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GTAW ininput poor arounvolts prcurrent.

GTAW A

If most welding portabilpower s

Remote control and stopedal thmore amobilitythe torc

If most foot pedConversthe bett

Before

The folloare no instructigloves a

1. Deterequiresrequires

2. Seleand zinc

permits faes a broad cleaning a

nverters aower. Thisnd a largerimary), a A 5- to 3

Accessor

welding i above 2ity, waterource and

control (the contaps the gahat operatmperage

y but is moh.

work is ddal remotsely, if moter choice.

Welding

owing sug substituional videand glasse

ermine ams about 1 s about 12

ect the coc die cast

aster traveder arc coaction.

accept sins provides e facility. Uan AC/DC

300-amp A

ries

s done at200 ampr coolers cd gas bott

capabilitieactor kee

as flow to tes much flows. A

ore difficu

done on ae control

ost work is.

Starts

ggestions ute for cos, and fo

es.

mperage amp of w

25 amps.

orrect cut. When e

el speed one, whic

ngle- or th flexibilityUsing threC GTAW AC/DC GTA

t 200 amps, a watcan be moles.

es usuallyps the tor the torchlike an aunother tylt to learn

a bench ois probab

s done in

address tcarefully ollowing s

requiremwelding pow

urrent. ACexposed t

on some h widens

hree-phase when mo

ee-phase pinverter AW machi

ps or less,ter-cooledounted on

y include rch electrh). The muto's gas ype of con - - is a fi

or around bly a betteawkward

he basic areading

safety pre

ments. Eawer. For e

C should to air, the

joints. De the weld

e, 50- or oving the power andrequires ine weigh

, an air-cd torch s a wheele

current ically cold

most populpedal; th

ontrol - -ingertip co

structureer option positions

areas of Gthe ope

cautions,

ach 0.001example,

be used fese metal

ecreasing d bead pro

60-hertz,machine bd welding only 18 s about 9

ooled torcshould beed cart tha

(amperagd until enelar remotee more it one thaontrol, wh

es that pe because , a fingert

GTAW setuerator's m such as w

inch of mwelding 1

for alumins form an

output frofile and

, 230- or between jat 300 amamps of 0 pounds.

ch works e consideat also ca

ge) and cergized ane control is depres

at affordshich is mo

ermit mobit's easiertip contro

up. Howevmanual, wwearing p

metal to b1/8-inch a

num, magn oxide la

requency provides

460-volt obs sites

mps (460 primary .

well. For red. For

arries the

contactor nd starts is a foot

ssed, the greater unted on

bility, the r to use. l may be

ver, they watching rotective

e melted luminum

gnesium, ayer that

melts aoxide ca

FortunaAC cyclewhere coxides.

3. Useweldmeis used,GMAW, weld pu

4. Set thour (Ca flat poFor oveincreme

In any pworkpieventuri and creincreaseto fix.

5. Selecalls forelectrodconventthinner frequenif the w(thoriumpoint roshould transfer

With a pweld ma

t a much auses inco

tely, AC ine directs hcurrent flo

the rignts may r such as the tungsddle.

the propeFH) shoulosition, therhead weents of 5 C

position, ice and stcan pull a

eate pinhoe the gas

ct the rigr selectingde. This tional powthan 0.0

cy outputweld were m, ceriumoughly twbe made

rred across

pointed eade from

higher teomplete w

nherently heat into ows from

ght gas. require anthe 75 pesten imme

er gas flod suffice.

he gas natelding, thCFH can be

if the gas art a swir

air into theoles in thflow when

ght type g a pure tstill hold

wer sourc9 in., or

t, new rec being ma, etc.) an

wo times a on the s the arc.

lectrode, 1/8-inch

emperatureld fusion

provides the work the work

Usually, n argon/heercent argediately w

ow rate. Argon is aturally flowe gas floe made, if

flows outrling motioe gas flowhe weld. n they see

of tungsungsten e

ds true fce. Howev when uscommendaade in thend grind itas long aend to p

a skilled oaluminum

re than thn.

a cleaning and meltk to the

pure argelium or ogon/25 pewill begin

More is nabout 1-1ws out of

ow rate sf necessar

t at too hon paralle

w, bring in Unfortunae a pinho

sten. For electrode for most ver, for sing a TIGations calle DC modt to a poias the diarevent ba

operator cm plates.

he base m

g action. ts the baselectrode

gon is emother specercent CO(to be con

not better,1/3 heavie the torch

should bery.

high a veloel to the to contaminately, somle, worsen

AC weldiand formi applicatimaking cG power l for treatde. Select nt in the

ameter. Aalling and

can place Without t

metal. If n

While these metal, - - blast

mployed, cialty mix(2) mix consumed o

, so 15 toer than airh and covegin at 20

ocity, it corch cup cnating oxyme operatning the p

ing, the ting a ball ions and critical wesource w

ting the tu a 2-perc long dire

A 0.010- td the tun

a 1/8-incthis techn

not remov

e EN portiothe EP pots off the

although. If the wommonly r deposite

o 20 cubic r. When wers the w0 CFH, an

can bounccalled a vygen and ntors automproblem th

raditional at the en welding elds on m

with an adungsten aent-type

ection, mato 0.030-gsten fro

ch bead oology, the

ved, this

on of the ortion - - e surface

h thicker rong gas used for ed in the

feet per welding in

eld pool. nd small

e off the enturi. A nitrogen, matically hey tried

practice nd of the with a materials djustable lmost as tungsten

aking the -inch flat m being

on a fillet e ball on

the endbead an

6. Seletungstenpercent capacityhas a cu

There is3/32-incwill creadrive thto weld tungsten

7. Avocontamibecausecontamia table portion

8. Set from flurule is tthe rooextensioa specia

9. Seletype antungsten

10. Selrectifier which hzero amforming

Inverterpoint so

of the e

nd then gr

ct the rign is direct thoriatey of 150 tourrent-car

s no such ch electroate arc strough the at 300 amn to migra

oid tunginated by e a contaminated porwith the cstruck firm

the propush with tto start wot of the ons fartheal gas cup

ct the fild hardnesn electrod

lect a hig type mac

has a tendmperage p a path fo

rs require o quickly

lectrode wind the be

ght diamtly propord, 3/32-o 250 amrrying capa

thing as ode. Attemtarting ane electrodmps creatate to the

gsten co accidentaminated ertion, the contaminamly. The t

per tungsthe gas cuith one e weld har than 1/2.

ler metass of met

de.

gh frequchines, codency to point. HF or the curr

HF for arthat the

would havead down

meter of ttional to tinch (0.0ps, whereacity of 15

an all-pumpting to nd arc stae. Converes tungste workpiece

ontaminatally touchlectrode c tungsten ated end htungsten s

sten exteup to a dlectrode dard to re2 inch ma

l. The filletal. The fi

uency (Hontinuous go out wbridges th

rent to foll

rc startingarc does

ve forced to final si

tungstenthe area o093-inch) eas a 2 pe5 to 80 am

rpose elec weld at 1ability prorsely, atteen "spittine.

tion. If ing the wcan produ should behanging oshould the

ension. Wistance eq

diameter, each requy result in

er rod neeller rod s

F) mode HF is reqhen the Ahe gap below.

g only, as not have

the operaze.

n. The curof its cros tungstenercent thomps.

ctrode, de18 amps blems; th

empting tong" - - the

the tunweld pool, ce an unse removedover the een be resh

While elecqual to th or about uire additn poor gas

eds to mashould be

e. For AC quired to sAC squareetween th

they driv a chance

ator to m

rrent-carrys section.n has ariated, 0.0

espite thewith a 3/

he currento use a 3e excess c

gsten el welding stable arcd from theedge, and harpened.

ctrode exhe cup dia 1/8 inch.tional exts coverage

atch the b the same

welding start and e wave trhe electro

ve the arce to go o

ake a lar

ying capa For exam current-040-inch

e reputatio/32-inch et is insuff/32-inch current ca

ectrode must be

c. To breae torch, p the conta

tension mameter. A. Joints thtension, e and may

base metae diamete

with tran maintain avels thro

ode and th

c through out. For th

ger weld

city of a mple, a 2 -carrying tungsten

on of the electrode ficient to tungsten

auses the

becomes stopped, k off the

placed on aminated

may vary A general hat make although y require

al in both er as the

sformer- the arc, ough the he work,

the zero his same

reason, starting

11. Concircuit bIt can bpossible(spreadcables r

12. Setcontrol,

Too mutungstenstabilityweld pu

Too muscummyon it, ad

13. Setbroaderimpuritiof energdepositi

Increasibead, woperatoplate topercent

A good are comtravel sputting 200 heradjusted

inverters method t

ntrol HF boards, tebe minime, keepinging them

repaired to

t the bal but the ty

uch cleann, which

y, and theddle. Arc

uch penety weld pudding mor

t the fre arc cones from tgy to the on (such

ng frequewhich helpr can direo plate. I in certain

starting pmfortable peed. For too much

rtz or mord lower fro

s producethat avoid

emissionlevisions, ized by hg the we apart is o prevent

lance conypical erro

ing actioncreates a

e operatorstarts beg

ration (orddle. If th

re cleaning

equency e, which he surface workpiecas buildin

ency prods when w

ect the arcncreasing

n applicatio

point for to work w a fillet wh amperagre. For buom there.

much les the use

ns. High and otherhooking thelding torlike crea

current le

ntrol. Thor involve

n (EP dua large br loses thegin to deg

r, more phe puddleg action w

(inverte widens e of the me, which g up a wo

uces a tigwelding in c precisely frequencons.

general wwith, increld applicge in the uildup wor

ess arc flu of HF alto

frequencyr electronhe work crch and ting a big

eaks.

ere are ns over-ba

uration) call on thee ability trade as w

precisely, e looks likwill remove

rs only)the weld

metal. It aspeeds up

orn part or

ght, focuscorners, o

y at the jocy also m

welding is rease conation with metal, thrk, freque

utter. Invogether.

y interfereic equipmclamp as work clag broadca

no hard rlancing th

causes exe end. Suo control

well.

insufficienke it has be these im

. Decreas bead pralso transp applicatr making a

sed arc coon root p

oint and nmay increa

80 to 12trol of thh full penehe frequenency shou

verters als

es with coment but is close to mp cableast dish),

rules abouhe cycle.

xcess heaubsequen the arc's

nt EP curblack pepp

mpurities.

sing frequrofile andsfers the mtions requa fill pass)

one; this asses, anot have thase trave

20 hertz. The arc diretration inncy shoulld start a

so offer a

omputers,s a necess the weldes close and kee

ut setting

t builduptly, the a direction

rrent) resuper flakes

uency prod better maximum

uiring heav).

narrows td fillet wehe arc danl speed u

These freection, an

n the weldd be incrt 60 hertz

a lift arc

, printed sary evil. dment as together ping the

balance

p on the arc loses and the

ults in a s floating

oduces a removes

m amount vy metal

the weld elds. The nce from up to 40

quencies nd boost d without eased to z and be

Making

1. Get torch prarm, slomany pe

2. Holdrelative positionlead to coverag

For travwhich inensuresremoved

3. Pracflat piecpracticecontrol shape o

GTAW isthe weldas a heaeasily ca

4. Start1/8 inchtouch thagainst welding workpie

5. Mainfrom therror thmuch, twelder sor repos

g a Good G

in a comroperly is ow movemeople grip

d the tor to the tos call for less pene, and ge

vel directinvolves pu good gad, and it o

ctice weldce of mete identifyinto find thf the weld

s like weldder can gat sink, soan be ove

ting the ah from thehe work dthe work

position.ce, lifts it

ntain cone work. Vat new GTo get a beshould shsition the

GTA Weld

mfortable like trying

ments, anp the torch

ch at therch in a p a travel etration, neral arc

ion duringushing theas coveraoffers the

ding on al rather ng the wehe right ad puddle.

ding with o back ovo if too mrheated.

arc. To ste work anuring a Hk, establis With lift off the w

sistent aVarying thTA welderetter viewift the posworkpiece

d

positiong to write

nd a menth like a pe

e proper perpendicuangle of poor direinstability

g GTAW, e torch awage of thwelder a

scrap. Wthan weld

eld pool frmount of

an acetylver it, rem

much time

tart an arcd the footF start. Msh the ar arc startorkpiece,

rc lengthhis arc les commit

w of the elsition of he so that t

n and brae neatly intal focus oencil.

angle. Tular positi15 to 20

ection of y.

the pushway from e weld pbetter vie

When begiding a joirom the b heat, an

ene torch melt it, an is taken t

c using HFt pedal de

Many peoprc, and thting, the and the fu

h. Arc lengength prod is pickingectrode a

his or her the torch i

ace yoursn a small on the en

Travel angion. Norm degrees. the weld

h techniqu(ahead ofpuddle anew of the w

nning, went or addbase metad learn h

in that, id repair ito get a m

F, the elecepressed. ple tilt the hen shift welder toull welding

gth is usuduces incg up the toand weld p face, typis pulled t

self. Manspace. It

nd of the

gle is defmal weldin

Travel a metal, p

ue shouldf) the welnd that oweld pudd

elders shoding filler. al, play w

how to con

f a weld it. Howevemolten pu

ctrode shoThe elect torch andthe torch

ouches theg current

ually one eonsistencorch, or tipuddle. Fopically dowtoward the

neuvering requires tungsten.

fined as tg conditiongles bey

poor shield

always bd puddle.

oxides hadle.

ould pract They sho

with the antrol the

s not satier, alumin

uddle, a sm

ould be herode shoud rest theh into thee tungste begins flo

electrode dies. One lting the t

or a bettewn and to e body.

a GTAW a braced . In fact,

he angle ons in all yond this ding gas

be used, Pushing ve been

tice on a ould also mperage size and

sfactory, num acts mall part

eld about uld never e gas cup e proper

en to the owing.

diameter common torch too r view, a the side

6. Mainthe torctoo slowneed toHoweveresult in

7. Add is estab20-degrfiller rod

The torcfiller rodrod shou

Learnin

There isthat it isand gets

The badthe hanbecome

ntain a trch too quiwly produo be mover, holdingn the arc b

filler melished, fill

ree angle d and the

ch and filld end, anduld not be

ng GTAW

s good nes very diffs the filler

d news is ds, feet as proficien

avel speeickly creatces an exved forwag the torcburning th

tal. Once ler metal up from ttungsten.

er rod shod solidifyine moved fr

ews and bficult makr rod into

that learnand eyes, nt, the res

ed consistes a beaxcessivelyard until ch too lonhrough the

the arc iscan be adthe workp

ould be mng weld arom the p

bad news e a bad Gthe weld p

ning to ma takes pasults are v

stent witad that is y wide bea

the weldng in one e base me

s started added. Thepiece, crea

moved prore not exprotection

about GTGTAW weldpuddle, a

ake prettytience an

very satisf

th the de too narroad. With

d puddle spot, esp

etal.

and a welde filler rodating a 90

gressivelyposed to a of the shi

TAW of alud. If the w sound we

y weld bead practicefying.

sired beaow, while GTAW, threaches

pecially o

d puddle o should b

0-degree a

y so that tair. The helding gas

uminum. welder meeld is mos

ads, as wee. Howeve

ad shape moving the torch dthe desirn thin me

of the dese held at angle betw

the weld pot end of s.

The goodelts the bat likely to

ell as cooer, when

e. Moving the torch does not red size. etal, can

sired size a 15- to ween the

pool, hot the filler

news is se metal result.

rdinating a welder

Electricarc wel

WHAT

Electricimade ucontainsneutroncalled eof a pronumber upset bgain or moveme

The elecacross tback to

You migdirectionand Desboth wocontinuomarble marble The anslooped pand loopsupport and Des

city is uselding pro

T IS ELEC

ty is a foup of atoms positivels. The nulectrons. Toton, and of protony an outs lose an ent of the

ctricity flothe arc, t the powe

ght have bn throughstinationsould have ous flow! destinatiocapacity f

swer to thpathway fp it aroun a uniformstinations:

Subun

ed to proocess.

CTRICIT

orm of enms, and ay charged

ucleus of aThe negatd the numns. When side force electron.se electro

ows from tthrough thr source i

been wond wires wit. In orde to have Using thon bucketfor a "flow

his paradofor electrond so that m flow of :

it 5 – Th

ovide the

TY?

ergy. Elecan atom d particlesan atom itive chargmber of e the balan (the pow When e

ons constit

the powerhe base mn a “close

dering howthout the er for the an infinite

he marblets would h

w" of marb

ox is founns. If we it forms electrons

he Scien

heat nee

ctricity is has a ce

s called pris surroune of an ele

electrons ncing forcwer sourcelectrons tutes an e

r source (material ted” pathwa

w electronbenefit of Source-e capacitye-and-tubhave to bles to be s

nd in the take a wia continus without

nce of W

eded to m

the flow nter, callerotons andnded by nectron is ein an atoce betweece when aare "lost"

electric cur

(Source),o the woay called a

ns can conf these hy-and-Desy for elece analogy

be infinitesustained

concept ore, or manous pathw having to

Welding

melt mate

of electred a nucd unchargnegatively equal to tom is usuen protonsarc weldin" from arrent.

, through rk lead (Da circuit.

ntinuouslyypotheticastination ctrons in oy, the mly large t.

of a circuiny wires jway, we ho resort t

erials dur

rons. All mleus. The ed particl charged he positivually equas and ele

ng), an atn atom,

the electrDestinati

y flow in al electronscheme

order to smarble souto contain

t: a nevejoined endhave the mto infinite

ring the

matter is nucleus es called particles

ve charge al to the ctrons is tom may the free

rode and ion) and

a uniform Sources to work, sustain a urce and n enough

er-ending d-to-end, means to Sources

Each elewhich pfilled witelectronwe neeelectron It must straight betweenelectron

ectron advushes on th marble

ns indefinitd to main

ns, which w

be realiz piece of n the electns from flo

vancing cthe one ins. Now, wtely withontain thiswe'll addre

ed that c wire. Jutron Sourcowing thro

lockwise in front of

we have thout the nees flow is aess in the

ontinuityst as in ce and De

ough it:

n this circ it, and sohe capabilied for infia continu next sect

y is just athe exam

estination,

cuit pusheo on, and ity of suppnite electr

uous meantion of this

as importample with , any brea

es on the so on, jusporting a ron supplins of mos chapter.

ant in a cthe strai

ak in this c

one in frost like a hcontinuouies and dutivation f.

circuit as ght piececircuit wil

ont of it, ula-hoop

us flow of umps. All for those

it is in a e of wire l prevent

An impooccurs. entire cfor elect

REVIE

A flo

If

co

Thcoflo

ortant priAny discoircuit. Unltrons to fl

EW: circuit is ow throug

a circuit iomplete pa

he locatioontinuous ow throug

nciple to ontinuity iless thereow throug

an unbrokh continu

is "brokenath, and c

n of a br electron fhout the c

realize hein the circ

e is a contgh, a susta

ken loop oously with

n," that mcontinuous

reak in a flow. Any circuit.

ere is thacuit will ptinuous, uained flow

of conducthout begin

eans its cs electron

circuit is break any

at it doesnprevent elunbroken w simply c

tive matenning or e

onductive flow cann

irrelevanywhere in

n't matterectron floloop of coannot be

rial that and.

e elementsnot occur

nt to its inn a circuit

r where thow througonductive maintaine

allows elec

s no longein it.

nability to prevents

he break hout the material ed.

ctrons to

er form a

o sustain electron

Condu The elemove aelectronspace broom-tefree to adjacen

In othefreedomsome ofof anotheasily.

This reelectric materiaidentity)high elmateriacalled in Here are Condu

s c g a i s b b m g d c

uctors, I

ctrons of around. Wns in the etween th

emperaturleave th

t atoms, t

r types ofm to move f these eleher mater

elative mconductil (the num) and howectron mls with nsulators

e a few co

ctors: silver copper gold aluminumiron steel brass bronze mercury graphite dirty wateconcrete

Insulato

different With some

atoms arhe atoms re heat eneir respethey are o

f materia around. Wectrons torial, they

mobility ivity. Conmber of prw the atommobility (m

low eles.

ommon ex

er

ors, and

types of e types ore so loosof that mnergy. Bective atom

often calle

ls such asWhile exte leave thedo not m

of electnductivity rotons in ems are linmany fre

ectron m

xamples of

Electro

atoms haof materiasely boundmaterial byecause thems and fd free ele

s glass, ternal forceeir respectove betw

trons wi is determeach atomked toget

ee electroobility (

f conducto

Insu gla ru oil as fib po ce qu (d (d (d pla air dia pu

on Flow

ave differals, such d that they nothing ese virtuafloat arouctrons.

the atomses such astive atomeen atom

ithin a mined bym's nucleuther with oons) are few or

ors and in

lators: ass bber phalt

berglass orcelain ramic

uartz ry) cottonry) paper ry) wood astic r amond ure water

rent degreas metal

ey chaotic more thaally unbouund in th

s' electrons physical s and tran

ms within t

material y the typeus, determone anothcalled cono free

nsulators

n

ees of frels, the oucally mov

an the inflund elect

he space

ns have v rubbing cnsfer to ththat mate

is knoes of ato

mining its her. Materonductorse electro

eedom to utermost ve in the uence of rons are between

very little can force he atoms erial very

own as oms in a chemical rials with rs, while ns) are

It must conductElectricalight: mthat doequally certainlybeing be It shoulelectricagood insa very materiametals cooled. called su While thparticulacoordinaelectronit could an unmthe empwithin asolid to The liquconduct Rememmove inbe electmateriaflow of e It is intcurrent.and this

be undertivity, andal conduct

materials thn't are cconductiv

y better thetter than

d also beal propertsulator at high temls, also bbecome pMany co

upercondu

he normalar directiated fashns is what be calledoving accptiness ofand betwe our eyes,uid-flow ator is often

ber that n the spactric currel providinelectrons

teresting t Electron

s friction c

rstood thad not all tivity is ahat easily alled "opve to lighhan "clear others.

e understoties under room tem

mperature.ecome copoorer cononductiveuctivity) a

l motion oon or spion throu we call e

d dynamiccumulationf a pipe, en the ato, but any analogy isn referred

electrons ce betweennt only wg a condrequires t

to note thns do encocan genera

t not all cinsulatorsnalogous "conductaque." Ho

ht. Windowr" fibergla

ood that sr differentmperature Gases s

onductive nductors w materiat extreme

of "free" epeed, eleugh a conelectricityc electricitn of electelectrons oms of a cmaterial

s so fittin to as a "f

can flown the atomhere theruit for elethere be a

hat no "wounter somate heat in

conductives are equto the tra

t" light areowever, nw glass iss. So it i

some matt conditioe, but becosuch as aif heated when heals becom

ely low tem

electrons ictrons canductive my, or electy in contric charge are able conductorcomposedg that thflow."

w only whms of a mre exists ectrons ton unbroke

wear" occume degren a condu

e materialally resistansparence called "tnot all trs better is with ele

terials expns. Glassomes a co

air, which to very ated, and me perfecmperature

in a condan be infmaterial.

ctric curretrast to ste. Just lik to move r. The cond of atomshe motion

hen they material. T

a continuo travel then path to

urs withine of frictioctor.

ls have thtant to ecy of certatransparenransparentthan mos

ectrical co

perience c, for instaonductor normallyhigh temp better coctly condes.

uctor is rafluenced This unif

ent. To btatic elec

ke water f within thductor mas is mostl

n of elect

have the his meansuous pathhrough. o permit th

n wires duon as they

he same lelectron main maternt," while t materiast plasticsonductors,

changes inance, is awhen hea

y are insuperaturesonductors uctive (t

andom, wto move

form mote more pr

ctricity, whflowing thhe empty ay appeary empty srons thro

opportuns that theh of condThe contihat flow.

ue to thisy move, h

evel of motion. rials to those ls are s, and some

n their a very ated to ulating . Most when his is

with no in a ion of recise, hich is hrough space r to be space!

ough a

nity to re can

ductive inuous

s electric however,

REVIE In c

or g In in All m Dyn

elect Stat

formtypicdiss

For musthat

EW: onductivo, and arensulating mmetals arenamic eletrons throtic electr

med by eically formimilar matelectrons

st be a co conducto

ve materiae called frmaterials,e electricalectricity,ough a conricity is anther an e

med by terials. to flow cmplete, u

or.

als, the ouree electro the outerlly conduc, or electnductor. n unmovinexcess or charge s

ontinuousnbroken p

uter electrons. r electronsctive. tric curr

ng (if on a deficienceparation

sly (indefinpath for th

rons in ea

s are not

rent, is

an insulatcy of elec by con

nitely) thrhem to m

ch atom c

so free to

the unifo

tor), accutrons in atact and

rough a cmove both

can easily

o move.

orm moti

mulated can object separati

onductor, into and

y come

ion of

charge t. It is on of

there out of

VoltagWe neeelectronthe circinfluencwork in

If we tafind thaelectronthem. Tobjects:

If a conflow thrto get b

ge and Cd more th

ns will occuit. Just ling force static elec

ake the ext the surp

ns in the wThis imba

nductive wough it, aack to the

Current han just acur: we aike marbl to initiatectricity: th

xamples oplus of elewool (poslance ma

wire is plaas some ofe wool, fill

a continuolso need les in a tue flow. Whe force p

of wax anectrons insitive charanifests its

ced betwef the exceing the de

ous path (some meube or wa

With electrroduced b

d wool wh the wax rge) creatself as an

een the cess electroeficiency o

(circuit) beans to puater in a prons, this by an imba

hich have (negativetes an imn attracti

charged wons in theof electron

before a cush thesepipe, it taforce is talance of

e been rube charge) balance ove force

wax and we wax rushns there:

continuoue electronsakes somethe same electric ch

bbed toge and the of charge between

wool, electh through

s flow of s around e kind of force at harge.

ether, we deficit of between the two

trons will the wire

The imbwool crefrom theNow thaelectronuntil thediminish

If we ru"levels,"the elecrespecti When thhigh in it has thWhen yocreate aaction oforced fand youyour hayour eleflow of e This pocapable a term cunit chpotentimeasureagainst electricavailabconduc

Becauseor potenit is alw

balance ofeates a foe wax to tat a conduns to flowe charge ihes.

ub wax an" creating ctrons seeve atoms)

he electroa reservohe possibou scuff yan imbala

of scuffing from their u won't rend agains

ectric charelectrons t

tential en of provokcalled volharge ofial energe of workthe force

cal poweble (workctor.

e voltage ntial for enays refere

f electronsrce betwethe wool, uctor bridg

w in a unin that are

nd wool to a conditi

ek to re-es).

ns are poir), the enility (pote

your rubbeance of e your feet original lalize that st a metarge), that through y

nergy, stoking electltage, whf electrogy. Definek required which trieer sourcek to be do

is an expnergy releenced betw

s betweeneen the twall this foges the inform direea neutra

ogether, won where stablish th

oised in thnergy storential) ofer-soled selectric cht stores enocations. energy isl doorkno stored en

your hand,

ored in throns to floich technions, or ed in the to movees to keepes, voltaone) per

ression ofease as thween two

n the atomwo materia

rce can dnsulating gection throlizes and

we "pump a force eheir forme

hat static cred there f release thoes agai

harge betwnergy in tThis char

s being stoob (with lonergy will , and you

he form oow througcally is a something

e context a unit ch

p electric cage is th unit char

f potentialhe electron points, a

ms in the als. With no is attracgap, howeough the the force

p" electroexists betwer position

condition is called pthat has nst a fabrween youhe form o

rge (staticored at alots of elec be releas will perce

of an elecgh a cond measureg a phyof static

harge fromcharges bahe amourge, to m

l energy, ns move f positive

wax andno path foct the twoever, the wire, if o between

ns away ween the ns (and ba

(just like potentialnot been ric carpet urself andof an imbac electricll. Howevectron mobsed in the eive it as a

ctric charguctor, cane of poteysicist wo electricitm one localanced. Iunt of pmove elec

representfrom one " (+) and

the atomr electron

o objects tforce will only momthe wax a

from thei wax and alance wit

water sittl energy, fully real

on a dry d the caralance of ecity) is staer, once ybility to n form of aan electric

ge imbalan be expr

ential eneould call ty, voltagcation to In the copotential ctrons th

ting the p"level" to a negativ

ms in the ns to flow together. provoke

mentarily, and wool

r normal wool, as

thin their

ting still, because ized yet. day, you pet. The electrons ationary,

you place eutralize a sudden c shock!

ance and essed as

ergy per specific e is the another, ntext of energy rough a

ossibility another, ve(-).

Let's tak

Any southis casof varyidirectionThe factthus unreal lifesemi-sovoltage

Notice tThe negand the Since wFranklinout of it

With thevoltage the batt

We can end of initiate a

ke the sym

urce of vole, we having lengthn which tht that theable to se, those holid mater to push th

the little "gative (- positive

we have dn!), the net. Likewise

e "+" and between tery, beca

provide sthe battea continuo

mbol for a

ltage, inclve point 1 h indicatehis battere horizonterve as a orizontal rial that hem along

"+" and ") end of (+) end ecided to

egative ene, the posi

d "-" ends those twouse there

uch a patry to theous flow o

chemical

uding bat and poin

e that thisry's voltagtal lines ipath for elines reprnot only g by intera

"-" signs the batte of the ba call elect

nd of a baitive end i

of the bao points, is no con

h for the b other. Fo

of electron

battery a

teries, hat 2 in thes is a batge will try n the batelectrons tresent meconducts

acting wit

to the imery is alwattery is altrons "negttery is this that end

attery not but there tinuous pa

battery byorming a

ns in a cloc

and build a

s two poin above dittery, and to push ttery symto move)

etallic plat electronh the plat

mmediate ays the elways the gatively" hat end wd which tr

connecte will be nath for the

y connecti circuit wckwise dir

a circuit st

nts for eleagram. Thd they fuelectrons bol appea is no cautes immers, but altes.

left of thend with t end with charged (

which tries ries to attr

d to anytho flow of e electron

ng a piecewith a looprection:

tep by ste

ectrical cohe horizonrther indi through aar separatuse for conrsed in a so gener

e battery the shorte the longe(thanks, B to push eract electr

hing, ther electronsns to move

e of wire fp of wire,

ep:

ontact. In ntal lines icate the a circuit. ted (and ncern: in liquid or ates the

symbol. est dash, est dash. Benjamin electrons rons.

re will be through e.

from one , we will

So longelectricathe metelectronkeeps "the sama Directare expCurrent,

Becausethroughlike mathroughcross-sewould ncircuit, r

as the bal path isntaphor of ns throughpushing"

me directiot Current, lored whe, or AC. B

e electric a conduc

arbles throut a sing

ection of tnotice the regardless

battery con't broken water moh the circin the samon in the or DC. Inere the diut for now

current ictor by mrough a tgle circuit the wire inexact sam

s of condu

ontinues t, electronoving throcuit is calme directicircuit. T

n the secorection of

w, we'll jus

is composmoving alotube or w will be thn a singleme quantiuctor lengt

to producs will conough a piled a curron, the ehis singlend volumf current st concern

sed of indong and pwater thrhe same a circuit, cty per unth or cond

e voltagetinue to fpe, this crent. So llectron flo

e-directione of this bswitches n ourselve

dividual epushing onrough a at any poiounting thit of time ductor dia

e and the flow in thecontinuouslong as thow will con flow of ebook serieback and

es with DC

electrons n the elecpipe, thent. If we he electro as in anymeter.

continuite circuit. Fs, uniformhe voltagentinue to electrons es, electric forth: AltC circuits.

flowing inctrons ahee amount were to m

ons flowiny other pa

ty of the Following m flow of e source move in is called c circuits ternating

n unison ead, just of flow

monitor a g by, we

art of the

If we brthe entiacross t

Notice thow theThese mflow. Tthat vopolarity circuit greferencmarked

With thevoltage

reak the cire loop, athe break,

the "+" aey correspmarkers inThis potenltage is a of a voltagets labeleced. Take with a nu

e circuit's dropped b

circuit's coand the fu between

nd "-" sigpond to tndicate thntial direcalways reage drop ied with a a look at

umber for

s continuitbetween p

ontinuity aull voltage the wire e

gns drawnthe "+" ae directio

ction is colative bets also rela "+" or a t the follo reference

ty brokenpoints 2 a

at any poe produceends that

n at the end "-" sig

on that thommonly tween twative betw "-" depenwing circu

e:

betweennd 3 is "-

oint, the eed by the used to b

ends of thgns next e voltagereferred o points.

ween two pnds on thuit, where

points 2 " for point

electric cu battery wbe connect

he break ito the ba attemptsto as pol Because points: whe other p

e each cor

and 3, tt 2 and "+

rrent will will be mated:

in the circattery's tes to push larity. Re of this fhether a ppoint to wrner of th

the polarit+" for poin

cease in anifested

cuit, and erminals. electron emember fact, the point in a hich it is e loop is

ty of the nt 3. The

battery'clockwis

Now let'place a

With thetwo poin"sign" ipoints 2point 3 voltagebetwee

REVIE Elec

man Volt

unit "pus

Voltatwo

Wheunifo

In asam

s polarityse from 1

's see whabreak in t

e break bnts is "+"s opposite

2 and 3 (w in this ce itself, ien two po

EW: trons can

nifested intage is th charge) bsh" availabage, as a locations,en a voltaorm flow oa single (oe as the a

(1 "-" anto 2 to 3

at happenthe circuit

etween 3 for 4 ande of that

where poincircuit willis not spoints!

be motiv static ele

he measurbetween tble to motan express, or pointsage sourceof electronone loop)amount of

nd 4 "+")to 4 and b

ns if we co between

and 4, thd "-" for 3 in the fint 3 was la always bpecific to

vated to flectricity. re of spectwo locatiotivate elecsion of pos. Sometime is connens through) circuit, tf current a

is tryingback to 1

onnect poi points 3 a

he polarity3. Take sirst examabeled "+be either o a sing

low throug

cific potenons. In layctrons. otential enmes it is cected to ah that circthe amouat any oth

to push again.

nts 2 andand 4:

y of the vpecial notple, wher

+"). It is im "+" or "

gle point,

gh a cond

ntial energyman's te

nergy, is called a voa circuit, cuit calledunt of curer point.

electrons

3 back to

voltage drte of the fre the brmpossible "-", becau, but is

ductor by

gy (potenerms, it is

always reoltage "drothe volta a curren

rrent at a

through

ogether ag

rop betwefact that eak was for us to

use polar always

the same

ntial energ the meas

elative beop." ge will ca

nt. ny point

the loop

gain, but

en those point 3's between say that

rity, like relative

e force

gy per sure of

etween

ause a

is the

If a sour

The relat

circuit corce will ap +/- orietive betwe

ontaining ppear acrontation oeen two po

a voltagess the poif a voltaoints.

e source iints of thege drop

s broken,e break. is called

, the full

the pola

voltage o

rity. It i

of that

s also

Resist The circquite dtogethemagniturelease circuits energy,

One pralighting.clear glasufficienconductelectron

Connectthis:

As the eencountwire. Thits croas resishave ve

tance

cuit in theangerous r with a sude of eleof energyare const in as safe

actical and. The simass bulb, nt electrictive connens to exit.

ted to a s

electrons wter more ohis opposss-sectiostance. (Iery high re

e previous to build single piecectric currey very drtructed in e a manne

d popular plest form which gloc currentection po

source of

work theiroppositionsition to onal areaIt can be esistance.

s section (directlyce of wireent may ramatic (u such a wer as poss

use of em of electows whitet passes oints, one

voltage,

r way thron to motio electric a, and it said that ) This res

is not a vy connecte). The rebe very lausually in way as to ible.

electric curic lamp ie-hot ("in

through e for elec

an electr

ough the ton than thcurrent dts tempe conductorsistance s

very practing the p

eason it isarge in su the form make pra

rrent is fos a tiny mcandescesit. Like

ctrons to

ric lamp c

thin metaey typicaldepends erature. rs have loerves to l

tical one. poles of s dangerouch a sho

m of heat)actical use

or the opmetal "filas") with hthe batt

enter a

circuit loo

l filament lly would on the tIt is tec

ow resistanlimit the a

In fact, ia voltage

ous is becart circuit, ). Usually,e of that

eration ofament" insheat enertery, it nd the o

ks somet

of the lamin a thick

type of mchnically nce and inamount o

t can be e source ause the and the , electric released

f electric side of a gy when has two other for

hing like

mp, they k piece of material, known nsulators f current

throughcompareend of t

When eJust likagainstresistandissipateglow whbattery conduct

As in thpoint, emeans t

As beforavailableacross tan openthroughbreaks establis What weBecausethe ent

the circued with thhe voltage

lectrons mke mechat a resistce of a laed at thathite-hot,

(which ting the sa

e case of lectron flothat it will

re, with noe across tthat brean circuit,out. All it have beehed, it is k

e see heree any breatire circuit

uit with ahe "short e source (

move agaianical fritance mamp's filamt filamentproducinghave mu

ame amou

the shortow stops t stop glow

o flow of ethe breakk and pe where a takes is aen connecknown as

e is the baak in a cirt, we can

given am circuit" w(battery) t

nst the opiction, thanifests iment resut. This heg light, whuch lowerunt of curr

t circuit, ithroughouwing:

electrons,k, waiting ermit elec break in a single brcted once a closed

asis for swrcuit's conn use a

mount of where we to the oth

pposition he frictiontself in tlts in a reat energyhereas thr resistanrent.

f the contut the ent

the entirefor the o

ctron flow the contireak in co again an circuit.

witching lantinuity redevice de

voltage s had nother.

of resistan producthe form elatively lay is enouge wires c

nce) hard

tinuity of ire circuit

e potentiapportunity

w again. Tinuity of tntinuity tond the co

amps on aesults in cesigned t

supplied bhing but a

nce, "frictced by el of heat. arge amough to causconnectingdly even

the circui. With a l

al (voltagey of a conThis condthe circuito "open" aontinuity

and off bycurrent stoto intentio

by the baa wire join

tion" is gelectrons The concunt of hease the filag the lam

get war

t is brokeamp in pl

e) of the bnnection tition is kt preventsa circuit. Oof the ci

y remote sopping thronally bre

ttery, as ning one

enerated. flowing centrated at energy ament to p to the m while

en at any lace, this

battery is to bridge nown as s current Once any rcuit re-

switches. roughout eak that

continuiwires to

This is hmountedswitch. made opushbutone to tseparatethe air b

REVIE Res A sh

of ebecaener

An ointer

A clo A de

calle

ty (called

o, to contr

how a swd down aThe switcf some kitton. Whethe other ed, electrbetween, a

EW: sistance ishort circuitlectrons. ause the rgy to be open circrruption inosed circuevice desied a switc

a switchol the flow

itch mouna long hach itself isnd of men the conand the con flow frand the ci

s the meat is an eleShort circhigh currreleased. cuit is onn the pathuit is one tgned to och.

h), mountw of electr

nted on thallway, ors construcetal) forcentacts touccircuit's corom one tircuit's con

asure of opectric circucuits are dents enco ne where h for electrthat is comopen or cl

ed at anyrons in the

he wall ofr even in cted of a d togethech each oontinuity isto the othntinuity is

pposition tuit offeringdangerousountered c

the conrons to flomplete, wilose a circ

y conveniee circuit:

f a house another pair of co

er by a mther, elecs establishher is prevs broken.

to electricg little or s with higcan cause

ntinuity how. ith good ccuit unde

ent locatio

can cont room, faonductive

mechanicalctrons are hed; whenvented by

c current. no resista

gh voltagee large am

as been

continuity r controlle

on that we

trol a lamar away f contacts lever act able to fn the conty the insu

ance to the power somounts o

broken

throughoued conditi

e can run

p that is from the (usually tuator or low from tacts are

ulation of

he flow ources f heat

by an

ut. ions is

The An oA clelect

terms "opopen switclosed swittrons to fl

pen" and ch is one tch is onow throug

"closed" rwithout ce that prgh.

refer to swcontinuity:rovides a

witches a: electron direct (l

s well as s cannot low resist

entire ciflow throutance) pa

rcuits. ugh it. ath for

How v An elecelectronthroughin terms The forcspecific When wreferringelectronWithoutFree eleoppositi The amomotivateelectronpoints. as being

To be aneed toquantifyquantitytemperastandard

The "syrepresen

voltage,

ctric circuins to con the conds of "flow,

ce motivat measure

we speak og to the ns from ot referenceectrons teon to mot

ount of cue the elec

n flow. JuFor this rg "betwee

ble to mao be able y mass, ty. For mature we d units of

mbol" givnt that qu

current

it is formtinuously

ductors of " just like

ting electr of potentof a certa measureone partice to two pnd to movtion. This

urrent in actrons, anust like voeason, thn" or "acr

ake meani to descrtemperatuass we might use measurem

ven for eauantity in

t, and re

med when move. T a circuit the flow

rons to "fltial energin amoun

ement of cular poinparticular pve througopposition

a circuit dd also theoltage, ree quantiti

ross" two p

ingful statribe their ure, volumight use degreesment for e

ach quanti an algeb

esistanc

a conduThis contiis called aof a liquid

low" in a cy that is t of voltaghow mu

t in that points, theh conductn to motio

depends oe amount esistance ies of voltpoints in a

tements a quantitieme, lengse the uns Fahrenheelectrical c

ity is the braic equa

ce relate

uctive patnuous moa currentd through

circuit is calways rege being ch potent circuit toe term "votors with on is more

n the amoof resistais a quantage and a circuit.

about theses in the th, or annits of "eit or degcurrent, v

standard ation. Stan

e (Ohm

h is creaovement t, and it is a hollow p

called volelative betpresent in

tial energyo anotheroltage" hasome deg

e properly

ount of vonce in thentity relatresistance

se quantitsame wa

ny other kilogram"

grees Celsoltage, an

alphabetndardized

’s Law)

ated to alof free e

s often refpipe.

ltage. Voltween twon a circuity exists tr particulaas no meagree of fri called res

oltage avae circuit totive betwe are ofte

ties in circay that w

kind of " or "grasius. Herend resistan

ical letter letters li

llow free electrons ferred to

tage is a o points. t, we are to move ar point. aning. iction, or sistance.

ailable to o oppose

ween two en stated

cuits, we we might

physical am." For e are the nce:

r used to ke these

are comrecognizsymbol yes, thacharacte Each unThe ampAlessand

The maresistancurrent "Intensi"Electropart, altas a bat

All of thquantitytime (cawhich is"E," whiline wou"v") to lower-carepresenmeasureletters.

These uknow asand peresistanhis 1827discovercircuit itemperadescribi

mmon in thzed. The "used as a

at strangeer in a for

nit of meap after thdro Volta,

thematicace and tseems a ty" (of elmotive fothough sottery or ge

hese symby (especiaalled an "s stable ovile the voluld most designate

ase conventing curements, h

units and s we beginerhaps mce is calle7 paper, Try was thas directly ature. Ohng how vo

he discipli"unit abbra shorthan-looking "

reign alpha

asurementhe Frenc and the o

al symbol he "V" fo bit weirdectron flo

orce. The ome texts enerator)

bols are eally voltag"instantanver a longltage peaklikely be e that vaention horrent at however,

symbols n to explo

most impoed Ohm's The Galvanat the am proportiom expresoltage, cu

nes of phreviation" nd notatio"horseshoabet (apo

t is namehman Anohm after

for eachor voltage. The "I"

ow), and t symbols reserve "and "V" to

xpressed e or curre

neous" vag period ok of a lighsymbolizelue as belds true f

some inbeing sta

for electrore the relortant, reLaw, disconic Circuit

mount of eonal to thssed his drrent, and

ysics and for each

on for its pe" symbologies to a

ed after a ndre M. r the Germ

quantitye are bot is thoughthe other "E" and "E" to repro represen

using capent) is delue). For f time, wi

htning striked with a eing at a for currennstant inble over t

ical quantlationshipselationshipovered byt Investigalectric cur

he voltagediscovery d resistanc

engineer quantity particular l is the caany Greek

famous eAmpere,

man Georg

y is meanth self-exht to have symbol f"V" are intresent volnt voltage

pital letterescribed in example,ill be symke at the lower-cas single mnt as weln time. time, will

tities will s betweenp betweey Georg Sated Mathrrent throe impresse in the foce interrel

ring, and arepresent unit of mapital Grek readers

experimenthe volt

g Simon O

ingful as planatorye been mfor voltagterchangeltage acro

e across an

rs, exceptn terms o, the voltbolized w very instase letter "

moment inl, the lowMost dir

be symbo

become n them in en currenimon Ohmhematicallugh a meed acrossorm of a late:

are internts the alph

measuremeek letter Ωhere).

nter in el after the

Ohm.

well. The, whereas

meant to re, "E," st

eable for toss a sournything el

t in cases f a brief ptage of a

with a capiant it hits "e" (or low time. Th

wer-case rect-curreolized wit

very impo circuits. Tnt, volta

m and publy. Ohm's etal condus it, for a simple e

nationally habetical ent. And, Ω, just a

ectricity: e Italian

e "R" for s "I" for represent tands for the most rce (such lse.

where a period of battery, tal letter a power wer-case his same letter "i" nt (DC) h capital

ortant to The first, ge, and

blished in principal uctor in a ny given equation,

In this resistantwo vari

Let's see

In the aand onlyit very equantitieto deter

algebraicce (R). Uiations, so

e how the

above circy one soueasy to aes (voltagrmine the

expressiUsing algeolving for

ese equatio

uit, there rce of respply Ohmge, curren third.

on, voltaebra technI and for

ons might

is only osistance to

m's Law. Ift, and res

ge (E) isniques, weR, respect

t work to h

ne sourceo current f we knowsistance) i

equal toe can matively:

help us an

e of voltag(the lamp

w the valun this circ

o current anipulate

nalyze sim

ge (the bap, on the rues of anycuit, we ca

(I) multithis equa

mple circui

attery, on right). Thy two of tan use Oh

iplied by tion into

ts:

the left) is makes the three hm's Law

In this fvalues o

What is

In this sgiven va

first examof voltage

the amou

second exalues of vo

ple, we w (E) and r

unt of curr

ample, weoltage (E)

will calculaesistance

rent (I) in

e will calc and curre

te the am (R):

this circu

ulate the ent (I):

mount of c

uit?

amount o

urrent (I)

of resistan

in a circu

ce (R) in

uit, given

a circuit,

What is

In the lagiven va

What is

Ohm's Lused socommittcomfortquantitylike this

the amou

ast exampalues of cu

the amou

Law is a o often inted to mable with y, given th:

unt of resi

ple, we wiurrent (I)

unt of volt

very simpn the stu

memory b algebra, the other t

stance (R

ll calculate and resist

age provid

ple and udy of eley the sethere's a ttwo. First

) offered b

e the amotance (R)

ded by th

seful toolectricity aerious stutrick to re, arrange

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nsile stren

echanical in a strainue the fo

shrinkage is obtaine but the dheated frofects of th

cold-workcold-rollingthat canno

olling usueration, tkled to rells. This a

mensions.

drawing her formsrods are p a steam adhering 1-23 show

for drawinhe rod to tis filed or ripped by ns is done

ly to the ler dies. must be ished. Alt

ngth of the

working pn hardenirming pro

e are elimed. The s

ductility deom time te working

king proceg and coldot be obta

ally refershe matermove any

action give The princ

is used of stock.

pickled in m room, to the mws the dra

ng dependthe desire hammerethe jaws

e by a mec

desired sBecause eannealed though coe wire en

performedng of the ocess with

inated in trength aecreases. to time dg.

esses, thed-drawing

ained by h

s to the rials that y scale, aes a smoocipal form

in makin Wire is macid to rewhere thetal serve

awing of ro

ds upon ted wire sized to a poof the drachanism k

ize, it is neach of t from timold-workinormously

d at tempe metal. Ithout softe

cold-worknd hardneSince thisuring cert

e two witg. These pot-workin

working have befter whichoth surfac

ms of cold

ng seamlemade fromemove scaey remaies as a luod, tubing

the diameze, it is dr

oint and slaw, then pknown as

necessaryhese drawme to timng reduce. In maki

eratures bt becomesning the m

king, a muess as wes makes ttain opera

th which processes g.

of metal een hot-rh they arece and alsd-rolled st

ess tubin hot-rolled

ale, dippedn until rebricant du

g, and wire

eter wanterawn coldipped thropulled throthe drawb

y to draw wings redme beforees the dung seamle

below the s so hard metal by

uch more ell as the he metal ations to

you are give the

at room rolled to e passed so brings tocks are

ng, wire, d rods of d in lime eady for uring the e.

ed in the through ough the ough the bench.

the wire uces the e further ctility, it ess steel

aircraft or metaperformaffords diamete

Extrudi

The extthus caulead, tinbefore t

The prinbecauseextrudeother mcomplex

A cylindforced tsuch as

ALLOYI

A substchemicapresent metals metals layers wmade up

Alloyingchange relativelsuch as many timanufac

In additqualitiesproperti

tubing, thl bar insid

med. This a means

ers.

ing

rusion prousing the n, and aluthe operat

ncipal adve of its wd to more

metals. Extx sections

der of aluthrough th stringers,

ING OF M

ance thatal element in the alland/or elare dissolwhen the p of a num

elementsin the pr

ly soft an copper, mimes. Alumcture is ca

tion to ins of a mees. It m

he tubing de the tubforces the of contr

ocess invometal to t

uminum mtion is beg

vantage oworkabilitye intricatetruded sha.

minum, fohe openin, are form

METALS

possessets, of whicloy in the ements alved in easolution s

mber of al

s, either roperties d weak mmanganesminum coalled an al

creasing etal, its comay cause

is cold-drabing to supe metal torolling the

olves the take the s

may be extgun.

of the ext and othe

e shapes aapes are

or instancng of a di

med by the

es metallicch at least largest p

added to tach other solidifies. loying ele

in small oof the ba

metal, butse, magneontaining luminum a

the strenorrosion ree an incr

awn throupport it who flow bee wall thi

forcing ofhape of thtruded co

rusion proer favoraand largerproduced

ce, is heae by a hy

e extrusion

c propertit one is a proportion the alloy while moPracticallyments.

or in largease metalt by addinesium, andsuch othealloy.

ngth, alloyesistance,rease or

ugh a ringhile the drtween theickness a

f metal thhe die opeold; but ge

ocess is ible proper sizes tha in very s

ated to 75ydraulic rn process.

es and ismetal, is is called are calleolten, andy all the

e amount. For exang small ad zinc, itser elemen

ying may , electricadecrease

-shaped drawing ope die andnd the in

hrough anening. Somenerally, m

in its flexerties, canan is pracsimple as

50°F to 8ram. Many.

s composecalled an the "based "alloyin

d they do metals us

ts, may reample, puamounts s strengthnts purpos

change tal conducte in the

die with a erations a the mannside and

opening me metalsmetals are

xibility. Aln be econcticable wiwell as ex

50°F, andy structur

ed of two "alloy." Te metal." ng elemen not sepased in air

esult in are aluminof other e

h can be insely adde

the heat-tivity, or mdegree t

mandrel are being ndrel and d outside

in a die, s such as e heated

uminum, nomically ith many xtremely

d is then ral parts,

or more he metal All other

nts." The rate into craft are

marked num is a elements ncreased d during

resistant magnetic to which

hardeninor decreimportametals a

FERROU

A wide vthe varydeteriorform of repair, mechan

Among to the g

ng occurs ease in snce to thealone do n

US AIRCR

variety ofying needration of s the matethese facical and p

the commroup of m

after coldstrength ae aircraft inot posses

RAFT MET

f materialss with resspecific sterial playsctors, pluphysical pr

mon matemetals hav

d-workingand hardnindustry inss.

TALS

s is requirspect to structures s an impous many roperties.

SAE N

Type steel Carbon

Nickel

Nickel-chromium

Molybden

Chromium

Chromiumvanadium

Tungsten

Silicon-mangane

rials useding iron a

. Alloying ness by hn providin

red in thestrength, or parts. ortant roleothers, a

umerical

of Class

m

num

m

m-m

se

1xxx

2xxx

3xxx

4xxx

5xxx

6xxx

7xxx

9xxx

are ferros their pri

may alsoheat treatng materia

e repair ofweight, dIn additioe. In seleare consi

l Index

sification

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

ous metalsincipal con

o make potment. Alals with pr

f aircraft. durability, on, the pecting madered in

n

s. The ternstituent.

ossible an loys are

roperties t

This is a and resisarticular sterials for relation

rm ferrous

increase of great

that pure

result of stance to shape or r aircraft to their

s applies

Identif

If carbopercent,carbon combinibase madded ischemica

SAE NU

The stespecificaconstruc

Each SAtype of usually carbon steel cocarbon. various

HARDN

Hardnesas well commonThese tchapterused in the hard

Spark becomestone oferrous from a nonferrothese m

ication

on is add, the prosteel. Cang carbonetal (suchs called anal or physi

UMERICA

el classifications foction. A nu

AE numbesteel; thethe last twin the alloontaining Refer to types of s

NESS TEST

ss testing as the cnly used mests requ. An addit identifyindness of t

testing mixed. I

or grindermetal has few tinyous metal

metals cann

ed to iroduct will rbon stee

n with otheh as iron)n alloy. Thical prope

L INDEX.

cation of r all higumerical i

er consistse second, wo or threoy. For ex1 percen

the SAE steel are c

TING ME

is a factocondition methods ouire the utional, andg ferrous he metal.

is a comn this tes

r, and thes its own y shafts s give offnot be suc

on, in perbe vastly

el forms er elemen) to whichhe additiorties of th

.

the Sociegh-grade ndex syst

s of a gro the percee digits, txample, thnt molybd numericaclassified i

THODS.

or in the dof the m

of hardnese of sped somewh metals. T

mon meast, the piee metal i peculiar sto a shof sparks wccessfully

rcentages y superiorthe base

nts known h small quon of othee base me

ety of Autsteels

tem identi

up of digentage ofthe percenhe SAE nudenum anal index, snto four-d

determinametal befoss testingecific machat indirecThis type o

ans of idece of irons identifiespark cha

ower of swhen touc identified

ranging r to iron of those to improvuantities r metals ietal.

tomotive used in fies the co

its, the fif the princntage, in umber 415nd 50 hushown in digit class

tion of thore heat g, the Brinchines andct, methodof identific

entifying n or steel ed by thearacteristicsparks seched to a d by the sp

up to ap alone ane alloy stve the proof other ms to chan

Engineersautomot

ompositio

rst of whicipal alloyhundredth50 indicatundredths table 1-1ification n

e results treatmen

nell and thd are covd known acation give

ferrous is held ae sparks cs. The sp

everal fee grinding park test.

pproximatnd is claseels prodoperties ofmetals hage or imp

s (SAE) istive and n of SAE s

ich represying elemhs of 1 petes a moly of 1 pe1, to see numbers.

of heat trnt. There he Rockwvered lateas spark tes an indi

metals thgainst a rthrown o

park streaet in leng stone. Th

tely 1.00 sified as

duced by f steel. A ave been prove the

s used in aircraft

steels.

sents the ent; and

ercent, of ybdenum ercent of how the

reatment are two ell tests.

er in this testing is cation of

hat have revolving off. Each ams vary gth. Few herefore,

Wroughstone, astone, bthat havnumber color. Nwithin th

Types,

While thmills, sotonnage

CARBO

Steel coclassed 1030. Snuts, caused fomoderat

Steels cclassed or forgiforgings

Steel coclassed adds to hard anlimited uin wire f

NICKEL

The varSteels cincreaseapprecia

t iron pro

and they ebut turn tve a few of sprigsickel steehe main b

Characte

he plain co-called ae. Let us n

N STEELS

ontaining as low-caSteels of thable bushior secondtely stress

containing as mediung and ws are made

ontaining as high-c the hard

nd will wituse in aircform for m

L STEELS

rious nickcontaininges the haably decre

oduces loend up a o a strawwhite spr

s along eael causes tburst.

eristics, a

carbon tyalloy or snow consid

S.

carbon inarbon stehis grade ings, and dary strused struct

g carbon ium-carbonwhere surfe from SA

carbon incarbon steness of th

thstand hicraft. SAEmaking coi

.

kel steels g from 3 ardness, easing the

ng shaftswhite colo

w color. Lorigs. As thach shaft the spark

and Uses

pe of stepecial steder those

n percentaeel. The e are used threadedctural pa

tural parts

n percentn steel. Thface hardAE 1035 st

n percentaeel. The adhis steel. gh shear 1095 in sil springs.

are prod to 3.75 tensile s

e ductility.

that areor. Cast irow-carbonhe carbonincreases stream t

of Alloye

el remaineels are balloyed st

ages rangequivalent for makin rod ends

arts and s.

tages ranhis steel isness is deteel.

ages rangddition of In the fu and wearsheet form

uced by c percent strength, It also in

a dull reron sparksn steels gin content , and theto contain

ed Steels

ns the pribeing turnteels and t

ging fromt SAE numng such its. Low-caclamps,

ging froms especialesirable.

ging from other eleully heat-tr and hav

m is used f

combiningnickel arand elastensifies t

ed color as are red ive off lon of the st stream b small wh

s

ncipal proned out itheir uses

m 0.10 to mbers rantems as sarbon steeand in

m 0.30 to lly adaptaCertain ro

m 0.50 to ments in treated cove little defor makin

g nickel wre commostic limit the harde

as they le as they lng, straigheel increabecomes white blocks

oduct of tn ever in

s in aircraf

0.30 pernge from afety wireel in sheettubular f

0.50 perable for mod ends a

1.05 pervarying q

ondition, ieformationg flat spri

with carboonly usedof steel

ning effec

eave the eave the ht shafts ases, the whiter in s of light

the steel ncreasing ft.

rcent are 1010 to

e, certain t form is form for

rcent are machining and light

rcent are uantities t is very n. It has ngs, and

on steel. d. Nickel without ct of heat

treatmetermina

CHROM

Chromiupropertirequire steel. It

CHROM

Anticorras by tThe prinbe addeknown anickel. Oincrease

Stainlesthese stabout 4but a slof an aexhaustcastings

CHROM

These achromiuwear aninto intrfailure. carbon c

CHROM

Molybdechrome-strong amolybde

ent. SAE 2ls, keys, c

MIUM STE

um steelses. SAE greater t is used fo

MIUM-NIC

rosive deghe componcipal parted. The coas 18-8 stOne of thed by cold

ss steel mteels expa0 percentight variatircraft. Sot collectorss, and tie

ME-VANAD

re made oum. Whennd fatiguericate shaSAE 6150content, S

ME-MOLYB

enum in s- molybdealloying eenum ste

2330 steeclevises, a

EELS.

s are h51335 is toughnessor such ar

CKEL OR

gree is detosition, tet of stainlorrosion-reteel becauhe distinct-working.

may be roand about t as rapidltion in its ome of its, stacks rods and c

DIUM STE

of approx heat trea. A speciapes. It ca0 is used SAE 6195,

BDENUM

mall percenum steeelement, oels; the c

el is usedand pins.

igh in h particulas and strerticles as t

STAINLE

termined emperaturess steel esisting stuse of its ctive featu

olled, draw 50 percenly, they a chemical s more coand manicables.

EELS.

imately 0ated, theyal grade oan be fold for makin is used fo

STEELS.

entages isel, which only 0.15 chromium

extensiv

hardness, arly adaptength thathe balls a

ESS STEEL

by the sure, and cois chromiteel most content ofures of 18

wn, bent,nt more thre more d compositommon afolds, stru

.18 percey have strof this steed and flang springsor ball and

s used in has variou to 0.25

m content

vely for ai

strengthtable for n may be

and rollers

LS.

urface cononcentratium, to wh often usef 18 perce8-8 steel

, or formhan mild sdifficult totion, can bapplicationuctural an

nt vanadirength, toeel in sheeattened ws; and chd roller be

combinatus uses inpercent b varies fr

ircraft pa

h, and cheat-treae obtaines of antifri

ndition of on of thehich nickeed in aircrent chromiis that its

ed to anysteel and

o weld. Stbe used fons are in nd machin

um and aoughness, et form cawithout sighrome-vanearings.

tion with cn aircraft.being userom 0.80

rts such a

corrosion-ated forgied in plainction bear

the metae corrosivel may or raft constrium and 8s strength

y shape. conduct hainless stor almost the fabric

ned parts,

bout 1.00 and resisan be coldgns of brenadium w

chromium Molybden

ed in the to 1.10

as bolts,

resistant ngs that n carbon rings.

al as well ve agent. may not ruction is 8 percent h maybe

Because heat only eel, with any part cation of springs,

0 percent stance to d-formed eaking or ith high-

m to form num is a chrome-percent.

Molybdeworkabifrom hereason ais used brackets

The procontinuoforth allpower usteels, balloying

NONFE

The termtheir prmagnesBabbitt.

Alumin

Commecorrosio(generaare usedingrediesilicon salloys into corro6 or 7 p

TYPES,used mbecausecomparalight wecharacte

enum raislity. Molybeat treatmare used for partss for acces

gress of jous resealoys to wiunits. Thebut may a elements

RROUS A

m nonferrrincipal csium, and

um and A

rcially puon resistanlly copperd in aircra

ents are eshow littlen which ssive actio

percent in

CHARACetals in m

e of its higative easeeight. In eristic blu

ses the ulbdenum sment. Theprincipallys such as ssories, a

et propulsrch in higthstand these alloysalso contas.

AIRCRAFT

rous referonstituent their allo

Aluminum

re aluminnt. Aluminr, manganaft constrither mane attack ubstantialn. The totthe wroug

CTERISTImodern aigh strengte of fabric color, aish tinge

ltimate ststeels are ey are esy for weld engine mnd other s

sion in thegh-temperhe high tes are chein cobalt,

T METALS

rs to all mt. This goys; and

m Alloys

num is anum combnese, magruction. Alnganese, min corrosil percentatal percenght alumin

ICS, ANDircraft conth/weight

cation. Thealuminum

of its ow

trength oftough, we

specially aed structu

mounts, nstructural

e field of nrature meemperaturemically s copper, a

S

metals thagroup incin additio

white, lbined with gnesium, luminum amagnesiuve enviro

ages of cotage of alnum alloys

D USES. -Anstruction ratio, its e outstand

resemblen. Comm

f steel wiear resistaadaptableural parts nuts, bolts parts.

naval aviaetallurgy. res and vsimilar to and colum

at have eludes aluon, such

ustrous m various pand chromalloys in wm, or chronments. opper are loying eles.

Aluminum. It is vit corrosionding charaes silver,ercially p

ithout affeant, and h for weld and asses, gear st

ation has This rese

velocities e the prev

mbium in v

lements ouminum, alloy met

metal, ligpercentagemium) forwhich theromium, oOn the o

used areements is

m is one otal to the n-resistingacteristic althoughure alumi

ecting duharden thrding, and emblies. Structures,

been aideearch has encounterviously mvaried am

other thantitanium, tals as Mo

ht in wees of otherm the ale principalor magnesother han more suseldom m

of the mos aviation

g qualitiesof aluminh it possnum melt

ctility or roughout for this

SAE 4130 support

ed by the brought red in jet entioned ounts as

n iron as copper, onel and

ight and er metals loys that alloying

sium and d, those sceptible

more than

st widely industry s, and its um is its sesses a ts at the

comparaconduct

Commerolling doubledprocessewithin th

Aluminumalleabdrawn inaircraft some of

One disjoints. Oadheringriveting

The var(those swroughttwo, theused forare not

WROUGtreatabl(cold-woalloys mof both

Aluminuthis ardesigna

The firsgroup, agreater;element

atively lowtor of elect

rcially puror other . By alloyes, the tehe strengt

um alloy le and dunto wire 0construct

f the large

advantageOxidation g to the m process is

rious typesuitable fot alloys (te wroughtr stringersextensive

GHT ALLe and heorking) is

may be haprocesses

um producrangemented by a f

st digit ofas shown ; 2xxx indt; 3xxx ind

w temperatricity.

re alumincold-wor

ying with nsile strenth range o

material,uctile. It 0.004 inchtion rangeer aircraft

e of alum of the sumaterial; s used. So

es of aluor castinghose that t alloys ars, bulkhea

ely used in

LOYS. -Weat treata the only mrdened bys.

cts are ident, wrougfour-digit

f the desi in table dicates andicates an

ature of 1

um has arking proc other mength may of structur

, althougmay be r

h in diamees from 0 use sheet

minum allourface of therefore,ome alum

minum mg in sand, may be sre the moads, skin,n aircraft.

Wrought able. In thmeans of y heat trea

entified byght alumindex syst

gnation in1-2. The

n aluminumn aluminu

,216°F. It

a tensile scesses, itetals, tog be raisedral steel.

h strong,rolled intoeter. Most0.016 to t stock tha

oy is the d the heat, to produinum alloy

maybe div, permaneshaped byost widely rivets, a

alloys arehe nonheincreasingatment, b

y a universminum antem.

ndicates tlxxx indicm alloy inm alloy w

t is nonma

strength ots strengtgether witd to as hig

, is easilo sheets t aluminum0.096 in

at may be

difficulty oted metal uce good ys are als

vided intoent mold, y rolling, dy used in nd extrud

e divided eat-treatabg the tens

by cold-wo

sally usednd wroug

the majorcates alumn which co

with manga

agnetic, a

of about 1th may th the usegh as 96,0

ly workedas thin am alloy sh

nch in thie as thick

of making preventsjoints of ao success

two clas and die drawing, oaircraft co

ded sectio

into twoble class, sile strengorking, or

d designatght alum

r alloying minum of opper is tanese as t

and is an e

13,000 psbe approe of heat000 psi, o

d, for it as 0.0017heet stockckness; has 0.0356

g reliable s soft soldaluminumfully weld

sses-casincastings) or forgingonstructio

ons. Castin

o classes- strain h

gth. Heat-t by the ap

ion systeminum all

element 99.00 pethe majorthe major

excellent

i, but by oximately -treating

or to well

is very 7 inch or k used in however, 6 inch.

soldered der from

m alloy, a ed.

ng alloys and the ). Of the

on, being ng alloys

-nonheat ardening treatable pplication

m. Under oys are

or alloy ercent or r alloying r alloying

elementonly one

In the 1impuritycontrol minimumaluminuindicateLikewise

Aluminu Aluminu Coppe Mang Silico Magn Magn Zinc … Other

In the 2the seconumberlast twothe diffe

The temconditiodash.

The lettin whichmetal,

The lett

t; etc. Alte group (6

1xxx grouy limits. Ion indivi

m aluminum withou the samee, 1075, 1

m – 99.0 p

m Alloys, ger……………anese………n……………esium………esium and

………………r elements

2xxx throuond digit s 1 throu

o of the foerent alloy

mper desn of the

ter F followh no effo

er O indic

though mo6xxx) desi

up, the seIf the secidual impnum percut special e aluminum1175, 127

Designa

percent min

grouped by………………………………

…………………………………

d silicon………………………

………………

ugh 8xxx gin the de

ugh 9, assour digits ys in the g

ignation metal. It

wing the art has be

ates dead

ost aluminignates m

cond digitcond digit urities. Tcentage. control om purity w5, etc., in

ations fo

nimum and

y major all………………

…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

groups, thesignationsigned cohave no s

group.

follows th is alway

alloy desigeen made

d soft, or a

num alloyore than o

t in the d is zero,

The last tThus, al

on impuritwith specidicate 99.

r Alumin

d greater…

oying elem………………………………

…………………………………………………

…………………………………

he second is zero,

onsecutivespecial sig

he alloy s separat

gnation in to contr

annealed,

ys containone alloyi

designationit indicate

two of thloy 1030ties. Alloyal control.75 percen

um Alloy

…………………

ments …………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………

digit indiit indicat

ely, indicagnificance

designatited from

ndicates thol the me

condition

several ang elemen

n indicatees that thhe four d0 indicateys 1130, on one ont aluminu

y Groups

………………

………………………………

………………………………

……………………………………………………

cates allotes the orte alloy m

e, but serv

on and sthe alloy

he "as fabechanical

.

alloying ent.

es modifichere is nodigits indies 99.30 1230, 13r more imum.

………………

…………………….………….…………………

………………………………………………………………

y modificariginal allomodificatiove only to

shows th designat

bricated c propertie

elements,

ations in o special cate the percent

30, etc., mpurities.

….1xxx

…2xxx …..3xxx …..…4xxx

……..5xxx ………6xxx …….7xxx …….8xxx

ations. If oy, while ons. The o identify

e actual ion by a

ondition, es of the

The lettheating

This in aat room

The letAdditionAlloys innonheat

The lettcertain v

Greater aircraft common6062, 6

Alloys 6and in s

Alloy 2member

Alloy 20is specif

Alloy 20and 202strength

Alloy 71small am

NonheatThese aannealin

Alloy 11economfairings,

ter W indi the meta

an unstab temperat

ter H indnal digits n this grot-treatable

ter T indivariations

strength in prefe

nly used in063, 2017

6061, 606some appl

017 is urs.

024 is usefied, since

014 is use24 in that h is requir

178 is usemount of c

t-treatablealloys do ng effect.

100 is usey, and co, oil tanks

cates solul to a high

le temperture, Alloy

dicates stare added

oup cannoe.

cates fully in treatm

is obtainaerence to n aircraft 7, 2024, 2

2, and 60ications a

used for

d for airfoe it is stron

ed for extr it contain

red than th

ed where chromium

e alloys u not respThey may

ed where rrosion re, and for t

ution heath tempera

r, applicaby 7075 ma

train hardd to the Hot be stren

y heat trment.

able in the the nonconstruct

2014,7075

063 are sos extrusio

rivets, st

oil coverinnger.

ruded shans a high hat obtain

highest as a stab

sed in airpond to ay be harde

strength esistance athe repair

t treated. ture follow

ble only toay be orde

dened, coH to indicngthened

eated. Di

e heat-trenheat-treaion (in ord5, and 717

ometimes ons and sh

tressed-sk

ng and fitt

pes and f percentagnable from

strength bilizing age

rcraft consany heat ened only

is not an are desirar of wing t

Solution wed by a

o those allered in the

old-workecate the d by heat

gits are a

eatable alloatable allder of incr78.

used for heet meta

kin cover

tings. It m

forgings. Tge of cop

m 2017 or

is necessent, as do

struction treatmen

by cold- w

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Below a

re some CCommon WWelding MMetric Convversions

CalculaThe tabneeded gas. Userrors d Notes: 1) If yo(CF) in t 2) Argoform yowhen mwelding pound. use dire

TWiTypSolSolCorCorCorCor

Compar Exampleduring t1. Multipurchasof gas y 2. But y380,000Wasted

ate Shieldble below can be oe purchasue to vari

ou’re usingthe calcula

n is usualou may bemeasured wire purIf needed

ectly.

TYPICAL re pe lid lid red red red red

re the typi

e: You puthe same pply the va

se amountyou should

you purcha0 CF was d!

ding Gas provides

obtained fses over iable amo

g CO2 it pations; th

ly sold in e purchasat 70 degchase rec ask your

SHIELDI

Size .035 .045 .035 .045 1/16 3/32

cal values

rchased 4period 610alue from t; 5.0 CF/d have pur

ased 610, wasted o

Waste a way to rom purcha period unts of inv

probably isere are 8.

CF or in sing it in g F and 1cords are r supplier

NG GAS TTyLb

s in the ab

46,000 lbs0,000 CF the far ri/ 1 pound rchased.

000 CF ofor 380,00

estimatehasing or of 6 monventory.

s purchas.74 CF per

100 CF- igallons. I1 atmosphonly keptas they k

TO WIREypical bs/hr 3.5 7.0 6.5 7.5 11.0 14.5

bove table

s of 0.045of Argon aight colum X 46,000

f gas. The00 Wasted

MIG shie your supnths to a

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f you are f so therehere in eat in dollarkeep the d

E PURCHAC

Wir

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mn in the 0 lb of wir

refore 610d / 610,0

elding gaspplier of w year to

unds. Youf CO2

purchasine are 113ach liquidrs, you'll data in a f

ASE RATICF Gas/ 1re Purcha

10 CF 5.0 CF 5.5 CF 5.0 CF 3.5 CF 2.5 CF

ur usage.

e in the pcombined above tabre purchas

0,000 – 200 Purcha

s waste. Twire and avoid int

'll need c

ng Argon 3 CF of Ard gallon; 3need the form that

IO 1 lb ased

past 6 mo: ble times sed = 230

30,000 = ased = 6

The data shielding troducing

ubic feet

in Liquid rgon gas 3) If the cost per you can

nths and

the wire 0,000 CF

62% Gas

If you ugas req (DescDealingReviewiour pate Texas TGas SavA Texasone of oshieldingwith a fugas delicylindercylinder The gasdeliveryconsum Therefo300 CF providespressure Calculatgas savthe sampurchas Stated ahave neuse they"Magic H Note, thcorrectlydata can

use sevequiremen

cribe “Gg With Peng a fabrented Gas

Truck Stover Systes based mour patentg gas savull cylindevery hose

r and the r was emp

savings cy hose, 30ed only 30

re; - 112 CF s the prope in the ho

ting the gavings. Or

me numbersed for the

another weeded 2.7 y needed Hose!"

here are a y, i.e. the n be prese

eral typesnts.

Gas Saercentagericators tes Saver Sy

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pty! That is

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= 188 CF per amounose to aut

as savings said anotr of parts.e whole sh

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s of wire,

aver Syses: est measuystem sho

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ated severas was con36/632 =

is wastednt of extratomatically

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10 GSS's f

of ways tombers yieh ways.

, treat ea

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facturer Wavings rious typever Syste a repetitwith 0.035completedr changes6 = 2.7 tim

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centage ot takes 30se impres

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o use Perclded 268%

ach indiv

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f Gas Flowto deal wit

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their standwith the GS

IG welder

centage. Ju% more or

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w and Sath percent

7 Times

k storage) (WAT- Fwelding dre MIG, ust cylinder.ors were w parts.

se test, wi36 parts. Wme numb

system! Aart and mestrictions

e; (300 -1268% mlts, 25 GS

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ust be surr 63% les

nd add t

avings whtages:

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ith the noWith the Ger of parts

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SS's were

em they wr several ysked for m

re they ars etc. The

the total

en using

rts with

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SS still the

= 63% to weld

would years of more

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A ShielA pheno(Born 17 Dalton‟ssum of t

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s Gas Lawthe Partia

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ar apart!

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erial needes, hoses e leaks!

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ing a low or fittings

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l Pressure

P3 + .....

re of a sinother wordce betweehave any of a gas

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e Oxygen, n its jour

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is being uoisture la

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ak! It will ce of say a driving

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mperature efore the n Liquid!

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IG Weldit it is NOugh the a

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or c) the

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surface, electrons ce, melts referred

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elting Ra

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modified tode Extens

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wo energyvoltage timce heating

T OF CURRr implicatiwire feed paramete

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enetration ed in inches

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e Potentiaal to the A

quation o

ate (lbs/h

b" are co to the wo compension” that

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RENT ONon of the speed) aer, weld p

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eference

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(1) page

e Stickou

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bon steel w

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nstant K =

asures as

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wire are:

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ines the

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ckout (at effect on

on plate

Using th0.035 in Assuminstickout

Note: 1. With 3/8 inchinches. a very ethe wirestickout 2. Howenormal penetra Therefothe distpenetramode itshieldingkeepingleading Weld PFor the weld peinch soltype anYou canon-plate

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a fixed wh stickoutThe resistefficient he as it ent.

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in A

21111

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ry importam tip to e current desirable

up. This hhigher. I

he weld pu

on Definit of this exin a bead-sed in thist also shi

e your own cutting a

find the

eed speed

Amps

00 84 72 62 54

speed thew of 154 a

ting of throcess. Th arc, bec

duction in to 3/4 i

%.

ant to kee work foalso incr

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following

d that pro

Peneinch.127.114.104.096.090

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etration hes 7 4 4 6 0

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we change

00 amps

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ased from ckout was

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when varf extende

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a measurefferent wiact not on will alter re doing b

e wire stic

at 3/8 in

Loss in ration

200 amps increasein the equd to finishhotter wit

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Referen1. AWS 2. “The 129-s th Gas PreUnderstsetting g In 1662Volume.P1 / P2(Where psi at se For examthe gas both ChThey deV1 / V2(Where =Degree Applyingeffecting i.e.V1 /If T1=7AssumeV1/V2 dV1 / V2 Or at adegreesand oveVolume

ces: Welding H Science ohru 230-s

essure / anding thgas flow a

2 Robert B. He state2 = V1 / V P, pressuea level)

mple, in a volume marles and

efined the 2 = T1 / T T, Tempees Fahren

g this equg volume

/ V2 =T1 5 F than T T2 = T1

due to 20 2 =T1 / T

a constans Fahrenheer the ran with gas

Handbook,of Arc Wel

Volume Che relationand under

Boyle defd the relaV2

ure, is me

a MIG gasmust be do Dalton in following T2 erature is heit gaug

uation we'in normal

/ T2 T1Rankin + 20% =9% Temp D

T2= 535/5

t pressureit yields onge of proTemperat

k, Volume lding” by

Calculationship betwstanding M

ined the tionship in

easured as

delivery ouble. Thadependen relationsh

measurede + 460)

ll see in g ranges:

= 75+46090 deg F; Difference550=0.97

re, an inconly 3% inoduction ture to con

1, 9th AdC. E. Jack

ons ween gas MIG shield

basic relan mathem

s absolute

hose if that was untntly addedhip:

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general we

0=535 R then T2 R

e =

crease in ncrease intemperatunsider it s

ddition; ppkson. 196

pressure ding gas u

ationship matic term

e pressure

e initial atil 140 yea

d temperat

olute Tem

e need no

Rankin =

Temperan volume. ures thereignificant.

p 7 0 Welding

and volumuse and w

between ms as:

e = gauge

bsolute prars later wture to the

perature

ot worry a

90+460=

ture of 2 For moste is not e.

g Journal 3

me will heaste.

Gas Press

e pressure

ressure iswhen aroue relations

in degree

about tem

550 R

20% meat welding penough ch

39(4) pp

elp when

sure and

e + 14.7

doubled und 1800 ship!

s Rankin

mperature

sured in purposes hange in

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neral Gas L

V1) / T1 =

also be wthe constahe nR by we need.

ELDING E: pressure n30 CFH is

gulator/flo

re when w(or orifice

e volume elding wil

ped / V w +15) / (

xpansion er gas delxpanding we is due on.

ess Gas B creates s to stabilsing exceer MIG nozer 1/2 inch

Laws can

= (P2 * V

written asants nR casearching

EXAMPLE

needed in 3 psi.

wmeter is

welding stoe flow con

of excessl be:

welding =(3 psi + 1

Causes Mlivery hoswith 80 psto the inc

Blasts Outturbulencize to a d

ess spattezzle more h diamete

be written

V2 ) / T2

s P * V = an definedg the Inte

E

the gas d

s used tha

ops gas control) until

s gas in th

= P stopp15) = 5.3

More Excse showedsi pressurcreased P

t of the ce in thedesirable ser and int than 50 C

er nozzle f

n as:

(nR) T d based ornet since

delivery ho

at employs

ontinues tl the pres

he gas de

ped / P w3 times th

cess Volumd it had are. TherefoPressure a

MIG Torce shieldingsmooth Laternal weCFH flow low rates

on the gae for our p

ose from g

s an 80 ps

to flow thrsure in th

elivery hos

welding =he physic

me: Testa 13% incore 87% and 13%

ch When g gas straminar flo

eld porositrate caus should no

s. We'll lepurposes

gas source

si regulato

rough thehe gas de

se compa

cal hose

s of a screased vof the excof the ex

Welding ream whow. The tty. For ases this tot exceed

et you finratio com

e to welde

or.

e needle valivery hos

red to the

volume

tandard olume ducess gas s

xcess due

Starts: Tich takesturbulencea typical turbulent about 40

d details mparisons

er/feeder

alve flow se equals

e volume

1/4 inch ue to the stored in to Hose

The high s several e pulls in 5/8 inch flow. For CFH.

Weld C This Topfor TIG The dataof the eEquatioRc = Codeg F/mk = TheBTU/mp = DenC = Speh = thicHnet = NTIG] Tc = TeTo = In WeldinEdition Thick P Thin Pl Calculawelds:

Tub Using tRc = -2Hnet = 1(h / Hn(Tc - ToRc = -2

ooling Ra

pic providewelds.

a is presequation. Ton Elemeooling ratmin ermal Co

min in degnsity of mecific Heackness ofNet heat

emperatuitial plate

g Cooling

Plate Equ

ate Equa

ate estim

be = .040

thin plate * 3.14161.66 et)2 = 0.0)3 = 1.07981 deg

ate

es the ma

nted so oTIG procesnts and Vte at weld

nductivitg F metal; lb/at of metf metal; i input =

re whiche temper

g Equatio

ation = R

tion = Rc

mated coo

0 in wall;

e equatio6 * 0.024

000579 7 * 109 F / min =

ath equati

ne can sess efficienValues d centerl

ty of meta

/in3 tal; BTU/in BTU / in

h cooling rature; de

ons from

Rc = - [2

c = 2 * 3.

oling rate

V (volts)

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= - 50 de

ons that e

e the numcy is show

ine;

al;

(lb deg

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rate is caeg F

pp 100 W

* 3.1416

.1416 * k

e @ 1100

) = 10; I

* 0.11= -

eg F / sec

estimate t

mbers andwn at 0.57

F)

/ ipm * 0

alculated

Welding

6 * k(Tc -

kpC (h/ H

0 deg F

(amps) =

- 0.00481

c

the theore

dimensio7 (57%.)

.57proce

d; deg F

Handboo

To)2] / H

Hnet)2(Tc-

for thin

= 70; tra

1

etical cool

ons from e

ess efficie

ok Volum

Hnet

-To)3

wall 413

avel = 12

ing rates

each part

ency for

e 1, 9th

30 tube

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