MANAGING MANAGEMENT

By: Jonathan Hope, Allie Olsen, Maddie Dobson,

Molly Roemer, Emily Krueger, and Rachel Whitney

Table of Contents

Introduction to Management………………………………………………………………2Summary of Management Theories……………………………………………………3

The Managerial Grid, Robert R. Blake & Jane S. Mouton ...............4A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, F.E. Fiedler ………………………5 “One more time: How do you motivate employees?” Frederick

Herzberg …………………………………………………………………………………….6 New Patterns of Management, Rensis Likert ………………………………7 Motivation and Personality, A.H. Maslow …………………..………………8 The Human Side of Enterprise, Douglas McGregor ….………………....9

Management Topics…………………………………………………………………………..12 Managerial Control and Selective Adaptation……………………………13 Adaptability………………………………………………………………………………14 Humanistic management…………………………………………………………..16 Leadership Training……………………………………………………………………17 Employee-centered Management……………………………………………..19 Motivation…………………………………………………………………………………20 Team Management……………………………………………………………………25

Bibliography………………………………………………………………….……………………26Index………………………………………………………………………………………………….27

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Introduction Welcome to Managing Management! In this handbook you will find ways to increase your ability to become the best manager you can be. This handbook greatly focuses on six theories of management, which will be described. The big question is, why take the time to learn about being a manager? As a manager, you have the opportunity to greatly influence the lives of those you direct and supervise. You can help others become their best selves while furthering along the success of your organization. “The managerial role is not a single, invariant one, but a complex of different roles” (6).

A successful manager takes responsibility for the “climate” of his or her organization and is able to have an empowering influence over his or her subordinates. The manager helps propel employees to motivate themselves to do their best work – bettering the individual and the organization. The manager is also able to effectively make decisions, solve problems and delegate tasks. “Management is concerned with the achievements of practical objectives” (6).

It has been said that “fish discover water last” (6). Sometimes we are not aware of a problem that is right in front of our noses. The creators of this handbook hope to show you a new way of looking at management, to help you discover your “water” and to give you some ideas of how you can renovate your management methods. So, take a look around! You are sure to find something that will enrich your mind and refine the way you think about management.

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SUMMARY

OF MANAGEME

NT THEORIES

The Managerial GridRobert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton

The managerial grid presents six types of managers with varying degrees of concern for people and production. Imagine a coordinate plane with “concern for production” on the X axis and “concern for people” on the Y axis.

A task-master type manager would be found on the bottom right, while a popular manager who does not get much accomplished would be found on the top left. A manager in the very center of the grid does not have strong tendencies either way and acts accordingly, and a manager in the (1, 1) position does not act much at all.

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Team ManagementWork accomplishment is from committed people;

Interdependence through a “common stake” in

organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and

respect.

Country Club ManagementThoughtful attention to

needs of people for satisfying relationships leads

to a comfortable friendly organization atmosphere

and work tempo.

Authority-Compliance Management

Efficiency in operations results from arranging

conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum

degree.

Impoverished ManagementExertion of minimum effort to get required work done is

appropriate to sustain organization membership.

Middle-of-the-Road ManagementAdequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity

to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.

The ideal manager is found in the top right corner at (9, 9) who optimizes both people and production. This “team manager” comes to work with energy and puts it to hard work. He includes many employees when making decisions to reach an agreement that satisfies everyone, and appreciates input from all directions. When conflict arises, this manager addresses the problem early and listens to everyone’s perspectives and needs.

This manager has the greatest satisfaction compared to those in other positions on the grid because he finds the most opportunities to make a positive difference. Employees for this manager also find rewarding work experiences because they are involved in the organization and their opinions are respected.

A Theory of Leadership EffectivenessF. E. Fiedler

In A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, The Contingency Model is presented to rate the effectiveness of a leader. The Contingency Model states that the group’s performance will depend upon the appropriate matching of leadership style and the degree of favorableness of the group situation for the leader. A situation is favorable when the leader can have the most influence over their group. The model suggests that group performance can be improved either by modifying the leader’s style or by modifying the group task situation.

The most ideal situation for a leader is when the following three components are present:

1. The leader has a high position of power

2. The task is clear cut3. The leader feels that he/she is liked

and accepted by the group

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There are two types of leaders: relationship-oriented and task-oriented. A leader’s type is based on whether he/she receives more gratification from others or if she receives more from completing a task. A relationship-oriented leader is more focused on the relationship she has with the members of the group and keeping them satisfied. A task-oriented leader is focused on the task at hand and improving production.

One More Time: How Do You Motivate EmployeesFrederick Herzberg

How does a manager get their employees to do what they want when the employee refuses? They administer a kick in the pants (KITA). Negative KITA’s produce movement while positive KITA produces motivation. Instilling

motivation in a manager’s employees is the most effective way to get them to get the job done. Using movement on employees is ineffective because it only works once. Next time a manager needs the employee to do something they will need to administer another KITA. With motivation, instead of the organization kicking the employee, the employee is kicking themselves.

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How do you instill motivation among employees? There are many ways, such as reducing time spent at work, spiraling wages, fringe benefits, and job participation. There are five major factors that lead to job satisfaction:

1. Achievement 2. Recognition for achievement3. The work itself4. Responsibility5. Growth or advancement

Job enrichment is an attempt to motivate employees by giving them the opportunity to use the range of their abilities. It is an effective way to create motivation. It looks at a job and adds new sources of job satisfaction. It gives employees a reason to come to work and a reason to work hard.

New Patterns of ManagementRensis Likert

Studies show that managers and their managerial styles are key to the productivity level of their employees. “Employee-centered” management styles are shown to have significantly higher productivity rates than “job-centered” management styles. Therefore, it is important that managers are showing the right kind of attention to their subordinates.

“Employee-centered” managers focus their primary attention on the human aspects of their subordinates’ problems and on endeavoring to build effective work groups with high performance goals (4).The managers

supervise generally, but they allow people to do their job the way they want as long as they accomplish objectives. They are less critical of work, and are seen as unselfish, cooperative, sympathetic, and

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honest. These managers are interested in the employee’s success and are shown to have more success and higher productivity within the company.

Another key to increased productivity is highly effective work groups. Members of these work groups will always see themselves as a part of the greater whole. They will be working with and under other highly effective work groups to accomplish the objectives of the organization. These groups generally have loyalty, trust, and confidence within the group. The individual members of the group are highly motivated to accomplish the important goals of the group, and all problem-solving and decision-making are done in a supportive atmosphere (4).

Motivation and PersonalityA. H. Maslow

The study of employee motivation must include in part the study of human desires, goals, and needs. The Theory of Motivation and Personality describes five levels of needs that each human being passes through in order to become his or her best self. This hierarchy goes as follows: physiological, safety, belonging or love, esteem, and self-actualization.

Beginning at the bottom, all humans are first concerned about fulfilling their physiological needs such as food, water, and sleep. Once these needs are met, a human can advance to the next level: safety. These needs include the safety of one’s self, one’s family, and one’s employment.

After physiological and safety needs are cared for, people begin to seek out the acceptance and love of others. Friendships and family relationships fall into this category. When a

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person’s basic needs are met and is loved by others, he or she begins to develop self-confidence and self-worth. This person is then ready to advance to the final stage; self-actualization.

This final stage is where managers want all of their employees to be, for this stage is where creativity, spontaneity, and problem solving skills are discovered and cultivated. Self-actualization is when people begin to realize their full potential, thus enabling them to become what they are capable of becoming.

Although managers may hope and expect their employees to be self-actualizing at all times, management should be understanding of employees

who are passing through difficult times in their lives. An employee that is dealing with food-security issues or marital problems may not be able to give it their all for the organization. Knowing this may allow managers to work with employees as much as is deemed appropriate to help them through tough times, eventually helping them return to the self-actualizing level.

The Human Side of EnterpriseDouglas McGregor

The central idea of this theory is integration, meaning, “...the creation of conditions such that the members of the organization can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts toward the success of the enterprise” (6). McGregor outlines two main theories. The first, Theory X, is the traditional view of management that is widely used and least effective. The second, Theory Y, is McGregor’s approach to management which he claims can be most effective.

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Theory X:

Proclaims direction and control through authority. Assumes:

o Average human beings have an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it.

o Humans must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened in order to work.

o Average human beings prefer to be directed, avoid responsibility, have low ambition, and want security, above all (6).

McGregor stated, “...so long as the assumptions of Theory X continue to influence managerial strategy, we will fail to discover, let alone utilize, the potentialities of the average human being” (6). The need for a new theory, a new idea, and a new approach is necessary in order to better the success of the enterprise.

Theory Y:

Proclaims the integration of individual and organizational goals. Assumes:

o Expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest; can be a source of satisfaction or source of punishment depending upon controllable conditions.

o External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about effort toward organizational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed.

o Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant of such rewards can be direct products of effort directed toward organizational objectives.

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o The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility.

o The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.

o Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized (6).

Theory Y is dynamic, has the possibility of growth, can challenge to innovate and consists of selective adaptation rather than a single absolute form of control. Selective adaptation within theory Y means that management, within reason, conforms to the needs of his or her subordinates rather than

always having them conform to the needs of the organization. Theory Y assumes management is responsible. If something goes awry within an organization, management’s methods must be looked in to, rather than blaming the subordinates incompetence, skill, etc.

Examples of ways to put theory Y into practice:

A manager having confidence in subordinates’ abilities (downward confidence).

A manager regarding subordinates with high esteem.

A manager taking responsibility for the climate of company.

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MANAGEMENT BY TOPIC

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Managerial Control and Selective AdaptationControl “...involves the selection of means which are appropriate to the nature of the phenomena with which we are concerned ” (6). For a manager to gain more control over an organization, he must be willing to give up control. “He can help them only if he is prepared to relinquish control in the conventional sense, only if he has enough confidence in their willingness and ability to

achieve organization objectives that he can risk some poor judgments and some mistakes as a natural cost of their growth” (6).

Selective adaptation involves an organization conforming to the needs of the employee to better enable and motivate them to do their job, and to do it well. “Improve the ability to control by recognizing that control consists in selective adaptation to human nature rather than attempting to make human nature conform to our wishes” (6).

Control can mean taking responsibility so that the organization can be successful. The price of freedom is responsibility (6).

Successful management depends significantly on the ability to predict and control human behavior.

Progress is associated with the ability to predict and control.

Many of our attempts to control are in direct violation of human behavior.

It is the manager’s responsibility to select appropriate means for control.

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You need dependence to have control (6). Employees are dependent on their management, but it is equally true that “...every manager at every level is dependent upon those below him in the organization” (6).

“The success of any form of social influence or control depends ultimately upon altering the ability of others to achieve their goals or satisfy their needs” (6). A manager can affect many lives. He or she has the opportunity to bring out the best in others and to lift them to a higher way of functioning and understanding.

AdaptabilityThere are two types of leaders: relationship-oriented and task-oriented leaders. A leader’s type is based on whether he receives more gratification from others or if the leader receives more from completing a task. A relationship-oriented leader is more focused on the relationship they have with the members of the group and keeping the group satisfied. A task-oriented leader is focused on the task at hand and at bettering production.

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This theory states that neither training nor personality is the determining factor of a good leader. A good leader should be trained to know which of the two types of leaders he or she is so that they can better adapt to whatever situation they are faced with.

Examples:

If the relationship-oriented leader is in an unfavorable situation, one in which he is not in control, he will increase the rate and intensity of interactions with members of his group, when normally he is passive, non-directive, and permissive.

If a task-oriented leader is in a less gratifying situation, he is even more focused on completing the task than interacting with the members of his group.

A comparison of behaviors of successful and unsuccessful leaders shows that the successful leaders decrease intensity and directness with their interaction with group members. Unsuccessful leaders become less involved, structuring, and less considerate in unfavorable group-task situations. A leader can change or modify group situations to match them with his leadership style.

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Humanistic Management “Management’s attempts to solve the problems arising from the inadequacy of these assumptions have often involved the search for new formulas, new techniques, new procedures. These generally yield disappointing results because they are adjustments to symptoms rather than causes. The real need is for new theory, changed assumptions, more understanding of the nature of human behavior in organizational settings” (6).

A major task in management is to organize human effort in the service of the economic objectives of the enterprise

Effectiveness would increase if the manager could discover how to tap the unrealized potential in human resources

“...the industrial organization of today is being run by the staff. Their knowledge and techniques have a profound influence on major decisions, they design and administer procedures and their control functions provide much of the directing and control of the human resources of the enterprise” (6).

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Leadership TrainingFew studies have been done to study the effectiveness of leadership training, but what has been done has not shown any improvement in performance effectiveness in leadership situations. It has been shown, however, that leadership training does change behavior and attitude, even though they may not be lasting. A better approach to training is organizational engineering.

The organizational engineering approach enables the manager at a second or third level to provide leadership opportunities to his or her subordinates, so that they can show their full leadership potential.

Organizational Engineering

In some organizations we can change the individual’s task assignment– give specific tasks or vague ones..

We can change the leader’s position power– give him subordinates. We can change the leader-member relations in the group– give him

groups similar to him or very different.

The performance of interacting groups and organizations is, therefore, contingent upon the favorableness of the leadership situation as well as

upon the executives’ leadership style.

“A man who is able to avoid situations in which he is likely to fail is likely to be a success” (2). A situation is favorable when the leader can have the most influence over his group. The contingency model suggests that group performance can be improved either by modifying the leader’s style or by modifying the group task situation.

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The most ideal situation for a leader is when the following three components are present:

The leader has a high position of power There is a clear cut task The leader feels that they are liked or accepted by the group members

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Employee-Centered Management How do we increase production in the workplace in order to compete with the ever-growing foreign markets? There are many organizations and managers that see management as accomplishing tasks or jobs. Research shows that management style has a direct correlation with the productivity of employees.

Managers who are “employee-centered” instead of “job-centered” tend to have employees who are more satisfied and motivated in their work and who are generally more productive.

But, what defines “employee-centered” management?

Highly productive organizations have managers who: Allow for autonomy Show trust in the employees Work with employees with their

personal problems Are not critical Create highly effective work

groups Are present, but not overbearing Help subordinates feel unified Support the vision of the

organization

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MotivationWhat is the most direct way of getting someone to do something? Ask! What if they do not want to do it? Administer a kick in the pants, or a KITA. There are two different kinds of KITA’s - a negative KITA and a positive KITA.

Negative KITA’s do not lead to motivation, but to movement. It is important for managers to understand the distinct difference between motivation and movement. If I kicked you, I’m motivated, you moved. But what about next time? I would have to kick you again in order to get you to move.

The goal of motivation is to get the employee to kick themselves. Instead of a kick being a push in the rear, it is a pull. Instead of the organization kicking the employee, the employee is kicking themselves - this is known as positive KITA.

Personnel practices that help instil motivation include:

Reducing time spent at work Spiraling wages Fringe benefits Communications Job participation Employee counseling.

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It is important for managers to remember and understand that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not opposites. The factors involved in producing job satisfaction (and motivation) are separate and distinct from the factors that lead to job dissatisfaction.

Job satisfaction factors: achievement, recognition for achievement, the work itself, responsibility, growth or advancement

Job dissatisfaction factors (“hygiene factors”): company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, salary, status, and security

Job enrichment is common method for increasing job satisfaction by giving employees an opportunity to use the range of their abilities. Job enrichment is continuous. In addition, not all jobs need to be or can be enriched. The steps for job enrichment are stated on the next page.

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Steps for Job Enrichment:

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Eliminate suggestions that involve “hygiene”

Select jobs which need motivation most

Approach jobs with the attitude that they can be changed

Brainstorm list of changes

Screen list for generalities

Screen list and eliminate horizontal loading suggestions

Be prepared for a drop in performance at first

Expect supervisors to experience anxiety over changes

Avoid direct participation of those with jobs to be enriched

Use controlled experiment in 1st attempt at enrichment

As stated earlier, the study of human desires, goals, and needs must be included in the study of employee motivation. Actions are motivated in order achieve certain needs. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs are described below, beginning with the most basic, physiological needs.

1. Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail. These needs are most important and should be met first. The Physiological needs include:

- Breathing- Food- Water- Sleep- Homeostasis

2. Safety needs take precedence after an individual’s physical needs have been relatively satisfied. These needs include:

- Security- Stability- Dependency- Protection- Freedom from fear, anxiety, and chaos- Need for structure, order, law, and limits

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3. The third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of love and belongingness. Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance among their social groups, regardless of size. Humans need to be loved by others.

- Friendship- Family- Intimacy

4. Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. Most people have a desire for a stable, firmly based, usually high evaluation of themselves, for self-respect, or self-esteem, and for the esteem of others. Maslow’s esteem-needs may be classified into two categories:

- The desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for mastery, and competence, for confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom

- The desire for reputation or prestige, status, fame and glory, dominance, recognition, attention, importance, dignity, or appreciation

5. Self-actualization Needs: “What a man can be, he must be. He must be true to his own nature” (5). This quote is the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. If the previous four needs are met, an individual may feel restless if not doing what he or she is fitted for. Self-actualization refers to a person’s desire for self-fulfillment, to reach his/her potential in life. This level describes the need to accomplish everything that one can and to become the most that one can be.

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Team Management “Team management” includes employees in managerial functions who ensure that everyone is pleased with how an organization is run. A manager who gives this type of independence to his employees recognizes that in order to reach the optimal amount of production, employees need to have a

rewarding work experience.

A team manager whose personal goals are aligned with those of the organization, and who allows employees to be part of the management process gives the employees incentive to reach these goals.

Rather than let the manager dictate each employees’ responsibilities, everyone decides his or her own ground rules, procedures, and responsibilities. The manager who does this also includes many employees in his personal responsibilities, such as decision making, because these choices will ultimately affect them as well. Employees are satisfied because this allows for the greatest understanding and agreement when multiple perspectives are considered rather than just that of the manager’s.

When conflict does arise, a team manager is careful to listen to all perspectives, background information, and personal needs. Listening to all sides of the argument helps employees know their feelings have not been ignored when a resolution is decided. It also provides the manager with adequate information to find an answer that satisfies the greatest number of people.

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Bibliography

1. Blake, W. & Jane Mouton. The Managerial Grid, Houston, Texas, Gulf Publishing Company, 1985.

2. Fiedler, F.E. A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. McGraw-Hill Inc., New York. 1967.

3. Herzberg, F., One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees. in “Harvard Business Review,” Jan-Feb, 1968.

4. Likert, R., New Patterns of Management. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961.

5. Maslow, A.H., Motivation and Personality. Harper & Row, Inc. New York, 1954.

6. McGregor, D., The Human Side of Enterprise. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1960.

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Index

Adaptability 14Behavior 13, 15, 16Communication 20Contingency Theory 5, 17Employee Centered Management 4-5, 6, 19Esteem Needs 8-9, 23-24Group Work 5-6, 7-8, 15, 17Humanistic Approach 16Managerial Grid 4-5Maslow’s Hierarchy 8, 23-24Motivation 6-7, 8-9, 20-24Relationships 4, 9, 21, 24Self-actualization 8-9, 24Training 15, 17-18Theory X 9-10Theory Y 9-10

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