“Manifest Destiny” & The Metaphysics of the Slavery Debate

Expansionism and Imperial Design from 1803 - 1848

The PreludeBefore the Civil War began, only a handful of radical abolitionists declared their intention to ban slavery in the Southern States. There was no intention to end slavery in the South, even within the Republican Party: the free-soil party. The most important point of contention was this:

Would slavery be allowed in the West? There were virtually no slaves in the West. Very few pioneers brought enslaved people to the West. Any policy defining the limits of slavery in the West would influence only a few hundred people. And yet 625,000 Americans would die over the course of a bloody Civil War to determine the future of slavery in America.

The Declaration of Independence

From the creation of the United States of America, slavery was our nation’s “original sin.” Everyone involved with the Declaration of Independence – and later the writing of the Constitution – recognized the hypocrisy of establishing a nation on the premise that “all men are created equal” and simultaneously protecting the institution of slavery. Jefferson’s hypocrisy was endemic in America; the vast majority of the nation’s first fifteen Presidents were slave-owners; and, the defense of slavery was a project engaged in by all classes in the South – from the poor white farmers who aspired to own slaves themselves, to the plantation owner trying to expand his wealth, to the ministers, who justified the institution of slavery through their Christian faith.

1783 – THE TREATY OF PARISNot only did the Treaty of Paris of 1783 grant the United States its independence from England, but also, it expanded the boundaries of the nation. Within the mind of newly independent Americans, the West represented the future. And control one’s destiny in the future depended – in the minds of many – on controlling one’s property in the present. During the years under the Articles of Confederation, this became a major concern. Consider Shays Rebellion, for example. But also consider what the implications of “property rights” were to the Southern elite…

Competing land claims for western territory were a major concern which had to be resolved under the Articles of Confederation.

The Northwest OrdinanceDespite the obvious devotion of slaveholders to the notion of “property rights,” there are also some clear indications that the nation as a whole envisioned a future in which slavery would disappear. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which forbid the expansion of slavery into the West, is an excellent example of the intentions of the Founding Fathers, as well. They may have permitted slavery to exist in the short term in the South, but it should not expand to the West – into the future.

The ConstitutionThe Constitution, instituted to create a more vigorous government – and some would say to protect property rights from the democratic mobs – was clearly an instrument to protect the institution of slavery. There are at least three ways that the US Constitution preserved and defended the institution of slavery, and some of the carefully weighted choices made by the Founding Fathers regarding the institution of slavery are absolutely indefensible. Even the Founding Fathers were embarrassed – they carefully excluded the words “slave” and “slavery” in the Constitution, despite mentioning enslaved people and the institution of slavery in a number of passages.

Slavery in the United States Constitution:

The Three-Fifths Clause, which counted enslaved people as a fraction of a person for the purposes of taxation (lessening their tax burden on “property”) and for representation in Congress (increasing their representation.)

The Fugitive Slave Law – requiring the Northerners, and all Americans for that matter – to assist in capturing and returning all runaway slaves.

The Compromise Over Regulating Trade – In exchange for the power to regulate trade between the states, the Founding Fathers agreed that they would not ban the international slave trade for at least twenty years following the ratification of the Constitution. The International Slave Trade was not forbidden until 1808.

The Invention of the Cotton Gin

Eli Whitney’s Cotton Gin increased the productivity of every cotton plantation in the South. The rise in the cultivation of cotton also led to an increased reliance on slave labor.

Prior to the invention of the cotton gin, it had taken so long to clean cotton that it was counterproductive to plant the crop. Even with hundreds of enslaved workers picking the cotton by hand, only a few hundred pounds could be harvested each season, and the amount of money to be gained was small. Once the cotton gin was created, however, tons of cotton could be shipped overseas to England or to France. The land cultivated for the production of cotton increased dramatically, and so did the number of enslaved people required to oversee the production of the crop. Slavery expanded to the west – all the way to Texas, and the number of enslaved people increased dramatically as well.

Gabriel’s Revolt, Richmond, 1800

Gabriel’s Rebellion took place in Richmond, Virginia at the turn of the 19th Century. Although the uprising never really came to fruition, it was especially concerning to slaveholding Virginians because the plot involved both free blacks and cooperating whites. Given the language of liberty which flowed freely during the Revolutionary Period, enslaved people were bound to be inspired to seek emancipation – and since American colonists had gained their independence through armed insurrection, it followed, logically, that armed insurrection might do will to end slavery as an institution as well. Some blamed Thomas Jefferson for the uprising. He was running for President that year, and many believed that the promotion of democratic values and the language of liberty inspired the revolt indirectly.

Lewis & Clark and the Corps of Discovery

We often think of the Lewis & Clark expedition as a great adventure which explored the flora and fauna of the West, mapped the rivers, and visited foreign lands. But the mission was also one of conquest. Each Native American tribe was advised that the United States was their new “Great Father.” The Corps of Discovery also claimed the Oregon Territory for the United States during their expedition. There is also a point of trivia about the expedition you may not know. One enslaved person, York, the personal servant of Meriwether Lewis, also accompanied the men into the West. Many Native American tribes had never seen an African-American before, and so York became an object of their curiosity.

BANNING THE INTERNATIONAL SLAVE TRADEIn 1808, at the first opportunity, the United States of American banned the international slave trade. The horrifying “Middle Passage” came to an end in the United States of America – at least legally.

The War of 1812The War of 1812 doesn’t seem to have very much to do with the extension of slavery into the West; however, the devil is in the details. At the end of the War major changes were at work: 1. New England factories – including textile mills – were

becoming more and more self-sufficient. Southern cotton would serve to supply their needs.

2. Native Americans had been forced west of the Mississippi River, opening up the lands of the Southwest (Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Arkansas) to plantation agriculture.

3. Trade with England and with France was restored, and new markets were opened for cotton in Europe.

4. “Cotton is King!” became a southern mantra, and the United States became increasingly committed to the hierarchy of the slave system and the development of the cotton trade abroad.

THE CONVENTION OF 1818In the Convention of 1818, the United States and England further solidified their relationship, agreeing to jointly occupy the Oregon Country and to peacefully coexist.

After the War of 1812, the United States sought to normalize relations with Great Britain.

The Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817 demilitarized the Great Lakes Region.

The Convention of 1818 set the 49th Meridian as a boundary between the United States and Canada, and resolved that Americans and Englishmen would peacefully coexist in the Oregon Territory.

The Missouri CompromiseWhen Missouri applied for statehood in 1820, many Americans feared that the United States Senate would shift to favor slaveholding states. In order to maintain a balance of power between slaveholding states and free states, the Missouri Compromise was negotiated. It consisted of three aspects: 1. Maine would enter the

Union as a free state in 1820.

2. Missouri would enter the Union as a slave state in 1821.

3. A line from the southernmost border of Missouri, at 36˚ 30’, would be created. To the south of the line, slavery would be permitted. North of the line, it would not be permitted.

Denmark Vesey’s RevoltDenmark Vesey was a free black who lived in Charleston, South Carolina. He was well versed in Christian theology and his anti-slavery exhortations had whites in the city concerned enough to shut down his ministry. Vesey began to organize an armed insurrection in response – even recruiting whites to aid his efforts, but he was discovered before the plot was put into motion. In the end, over 100 slaves, free blacks and conspirators were arrested – and 35, including Vesey, were put to death in Charleston.

The Monroe Doctrine

The Monroe Doctrine was articulated in December of 1823. James Monroe declared that the entire Western Hemisphere – North America, South America, the Caribbean, and Latin America – was off limits to European nations for future colonization. To a large extent, the United States issued the policy in order to claim the Western Hemisphere as our own sphere of influence. Monroe’s major concern at the time was, surprisingly, Oregon.

David Walker’s Appeal, 1829

The first abolitionist appeal directed towards African-Americans was David Walker’s appeal in 1829. It was radical abolitionism in its most threatening form. Walker called enslaved African-Americans to arms, and advocated for violence. Declaring that slavery was perpetuated by violence – and that the state of slavery was a state of war, he advised, “believe this, that it is no more harm for you to kill a man who is trying to kill you, than it is for you to take a drink of water when thirsty."

Nat Turner’s RebellionIn 1830, Nat Turner – believing he had been called to arms by God – and a group of his followers, began the largest slave revolt in all American History. Fifty-five whites would eventually be put to death, and Nat Turner would remain on the lam for over a month, leaving the state of Virginia in a state of sheer panic. When he was captured, Turner was hanged, and then skinned. Over two-hundred slaves – virtually anyone who had ever spoken to Turner regarding the planning and execution of the revolt – would be put to death. What made Turner lash out so violently? Many historians postulate that the “new Middle Passage” – selling slaves to the Southwest, caused anxiety which turned into violence.

The Liberator, William Lloyd Garrison

The manumission of slaves had begun in Northern states during the early 19th Century. In states like New York, slaves were bound to their owners for a certain number of years, and then emancipated. By the 1820s, slavery was virtually non-existent in the North. It was in this period that a movement towards abolitionism became more pronounced in the United States. William Lloyd Garrison’s The Liberator declared in it’s first edition,

“On this subject [slavery], I do not wish to think, or to speak, or write, with moderation. No! No! Tell a man whose house is on fire to give a moderate alarm; tell him to moderately rescue his wife from the hands of the ravisher; tell the mother to gradually extricate her babe from the fire into which it has fallen; – but urge me not to use moderation in a cause like the present. I am in earnest – I will not equivocate – I will not excuse – I will not retreat a single inch – AND I WILL BE HEARD.”

Texas War for Independence

In the early 1820s, Stephen F. Austin brought close to 300 families to the northernmost province of Mexico, Tejas. They had promised to remain loyal to Mexico, to convert to the Catholic faith, and not to continue the practice of slavery. They kept none of those promises, and in the middle 1830s, found themselves at war against Santa Anna, a reactionary president and military leader. After the battles of the Alamo and Goliad – merciless defeats of the Texas Army – the prospects for independence appeared bleak. But at the Battle of San Jacinto, Sam Houston defeated Santa Anna’s army, captured the leader of the nation, and coerced him into signing a treaty granting Texas it’s independence with the Rio Grande River as the border between the two nations.

The Debate over AnnexationOnce they gained independence, Texans immediately asked to be annexed by the United States. But they were rebuffed. Always concerned about the possibility that the slave states would have an advantage in the United States Senate, the powers in Congress refused to annex the state. They feared that Texas might be divided into three, four, or five slave states due to its expansive size. Texas would not be annexed until 1845.

James K. Polk and the “Gag Rule”Meanwhile, the House of Representatives had decided that the debate over slavery had become far too contentious. James K. Polk, as Speaker of the House, instituted a “Gag Rule” to forbid any abolitionist petitions from being introduced in Congress. John Quincy Adams – serving as a backbench Congressman after his Presidency – railed against the “Gag Rule” in spite of Polk’s defiant posture. Polk would become President himself in the 1844 Election.

The Mexican-American WarOnce he was nominated as the Democratic Party’s nominee for President, James K. Polk, or “Young Hickory” – a reference to Andrew Jackson, “Old Hickory” – openly postured towards war with both Mexico and England. He declared his intentioins to take both California and the entire Oregon Country, running on the campaign slogan, “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” Once the Mexican American War started, it hastily came to an end. The overmatched Mexican Army was crushed within weeks. Generals Winfield Scott and Zachary Taylor became heroes. Meanwhile, anti-imperialist Americans like Abraham Lincoln and the Whig Party argued against the war, declaring it a war of aggression waged to spread slavery into the West.

The Oregon TerritoryWhen he ran for President, James Polk insisted that he would declare war on England to take over the entire Oregon Country. His campaign slogan?“Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” In 1846, facing a two front war against both England and Mexico – simultaneously – he opted to negotiate with the more formidable English. The United States took most of the territory to the South of the 49º N latitude line; England got the territory to the North and Vancouver Island.

The Mexican Cession

The United States forced Mexico to cede most of their land in the Southwest, paying approximately $20 Million to take the territory. Later, in 1853, the US would buy the Gadsden Purchase as well – just for the railroad right of ways.

CALIFORNIAAfter taking the territory by force as a result of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Americans in the state almost immediately discovered gold. The 49ers came forth en masse and rapidly. By the year 1850, California had applied for statehood as a free state, and another major Compromise was in the works.

The Compromise of 1850The Compromise of 1850 was not much of a compromise at all for the Southern States: 1. California entered the Union as a free state. 2. The slave trade would be abolished in Washington,

D.C. 3. Texas gave up territory in the New Mexico region, in

exchange for the US governments assumption of its debt.

4. Popular sovereignty would be used in order to determine the slavery issue in the Western territories – Utah and New Mexico - regardless of the previous agreement under the Missouri Compromise of 1820.

5. The Fugitive Slave Law would be strictly enforced, and Northerners would be required to participate in the execution of the law.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

Abraham Lincoln once called her the “little lady that started this great war” during the Civil War. The book she wrote, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, did much to polarize the nation.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 pushed the issue of slavery onto the states residents. Each territory could vote – squatters and resident alike – as to whether or not slavery would be allowed in the territories. Soon, conflicts escalated into violence.

“BLEEDING KANSAS”There is still plenty of question as to how much bloodshed took place in Kansas over the issue of slavery; however, there was a miniature version of the Civil War being staged there long before the Civil War began. Popular sovereignty only served to escalate the confrontation to the point of violence.

“BLEEDING KANSAS” – THE ISSUE OF

SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES

1854 – The Kansas-Nebraska Act resolves that popular sovereignty would determine the future of slavery in the west. “Bleeding Kansas” a microcosm and fore-runner of the Civil War, breaks out in the Kansas Territory. The act essentially reversed previous agreements – the Missouri Compromise Line, for example – by allowing citizens of the territory in question to determine the future of slavery in their region.Violence erupted in Kansas during the 1850s – most notably when John Brown and his sons massacred five pro-slavery men along the banks of Pottawatomie Creek. Rival governments were established in Kansas – one pro-slavery and one against. The spilling of blood over the future of slavery was a precursor to the Civil War.

PRESTON BROOKS AND CHARLES SUMNERAfter Sumner had given a speech disparaging on of his relatives, Preston Brooks savagely beat Sumner on the floor of the United States Senate. He brutalized him so severely that he snapped a thick walking cane over Sumner’s skull. From the North, horrified Americans demanded Brooks ouster from the Senate. In the South, though, Brooks was celebrated as a hero. His constituents sent him new canes.

The Republican PartyFounded on a college campus in Wisconsin in 1856, the Republican Party was devoted to “Free Soil, Free Labor, and Free Men,” the party was steadfastly opposed to the expansion of slavery into the West. The party first ran a candidate for President in 1856, John C. Fremont. It was in 1860, however, that the Republican Party finally rose to prominence, as Abraham Lincoln, with a minority of the vote – managed to win a majority of the Electoral College.

The Dred Scott CaseIn the case of Dred Scott V. Sandford, the Supreme Court issued a ruling which essentially legalized slavery in every state in the Union. Dred Scott was not freed when his master took him into a free state – because Southerners property rights were inviolable no matter where they should choose to relocate. While politicians considered the contentious issue of the expansion of slavery into the Western Territories, the Supreme Court unilaterally determined that the rights to private property of Southern slaveholders could not simply be waived when a he or she moved from one state in the Union to another. Hence, if slaves legally owned by a citizen of a slaveholding state were moved to a “free state” – well, the free state did not have the legal right to seize – or free – his or her personal property: in this case, an enslaved person.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROGER TANEY

In his ruling, Chief Justice Roger Taney determined that enslaved African-Americans – and indeed, even free blacks – “had no rights which the white man was bound to respect; and that the negro might justly and lawfully be reduced to slavery for his benefit. He was bought and sold and treated as an ordinary article of merchandise and traffic, whenever profit could be made by it." Taney’s ruling was met with outrage and defiance on the part of abolitionists, who redoubled their efforts to undermine the Fugitive Slave Law and forbid the expansion of slavery into the West.

John Brown’s Raid at Harper’s Ferry In 1858, radical abolitionist John Brown and a handful of his followers marched into Harper’s Ferry, VA intending to provoke a slave rebellion on a massive scale. Brown was a veteran of the fighting in Pottawatomie Creek in Kansas, and had devoted his live to the destruction of slavery. He vowed to purge the land of the sin of slavery with blood, if necessary. Although the uprising in Harper’s Ferry was quickly put down, the South was nonplussed by the event. A white man had led slaves into battle, openly advocating murder, revolution, and bloodshed. And what was worse in the eyes of most Southerners, Brown was considered a hero by many Northern abolitionists, from Frederick Douglas to Ralph Waldo Emerson, to William Lloyd Garrison. Depictions of Brown as a martyr and hero were inexplicable to those who favored slavery, yet, they persisted.

The Election of 1860

South Carolina Secedes, 1860

“South Carolina is too small to be a nation – and too large to be an insane asylum…” – James Petigru