavior. Most impression management is focused on purpose or conscious behavior,
which involves the use of specific verbal and nonverbal behaviors for the purpose of
creating calculated impressions (Schneider, 1981). However actors may also engage
in impression management without being aware of that. In such a case the impression
management behavior is a by-product of over learned scripts and habits. So a great
deal of impression management occurs automatically without much control
(Schlenker, 1980).
In this thesis the behavior that will be focused on and analyzed is conscious,
purposiveness impression management. In those cases the aim of the individuals is to
control the image that others (target) have of them. One research that focused on
purposive behavior was one done by Jones&Pittman (1982) and they identified five
impression management strategies. This framework will be discussed in more detail in
the next section of this chapter.
3.3 Jones and Pittman taxonomy
E.E. Jones (1964) was the first laboratory oriented social psychologist to investigate
self-presentational aspects of social behavior. He believed that the basic process
involved was ingratiation, which is a class of strategic behavior designed to influence
a particular other individual concerning the attractiveness of one’s personal qualities
(Tedeschi & Riess, 1981, p.10). By using ingratiation the actor is concerned about
influencing the targets liking for him/her. Other research has found out that the use of
ingratiation is positively related to the attractiveness, power and status of the audience
(Jones & Wortman, 1973).
Final Thesis M. Schokker
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Ingratiation, together with self-promotion, is the impression management tactic that
has received most attention and most research has been done on it. Jones and Pittman
developed a taxonomy with five classes of self-presentational strategies, the defining
feature of each strategy being an attribution sought by the actor (Jones & Pittman,
1982).
Attribution sought Negative attribution risked
Emotion to be aroused
Prototypical actions
1 Ingratiation Likable Sycophant,
conformist
Affection Favors, other-
enhancement,
opinion conformity.
2 Intimidation Dangerous (ruthless,
volatile )
Blusterer,
wishy,ineffectual
Fear Threats, anger,
breakdown.
3 Self-promotion Competent (“a
winner, effective)
Fraudulent, conceited,
defensive
Respect Performance claims,
performance
accounts.
4 Exemplification Worthy (dedicated) Hypocrite,
exploitative
Guilt Self-denial, helping,
militancy for a cause
5 Supplication Helpless
(unfortunate,
handicapped)
Lazy, demanding Nurturance
(obligation)
Self-deprecation,
entreaties for help.
Source: (Jones & Pittman, 1982)
This section of the chapter will provide an in depth analysis and explanation of all the
five above strategic self-presentation tactics.
3.3.1. Ingratiation
The tactic of ingratiation is a set of linked acquisitive impression management tactics
that have as their shared goal making the individual more liked and attractive to
others. It could in other words also be called “ attraction management”. The task and
challenge of the ingratiator is to find out what the audience finds attractive in and
individual and then provide it to them (Schlenker, 1980). Jones described four types
of ingratiation. They are self-enhancement, other-enhancement, opinion conformity
and favor doing. If used in the correct manner it can facilitate positive interpersonal
relationships and increase harmony outside and within the organization (Rosenfeld et
al., 1995). It was also stated by Ralston (1985) that modest levels of ingratiation are
beneficial to the organization as it may act as a type of social glue and help build
cohesive work groups.
Within the organizational setting the relationship employee-subordinate is a typical
one for ingratiation taking place. The probability of using ingratiation increases as
Final Thesis M. Schokker
23
there are power differentials and such relationships are built on these differences
(Schlenker, 1980). In today’s dynamic organizations it can be said that ingratiation is
a common element. Ingratiation can be considered a form of upward influence in
organizations, where people at the bottom of the organizational hierarchy try to
influence those above them (Rosenfeld et al., p.34).
Jones identified four tactics that the actor can use to ingratiate him/herself with the
target: Self-enhancement, other-enhancement, opinion conformity and finally favor-
doing. The type of ingratiation to be taken will depend in a complex manner on the
nature of the setting and the resources available to the ingratiator (Jones & Pittman,
1982).
Self-enhancement, is the tactic whereby directly using acquisitive impression
management strategy one makes oneself be seen as more attractive (Schlenker, 1980).
One factor that needs to be taken into account is as Schlenker (1980) stated it: “ the
more difficult it is for the audience to check the veracity of a self-presentation the
more likely people are to self- aggrandize” (p.188) The successful self-enhancer will
accept and recognize his/her weaknesses and will concentrate on putting extra effort,
and most likely exaggerate, the topics that the audience has less information about
(Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
The second type of ingratiation is other-enhancement. This ingratiation strategy is all
about flattering and complimenting the target audience. The principle that guides and
supports this tactic is that we tend to like others who supply us with positive
compliments (Tedeschi & Riess, 1981). A study by Kipnis and Vanderveer (1971)
found out that other-enhancement had a strong effect of making the ratings of an
average performing worker the same as those of a worker who was clearly performing
better. This means that being able to perform ingratiation in a successful manner can
be just as important as actually performing in a good manner. A study by Odom
(1993) concluded that the use of ingratiation can lead to a four or five percent increase
in salary over those who do not use ingratiation.
The third strategy that was identified by Jones is opinion conformity. The individual
that engages in opinion conformity does so to achieve an increase in the target’s
attraction towards him or her (Tedeschi & Riess, 1981). In other words the individual
expresses opinions or acts in a manner consistent with another person’s attitudes,
Final Thesis M. Schokker
24
beliefs and values to increase liking (Bohra & Pandey, 1984). Opinion conformity is
also encouraged in situations where there are power differences. In an organizational
setting the more difference there is in the power between two people the more likely it
is that the lower one will imitate behaviors and values of the higher one (Rosenfeld et
al., 1995). From the research presented it can be said that opinion conformity is an
effective strategy to increase the attractiveness of an individual in the eyes of the more
important target.
Favor-doing is the fourth tactic of ingratiation. The principle behind this tactic is that
people who do nice things are likely to be considered as caring, friendly and
considerate. An important concept in this tactic is the norm of reciprocity, a rule of
social behavior. That mentions that one should help or pay back those who help or do
favors for us (Gouldner, 1960). The most effective favor-doing in this case is one
which can not directly be returned by the target. For example you can loan the boss 10
euros and he can easily pay it back, but if you for example install a new radio in his
car, something he is not able to do, he cannot return the same favor to you. This
creates a feeling of being in debt with someone. Such a favor may be repaid in
increased levels of liking by the boss.
Besides ingratiation, there are a number of other acquisitive or assertive impression
management tactics that are used both in and out of organizational settings. Even
though ingratiation has been studied the most there are other ways that individuals and
organizations use to manage positive impressions (Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
3.3.2. Self-promotion
The self-promoter wants to achieve an attribution of competence. It may seem in first
instance another form of ingratiation, but the self-promoter wants to use the self
descriptive communication to be seen as competent instead of as likeable. The goal
when using this strategy is usually an immediate one such as getting admitted into a
university or a new job (Tedeschi & Riess, 1981, p.11).
The tactic of self-promotion possesses features of ingratiation as well as intimidation.
There is a sense in which competence itself is intimidating; the projection of a
competent image may sometimes be an important element of the intimidator’s
strategy. But self-promotion is not equivalent to intimidation because it is well
Final Thesis M. Schokker
25
possible to convince others and portray an image of competence without causing fear
to the audience (Jones & Pittman, 1982) .
Aggressive and successful self-promotion has the risk of causing others to feel
jealous. It can also be intimidating (Jones & Pittman, 1982). An example can be
related to Bill Gates that is in someway appreciated for his brilliance but Gates is also
widely disliked and feared for his aggressive and competitive way of doing business.
Godfrey, Jones & Lord (1986) argue that it is actually easier to be an ingratiator than
it is to be a self-promoter. This has to do with the idea that self-promotion is a
proactive process while ingratiation is more a reactive process. The individual using
ingratiation can react to the target by engaging in nonverbal positive actions such as
smiling or nodding, while the self-promoter has to actively say things to show the
competence or at least undertake actions so that the competence is displayed to the
target. Self-promotion is most often used when the chance of their claims being
challenged or discredited is low (Rosenfeld et al., 1995, p.51). Next to this it was also
found that the occurrence of self-promotion increases when individuals have the
opportunity to openly impress someone with a higher status about their competence
(Giacalone & Rosenfeld, 1986).
3.3.3. Intimidation
The ingratiator wants to be liked, the self-promoter wants to be seen as competent and
the intimidator wants to be feared. The intimidator tries to convince his target that he
is dangerous (Jones & Pittman, 1982). Intimidation is an impression management
strategy designed to increase the credibility of ones threats and in turn enhance the
probability that the target will comply to the actors demands for agreement (Tedeschi
& Riess, 1981, p.11). Another way of stating it is that “ the intimidator advertises his
available power to create discomfort or all kinds of psychic pain”(Jones & Pittman,
1982, p.238).
Intimidation is most likely to occur in nonvoluntary relationships such as supervisor
and subordinate, families or student-teacher (Jones & Pittman, 1982). It might be
most common to see intimidation flowing from high to low power it can take place in
any relationship where there is an element of couterpower. For example the
relationship between a child and his parents. Especially when children get into
adolescence, the fear the parents may have for the child causing a “scene” and
Final Thesis M. Schokker
26
causing disharmony may stop them from asking the child to clean up his room (Jones
& Pittman, 1982). In organizations, intimidation is usually a form of downward
influence (Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
In many aspects intimidation is the opposite of ingratiation. Intimidation drives people
apart and often makes the actor less attractive while the ingratiator brings people
together and is often seen as more likeable (Jones & Pittman, 1982).
3.3.4. Exemplification
The exemplifier wants to be admired and respected for his integrity and moral
decency. He wants to be seen as disciplined, honest and charitable. To be effective at
this strategy the individual must actually be an exemplar of morality (Rosenfeld et al.,
1995, p.54). The exemplifier is the boss who turns up early at work and leaves late or
the colleague that never takes up holidays. These individuals are willing to suffer to
help others but in reality also attempt to make others feel guilty because they are not
acting in a same morally and integer manner. The target can reduce their feelings of
guilt by at least supporting the cause of the exemplifier (Jones & Pittman, 1982). This
tactic can actually also involve strategic self sacrifice (Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
Furthermore the exemplifier often wants other people to know how hard he/she has
been working, because they need to advertise their behavior (Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
3.3.5. Supplication
The last self-presentational strategy can be used by individuals who are not able to use
any of the strategies presented previously, as it involves exploiting ones weaknesses.
The individual emphasizes his own dependence and weakness to obtain help from a
more powerful other. By advertising their lack of ability, they attempt to activate a
powerful social rule the norm of social responsibility that says you should help those
who are in need (Rosenfeld et al., 1995, p.56).
Hence successful supplication is the opposite of self-promotion, but there are limits as
to how much help a supplicator will receive. If he/she overuses this tactics it may
appear that he/she rather “ ride” on the knowledge and skills of others than doing
things him/herself. An ideal way of applying supplication is through compensatory
exchanges (Jones, 1990) For example there may be a task at which individual A is
Final Thesis M. Schokker
27
great and cannot do another task very good, while another member of the same team
may be good at the task at which individual A was worse. Through compensatory
exchanges they will both profit from each other and also present the best result
possible to the boss (Rosenfeld et al., 1995). One heavy cost attached to using
supplication is the costs of one’s self-esteem in admitting one’s incompetence.
In conclusion it can be said that these five strategies are not per definition mutually
exclusive, but clearly some combinations are more logical than others. For example
the match between ingratiation and intimidation is not a good one, either of them may
match better with self-promotion. The strategies have been separated to distinguish
the particular attributional goal that an individuals wants to obtain (Jones & Pittman,
1982).
3.4 Factors affecting the success of the five Impression Management tactics
With each of the above five strategies mentioned above there are also pitfalls involved
that can make the tactic turn out very differently and it will depend on how an
individual deals with them whether the impression management tactic turns out to be
a success.
When using ingratiation there is the danger of the ingratiator’s dilemma. It means that
the greater the need of the person to engage in ingratiation, the more likely that the
attempts will be detected. The actor may then react in a negative manner and come to
dislike the actor more instead of liking (Rosenfeld et al., 1995, p.44). Obvious
ingratiation is often detected and therefore a more successful approach is to engage in
complicating strategies. The key is to act with modesty and make self-demeaning
statements on the unimportant issues while acting in a self-enhancing manner on the
core matters (Schlenker, 1980). In this manner you can even things out and make
ingratiation more credible.
Jones and Pittman (1982) also mention the “ self-promoter paradox” as a problem
that may arise when using the tactic of self-promotion. It states that claims about an
individuals competence are frequently more likely when the competence of the actor
is doubtful than when it is high and secure. This in the end can lead target audience to
argue that individuals using self-promotion have something to cover-up or make-up
Final Thesis M. Schokker
28
for. A superior strategy for the self-promoter can be to organize that others will make
claims on his/her behalf. Self-promotion is intuitively more normative and acceptable
for men than for women. Women who behave assertively and in a confident manner
are not evaluated as positively as men who engage in the same behavior (Rudman,
1998). The results of their research suggest that women pay the price for counter
stereotypical behavior, even if it seems a requirement for a flourishing career. It is not
like they lack the ability to promote themselves but they daily have to choose
regarding how to present themselves; whether in a feminine manner or a professional
one (Rudman, 1998).
On the above tactics of self-promotion and ingratiation is on which most research and
critical reviews have taken place. Seen as also the other three tactics of intimidation,
exemplification and supplication are of great added value to the research they will be
discussed below.
Though intimidation is in a sense the opposite of ingratiation, successful intimidation
may lead to ingratiation from the other party. This is described by the intimidator’s
illusion. The intimidating individual may come to think that his behavior is liked and
accepted and in reality it is detested. The liking an acceptance are a result of the
strategic ingratiation of the target audience to counter balance the influence
(Rosenfeld et al., 1995, p.53).
With the tactic of exemplification there is also a clear danger involved that might
inhibit the success of using this strategy. The danger is if the behavior does not match
what the exemplifier has claimed. A good example of this may be President Bill
Clinton who made speeches about the importance of family values and personal
responsibility while at the same time there where stories of him having an extra-
marital affaire and was accused of sexual harassment by a former state employee.
What he preached did not match what he practiced (Rosenfeld et al., 1995). As can be
seen in the graph presented above by using exemplification the risk is run to be seen
as hypocrite or exploitative (Jones & Pittman, 1982). With the final tactic of
supplication the risk is created to be perceived as lazy and demanding. As mentioned
earlier in this chapter with this tactic the danger lies in its overuse (Rosenfeld et al.,
1995).
Final Thesis M. Schokker
29
On the other hand, next to the pitfalls, there are also some aspects that can help
individuals use impression management in a better manner. Schlenker & Weigold
(1992) found some interesting aspects concerning how people can effectively control
their strategic impression management attempts. Confident people are better at
intentionally conveying desired images to target audiences with both verbal an
nonverbal channels (DePaulo, 1992). Furthermore social anxiety is associated with
overall creating a poorer impression on the individuals around them (Schlenker &
Weigold, 1992, p.149). Finally Snyder, 1974 did an interesting research on the
concept of self-monitoring. It is mentioned that high self-monitors, so individuals that
in a high frequency and accurate manner control and observe their expressive
behavior and that of others, are good at learning what is socially correct in new
situations and are able to apply this when creating and new impression they want
(Snyder, 1974, p.536). In addition, individuals with high self-monitoring scores were
better at intentionally expressing and communicating emotion in verbal and nonverbal
manners than those with low self-monitoring scores (Snyder, 1974).
3.5 Conclusion
Throughout this chapter several types of impression management have been
discussed. In the first section attention was given to the differences and also to the
importance of using verbal as well as nonverbal strategies when engaging in
impression management. The next part focused on the Jones and Pittman (1982)
taxonomy. In detail each of the five strategic self-presentational strategies was
explained. In the final part of this chapter attention was devoted to the several factors
and dangers than can decide upon and influence the success of each impression
management tactic presented earlier.
In the next chapter of this paper the above discussed behaviors will be analyzed
within organizational teams. Furthermore a look shall be taken at interactions and
developments of groups overtime.
Final Thesis M. Schokker
30
Chapter 4: Impression Management in organizational teams 4.1.Introduction In this chapter a look will be taken at the role that impression management can have
within an organizational group or team. Within a group setting there are multiple
targets, achieving ones goal may be more complex as one may be forced to manage
several impressions at one time (Bolino & Turnley, 2003). First of all reasons as to
why impression management is likely to take place within a team shall be analyzed.
Secondly how teams may develop over time will be looked at and how because of it
being a dynamic developing process a longitudinal approach would be a good tool.
Finally some measures and scales of impression management will be looked at to be
able to conduct a quantitative study in the empirical part of this thesis.
4.2 Impression management behaviors in organizations
In organizations people are continuously in social interactions with each other and
social interaction has an element of interdependence in it (Schlenker, 1980). It can
therefore be said that impression management is an important concept within the
organization. Most research in the field of impression management in organizations
has concentrated on upward impression management. Several studies, such as Kipnis
and Schmidt (1988) and Wayne & Ferris (1990) have focused on the effects that
subordinate impression management has on performance ratings by the supervisor and
found support for it. Another organizational field that has received quite some
attention in the area of impression management, is job interviews and assessment
centers. It was found that both verbal and nonverbal impression management tactics
affect the assessors evaluation (McFarland et al., 2005).
Research on lateral or even downward impression management has been limited. This
may clearly be related to the idea that most often impression management takes place
in situations where the target audience has high status or power and the actor is
dependent and wants to influence those higher in the hierarchy.
Nowadays organizations often rely on small groups or teams to accomplish tasks
(Gersick, 1989). Generally when people will be interacting further with someone in
the future they are motivated to form an accurate impression of this person (Vonk,
Final Thesis M. Schokker
31
2002). As interaction in a group is a dynamic and continuous process it seems logical
to expect that impression management also plays a role in the interactions within
teams.
4.2.1. Teams in organizational settings.
The academic and management press has increasingly reinforced the importance of
teams for the success of organizations in the modern economy (Cohen & Bailey,
1997). In response to competitive challenges the use of teams has developed
significantly. In companies of 100 or more employees 82% responded to use teams
(Gordon, 1992). A team in an organization is defined by Cohen & Bailey (1997) “a
collection of individuals who are interdependent in their tasks, who share
responsibility for outcomes, who see themselves and who are seen by others as an
intact social entity embedded in a larger social system and who manage their
relationships across organizational boundaries” (p.241)
Groups or teams can vary in the degree of interdependence and integration. Group and
team seem to be two interchangeable words, but some authors have labeled a group
with a high degree of integration and interdependence a team (Cohen & Bailey, 1997).
There are several types of teams but the one that will be referred to throughout this
thesis is a project team. They produce a one-time output, such as a new product or in
this case a final project paper and presentation. Project teams are often used as a
response to time-based competition (Cohen & Bailey, 1997).
4.3 Impression Management and project teams over time.
It seems reasonable to expect that within students project teams most individuals
would like their peer students to see them as desirable colleagues to work with.
Certain types of impression management tactics are effective at achieving such
images (Wayne & Ferris, 1990). On the one hand this could mean that individuals
who are passive in using impression management should be seen as less favorable by
others than individuals who do use a certain degree of impression management. On
the other hand, attempts to manage impressions sometimes go wrong and rebound
which could result in unfavorable images. It seems reasonable to suppose that the
most favorable image will be adjudicated to those who are selective in their use of
Final Thesis M. Schokker
32
impression management and emphasize more positive impression behaviors (Bolino
& Turnley, 2003).
It was suggested by Jones (1964) that the target of an ingratiation attempt is most
likely more positive than the bystander who observes the exchange. When witnessing
such an ingratiation exchange, as a bystander you are more likely to question the
motives (Gordon, 1996). This would mean that indeed when using impression
management tactics in a group you need to be more alert then in a dyadic situation.
Seen that not only the target will form an impression and opinion but also the
bystanders (the remaining group members).
Expectation-states theorists have argued that “group status and influence are
determined by the performance expectations that groups hold about their members;
competent individuals are granted higher levels of status in the group and are more
influential than those who are less competent” (Carli, Loeber, & LaFleur, 1995,
p.1038). Rephrasing the above it can be argued that indeed the use of impression
management tactics that make an individual be perceived as more competent can be in
his advantage and may in the end result in more status in the group.
Another activity that often takes place at the beginning of a group task is mimicry.
Newly formed teams may benefit from unconscious imitation as well as long
established groups (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999). Mimicry is an aspect of the
“chameleon effect” which says that people unconsciously imitate, postures, facial
expressions and other behaviors of one’s interaction partners so that one’s behavior
changes to match that of others. The positive effects that occur from the chameleon
effect such as liking, empathy and bonding are likely to benefit most newly formed
groups in which relationships are still to be established, and it would guide the initial
feelings of the team members in a positive direction (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999). This
could lead us to expect that at the beginning stage of a project team, people might
engage in impression management tactics to be able to mimic the behaviors of others.
4.3.1 Role of Impression Management
In a dynamic group situation several processes are present and impression
management is likely to be one of them. As described above a team is characterized
by interdependence and integration and obviously the team members interact with
Final Thesis M. Schokker
33
each other throughout the time of the project. For the individual members to achieve
their own goals as well as the outcome of the group, they will try to influence each
other. Berger, Fisek, Norman & Zelditch (1977) mentioned that the influence a
member has will depend on it expected performance and competence. Trough
impression management individuals can make peer team members believe they are
competent and in turn be able to achieve their goals. Impression management clearly
differs whether analyzed on a one-to-one situation or in a team perspective. Because
the audience in a group is consistent of more than two individuals one needs to be
aware that each person might react and interpret differently to the different impression
management tactics. Overall this is why the tactics that and individual will choose and
also the (interpersonal) outcomes it may lead to will differ on a group level.
Some of the crucial aspects that cause the group to be a different and also difficult
stage for impression management acting are discussed below:
Audience and bystander
Before deciding to use a certain impression management tactic it is wisely for the
actor to try and identify his audience. It was discovered by Gurevitch (1984) that the
higher the degree of perceived similarity between the actor and the audience, the more
pronounced are the effects of self-promotion. It therefore is important to consider
audience similarity before undertaking a form of strategic self-presentation.
Clearly this process will be more complicating in a group situation rather than in a
dyadic situation. In order to communicate speakers and listeners must define what
forms their “ common ground” (Schlenker & Weigold, 1992, p.155). For
communication to be effective it needs to fit the audience value systems and
knowledge. For example DePaulo & Coleman (1986) discovered differences in the
types of speech used to talk to a foreigner with English as a second language, a native
adult and a child. It seems straight forward to use that the process of decoding the “
common ground” of the audience becomes more challenging when the audience is
composed of more than two people, a team.
This can easily be related to the concept of bystander. If as an individual you target a
tactic at only one person the rest becomes bystanders. For example by using
ingratiation, Jones (1964) suggested, the target is most likely more impressed than the
bystander (Gordon, 1996). People find it difficult to remain indifferent when someone
Final Thesis M. Schokker
34
has flattered them. While on the other hand the bystander might actually start
questioning the motives of such ingratiation and may even feel “ left out”, which
might affect his self-esteem and could turn out negatively (Vonk, 2002). It seems that
the fact that in a group audience some people will act as bystanders, is another factor
makes impression management more complex.
People perceptions
A good impression manager must have knowledge about how different people will
interpret different behaviors in different manner (Schneider, 1981). This has to do
with attributional processes. For example the activity of volunteering to stay late at
work may be interpreted as helpful and competent but also as pushy and arrogant
depending on the mental attributional framework of the person (Schneider, 1981). It
seems reasonable to expect that this process will become even more complex in a
team where different target audience people are present and each may have its own
manner of interpreting a certain behavior.
Interaction within the audience
Furthermore the interaction within the audience will also be an extra complicating
factor. In a group situation people will be influenced by other members of the group
when forming an impression. A good example is one earlier used in this thesis of the
study of Rosenfeld, Giacalone and Tedeschi (1983) on humor and impression
management. It was indeed proven that when evaluating a funny cartoon people
evaluated the cartoon even more positively when there was another person present
that was noticeably laughing at the cartoon than when alone. This effect is likely to
take place more often in a group structure for some of the impression management
tactics.
4.3.2. Group development and interaction: Why a dynamic view?
Impression management takes place in the context of social interactions within
organizations. Where a single behavior or tactic is part of a much larger interpersonal
system. It therefore seems appropriate that an impression management model is able
Final Thesis M. Schokker
35
to illustrate strategic self-presentation in terms of a process (Bozeman & Kacmar,
1997). Impression management in real world situations and organizations occurs in a
dynamic manner, it is a sequential iterative process that develops and occurs during
multiple sequences of social interactions (Bozeman & Kacmar, 1997, p.13).
Another reason why a longitudinal approach might be of added value is that it may be
that individual’s impressions are time sensitive. Some impression tactics may only be
effective over short periods while others may be more effective when used
repetitively over a longer time spam (Turnley & Bolino, 2001). A further reason why
longitudinal research or a dynamic view is needed it because as for example claimed
by Schlenker (1980) and by Leary (1990) people will generally present themselves in
a positive manner, using self-promotion, when they suppose that these claims will not
be challenged or doubted (Giacalone & Rosenfeld, 1986). It can be expected that self-
promotion as an impression management tactic will decrease as a team or group
works together for a longer period as the peers might be able to challenge the claims
with contradictory evidence.
Several studies have proven that under time constraints groups adjust both their rate of
work but also their style of interaction (Gersick, 1989). This could lead us to expect
that the frequency and forms of impression management may also differ within the
group as they approach the final deadline of the project.
4.4 Impression management scales
Up until 1999 impression management theory was measured using two approaches.
One was observing and recording participants impression management behavior under
natural conditions and experimental conditions (Bolino & Turnley, 1999). The
strengths of this method are that specific impression management behaviors can be
studied and the effects can be explored in great detail. Because most of these studies
are conducted in laboratories it is disputable in how far these results may be
generalizable for organizational settings (Bolino & Turnley, 1999).
The other approach is the use of an impression management scale. Either one
developed by Wayne and Ferris (1990) or Kumar and Beyerlein (1991).
Final Thesis M. Schokker
36
Scale by Wayne and Ferris (1990)
It measures how often individuals engage in either supervisor, self or job-focused
impression management. A benefit of this scale is that the collected data is self-
reported by the individuals. Yet, there also seem to be some downsides. First of all the
scale was initially not developed to measure impression management, which makes it
difficult to be able to make theoretical claims. Secondly, the impression management
tactics such as intimidation and supplication are remarkably absent (Bolino &
Turnley, 1999, p.189). Therefore it can be said that the scale suffers from some strong
limitations.
Scale by Kumar and Beyerlein (1991)
This scale is called Measure of Ingratiatory Behaviors in Organizational Settings
(MIBOS). This 24-item scale, captures the extent to which individuals engage in
various forms of ingratiation. A clear limitation is the focus on only one impression
management strategy. A final limitation that applies to both scales is the overlap that
might exist with organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Measuring scales on both
impression management and OCB seem to have quite some remarkable question items
in common (Bolino & Turnley, 1999).
Taking all these limitations into account and also trying to build on existing
impression management behavior theory a new instrument was developed.
4.4.1. Scale based on Jones and Pittman’s Taxonomy
In 1983 Jones and Pittman developed taxonomy to capture a variety of impression
management behaviors. Five theoretical groups of impression management were
identified that are mostly used by individuals. The taxonomy includes the five
strategies explained in detail in chapter three: ingratiation, self-promotion,
exemplification, intimidation and supplication. Because of it wide focus on all five
strategies it is well suited for scale development (Bolino & Turnley, 1999). Before the
taxonomy proposed by Jones and Pittman usually the focus of most researchers was
on self-promotion and ingratiation and not on the remaining three tactics. One
limitation that could be mentioned is the lack of focus on nonverbal expressions and
behaviors, which as noted earlier are of great importance to complement verbal
expressions (DePaulo, 1992) .
Final Thesis M. Schokker
37
When comparing this scale to the two mentioned above it can be stated that indeed the
scale developed by Bolino and Turnley (1999) has the most advantages and has been
able to reduce the limitations to only not being able to encompass all types of
behaviors such as nonverbal behavior. It has been widely tested and is suitable for
organizational settings. Because of its reliability and the possibility to use it in
organizational settings the scale was used in this thesis. More factual information on
the scale will be discussed in the methodology section.
4.5 Conclusion
During this chapter a more in depth look has been taken into the role of impression
management in an organizational setting with specific focus on organizational project
teams. Furthermore reasons for the use of impression management tactics were
analyzed and why a dynamic or longitudinal approach seems to be essential to
measure these effects. At the end of the chapter a look was taken at several impression
management scales that have been used in the past and why in this research the Bolino
and Turnley (1999) scale was chosen to be able to conduct a quantitative research.
After having analyzed the history of impression management, the different types that
exist, the problems that can be encountered and its importance within organizations
we have come to the end of the theoretical part of this thesis. In the next section the
empirical research will be set up with the different hypothesis that will be tested and
the model to visualize them.
Final Thesis M. Schokker
38
Chapter 5: Hypothesis and Research Model 5.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters the theoretical build-up was presented in order to lead
towards the empirical research of this thesis. It can be said that clearly the importance
and also the focus of researchers on impression management within organizations is
increasing. A reason why individuals engage in impression management is to
influence the image or judgments that others may form of them. The goals that most
individuals want to reach with these impression management behaviors is to be seen
in a favorable or desirable way by others. To be perceived as desirable can have
advantages such as being evaluated in a more positive way by a supervisor (Wayne
and Liden, 1995) or by even having a more successful career as Judge and Bretz
(1994) found. In the case of an organizational setting, it can be expected that
individuals, working a lot of the times in teams, would like to be seen as a desirable
colleague or team member by the other group members. This is a form of lateral
impression management attempt. This form of impression management has not been
researched in abundance yet. Most research has focused on upward influence
attempts. The reason is that impression management is used more frequently in
situations where the target is of higher status and has more power, and where the
individual is dependent upon that target (Jones, 1964). With the increasing importance
and popularity of project teams and multidisciplinary teams in organizations, lateral
impression management seems an interesting topic within this field of research. This
thesis indeed focuses on lateral impression management and next to that uses three
interpersonal outcomes that will function as dependent variables in this research. This
variables are perceived performance, liking and perceived competence. It is expected
that appearing competent and being seen as a high-performer are characteristics that
are of importance to individuals working in teams as these characteristics will
contribute to the individual being a desirable colleague or individual that they would
like to work with again. Furthermore, a third dependent variable that was used was
liking as obviously being seen as likeable will contribute to colleagues willing to work
with that individual again and having a favorable image of him/her. Wayne and Ferris
(1990), found in their research that indeed the usage of impression management by
subordinates was able to increase the superior’s liking for them. Except from studying
the lateral impression management aspects within teams, this will also be a
Final Thesis M. Schokker
39
longitudinal research. It is expected that impression management or at least some
forms of it may be time-sensitive. Some impression management tactics may only be
effective over short-time periods, while others may become more effective when used
repeatedly over a longer period of time (Turnley & Bolino, 2001). Another factor that
may contribute is that simply by working together for a longer period of time and so
being more acquainted with one another there may be less attempts to use impression
management in a team as the “real image” of the self is every time more difficult to
hide. In the next section the different hypotheses that will be studied will be formed.
5.2 Hypotheses
In order to be able to give a clear overview of the several hypotheses that will be
researched and tested throughout this thesis the hypotheses are ordered according to
the impression management tactic being used by the individual within the group or
team. Throughout the formulation of the hypothesis the terms performance and
competence shall be used. In reality it is meant perceived competence and
performance as it is rated by how other peer group members evaluate that individual
on the basis of these variables, seen that objective data on these variables was not
collected.
Ingratiation
Ingratiation has the goal of making the individual more liked and attractive to others.
The challenge is to find out what it is that the audience finds attractive and provide it
(Schlenker, 1980). The positive relationship between ingratiation and liking has been
studied and demonstrated in several occasions (Jones, 1964; Wayne&Liden, 1995;
Turnley &Bolino, 2001). It was Bolino and Turnley who actually did measure
ingratiation in a group, but a dyadic approach was still used and they did not find a
significant direct correlation between the two. It can be expected that in a group
composition like the sub-groups in this sample, using ingratiation may be more
difficult as there are different people in the audience, people perceive things
differently and the interaction may not be the same with each individual from the
audience. Furthermore a study by Kipnis & Schmidt (1988) found that individuals
who engage in ingratiation in social context tend to receive positive performance
Final Thesis M. Schokker
40
evaluations. In a different research by Watt (1993) it is argued that next to receiving
higher performance evaluations these employees were also judged as being more
competent and receiving better overall performance appraisals. These links between
ingratiation and perceived competence and performance have most of the time been
studied on a dyadic level, and for an upward relationship such as subordinate and
supervisor. For the reasons stated above it would be interesting to research them on a
group level as it will require more skill and it takes place on a lateral relationship
basis.
Hypothesis 1a: The use of ingratiation of one group member has a positive effect on
the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s performance over
time.
Hypothesis 1b: The use of ingratiation of one group member has a positive effect on
the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s liking over time.
Hypothesis 1c: The use of ingratiation of one group member has a positive effect on
the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s competence over
time.
Self-promotion
The tactic of self-promotion strives at achieving an image of competence. In some
manner it is closely related to ingratiation and it could also attract an image of
likeability. Yet a self-promoter is more self-descriptive when trying to convince
others. It can be a difficult tactic as appearing competent can also be intimidating, but
it is certainly possible to portray and image of competence without causing fear to the
audience (Jones & Pittman, 1982). It will most likely be quite difficult on a group
level to use self-promotion as the possibility for the claims being challenged is high.
These chances might increase in a group situation as there is more information
available than in a dyadic situation as researched before. Furthermore as time goes on
in a group and members get more acquainted with each other, more empirical
evidence will be present from each individuals behavior and so the use of self-
promotion might become more difficult. It could also happen that the actor at such a
Final Thesis M. Schokker
41
stage tries to keep the image of perceived competence through more aggressive tactics
such as intimidation.
Self-promotion is also a tactic that carries to an immediate goal such as getting
chosen for a job position or receiving a good final grade with a team project (Tedeschi
& Reiss, 1981 p.11) Lastly with the use of ingratiation individuals receive better
overall performance appraisals and are seen as more competent, this could as be tested
for self-promoters as they strive to achieve an image of competence and may in turn
also receive better overall performance evaluations.
Hypothesis 2a: The use of self-promotion of one group member has a positive effect
on the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s performance
over time.
Hypothesis 2b: The use of self- promotion of one group member has a positive effect
on the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s liking over time.
Hypothesis 2c: The use of self- promotion of one group member has a positive effect
on the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s competence
over time.
Exemplification
The individual using exemplification wants to be admired and respected for his
integrity and moral decency. Between other this individual wants to be seen as
charitable and honest. To be effective one must be an exemplar of morality
(Rosenfeld et al, 1995). In the research by Bolino & Turnley (2001) it is stated that
individuals using exemplification are most of the time seen as dedicated by their
peers, also because they tend to work harder when others are looking at them. This
may lead to the group attributing this individual an image of higher perceived
competence and in turn performance. In the same way as the other two tactics
described above it will be interesting to see how this relationship develops overtime.
For the aspect of liking it is difficult to state whether the relationship will be positive
or negative on a group level. On the one hand the individual wants to be seen as
honest, integer and wants to be admired and respected. Some of these elements are
Final Thesis M. Schokker
42
achieved in an easier way when the audience likes the target, yet by being an
exemplifier you may not always work hard but only when peers look. Overtime this
may become more difficult and peers might start to “ discover” the “game” you are
playing. This in turn can lead to peers certainly not liking the target. In the end
exemplification is described by Turnley & Bolino (2003) as a positive impression
management tactic, so the relationship is hypothesized as a positive one.
Hypothesis 3a: The use of exemplification of one group member has a positive effect
on the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s performance
over time.
Hypothesis 3b: :The use of exemplification of one group member has a positive effect
on the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s liking over time.
Hypothesis 3c: : The use of exemplification of one group member has a positive effect
on the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s competence
over time.
Supplication
This strategy is most often used by individuals who find it difficult to bring into
practice any of the other tactics. In the attempt to be viewed as needy the individual
makes the other peers feel that they have to help that individual (Turnley & Bolino,
2001). One heavy cost attached to using this tactic is the costs of one’s self-esteem, by
admitting one’s incompetence in a certain field or task. Compensatory exchanges
were mentioned as one manner of using supplication. In this manner both individuals
profit form each others competence in a certain field and the best possible end result
will be presented (Rosenfeld et al., 1995). This may especially take place overtime
within project teams such as the ones on our sample. By the individuals deliberately
displaying his or her incompetence in a certain field it is expected to also affect the
group evaluation of the overall performance in a negative manner. In the study by
Turnley & Bolino (2001) it was found that individuals tend to be perceived as
unfavorable by their peers. If a peer evaluates a group member unfavorably it is also
Final Thesis M. Schokker
43
expected that this individual will be evaluated more negatively as to how much he/she
is liked.
Hypothesis 4a: The use of supplication of one group member has a negative effect on
the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s performance over
time.
Hypothesis 4b: The use of supplication of one group member has a negative effect
on the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s liking over time.
Hypothesis 4c: The use of supplication of one group member has a negative effect on
the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s competence over
time.
Intimidation
This individual wants to be feared. It is a strategy designed to increase the credibility
of the threats posed and to increase the probability that to the audience will agree with
the demands of the individual (Tedeschi & Reiss, 1981). It is most likely to occur in
nonvoluntary relationships. Next to downward relationships, non voluntary
relationship can also take place in a lateral relationship such as a sub-group of
students, who are no friends and do not particularly like each other. It is expected that
there will be a negative relationship between the use of intimidation and the group
level evaluation on the aspect of liking since the individual is seen as a less attractive
actor (Jones & Pittman, 1982). It is stated also by Jones and Pittman that these
individuals might in some cases receive favorable performance evaluations out of
fear. However it is more likely to expect a negative relationship, especially in groups
where working together is important and intimidators are not seen as favorable group
members. Finally if the tactic of intimidation backfires, actors are seen as less
effective (Jones & Pittman, 1982). It is in turn likely to also expect a negative
relationship overtime between intimidation and perceived competence. The reason
why as time passes it is interesting to study the effects is also because the individual
has more opportunities to use this tactics, but in turn also more chances to carry it out
wrongly, it is not just one point in time.
Final Thesis M. Schokker
44
Hypothesis 5a: The use of intimidation of one group member has a negative effect on
the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s performance over
time.
Hypothesis 5b:. The use of intimidation of one group member has a negative effect on
the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s liking over time.
Hypothesis 5c: The use of intimidation of one group member has a negative effect on
the average evaluation by other group members on that member’s competence over
time.
All of the above hypotheses were tested in two moments in time. As explained in
earlier stages of this thesis, as time passes, group members get more acquainted with
each other and time cohesiveness is likely to increase. In an earlier stage individuals
are usually also more concerned with creating an image towards individuals they have
just met and it is therefore of interest to research the effects in two time periods.
Finally before presenting the research model, it was found that an overall exploratory
question could also be analyzed with the available data in this study.
Exploratory question The frequency of using each of the five impression
management tactics within a team will decrease as time is elapsed.
This change overtime is expected, as groups develop in a certain manner and get
acquainted with each other over time. As time elapses it is likely that the real
characteristics of the individuals will start to appear. This in turn might influence the
choice of strategy being used and will decrease the frequency of using impression
management strategies at all as the dangers of being seen as false increase.
F
inal
Th
esis
M.
Sch
ok
ker
4
5
Fig 2: Hyp
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rch m
odel
Dep
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Inde
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Var
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Dep
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Final Thesis M. Schokker
46
Chapter 6: Methodology 6.1 Introduction In the last chapter the hypotheses that will be investigated in this research were
presented together with the overall research model that embodies all the hypotheses
and gives a clear overview of the empirical research that will be done throughout this
thesis. In this chapter the type of researched will be explained as well as the manner in
which the data was collected and the way in which the sample was chosen.
Furthermore some more information will be given on the control variables that were
included in the research as well as the manner in which independent as well as the
dependent variables were measured. In the next chapters 7 and 8 attention will be
devoted to the results of the empirical testing and the interpretation of those.
Furthermore a look will be taken at the limitation of the research together with some
future suggestions and finally a conclusion shall be drawn.
6.2 Research type In the book by Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler (2005) a distinction is made between
three different types of research that can be done. Exploratory, descriptive and casual
researches are these three types. Exploratory research is most often used when
researchers lack a clear idea of the several problems that can be met during the study
itself. It is usually of use when a study is so vague and new that exploration is used to
discover something about the problem. Descriptive research is one with the objective
to describe something. The information that will be needed is clearly defined
beforehand and it tries to answer questions such as what, when, who, where and how
(Blumberg, Cooper, & Schlindler, 2003). Finally casual research tries to obtain
evidence for a cause-and-effect relationship. The study in this thesis tries to
investigate how the five impression management tactics presented before are related
to perceived performance, perceived competence and liking on a group level. But
clearly the five impression management tactics are not the only factors or variables
affecting any of the three dependent variables therefore this is a descriptive research.
Moreover this research is also longitudinal, intending to track changes over time in
the use of the different impression management tactics. More information on the exact
Final Thesis M. Schokker
47
manner in which data was collected will be given later on in this chapter. Finally the
research was not conducted under conditions of a simulation; it was conducted under
actual environmental conditions.
6.3 Sample The target population for the study is all organizational work/project groups. As an
alternative or proxy for organizational work/project groups it was chosen to use
students from the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration at the
University of Maastricht. The students were all attending a 2nd
/3rd
quantitative elective
“Value-Based management” and were working together in sub-groups of 3-4 people
during a period of seven weeks. The course consisted of 173 students. 162 students
filled out some part of the questionnaire at least in the first or second measurement of
the longitudinal research. Of those 162 students, it was 110 valid questionnaires that
were filled in period one and 101 that were filled in in period two. So the sample of
this research is 110 for period one and 101 students for period two. The questionnaires
were handed out at the end of each tutorial group by the tutor and participation was
voluntary. It is expected that sub-groups, working together on several assignments and
a final project for the course, are representative for organizational teams. In both cases
individuals work together with other individuals and also need to accomplish a
common goal.
Then mean age of the sample was 21 with a minimum of 19 and a maximum age of
27. The majority of the students had a German nationality (60, 5 %), with furthermore
42 Dutch students (25, 9 %) and 18 students (11, 1 %) that belonged to a different
nationality. In total four individuals did not specify their nationality. Of the
respondents, 42 were female and 118 (72, 8 %) were male another two respondents
did not specify.
6.4 Data collection The type of data that was used for this research was primary data. It was collected
with the help of a questionnaire, at two points in time. It is therefore a longitudinal
research. The two points at which the data were collected were weeks one and week
seven of a study block. The reason why it was chosen to do it in this way was because
Final Thesis M. Schokker
48
at the first measurement point students would only be shortly acquainted with each
other and would have had the opportunity to use impression management tactics.
While at the second measurement point students will have been working together in a
more intensive manner, also having had maybe some stress points (seeing as the
course involved handing in some project before a deadline). This might have led to
individuals showing how they really are and will most likely decrease the usage of
impression management over time as the opportunity of using impression
management successfully becomes more difficult. Research done by Blickle (2003)
stresses that the longer the actor and the assessor have known each other the more
positively he/she will rate the performance of the actor. Due to the fact that the
impression formed is based more on practical evidence and is more complete.
In the questionnaires students were asked to rate their own impression management
behavior according to the five impression management tactics, with the help of a five
point Likert scale. Furthermore, they also had to provide their perceptions on the other
group members of the sub-group they were working in. Each group member of the
team was evaluated by other 2-3 group members. The questionnaires had to be filled
in without any discussion with other group members. After the completion of the
questionnaires they were handed back to the tutor who put them back into the
envelope and the researcher collected them at the end of each meeting. Each student
was asked to fill-in their name and that of the group members they were rating in
order for the researcher to link the questionnaires and data together afterwards.
Complete confidentiality was guaranteed to all students.
6.5 Variable measurement To prevent the results of the study being biased some control variables were included.
These variables may in some way have an effect on the dependent variables
(perceived competence, perceived performance and liking) but are not in any manner
at the center of the study (Blumberg, Cooper & Schindler, 2005). The control
variables that were included were: whether the individual had any professional
experience, whether he/she knew the group member he/she was rating beforehand, the
nationality of the subject and the sex of the subject. The first variable was included
because it can be expected that the fact that an individual has professional experience
may mean that he/she possesses better skills to bring impression management tactics
Final Thesis M. Schokker
49
to a successful end. As these skills might be used more often in organizational life and
therefore also trained more often. This could lead to rating this student on a higher
scale for competence or performance. Furthermore the control variable of knowing
each other before and being friends or not could influence the dependent variable of
liking in the sense that an individual will most likely rate a person, who he/she knew
before and is friends with, as very likeable. Even though this individual might not use
any impression management tactics or might even use some that portray a very
different image. There is simply from the beginning onwards more complete
information available to that person. Finally control variables such as sex and
nationality of the subject were also included to see if they caused any extra effect. As
it was for example found that women exhibiting a power were perceived as less
likable and less influential than their male colleagues doing the same (Carli et al.,
1995). This could mean that women using certain impression management tactics may
be perceived differently than their male colleagues.
As described in earlier chapters of this thesis the scale that will be used to measure the
impression management behaviors in this study is the Bolino and Turnley scale
(1999). The scale was designed and also tested in an extensive manner by Bolino and
Turnley to measure the impression management tactics identified earlier in 1982 by
Jones and Pittman. The advantage of this measurement is that is focuses on an
empirically tested taxonomy of five behaviors, and that these behaviors are likely to
be used by people in organizations. As mentioned earlier it is therefore suited for this
research seeing that our student project teams working together over a period of time
is comparable to the increasingly important organizational teams in companies. Most
research has focused on the tactics of ingratiation and self-promotion, in this research
with the use of this scale attention is also devoted to exemplification, supplication and
intimidation.
The scale consists of 23 items which measured the extent to which individuals use the
five different impression management tactics. Students were asked to indicate how
accurate some statements described their behavior. They had to do so with the use of a
Likert scale ranging from 1- never to 5- very often. Some of the statements were
slightly reworded to suit the sample of project groups that were used. To show the
reliability of this scale for the five impression management tactics, below a small
table is included to show the Cronbach Alpha’s for all five strategies at the two
measurement points in time. As can be seen all the alpha’s are well above 0,6 and so
Final Thesis M. Schokker
50
the scale with which each strategy was measured can be considered reliable. A sample
item from the questionnaire is: “ I let other group members know how hard I have
been working on this project”.
Fig 2: Cronbach Alpha’s Results
week 1 week 7
Ingratiation 0,7004 0,7953
Self-promotion 0,8044 0,8412
Exemplification 0,6791 0,7456
Supplication 0,7636 0,8165
Intimidation 0,7427 0,8043
Furthermore the three dependent variables of liking, perceived competence and
perceived performance were also measured with the help of three questions each.
Liking
The degree to which other group members evaluated the target group member as
likeable was measured with the following three questions: “I like this group member
very much as a person”, “I think this group member would make good friend” and “I
would like to work with this person again in another group task”. These first two
questions were developed by Wayne and Ferris (1990) and were slightly adapted in
wording to suit the purpose, the final question seemed suitable to measure liking in
such a sub-group setting. The group members were asked to evaluate these statements
on a 5-point Likert scale for each of their peer sub-group members. The three items
correlated 0,85 in week 1 and 0,87 in week seven. The mean of the three questions
was taken for a person’s Liking and the mean of all the group members who answered
questions about the peer group member was taken to measure liking on a group level.
Perceived competence
A group member was measured by three questions answered by peer group members
on the aspect of perceived competence. The following three questions needed to be
answered on a five-point Likert scale: “this person is competent concerning the group
task”, “this person has got the necessary expertise for this group” and “this person is
talented and skilled”. The items correlated with each other 0,91 and 0,93 in week
seven. The mean of the three questions was taken for a person’s perceived
competence and the mean of all the group members who answered questions about the
peer group member was taken to measure perceived competence on a group level.
Final Thesis M. Schokker
51
Perceived performance
Finally this dependent variable was also measured with the help of three questions.
The questions were taken from the article by Wayne and Liden ( 1995) who
developed three questions to measure performance. The questions were slightly
rephrased to suit the target group, and were answered with the help of a five-point
Likert scale. A sample item is “ this group member has been effectively fulfilling
his/her roles and responsibilities”. The three items correlated with each other 0,85 in
week 1 and 0,92 in week seven. The mean of the three questions was taken for a
person’s perceived performance and the mean of all the group members who
answered questions about the peer group member was taken to measure perceived
performance on a group level.
The whole questionnaire can be found in the Appendix A.
6.6 Factor analysis
A factor analysis was conducted for the terms measuring perceived performance and
perceived competence. It resulted in the fact they all these terms measure the same
component. So for this reason perceived competence and performance were united
into one variable: “ Perceived Performance”. As can be seen in Chapter 5 there were
several hypotheses to test the relation between one of the impression management
tactics and perceived competence. Because these two variables have been united into
one all hypotheses with the letter c will no longer be tested.
6.7 Conclusion
This chapter has delineated and explained a more detail the empirical part of this
study and how the variables have been measured. Several aspects such as data
collection, the sample and the questionnaire itself are important elements of a good
empirical study and have been explained. This thesis is a descriptive, longitudinal
research that uses primary data collected with the help of questionnaires from a
sample group of Business and Economics students from the University of Maastricht.
In the next chapter the results and their interpretation shall follow.
Final Thesis M. Schokker
52
Chapter 7: Results 7.1 Introduction In this chapter of the thesis, the hypotheses that were set up earlier will be tested using
the statistical program called SPSS. The data that will be analyzed are directly taken
from the questionnaires filled out by student sub-groups. The first part will be
dedicated to the descriptive statistics. While the second part will be focusing on the
testing of the hypotheses.
7.2 Descriptives
7.2.1 Description of the sample
The total sample consisted of 162 respondents. As can be seen from the table below
the ages ranged between 19 and 27. The mean age was calculated to be 21 and the
maximum age was 27. When looking at the nationality of the subjects it can be seen
that of the 162, 158 respondents answered this question. Of the sample 60,5 % were
German students and 25,9% were Dutch the remaining 11,1 % were neither of those
two nationalities.
Figure 4 Figure 5
A striking difference was found concerning the sex of the individuals. 72,8% were
male and only 25,9% were female.
In the questionnaire some control variables were also included, such as whether they
had switched groups over the past seven weeks or whether they had any form of
professional experience. 124 individual responded to the question of having switched
groups and another 38 individuals left it blank. Yet of those 124 it was only nine
individuals that answered positively, so only 5,6% of the sample. In other words the
sex of subject
118 72,8
42 25,9
160 98,8
2 1,2
162 100,0
male
female
Total
Valid
9999Missing
Total
Frequency Percent
age of subject
16 9,9
22 13,6
49 30,2
48 29,6
17 10,5
5 3,1
2 1,2
159 98,1
3 1,9
162 100,0
19
20
21
22
23
24
27
Total
Valid
9999Missing
Total
Frequency Percent
Final Thesis M. Schokker
53
data of this control variable was little and therefore not of much added value.
Furthermore the question whether they possessed professional experience was
answered positively by 53,1% of the respondents while another 43,8% did not have
any professional experience.
Figure 6
For each sample, hereby it is meant the respondents answering in week one and the
respondents answering in week seven, a Kolmogorov- Smirnov test was done. This
test is used to test for the normality distribution of the sample. For both periods it is
indicated that most variables are not normally distributed seen as their significance is
less than .05. From now on most tests will be done for both week one and week
seven. For week one the sample will be 110 as indicated below and for week seven it
will be 101.
In addition to the above test the descriptive statistics are presented of the variables.
The statistics such as the mean and standard deviation are presented as well as the
kurtosis and skewness.
Figure 7
First of all a short look can be taken at the mean scores of the five different
impression management tactics. It can be seen that for the tactics of ingratiation, self-
promotion and exemplification there is not a big difference between their means.
