1 Managing Files: Basic Managing Files: Basic Concepts Concepts A database is a logically organized collection A database is a logically organized collection of related data designed and built for a of related data designed and built for a specific purpose specific purpose Data is stored hierarchically for easier Data is stored hierarchically for easier storage and retrieval storage and retrieval Files: collections of related records Files: collections of related records Records: collections of related fields Records: collections of related fields Field: unit of data containing 1 or more Field: unit of data containing 1 or more characters characters Character: a letter, number or special Character: a letter, number or special character made of bits character made of bits Bit: a 0 or 1 Bit: a 0 or 1
A database is a logically organized collection of A database is a logically organized collection of related data designed and built for a specific related data designed and built for a specific purposepurpose
Data is stored hierarchically for easier storage Data is stored hierarchically for easier storage and retrievaland retrieval
Files: collections of related recordsFiles: collections of related records Records: collections of related fieldsRecords: collections of related fields Field: unit of data containing 1 or more Field: unit of data containing 1 or more
characterscharacters Character: a letter, number or special character Character: a letter, number or special character
made of bitsmade of bits Bit: a 0 or 1Bit: a 0 or 1
Key Field – the field that identifies a recordKey Field – the field that identifies a record– Often an identifying number, such as social Often an identifying number, such as social
security numbersecurity number
– Primary keys must be Primary keys must be uniqueunique Keys are used to pick records out of a databaseKeys are used to pick records out of a database Unique keys make records stand out from each Unique keys make records stand out from each
otherother If two records had the same key, then you might If two records had the same key, then you might
not pick the correct onenot pick the correct one– Nonprimary keys are used to sort records in Nonprimary keys are used to sort records in
different waysdifferent ways– Foreign keys are fields that appear in two different Foreign keys are fields that appear in two different
tables and are used to relate one table to anothertables and are used to relate one table to another
Program files are files containing Program files are files containing software instructionssoftware instructions– Source program files are written by the Source program files are written by the
software developer in the programming software developer in the programming languagelanguage Double-clicking on them won’t run themDouble-clicking on them won’t run them They have file extensions like .cpp, .jav, .basThey have file extensions like .cpp, .jav, .bas
– Executable files are program files Executable files are program files translated so they can be executed on translated so they can be executed on the computerthe computer Double-clicking on them will cause them to runDouble-clicking on them will cause them to run They have file extensions like .exe or .comThey have file extensions like .exe or .com
Data files are files that contain data such as Data files are files that contain data such as words, numbers, pictures, or soundswords, numbers, pictures, or sounds– These are the files that are used in databasesThese are the files that are used in databases– They have extensions such as .txt .mdb, and .xlsThey have extensions such as .txt .mdb, and .xls– Graphics files have extensions like .tiff, .jpeg, and Graphics files have extensions like .tiff, .jpeg, and
.png.png– Audio files have extensions such as .mp3, .wav, Audio files have extensions such as .mp3, .wav,
and .midand .mid– Animation/video files have extensions such as .qt, Animation/video files have extensions such as .qt,
.mpg, .avi, and .rm.mpg, .avi, and .rm Data files are often compressed to save Data files are often compressed to save
space and transmit them faster space and transmit them faster – Compression removes repetitive elements from a Compression removes repetitive elements from a
Software written specifically to control the Software written specifically to control the structure of a database and access to the datastructure of a database and access to the data– Reduced data redundancyReduced data redundancy
Redundant data is stored in multiple places, Redundant data is stored in multiple places, which causes problems keeping all the copies which causes problems keeping all the copies currentcurrent
– Improved data integrityImproved data integrity Means the data is accurate, consistent, and up Means the data is accurate, consistent, and up
to dateto date– Increased securityIncreased security
Limits who can create, read, update, and delete Limits who can create, read, update, and delete the datathe data
– Ease of data maintenanceEase of data maintenance Offer validation checks, backup utilities, and Offer validation checks, backup utilities, and
procedures for data inserting, updating, and procedures for data inserting, updating, and deletiondeletion
3 Principal Components3 Principal Components Data DictionaryData Dictionary
– A repository that stores the data definitions A repository that stores the data definitions and descriptions of the structure of the data and descriptions of the structure of the data and the databaseand the database
DBMS UtilitiesDBMS Utilities– Programs that allow you to maintain the Programs that allow you to maintain the
database by creating, editing, deleting data, database by creating, editing, deleting data, records, and filesrecords, and files
– Also include automated backup and recoveryAlso include automated backup and recovery Report GeneratorReport Generator
– Program for producing an on-screen or printed Program for producing an on-screen or printed document form all or part of a databasedocument form all or part of a database
– A high-paid, responsible position within an A high-paid, responsible position within an organizationorganization
– Coordinates all related activities and Coordinates all related activities and needs for an organization’s databaseneeds for an organization’s database
– Ensures the database’sEnsures the database’s RecoverabilityRecoverability IntegrityIntegrity SecuritySecurity AvailabilityAvailability ReliabilityReliability Performance Performance
Fields or records are arranged in Fields or records are arranged in a family tree, with child records a family tree, with child records subordinate to parent or higher-subordinate to parent or higher-level recordslevel records
Like a hierarchical database, but Like a hierarchical database, but each child record can have more each child record can have more than one parent recordthan one parent record
Relates, or connects, data in Relates, or connects, data in different files through the use of different files through the use of a key, or common data elementa key, or common data element
Uses objects (software written in Uses objects (software written in small, reusable chunks) as small, reusable chunks) as elements within database fileselements within database files
Models data as facts, Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical dimensions, or numerical measures for use in the measures for use in the interactive analysis of large interactive analysis of large amounts of dataamounts of data
– Fields or records are arranged in related groups Fields or records are arranged in related groups resembling a family tree with child (low-level) records resembling a family tree with child (low-level) records subordinate to parent (high-level) recordssubordinate to parent (high-level) records
– Root record is the parent record at the top of the Root record is the parent record at the top of the database, and data is accessed through the hierarchydatabase, and data is accessed through the hierarchy
– Oldest and simplest; used in mainframesOldest and simplest; used in mainframes
– Similar to a hierarchical database, but each child record Similar to a hierarchical database, but each child record can have more than one parent recordcan have more than one parent record
– Used principally with mainframe computersUsed principally with mainframe computers– Requires the database structure to be defined in advanceRequires the database structure to be defined in advance
– Relates or connects data in different files Relates or connects data in different files through the use of a key, or common data through the use of a key, or common data elementelement
– Examples are Oracle, Informix, SybaseExamples are Oracle, Informix, Sybase– Data exists independently of how it is Data exists independently of how it is
physically storedphysically stored– Users don’t need to know data structure to Users don’t need to know data structure to
use the databaseuse the database– Uses SQL (structured query language) to Uses SQL (structured query language) to
create, modify, maintain, and query the datacreate, modify, maintain, and query the data– Query by Example uses sample records or Query by Example uses sample records or
forms to allow users to define the forms to allow users to define the qualifications for choosing recordsqualifications for choosing records
– Use “objects”, software written in small, Use “objects”, software written in small, manageable chunks, as elements within data filesmanageable chunks, as elements within data files
– An object consists of An object consists of Data in any form, including audio, graphics, and Data in any form, including audio, graphics, and
videovideo Instructions on the action to be taken with the dataInstructions on the action to be taken with the data
– Examples include FastObjects, GemStone, Examples include FastObjects, GemStone, Objectivity DB, Jasmine Object Database, and KE Objectivity DB, Jasmine Object Database, and KE ExpressExpress
– Types includeTypes include Web databaseWeb database Hypermedia databaseHypermedia database
– Models data as facts, dimensions, or Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical answers for use in the numerical answers for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts interactive analysis of large amounts of data for decision-making purposesof data for decision-making purposes
– Allows users to ask questions in Allows users to ask questions in colloquial Englishcolloquial English
– Use OLAP (Online Analytical Use OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) software to provide Processing) software to provide answers to complex database queriesanswers to complex database queries
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Data MiningData Mining Is the computer-assisted process of sifting Is the computer-assisted process of sifting
through and analyzing vast amounts of data to through and analyzing vast amounts of data to extract hidden patterns and meaning and to extract hidden patterns and meaning and to discover new knowledgediscover new knowledge
Data is fed into a Data Warehouse through the Data is fed into a Data Warehouse through the following stepsfollowing steps– Identify and connect to data sourcesIdentify and connect to data sources– Perform data fusion and data cleansingPerform data fusion and data cleansing– Obtain both data and meta-data (data about the Obtain both data and meta-data (data about the
data)data)– Transport data and meta-data to the Data WarehouseTransport data and meta-data to the Data Warehouse
Data Warehouse is a special database that shows Data Warehouse is a special database that shows detailed and summary data from multiple detailed and summary data from multiple sourcessources
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Data MiningData Mining Methods for searching for patterns in Methods for searching for patterns in
the data and interpreting the resultsthe data and interpreting the results– Regression analysisRegression analysis
Develops a formula to fit patterns in the data Develops a formula to fit patterns in the data that has been extractedthat has been extracted
Formula is applied to other data sets to Formula is applied to other data sets to predict future trendspredict future trends
– Classification analysisClassification analysis A statistical pattern recognition process that A statistical pattern recognition process that
is applied to data sets with more than just is applied to data sets with more than just numerical datanumerical data
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Data MiningData Mining Applications includeApplications include
– A phone company identifying customers A phone company identifying customers with large bills, who were really small with large bills, who were really small businesses trying to pay the cheaper businesses trying to pay the cheaper residential rateresidential rate
– A coach in the Gymnastics Federation A coach in the Gymnastics Federation used it to discover what long-term factors used it to discover what long-term factors contributed to athletes’ performancecontributed to athletes’ performance
– Retail stores use it to predict future Retail stores use it to predict future purchase patterns to help them choose purchase patterns to help them choose which products to stock for the futurewhich products to stock for the future
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Databases & The Digital Databases & The Digital EconomyEconomy
E-CommerceE-Commerce– The buying and selling of products and The buying and selling of products and
services through computer networksservices through computer networks– Examples of some e-tailers (electronic Examples of some e-tailers (electronic
retailers): retailers): www.amazon.comwww.amazon.com sells books and music sells books and music
onlineonline www.sees.comwww.sees.com sells candy online sells candy online www.ebay.comwww.ebay.com connects buyers with connects buyers with
sellers online using online auctionssellers online using online auctions
Databases & The Digital Databases & The Digital EconomyEconomy
Innovative e-tailer technologies make Innovative e-tailer technologies make online shopping easieronline shopping easier– One-click optionOne-click option
Allows you to click on an item and Allows you to click on an item and immediately go to the check-out processimmediately go to the check-out process
– 360-degree images360-degree images Allow you to see all sides of an itemAllow you to see all sides of an item
– Order trackingOrder tracking Bar codes are assigned to items being Bar codes are assigned to items being
shipped that allow customers to check shipped that allow customers to check shipping progress via the internetshipping progress via the internet
– Shop botsShop bots Are programs that help users search for a Are programs that help users search for a
particular product of serviceparticular product of service
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Databases & The Digital Databases & The Digital EconomyEconomy
Types of E-CommerceTypes of E-Commerce– Business-to-business (B2B)Business-to-business (B2B)
A business sells to other businesses using A business sells to other businesses using the internet or a private network to cut the internet or a private network to cut transaction costs and increase efficienciestransaction costs and increase efficiencies
– Business-to-consumer (B2C)Business-to-consumer (B2C) A business sells goods or services to A business sells goods or services to
consumersconsumers
– Consumer-to-consumer (C2C)Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) Consumers sell goods or services directly to Consumers sell goods or services directly to
other consumers with the help of a third other consumers with the help of a third party, such as eBay.party, such as eBay.
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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions
What are the qualities of good What are the qualities of good information?information?– Correct and verifiableCorrect and verifiable– Complete yet conciseComplete yet concise– Cost effectiveCost effective– CurrentCurrent– AccessibleAccessible
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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions
Most organizations have 6 departments Most organizations have 6 departments to which information must flowto which information must flow– Research and developmentResearch and development– Production (or operations)Production (or operations)– Marketing and salesMarketing and sales– Accounting and financeAccounting and finance– Human resources (personnel)Human resources (personnel)– Information systems (IS)Information systems (IS)
Information flows horizontally between Information flows horizontally between departmentsdepartments
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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions
Besides the 6 departments, many Besides the 6 departments, many organizations also have 3 levels of organizations also have 3 levels of managementmanagement– Strategic-level managementStrategic-level management
Top managers concerned with strategic or long-term Top managers concerned with strategic or long-term planning and decisionsplanning and decisions
– Tactical-level managementTactical-level management Middle level managers who make decisions to Middle level managers who make decisions to
implement the strategic goals set for the organizationimplement the strategic goals set for the organization
– Operational-level managementOperational-level management Low-level supervisors make daily operational Low-level supervisors make daily operational
decisionsdecisions
Information flows vertically between Information flows vertically between management levelsmanagement levels
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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions
Decentralized Organizations – a new Decentralized Organizations – a new structurestructure– Employees increasingly telecommute – Employees increasingly telecommute –
some staff have no desk or office at worksome staff have no desk or office at work– Employees communicate with each other Employees communicate with each other
more via email than in personmore via email than in person– Companies use Groupware CSCW Companies use Groupware CSCW
(computer-supported cooperative work) (computer-supported cooperative work) systems to enable cooperative work by systems to enable cooperative work by groups of peoplegroups of people
– The management structure is flattened The management structure is flattened as employees are given more authority as employees are given more authority to make day-to-day decisionsto make day-to-day decisions
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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions
6 computer-based information systems6 computer-based information systems– Office information systemsOffice information systems– Transaction processing systemsTransaction processing systems– Management information systemsManagement information systems– Decision support systemsDecision support systems– Executive support systemsExecutive support systems– Expert systemsExpert systems
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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions
Transaction Processing System (TPS)Transaction Processing System (TPS)– Transactions are recorded events of Transactions are recorded events of
routine business activities such as routine business activities such as bills, orders, and inventorybills, orders, and inventory
– TPS systems keep track of the TPS systems keep track of the transactions needed to conduct a transactions needed to conduct a businessbusiness
– TPS systems are used by operational TPS systems are used by operational managers to track business activitiesmanagers to track business activities
– Transactions database provides the Transactions database provides the basis for management information basis for management information systems and decision support systemssystems and decision support systems
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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions
Management Information Systems (MIS)Management Information Systems (MIS)– Computer-based information system that Computer-based information system that
uses data recorded by a TPS as input to uses data recorded by a TPS as input to programs that produce routine reports as programs that produce routine reports as outputoutput
– FeaturesFeatures Inputs are processed transaction data. Outputs Inputs are processed transaction data. Outputs
are summarized structured reportsare summarized structured reports Designed for tactical managersDesigned for tactical managers Draws from all departmentsDraws from all departments Produces several kinds or reports: summary, Produces several kinds or reports: summary,
exception, periodic, and demandexception, periodic, and demand
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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions
Decision Support Systems (DSS)Decision Support Systems (DSS)– Computer information system that provides Computer information system that provides
a flexible tool for analysis and helps a flexible tool for analysis and helps management focus on the futuremanagement focus on the future
– FeaturesFeatures Inputs are external data and internal data such Inputs are external data and internal data such
as summarized reports and processed as summarized reports and processed transaction data. Outputs are demand reportstransaction data. Outputs are demand reports
Mainly for tactical managersMainly for tactical managers Produces analytic modelsProduces analytic models
– Developed to support the types of decisions Developed to support the types of decisions faced by managers in specific industriesfaced by managers in specific industries
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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions
Executive Support SystemsExecutive Support Systems– An easy-to-use DSS made especially for An easy-to-use DSS made especially for
strategic managers to support strategic strategic managers to support strategic decision-makingdecision-making
– Might allow executives to call up Might allow executives to call up predefined reportspredefined reports
– Includes capability to browse through Includes capability to browse through summarized information on all aspects summarized information on all aspects of the organization and drill down for of the organization and drill down for detailed datadetailed data
– Allows executives to perform “what-if” Allows executives to perform “what-if” scenariosscenarios
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The Ethics of Using The Ethics of Using DatabasesDatabases
Identity Theft concernsIdentity Theft concerns– A crime in which thieves hijack your A crime in which thieves hijack your
identity and use your good credit rating identity and use your good credit rating to get cash, take out loans, order credit to get cash, take out loans, order credit cards, and buy things in your namecards, and buy things in your name
Privacy concernsPrivacy concerns– Name migration: getting endless junk Name migration: getting endless junk
mail and telemarketing callsmail and telemarketing calls– RRéésumsuméé rustling and online snooping rustling and online snooping– Government prying and spyingGovernment prying and spying
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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence Expert SystemExpert System
– One of the most useful applications of One of the most useful applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI)Artificial Intelligence (AI)
– AI is a group of related technologies used to AI is a group of related technologies used to develop software and machines that emulate develop software and machines that emulate human qualities such as learning, reasoning, human qualities such as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing, and hearingcommunicating, seeing, and hearing
– Areas includeAreas include Expert systemsExpert systems Natural language processingNatural language processing Intelligent agentsIntelligent agents Virtual reality and simulation devicesVirtual reality and simulation devices Pattern recognitionPattern recognition Fuzzy logicFuzzy logic RoboticsRobotics
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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence Three components of an expert Three components of an expert
systemsystem– Knowledge baseKnowledge base
An expert system’s database of knowledge An expert system’s database of knowledge about a particular subjectabout a particular subject
– Inference engineInference engine The software that controls the search of the The software that controls the search of the
expert system’s knowledge base and expert system’s knowledge base and produces conclusions produces conclusions
– User interfaceUser interface The display screen the user used to interact The display screen the user used to interact
with the expert systemwith the expert system
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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence Natural language processingNatural language processing
– Allows users to interact with a system using Allows users to interact with a system using normal Englishnormal English
– The study of ways for computers to The study of ways for computers to recognize and understand human languagerecognize and understand human language
Intelligent agentsIntelligent agents– A form of software with built-in intelligence A form of software with built-in intelligence
that monitors work patterns, asks questions, that monitors work patterns, asks questions, and performs work tasks on your behalfand performs work tasks on your behalf
Pattern recognitionPattern recognition– Involves a camera and software that identify Involves a camera and software that identify
recurring patterns in its vision and maps the recurring patterns in its vision and maps the pattern against patterns stored in a pattern against patterns stored in a databasedatabase
– A method of dealing with imprecise data A method of dealing with imprecise data and uncertainty, with problems that have and uncertainty, with problems that have many answers rather than onemany answers rather than one
– Has been applied in running elevators to Has been applied in running elevators to determine optimum times for elevators to determine optimum times for elevators to waitwait
Virtual realityVirtual reality– A computer-generated artificial reality that A computer-generated artificial reality that
projects a person into a sensation of 3-D projects a person into a sensation of 3-D spacespace
– Often used with simulators to represent the Often used with simulators to represent the behavior of physical or abstract systemsbehavior of physical or abstract systems
– The development and study of The development and study of machines that can perform work that machines that can perform work that is normally done by peopleis normally done by people
– Commonly found in manufacturing Commonly found in manufacturing plants and also in situations where plants and also in situations where people would be in dangerpeople would be in danger Nuclear plantsNuclear plants Assembly lines, especially paint linesAssembly lines, especially paint lines Checking for land minesChecking for land mines Fighting oil-well firesFighting oil-well fires
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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence Weak vs. Strong A.I.Weak vs. Strong A.I.
– Weak A.I. claims computers can be Weak A.I. claims computers can be programmed to simulate human cognitionprogrammed to simulate human cognition
– Strong A.I. claims that computers can think on Strong A.I. claims that computers can think on a level that is equal to or better than humans, a level that is equal to or better than humans, and can also achieve consciousnessand can also achieve consciousness Cyc approach to strong A.I.Cyc approach to strong A.I.
– A database in Austin, TX that holds 1.4 million basic A database in Austin, TX that holds 1.4 million basic truthstruths
– Plan is that Cyc will automatically make human-like Plan is that Cyc will automatically make human-like assumptionsassumptions
– Hope is that Cyc will learn on its ownHope is that Cyc will learn on its own Cog approach to strong A.I.Cog approach to strong A.I.
– MIT project that is a humanoid robotMIT project that is a humanoid robot– Tries to identify and search for patterns instead of Tries to identify and search for patterns instead of
following rules and factsfollowing rules and facts
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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence Test for Human IntelligenceTest for Human Intelligence
– In 1950, Allen Turing predicted computers would In 1950, Allen Turing predicted computers would be able to mimic human thinkingbe able to mimic human thinking
– The Turing test determines whether the machine The Turing test determines whether the machine is humanis human Judge is in another location and doesn’t see the Judge is in another location and doesn’t see the
computercomputer If the computer can fool the judge, it is said to be If the computer can fool the judge, it is said to be
intelligentintelligent– Ethics in A.I.Ethics in A.I.
Prof. William Wallace from R.P.I. says that computer Prof. William Wallace from R.P.I. says that computer software is subtly shaped by the ethical judgments software is subtly shaped by the ethical judgments of its creatorsof its creators
For example, H.M.O. software used by health For example, H.M.O. software used by health insurers steers doctors to cheaper procedures – but insurers steers doctors to cheaper procedures – but are they better?are they better?
