WOOL“The Wonder Fiber”

Wool Processing- (Woolen & Worsted both)

Introduction:

Wool is a fiber, which for generations is being provided by the different Wool bearing animals, like; Alpaca, Camels, Goats, Guanco, Llamas, Musk Ox, Rabbit, Sheep, Vicunas & Yaks etc. being bred in different countries.

A very important Wool variable is luster. Some Wools are dull, some glow like Silk, and some shine like Mohair. Mohair is not a Wool but a, hair from Angora goats. The Wool on each sheep is different from one part of the body to another. Wools also differ among individual sheep of the same breed, between sexes, & from year to year depending upon variables such as age, health, & nutrition. Differences also occur depending upon the quality of care given to the fleece prior to shearing, as well as afterwards during the cleaning & processing of the Wool.

“Virgin Wool" is the Wool which has not been spun or woven previously; it comes directly from the fleece of a live sheep.

"Fell" or "Pulled" Wool, is the fiber off a dead animal.

"Lamb's Wool" is Wool from sheep up to seven months old & is the first shearing.

The structure of Wool:

Wool is a protein fiber (Keratin) & this is the key to understanding the properties of Wool. Proteins are helicoidal makro molecules . In a Wool fiber, three of these proteins are wrapped around each other, thus retaining the cork screw like structure of the protein & forming the 'proto fibril'. Eleven proto fibrils form a 'micro fibril' & a large number of micro fibrils form a macro fibril, like a single thread in a rope the macro fibril is part of the cortex, which in itself is divided in two halves: the Para-cortex & the Ortho-cortex. Each of these halves has slightly different qualities, that give Wool fiber the characteristic "Crimp" or small curls. Finally, the

enclosure of the fiber is an outer layer of tiny overlapping scales, 400- 800 per cm.

M echanical properties :

The helicoidal structure of the fiber & all its parts result in a resilient & elastic behavior.

Arrangement of Para- & Ortho-cortex

Woolen & Worsted- The Difference:

Woolen & Worsted are two major classifications for Wool yarns & fabrics.

The Woolen System

Woolen fabrics are characterized as being fuzzy, thick & bulky. They are made from fibers that are 1”- 3” in length that have been carded only (Worsted yarns are carded & combed). After the carding process the Woolen "Sliver" is drawn & twisted by machine into rope like strands called "Roving" & wound onto reels for spinning. Woolen yarns are fluffy, relatively loosely twisted, & are used in weaving fabrics such as Tweeds, Blanket cloth & Meltons. Woolen fabrics & yarns are traditionally made into bulky garments such as Coats, heavy Jackets & Sweaters.

The Worsted System- Combing & Drawing

Wool of English long haired sheep is combed out until the strands lie parallel. Worsted yarn is spun from that Wool. It yields a more orderly yarn. The physical appearance of Worsted system fabric (mixed or pure) is harder & smoother, as compared to the fabric of Woolen system. Under a microscope, Worsted yarn looks more like rope than soft Woolen yarns. The soft yarns have loose ends that fly about and give them fuzzy edges. (See Picture)

That rough surface causes fibers to grasp one another. Wool made from non-worsted yarn can be felted, washed in hot water until the fibers cling to one another, regardless of the weave. The reason Wool shrinks so badly in hot water is that its fibers ratchet up along one another. They clump & then won't let go.

Worsted yarns are spun from 3” & longer fibers that have been carded, combed & drawn. Combing machines further straighten the Wool sliver making the individual fibers lie parallel. The combing process also eliminates "noils" or shorter fibers which grow mostly on the belly of the sheep. (Noils are used in the production of less expensive Woolen fabrics & for the manufacturing of felt, a non-woven fabric).

The drawing process takes the Worsted sliver, doubles it over onto itself & draws it out again to a thinner, more uniform diameter to ensure that all Wool fibers are parallel. Worsted yarns are twisted tighter & thinner in the spinning process & are manufactured into light weight fabrics such as Gabardine & Crepe.

Properties of Wool :

Most of the fiber from domestic sheep has two qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur. It has scales which overlap like shingles on a roof & it is crimped. In some fleeces the Wool fibers have more than 20 bends per inch. The surface of Wool fibers consists of an outer layer of overlapping scales, called cuticles. Water droplets run off this layer easily, which is how sheep stay dry.

W armth & moisture retention

Due to its heterogeneous structure, the Wool fiber is very porous & reacts to changes in humidity. Wool, can absorb up to 30% of, its own weight in moisture, depending on the relative humidity. This is a very good value, compared to man made fibers with only 2-3% of moisture absorption. When boiled, the fibers kink & enmesh, forming a lofty, water repellent, breathable fabric. It is a good insulator & uniquely combines the three useful properties of water repellence, moisture absorption & breathability. The spring like form of the fibrils helps the fibers to cling together. Even loosely twisted yarns are strong & this, together with the fiber's elasticity, allows the manufacture of open structured yarns & fabrics that trap & retain heat insulating air. The result is a lightweight fabric with superior heat insulation, even in a cold & damp environment.

The surface layer of Wool contains small micro pores which enable the fiber to let air through it. The pores are so small that water droplets can not pass through the fiber's surface, but evaporated or molecular water (sweat) can pass through the surface pores. Therefore, Wool is some what water-repellent.

Wool is a protein fiber.

Wool is Bio Degradable.

Wool can be recycled.

Wool is highly absorbent & releases moisture slowly. It can absorb up to 30% of, it’s weight in moisture, without feeling wet & transports it to the outer surface of a fabric, where it evaporates into the atmosphere. This action keeps the human body cool.

Wool is a good Insulator. It doesn’t readily conduct heat. Wool is warm, because its fibers are non-conductors of heat. In a Woolen garment, crimp

of the fibers keeps them apart from each other. Crimp permits them to enmesh still air. Still air is one of the best insulators found in nature. The trapped air keeps the body at an, even temperatures i.e. warm in winter & cool in summer. (See Picture)

Wool is Breathable.

Wool is Resilient.

Wool is an amazing fiber. It is extremely flexible & elastic, able to be bent back on itself over 25,000 times without breaking; compare this with Cotton, which breaks at 3,000 bends. It can be stretched up to 30% of its length when dry (double that when wet) & still snap back to its original shape. This makes for a very durable, tear resistant fabric that won’t wrinkle when made into a garment.

Wool, due to its molecular structure & the resiliency of its crimp, Wool fabrics are highly crease resistant.

Its tensile strength is one fourth greater, than that of Cotton.

Wool is, a protein compound of complex chemical composition, it is soluble in hot Caustic Soda.

Wool garments retain shape & can shed creases easily.

Wool is Anti Static.

Wool doesn’t generate Static charge, which attracts dirt.

Wool doesn’t get dirty & cleans easily.

Wool is Easy Care.

Wool is Safe.

Every fiber of Wool contains moisture, making it naturally flame resistant.  Although, it can catch fire, it usually only smolders, when the source of the flame is removed, Wool will self extinguish. It does not melt the way most synthetic fibers do, so Wool will not stick to the skin if burned.

Wool is a versatile fiber, which can be easily converted to Knitwear & shawls of different weight & texture, also Sportswear, Casuals & formals.

Drawbacks of Wool :

Wool shrinks in water.

Wool fibers have got, serrations or scales (like Saw Tooth), along it’s length (See Picture).

During the fiber mixing process, the direction of the fibers go haywire.

When the Wool fiber becomes wet with water, these serrations get locked into each other. The surface scales of the Wool fiber are responsible for the unique felting and shrinking properties of Wool when wet. The edges of the scale catch against those of neighboring fiber aligned in the opposite direction which allows them to move in only one direction.

This causes the matting of Wool fibers & consequently, the shrinkage of the Woolen Garments.

Quality of Wool :

The quality of Wool is determined by the following factors; Fiber fineness, Fiber length, scale structure, Color, Cleanliness & freedom from damage. For example Merino Wool is 3”- 5” in staple length & is a very fine. Wool from the sheep meant for meat has fibers that are coarser, of greater diameter & 1.5”- 6” long. Freedom from damage refers to the structure of Wool when it is removed from the sheep & implies that the Wool is clean, white, long, fine & free of environmental defects.

Both the scaling & the crimp make it possible to spin & felt the fleece . They help the individual fibers attach to each other so that they stay together. Because of the crimp, Wool fabrics have a greater bulk than other textiles & retain air, which causes the product to retain heat. Insulation also works both ways.

The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the Wool fibers. A fine Wool like Merino may have up to a 100 crimps per inch , while the coarser Wools like Karakul may have as few as 1- 2 crimps per inch .

Hair, by contrast, has little scales & no crimp & little ability to bind into yarn. Hair part of the fleece is called Kemp . The ratio of Kemp to Wool varies from breed to breed & make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting or , carding.

Wool is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors such as black, brown (also called MOORIT ) & grey.

Wool straight off a sheep contains a high level of grease ("Greasy Wool") which contains valuable Lanolin, which is used in the cosmetics. This Wool can be spun into yarn or knitted into water resistant mittens or sweaters. The grease is generally removed for processing by scouring with detergent & alkali.

After shearing, the Wool is separated into 5 main categories: fleece (majority part), pieces, bellies, crutchings & locks. The latter 4 are packaged & sold separately. The quality of fleece is determined by a technique known as Wool classing. A Wool classer groups Wools of similar grades together to maximize the returns. Wool right off the sheep that has not been combed or carded is considered to be in “Lock” form. Sometimes it is raw from the sheep, full of dirt, grease (Lanolin), vegetable

matter, & other interesting things that sheep roll around in on the pastures & hillsides.

The Wool fiber varies from 15 (superfine Merino) to 30 or more microns for the coarser Wools. The finer diameters are generally more valuable.

Due to high concentrations of Carbon Dioxide, sheep Wool does not burn & therefore is also used as insulation.

No Itch "Feels Just Like Silk" (Bio Polishing):

When Wool is perceived as itchy, the reason is that there are coarse fibers in the Wool, which does not yield to the skin, but prick right in. Coarse fibers in excess of 28 microns may itch. The Woolen fabric becomes silky & machine washable, because of the hydrogen peroxide & enzymes used in the two step bio polishing process. The bio polishing whitens & eliminates or smoothes the scales on the Wool fibers. The scales cause Wool fibers to felt. They, along with the "crimp" of the fiber, give Wool yarns much of their "Wooly" body. In many applications Wool would not be Wool without its tiny scales which, when magnified, look like the shingles on a roof.

When you say "felt" there are generally positive connotations with the word. When you say "shrink" there are generally negative connotations. But felting, which is possible because of the scales, is only controlled shrinking. The scales are one of Wool's features that make it both uniquely valuable &, at the same time, limit its application. Bio polishing creates new applications for Wool by removing the scales on Woolen fibers without destroying their other positive features.

The novel ARS (Agriculture Research Service- USA) process involves treating the Wool in 30º C bath of activated hydrogen peroxide for 30 min. That bleaching process is followed by a bath in the enzyme mixture for 40 minutes at 40º C. The bleaching time is shorter & the temperatures are lower than what, are the norm.

"High temperature dyeing is traditionally used with Wool because of the lipid (Wool grease) barrier to dye uptake". "Although Wool has resilient properties, those high temperatures weaken the fiber. Our process lets Wool be dyed at lower temperatures, preserving its strength."

The same lipid layer that makes Wool resistant to dye uptake would protect the scales against such an enzyme attack. But bleaching removes the lipid protection. "No damage is done to the underlying fiber structure, & the fabric's mechanical properties, are not changed, because the enzyme activity is limited to the outside layer, or cuticle". An additive is used in

both the bleach pretreatment & the enzyme treatment to keep the enzymes out of the fiber's inner structure.

The ARS process for machine washable, itch free Wool, bio polishing is patented & must be licensed by the firm or individuals who use it. (www.sheepmagazine.com)

Factors influencing the value of Wool fiber:

Physical Influences

Fineness

Fiber consumers pay more for finer fiber. Fineness is a highly heritable genetic trait, & a rigorous selection process can greatly impact a herd's overall fiber fineness.

Color

Industrial processors pay a premium for white fibers, since this enables them to use subtle pastel dyes or create any particular color they choose. Hand spinners pay more for natural colored fleece, which is unusual or true to the color of garment they desire to create.

Length

Staple length is an important processing consideration & determines which manufacturing process will be used, Wool or Worsted.

Yield

This is very important in two respects:

Fleece is sold by the lb. or oz. (fiber yield determines, to a large extent, the fiber's total value), &

Since, the clean fleece weight is the measure of usable fiber, the %ge of clean weight of shorn fleece, is important.

Environmental Influences

Nutrition impacts the rate of fiber growth, & in some instances it also affects the fineness. It is believed that fleece weight & quality is 50% in the breeding & 50% in the feeding.

Impurities in the fleece affect its value. Hand spinners pay far more for clean fleece. Industrial processors estimate clean fleece yield & the cost of cleaning when they value fleece. Pasture management & pre-shearing grooming are the keys to clean fleece.

Grading of Wool :

For industrial purposes the fiber of the Camel, Angora Goats (see Mohair), Kashmir Goats (Cashmere), Llama, Alpaca, & Vicuna is classed as Wool. Wool is also separated into grades based on the measurement of the Wool's diameter in Microns. These grades may vary depending on the breed or purpose of the Wool. For example:

< 17.5 – Ultra fine Merino

17.6-18.5 – Super fine Merino

< 19.5 - Fine Merino

19.6-20.5 - Fine medium Merino

20.6-22.5 - Medium Merino

22.6 < - Strong Merino

< 24.5 - Fine

24.5–31.4 - Medium

31.5-35.4 - Fine crossbred

35.5 < - Coarse crossbred

In general, anything up to 25 Microns can be used for garments, while coarser grades are used for outerwear or rugs. The finer the Wool, the softer & less prickly it will be, while coarser grades are more durable, prickly & less prone to pilling.

The finest Wools :

ANGORA

Angora can refer to one of the two fibers: Hair from Angora rabbits or Wool from Angora goats (see MOHAIR). Angora rabbits, commonly bred in the US, Germany & Britain, yield, a soft, fine fur from 3”- 5” in length, that is harvested by clipping, brushing or plucking annually. As the hairs of Angora are so fine, they are often blended with other fibers, usually with Wool or Cotton. There are four main breeds of Angora rabbit: English, French, Satin, & Giant, all of which are utilized for fiber production.

Mohair from the Angora goat is a long & shiny hair. Angora usually has a staple length of 4”- 12”, & is light & fluffy to the touch. It is also extremely durable when spun & woven tightly, & has remarkable crease resistance. It has a wonderful affinity to dye pick up.

The Angora is said to have originated in the mountains of Tibet, although they are named after Angora (today known as Ankara), the capital city of Turkey. The word Mohair comes from the ancient Arabic “Mukhaya,” meaning “Cloth of bright goat hair.”

CASHMERE

Cashmere refers to the downy undercoat (not the guard hairs) produced by the wild alpine goat (Capra hircus) native to Kashmir- India, Afghanistan, China, Mongolia & the mountains of Iran. The best quality of the down, called Pashmina, comes from animals living in the highest & coldest regions. The goats can produce anywhere from 3 oz to 2 lb of down a year. The down, is either combed, plucked or shorn from the animal, & the coarse guard hairs are separated from the down by special machinery with a final going over by hand, resulting in a staple length of fiber from 1”- 3” in length. Today, very little Cashmere comes from Kashmir, India. China, Mongolia & upper mountainous regions of Europe, are the major producers today.

Natives of Kashmir spun & wove outer guard hairs into cloth for clothing, tents & carpets. The downy fibers are spun & woven into finely patterned shawls. Each shawl is woven by hand from hand spun yarns & takes on an average of 2- 3 years to produce.

Cashmere, a fiber universally recognized for its soft handle, has been identified on 68 breeds of goats in 12 different countries. Cashmere is defined, not by the goat of origin, but by its degree of fineness. Cashmere fiber has, "a mean diameter of 20 microns or less. The co-efficient of variation around the mean shall not exceed 25% & there cannot be more than 3% of the fibers by weight over 30 microns."

Cashmere comes naturally in shades of brown, grey, black or white, with white being the rarest color. Different qualities of the fiber are available to hand spinners. The highest quality, Cashmere will be free of any guard hairs, have no luster & will feel slippery like Silk without any lumps or tangles. Because, Cashmere is such a fine fiber, it produces an incredibly soft fabric, but at great cost. Cashmere measures just 12-18 microns in diameter, thus making Cashmere one of the world’s most desirable Woolens, fetching a wholesale price of around $70 a lb for the raw fiber. By comparison, the softest Alpaca fiber measures an average of 22- 26 microns in diameter & costs only $ 9 a lb for unprocessed fiber. The best quality down requires almost no processing, it just needs to be fluffed or shaken out & held lightly during the spinning process. There will be shrinkage in the final product depending upon the amount of twist put into the yarn.

Mongolian Cashmere Goats

Merino Wool

Today there are about a billion sheep all over the world, divided into more than 200 breeds. The largest producing countries are Australia & New Zealand, & the most common breeds are Lincoln & Merino. Merino sheep produce exceptionally fine & crimpy Wool.

Merino sheep has its origins in North Africa. The Wool from the shearing of one Merino sheep will make approximately five sweaters. Australia grows 90% of the world’s Merino, & 28% of all Wool. Wool accounts for 2% of the world apparel market. More than 80% of all Australian sheep are pure Merino, with most of the remainder at least part Merino blood. Merino is grown primarily for its heavy fleeces of fine Wool.

The crimped, fine fibers of Merino Wool are unusually soft & lustrous, as well as resistant to damage from ultraviolet radiation. This “fiber crimp” aids in the construction of technical performance fabrics that, exhibit exceptional “condition buffering” abilities. Merino Wool can absorb & release considerably more moisture than synthetics. It is also naturally flame retardant. Due to Wool’s inability to host odor producing bacteria, Wool fabrics are not susceptible to odors commonly associated with base layer clothing. Wool grade is fine to very fine with a staple length of 2¾” – 4” & a spinning count of 64s- 80s.

In order to carry over some of these highly desirable characteristics into other materials, Merino Wool is sometimes, blended with lesser quality fibers.

CHIRU Wool

The Tibetan antelope, or Chiru, has the unfortunate distinction of having the finest Wool in the world. Chiru Wool fetches $60 per kg., in Tibet. Shatoosh shawls are manufactured in India, where they may sell for $1,000- $2,000, but in the U.S. & Europe they can bring as much as $10,000- $15000 or more apiece, but the real cost is up to 5 Chirus that die for each shawl. Since rich people buy these scarves, "Wealthy countries are depleting the globe of one of our most beautiful species." Most Chirus are found in China, where numbers have fallen from an estimated 1 million at the turn of the century to fewer than 75,000 in 1999.

Shetland Wool

The Shetland is an ancient sheep originating from the British Isles & imported into Canada & the United States in the 1980s. Shetland, Wool comes in a great range of natural colors which adds to its value, especially for hand spinners. Traditionally, Shetland, Wool is used for wedding shawls which can be pulled through a bride's ring. Shetland, is, the finest of the British Isles breeds with a staple length of 4”- 5”. Shetland, Wool has a Bradford count usually in the upper 50s to lower 60s & a fiber diameter range of 20- 25 microns. Fleeces usually weigh between 2 & 4 lbs & have a staple length of 2”- 4.5”.

The Wool comes in a variety of color. White is the most common Shetland fleece color & often the finest. The other colors are Black, dark Steel Grey, dusky Bluish Grey, Grey, light Grey, dark Brown, Fawn & dark Reddish Brown, light Moorit, Yellowish Brown, Greyish Brown, & Fawn. Shetlands are one of the few breeds that can produce a true black fleece. This black is so dramatic it requires no over dyeing. Shetland, Wool has traditionally been used for fine knitting yarns.

Other Wool producing animals :

VICUNA

Vicuna is the hair from the wild South American Camel family. It is light cinnamon brown in color. Vicuna is reported by many to be the softest, finest & most expensive natural fiber in the world. The animals must be killed to get their fur, & were hunted almost to the brink of extinction for their hair. Now that they are a protected species, the fiber is extremely rare & very expensive.

The Vicuña has a light colored, longer fibered bib on its chest & very little leg Wool. It also has a small amount of head Wool & a thin dear like head, with large & protruding eyes that allow it to see in a much broader range than an Alpaca. The Vicuña fleece grows very slowly, as compared to an Alpaca. The Vicuñas' fiber count is 8- 13 microns, whereas most Alpacas are in the 20- 32 micron range. The Vicuñas soft light golden / beige color has actually created its own color name. Vicuña fiber is so rare that its value has always been very high. Due to the strong conservation efforts by Peru, Bolivia, Chile, & Argentina, the Vicuña population has increased in some areas. After the shearing the Vicuñas are released to the wild. All the fiber is collected by the government & sold to qualified mills. Vicuña is difficult to train. The Alpaca is easily trainable. Alpaca has been domesticated & the Vicuña has not been.

Vicuna Wool, the world’s most valuable natural fiber, sells for U.S. $ 225/- per lb. of raw fleece. The Vicuna, a Llama indigenous to an area of the Andes shared by Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador & Peru, is almost impossible to domesticate. The governments of these countries have developed policies to prevent their extinction, while trying to benefit from the huge economic opportunities offered by the rare Wool of the Vicuna, which is considered better than Cashmere. In the time of the Incas, only the ruler & his court were allowed to wear the fine fiber. Today in Buenos Aires tourists pay, as much as U.S. $ 2000/- for a Vicuna coat.

Paco-Vicuña Fiber

A Paco-Vicuña is a special Alpaca that exhibits the traits of its ancestor the Vicuña. By identifying the various traits of Vicuña in Alpaca & selecting the Alpacas with the traits, these Alpaca (Paco-Vicuña) can be bred together to amplify the Vicuña traits (such as low micron count, bib, & color) & produce a superior Paco-Vicuña. The same can be done for the desired traits we want for the Paco-Vicuña from the Alpaca (such as fast growing fiber & calm demeanor). The key is to recognize the Alpacas that have these special traits & breed them together to magnify the qualities we are looking for in a Paco-Vicuña. Paco-Vicuña fiber is much softer than typical Alpaca fleece. It is also much finer with a very low micron count (13- 20) & is extremely light weight. Many Paco- Vicuña fleeces have several shades of color, cream, light beige, honey-tan, & golden brown.

Paco Vicuña fiber is some of the rarest & finest in the world. It is currently selling for $ 25- 42 per oz., when occasionally available. This compares to Cashmere that sells for $12- 15 per oz. & Alpaca that sells for $ 3- 5 per oz. Therefore, Paco- Vicuña is only used for luxury goods. Each garment is then registered in the Paco-Vicuña Registry™ to assure quality. Paco- Vicuña is appropriate for scarves, shawls, vests, ruanas, plus smaller unique items such as hats, cowls, & ear warmers. Working with Paco-Vicuña is like “spinning a cloud.” Weaving, with it is pure joy, the yarns are so smooth & silky.

ALPACA

Alpaca is a camelid & is one of the three species of Llama. It’s found in natural colors of pure White, off White, Gray, Fawn, Reddish, light & dark Browns, jet Black. Colors then shade out in grays from steel blue to pale silver & vibrant rose. Almost 99% of the world’s Alpaca are found in Bolivia, Chile & Peru. There are two varieties of Alpaca: “Suri” & “Huacaya.” Suri are delicate animals with long locks of hair up to the ground. Their hairs are thinner & have a higher, oil content than the Huacayas, which are strong animals with shorter & spongier hair.

Annual fiber yield of Alpacas varies. However, a single female averages about 5 lbs. & a larger male averages more than 8 lbs. Cria, or baby fiber (the first clip from a young Alpaca), commands a premium for its extra fineness & lustrous feel.

Alpaca fiber has a cellular structure similar to hair. It is more resilient, having a good elongation & is much stronger than sheep Wool, with a unique silky feel. Alpaca fiber can be made into garments of beautiful natural colors & shades, having the look & feel of Cashmere. The fiber can be dyed & is sometimes mixed with sheep Wool, Mohair or Silk, resulting in a superb, hand feel, light weight fabric.

Alpaca contains no Lanolin. So, it is hypoallergenic to most people. High grade Alpaca, such as "Baby Alpaca", has a low prickle factor, meaning it does not feel itchy & one can wear pure Alpaca next to their skin. 

Alpaca fiber is water resistant. The absorption of environmental humidity is low. 

The structure of the fiber makes it behave as an insulator. Alpaca contains microscopic air pockets, which creates lightweight clothing with good insulation. 

Alpaca fiber is prized for its silky, soft, supple & smooth touch.

Alpaca fabric has an excellent drape, & appearance. 

Alpaca produces up to 22 natural colors, which can be blended into over 200 natural shades. It is easily dyed in any color & always retains its natural luster. 

Alpaca fiber is resilient & has very good elasticity or memory, making it a favorable choice for blending with other fibers.

Alpaca is compatible with both the Woolen or Worsted manufacturing systems. Fabric made from Alpaca can range from bulky Tweeds to fine Gabardine.

People who own Alpaca sweaters will find they practically last for ever. Alpaca does not easily tear, pill, stain or create static. It is easily cleaned.

Golden Alpaca

LLAMA

There are 4 species of camelids native to the South America. Llamas & Alpacas are domesticated species. The Guanaco & the Vicuna are wild species. Llamas come in many colors & Wool types. The Wool of all four species can be spun but the Wool of the Llama is the least desirable. The Llama is a domestic animal, primarily developed as a beast of burden. There are approximately 120,000 llamas and about 10,000 alpacas in North America.

Llama, is native to the Andes region that includes Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Ecuador, Columbia, & Argentina.  They were first domesticated by the Incas, being a source for food, fiber, fuel & transportation.  Whereas, Alpacas were bred for their fiber, Llamas are bred specifically for strength & size, as they made excellent pack animals.  Llamas were also held in high regard as icons in spiritual & fertility rites, as they were so versatile in providing many products to the people that raised them.  The Vicuna & Guanaco were hunted to the brink of extinction for their pelts, & the Llamas & Alpacas were left out as livestock in the harsher climates in the

area. Llamas are strong, intelligent & easy to train, hardy animals, with a

gentle temperament & inquisitive nature. In just a few repetitions they will pick up & retain many behaviors such as accepting a halter, being led, loading in & out of a vehicle, pulling a cart or carrying a pack. The Llama, has a double coat, an outer coat of coarse ‘guard hair’ & an undercoat of soft fine down, much sought after by hand spinners. The fiber is used for making many kinds of garments, guard hairs can be used for making wall hangings, rugs etc.

Llama Wool is warm & luxurious, lanolin free & light weight. Llama fiber is a modulated, cellular, hollow fiber that gives it a good weight to warmth ratio. Hand spinners, weavers, & felters delight in approximately 22 colors ranging from the purest White, Rosy Beige, Tans, Cinnamons, Tobaccos, rich Grays & Silvers, to Jet Black. Llama fiber can also be dyed to give even more variety of color.

Llamas are excellent packers. They carry 25% - 30% of their body weight for 8- 12 km, but are ridden only by children. They are sure footed. Due to their low protein requirement & efficient digestive system, Llamas are economical to keep. Llamas are gentle & curious. Their calm nature & common sense make them easy for anyone, even children, to handle.

QUIVIOT (Musk Ox)

The Musk Ox, Ovibos moschatus, is an ancient species of arctic mammal currently found in Greenland, Alaska, Canada & Siberia. The largest wild populations of musk oxen can be found in Canada. Once in danger of extinction, Musk Ox populations have made a dramatic comeback with a current worldwide population of about 150,000 animals. Although they may resemble Bison, Musk Ox, are more closely related to goats & sheep. Musk oxen can weigh, between 225- 400 kilo. Musk Ox live on the Arctic & sub-arctic coast, tundra, & foothills. They eat sedges, grasses, leaves, & twigs.

Quiviot is the fiber from the downy undercoat of the Musk Ox. Quiviot is very soft & warm. Quiviot is also quite expensive, selling upwards of $10 & $20 an ounce depending on the quality & how de-haired the fiber is. It is also often sold as a blend with either, Cashmere, Merino or Silk.

Musk oxen can withstand severe cold (down to -50º C) & hard winters. Thanks to their long, thick Wool. Their Wool can be 70 cm long on their underside & hangs halfway down their legs like a tightly closed curtain. They do not shed this Wool, but do shed their thick carpet of under Wool or bottom Wool in May - June. This is the world's most valuable Wool. A mature musk ox can shed up to 2 kg of bottom Wool. A ½ kilo of this Wool spun into a 40 fiber thread will make enough yarn to stretch for 40 km.

CAMEL

Camel hair usually refers to the downy undercoat shed by Camels, although a blend of undercoat & guard hairs are also available for spinning. There are two types of Camels the Dromedary (one humped) Camel of the Arabian deserts & the Bactrian (two humped) Camel of Asia. The hair was gathered as the Camels shed their winter undercoats in the springtime by a person who followed behind the caravan, picking up the tufts of hair as they were shed. Because the fiber is so light yet has incredible insulation capacity, it is rather expensive in its 100% pure state (down only, with no long guard hairs). The Camel hair coats & sweaters were not always 100% Camel, but were often blended with Wool, Mohair, Tussah Silk or other fibers to keep costs down. Beware of low priced Camel fabric or fiber. If it’s, super soft & expensive & comes from a reputable dealer, you’ve probably got the pure hair. If it seems coarse or inexpensive, think twice before buying.

Both species of Camels are well adapted to heat & dehydration loss through specialized biological processes involving water consumption, circulation, & extraction from ingested material.

Himalayan YAK

The Yak is found in Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh & in Tibet. Milk & butter from the Yaks are a primary source of income in these parts. The Yak, to the people of the Himalayas, is what the reindeer is to Laps. Yaks carry heavy loads & men up mountains & through lakes. Yaks stand more than 6’ high & weigh from 1,100 to 1,200 lbs., each. There are four basic colors Black, Trim, Royal, & Golden.

Yaks shed once a year, the downy Wool forming shaggy mats along their sides. The Wool, is harvested, & then manually combed from the coarse interwoven hairs. The Wool is washed, carded & worked into yarn. It's very warm, & soft as Cashmere. Ready to spin Yak Wool sells for $4 an ounce. The coarse Yak fiber is made into ropes, blankets, tents, & packs. The softer Yak down fiber is made into knitted or woven garments.

Yak fiber is approximately 17 microns. The fiber is the soft under coat from which all the guard hairs have been removed. The fiber is a creamy white &, this makes it easy to dye. The downy fiber is similar to that of a camel. The relatively short staple (1”) does not make this a difficult fiber to spin as the fiber itself has great crimp & is not slippery.

Byproducts of Wool:

The use of waste is very important to the Wool industry. Attention to this aspect of the business has a direct impact on profits. These wastes are grouped into four classes:

Noils

These are the short fibers that are separated from the long Wool in the Combing process. Because of their excellent condition, they are reused in high quality products.

Soft waste

This is also high quality material that falls out during the Spinning & Carding stages of production. This material is usually reintroduced into the process from which it came.

Hard waste

These wastes are generated during the Spinning, Twisting, Winding, & Warping. This waste requires much re-processing & is therefore, considered to be of lesser value.

Finishing waste

This category includes a wide variety of clippings, short ends, sample runs & defects. Since this material is so varied, it requires a great deal of sorting & cleaning to retrieve that, which is usable. Consequently, this material is the lowest grade of waste.

Manufacturing Process of WOOL:

The major steps necessary to process Wool from the Sheep to the fabric are; Shearing, Cleaning & Scouring, Grading & Sorting, Carding, Combing, Spinning, Weaving & Finishing.

Shearing

Sheep are sheared once a year, usually in the springtime. A veteran shearer can shear up to 200 sheep per day. The fleece recovered from a sheep can weigh between 6 & 18 lbs., as much as, possible the fleece is kept in one piece. While most sheep are still sheared by hand, new technologies have been developed that use computers & sensitive, robot controlled arms to do the clipping.

Wool straight off a sheep contains a high level of grease which contains valuable Lanolin, as well as dirt, dead skin, sweat residue, & vegetable matter. This state is known as "Grease Wool". Before the Wool can be used for commercial purposes it must be scoured. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water, or a complicated industrial process using detergent & alkali.

In commercial Wool, vegetable matter is often removed by the chemical process of chemical carbonization. In less processed Wools, vegetable matter may be removed by hand, & some of the lanolin left intact through use of gentler detergents.

After Shearing, the Wool is separated into five main categories: Fleece, Pieces, Bellies, Crutchings & Locks. The latter four are packaged & sold separately. The quality of fleece is determined by a technique known as Wool classing, whereby a qualified Wool classer tries to group Wools of similar grades together to maximize the return for the farmer or sheep owner.

Grading & Sorting

Grading is the breaking up of the fleece based on overall quality. In sorting, the Wool is broken up into sections of different quality fibers, from different parts of the body. The best quality of Wool comes from the shoulders & sides of the sheep & is used for clothing. The lesser quality comes from the lower legs & is used to make rugs. In Wool grading, high quality does not always mean high durability. Because, of the different

purposes for which it is suited, raw Wool must first be graded & sorted long, Wools for the Worsted trade, short Wools mainly for the Woolen trade, the tough springy Wools for carpets & so on.

Cleaning & Scouring :

Wool scouring is the process of washing Wool in hot water & detergent to remove the non-Wool contaminants & then drying it. It has always been an important step in the Wool processing train. A growing concern for the environment has led to increased demands on the scouring process.

Freedom from entanglement used to be considered the most important objective, as long as dirt & grease removal was achieved. Entanglement or felting results in fiber breakage during Carding, Gilling, & Combing & has two bad effects: it reduces the mean fiber length in the resultant top & decreases the combing ratio of top to noil.

Wool taken directly from the sheep is called "Raw" or "Grease Wool” . It contains sand, dirt, grease, & dried sweat (Suinf) . The weight of contaminants accounts for about 30%- 70% of the fleece. To remove these contaminants, the Wool is scoured in a series of alkaline baths containing water, soap & soda ash or a similar alkali. The grease in the Wool is called Lanolin. The Wool is washed or scoured in very hot, soapy water that is normally 65° C. This helps to remove all dirt, lanolin & other foreign materials from the Wool, before any further processing is attempted. 

The Wool is dipped & soaked in many different bowls containing different consistencies of the cleaning agent.  Wool is completely submersed in each tank, then dragged through the substance before being removed at the other side & ran through a set of rollers that squeeze out all the liquid still soaked into the Wool. The Wool then repeats this process several more times.  As the lanolin is removed from the Wool it is separated out & is used to make soap, shampoo & other cosmetic products.  The cleaning agents can be a combination of the following things:  Sodium meta-bi-sulphite, Hydrogen peroxide & or insect repellent.  Organic acids can also be added to adjust the pH of the Wool to 7.

Rollers in the scouring machines squeeze excess water from the fleece. But, the fleece is not allowed to dry completely. After the Wool is washed it is then dried to about 16% residual moisture. Some people air dry the Wool while others use a large chamber with hot air circulating inside. After this process, the Wool is often treated with oil to give it increased manageability. (See Process Pictures)

After the Wool is loaded into the sorter, it is blown into the large hopper in the left back of the photo. This is the picker that pulls the fleece into small clumps & then dumps it into the first tank of the scouring train. The train consists of 3 large tanks that contain controlled heated water.

The first tank contains the cleaning agents. The Wool is moved very slowly & gently through the tank by the "finger" looking devices, shown hanging into the tank.

After the first tank, the second tank also contains a hot soapy water mix & the third tank is a hot, clean water rinse.

From the second tank, the Wool is moved around a 90 degree bend, into the third tank. This is the final hot water rinse tank.

Drying of Wool

The wet Wool is dumped into a hopper after washing & is then moved by hand in large containers to the hopper of the dryer. The wet Wool is lifted, separated, & then dropped on to a conveyor belt. It is then moved slowly through the large dryer. The dryer has blowers that circulate the warm air all around the Wool on the moving conveyor.

Dried Wool

The warm dry Wool, coming off the conveyor, is put into large containers & is moved to the Carder. The scouring & drying of 120 lbs. of Wool takes only 2 hours. Clean & dry Wool is put in the hopper & the process of carding starts.

Dyeing of Wool Fiber :

Raw Wool is not dyed before scouring, because of the contaminants in it. Loose Wool is dyed in, the Woolen process, but Wool for Worsted yarns is not dyed until after combing. The dyes used for fiber dyeing must have good fastness to wet treatments, because of the yarn into which the fiber is spun or will normally undergo further processing.

Dyes having good wet fastness are generally less level dyeing i.e. more difficult to achieve uniformity of shade, than those having lower wet fastness. However, leveling of shade is less critical in fiber dyeing than for yarn & piece, because any minor non uniformity will be eliminated in carding, which thoroughly mixes the dyed fibers. Shade matching is easier to achieve in fiber dyeing, because the dye lots are bigger. If the initial dye lot is not the correct shade the dyer can adjust the recipes of subsequent lots so that, when blended together, the correct shade will be achieved. The reasons for dyeing Wool in fiber form are:

To produce large lots of yarn with good shade uniformity

For mixture (Mélange or Heather) shades

For high wet fastness properties

For fiber blend products

Disadvantage of fiber dyeing is that Wool may be damaged during the dyeing process, which reduces the efficiency of spinning. There is also a commitment to shade selection at an early stage in the manufacturing process. Lead time from fiber dyeing to the end product sale is a minimum of 3 months. It is difficult to predict in advance, which shade will be in fashion.

Fiber dyeing is carried out in machines where the dye liquor is pumped through a compressed pack of loose fiber or tops. The type of machine used, is illustrated below.

Tops are dyed in “ball” form, where the sliver is wound like a bobbin, of about 5 kg. Alternatively, “Bump” (coiled) tops may be dyed & this form is easier to dye uniformly. Bump tops for dyeing weigh 10 kg. Top dyeing machines have, perforated spindles onto which the tops are placed & compressed. Each spindle will hold 5 or 6 tops & the number of spindles is, up to about 10.

Yarn Dyeing of Wool

Wool yarns are dyed in the form of hanks (skeins) or packages.

For dyeing yarn packages are loaded onto perforated spindles in the dyeing machine, as shown. Uniformity of the winding density of the packages is vital to achieve uniform flow of the dye liquor, which is pumped through the yarn. Packages are therefore either precision wound on rigid centers or random wound & then compressed as a column on the centre spindle. The latter form requires package centers that are either compressible or are bi-conical & can slide one inside the other.

For hank dyeing yarn must first be wound into the hank form. Special machines are used for dyeing hanks, having “sticks” (metal rods) across the top of the machine on which the hanks are hung. “Sticks” are often also used at the bottom of the hank to keep it in an extended form.

Dye selection for yarn dyeing is important, if a level shade & fastness properties are to be achieved. Levelness of shade is much more critical than for fiber dyeing but there is more tolerance than in piece dyeing, particularly if the yarn is to be used in multi colored, patterned products. However, yarn dyeing would seldom be used to produce, for example, plain colored woven fabrics.

The advantages of dyeing in yarn form are that, shades can be selected nearer to the time of end product sale & smaller dye lots are feasible than for fiber dyeing.

Fabric Dyeing of Wool

Uniformity of shade is critical in piece dyeing & it is therefore essential to use dyes that are capable of producing level dyeing. These dyes generally do not have good fastness to washing or wet processes but this is not a serious problem, because most of the products that are manufactured from piece dyed material will require fastness to dry cleaning only. Unlike yarn & fiber, fabric is dyed in machines in which the material is circulated through the liquor.

“Overflow” & “Soft flow” machines, are used for fabric dyeing. In all these machines the fabric is fed over a winch reel & the two ends sewn together. The reel circulates the fabric through the dye liquor.

Garment Dyeing of Wool

Garment dyeing is a most critical operation but gives the manufacturer enough time to dye his product at the latest stage possible in the production process. For Wool products this route is used only for knitwear (the dyeing of knitted panels, is also included here). Much knitwear that is garment dyed is sold as machine washable or hand washable. This requires dyes of good wet fastness, which are generally not very level dyeing.

Because, of plain shades, garment dyeing requires a very high degree of shade uniformity. To resolve this, specific dyeing processes have been developed that allow dyes of good wet fastness to be applied. The softer yarn twist of most knitwear also helps in better dye liquor penetration.

Wool garments are dyed in “paddle” machines or rotary drum machines. These have a gentle mechanical action to circulate the garments through the dye liquor & thereby avoid undue felting. The dyeing process is often combined with scouring, milling & shrink resist routines.

Dye Type & Process Selection for Wool

Within each dye class there are variations between individual dyes & there are therefore overlaps between some of the classes.

Technically, the better the level dyeing performance, the easier the dyes are to apply to Wool. However, other properties, such as fastness, shade limitations & price, all influence the decision, when selecting dyes. There is a general trend in Wool dyes for the wet fastness properties to increase as the migration (level dyeing) performance decreases.

The exception to this rule is Chrome dyes. These dyes are very similar to level dyeing Acid dyes & therefore readily give shade uniformity. However, they are then treated with Chromium salts, which form large complex molecules with the applied dye inside the fiber. These large molecules are difficult to remove & therefore exhibit good wet fastness. A negative aspect to Chrome dyes is that Chromium is regarded as an environmentally unacceptable heavy metal & legislative restrictions on its discharge are restricting the use of these dyes. Additionally, the application process is very long & can lead to fiber damage, which adversely affects the efficiency of subsequent processes. However, because of their good economy & wet fastness they are still widely used for deep shades, such as Black & Navy.

Time & Temperature Profile for Wool Dyeing :

Dyeing is normally started in a “warm” dye bath at around 30º- 50° C & the chemicals required for dyeing are added. When the auxiliaries have been well circulated in the dye bath, the dyes are added. The dye bath temperature is then raised slowly, typically at 1°C per min. to around 95-100°C, which allows uniform dyeing. Dyeing is continued at 95-100°C for 30- 90 min., under which conditions the dyes penetrate the fiber. The dyeing cycle is completed by draining the dye bath & rinsing the material or by giving an after treatment to remove loose dye.

Dyeing of Wool Blends

It is often necessary to dye Wool in yarn & fabric form, when blended with other fibers. This can present difficulties for the dyer if the two or more fiber types need different dyes, for matching the same shade on two different fibers.

Wool + Acrylic

Wool + Acrylic, is a popular blend for knitwear & yarns are often dyed in blended form. Wool dyes are anionic (negatively charged) & dyes for Acrylic are cationic (positively charged). There is therefore potential for these two classes of dyes to interact & precipitate in the dye bath.

It is therefore usual to add Wool dyes first, to the dye bath & allow them to be picked by the fiber, before adding the dyes for Acrylic. Chemicals are also added to reduce the interaction of the two dye classes.

Wool + Cellulosic

The term cellulosic includes both natural fibers, such as Cotton & Linen, & regenerated fibers, such as Viscose. The major issue in dyeing these fibers in blends with Wool is that dyes for cellulose are often applied under alkaline conditions, which would severely damage & possible even dissolve Wool. A further difficulty in dyeing Wool / cellulose blends is that Wool absorbs a significant proportion of the cellulose dyes. Very careful selection of dyes & application conditions is therefore needed for successful dyeing of these blends. Often, one fiber is dyed first & then different dyes & chemicals are added, to dye the second fiber.

Wool + Polyamide

Wool & Polyamide can be dyed with the same type of dyes. The challenge for the dyer is to counteract the difference in affinity for dyes that exists between the two fibers. In pale to medium shades Polyamide has a greater affinity &, if no action were taken by the dyer, it would dye to a much deeper shade than Wool. In increasingly deeper shades the Polyamide fiber becomes saturated before Wool & the situation is reversed. This

difficulty is overcome by adding to the dye bath specific chemicals that “block” the Polyamide & reduce the uptake of dye.

Wool + Polyester

Polyester Wool is a popular blend for woven apparel &, although some is produced via a fiber dyeing route, a significant quantity of yarn & fabric is dyed in the blend form. The challenge in dyeing this blend is to achieve satisfactory dyeing of the Polyester component. Polyester is normally dyed at 130-135°C, at which temperatures Wool is severely damaged & discolored. Lower dyeing temperatures must therefore be adopted & dyes for the Polyester component selected very carefully to enable the desired fastness properties to be achieved at the reduced temperature.

One solution is to add a “carrier” (a chemical to increase the uptake of dye on Polyester), to the dye bath. Another solution is to dye at slightly lower temp., than for 100% Polyester, e.g. 120°C, & include in the bath chemicals to protect the Wool fiber from excessive damage.

Recent Developments in Wool Dyeing

Recent developments have concentrated on reducing the damage that dyeing causes to Wool. These include reductions in the time of dyeing, reductions in the temperature of dyeing & the application of chemicals to block the damaging chemical reactions.

Other developments have been in the dyes themselves. The aim has been to develop dyes that can be used on most substrates, using the same application methods. This simplifies the dyeing processes & reduces the inventory of dyes that dye house needs to hold.

Machinery developments have also taken place, the main advance being in the area of automation. Virtually all modern machines are equipped with microprocessors to control the main operations. Systems are also available, particularly for yarn dyeing, to use robotics to fully automate the dyeing process.

Carding of Wool :

The Carding process passes the clean & dry Wool through a system of wire rollers to straighten the fibers & remove any residual vegetable matter. The rollers vary in diameter & turn at different speeds in order to form a thin web of aligned fibers. Smooth steel fingers then divide the web & roll the strands over onto one another to create narrow continuous ropes of fibers called "Slivers".

If the batch of Wool is of coarser fiber & shorter staple length (3” or less), the machinery gently twists the slivers into rope like strands called "Roving", & winds the roving into balls ready for spinning into Woolen yarns.

Carded Wool, having fibers of more than 3” staple length, intended for Worsted yarn are put through Gilling & Combing , two procedures that remove short fibers & place the longer fibers parallel to each other. From there, the sleeker slivers are compacted & thinned through a process called Drawing, into a Roving. Carded Wool to be used for Woolen yarn is sent directly for spinning.

Combing of Wool :

Combing machine cleans the fibers, removes the neps, short fibers, & arranges the remaining fibers to lie parallel. Wool combing, removes the fibers, which are less than 3” long. The process is used to produce Worsted yarns.

About 8- 10 slivers, fed together, are first converted into a lap about 9” wide & then are fed as a single lap to the comber. Here by means of rollers, nippers, & rows of metal teeth the fibers are thoroughly combed, & all short fibers, dirt, & other foreign matter are pushed aside as waste.

Combing influences the following yarn quality parameters;

Staple length

Yarn evenness

Strength

Cleanness

Smoothness

Visual appearance

Combed yarn needs lesser twist than a carded yarn.

Elimination of short fibers

Elimination of remaining impurities

Elimination of neps

Comber improves the mean staple length, by removing the short fibers.

Since fineness of short fibers is low, the overall micronaire of the sliver after combing is higher.

Combing, increases fiber parallelization. This is not always, an advantage. The high degree of parallelization might reduce inter fiber adhesion, to such an extent that the fibers slide apart while pulling the sliver, out of the can. This may lead to sliver breaks or false draft.

Spinning of Wool :

Hand spinners use a spindle or a spinning wheel (“Charkha”), for the spinning of Wool. The wheel is connected by a pulley to the spindle, which is mounted horizontally on a frame. One turn of the big spinning wheel made about twenty turns of the spindle, & spun the Wool more quickly.

After being carded, the Wool fibers are spun into yarn. Yarn of the desired count, is formed by the drawing & twisting of the fibers from a roving, to form a strand of yarn. The single strand is further twisted with 2, 3, or 4 other strands, for a multi- ply yarn. Spinning for Woolen yarns is typically done on a Mule Spinning machine, while the Worsted yarns can be spun on any number of spinning machines. The, spun yarn is wound on Bobbins or Cones.

Weaving of Wool :

The hand & foot looms have been in use for many centuries, in villages & the hilly areas. Hand woven Carpets, Pashmina Shawls, & Radi rugs are woven in the Himalayas. The plains of Nepal have similar products. The demand for Nepalese & Tibetan handmade fabric & rugs has created strong industries in the country.

Woolen yarn is woven into fabric, on shuttle or shuttle less power looms. Normally, two basic weaves, the plain weave & the twill are used.

Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics, using a twill weave, resulting in a tightly woven &, smooth fabric. Worsteds are more durable than Woolens.

Fi nishing of Woolen Fabrics : Physical Finishing

After weaving, Worsteds & Woolens undergo a series of finishing procedures.

Woolens are often brushed to raise the ends of the Wool fibers on the surface of the cloth in a soft, fluffy “nap”. Naps range from the lightly brushed flannels to the deep pile effect of fleece. Deep naps are produced by passing the fabric over cylinders covered with fine metal wires & small hooks. These hooks pull fiber ends to the surface & create the nap.

Worsteds go through less radical changes in finishing, although the characteristic crisp, firm appearance of worsted fabric is sometimes enhanced by special treatments. Clear finishing is Shearing or Singeing process which gives the fabric a smooth surface & a crisp feel. Unfinished Worsted fabrics are lightly napped to give them a Woolen like surface, with the softness of a Woolen & the firmness of a Worsted.

Fulling (immersing, the fabric in water, to make the fibers interlock).

After inspection, the fabric undergoes a controlled shrinkage process called Fulling or milling. Moisture, heat & friction are applied causing the fabric to shrink a controlled amount in both length & width. This tightens the weave & improves the hand feel of the fabric.

Crabbing (permanently setting the interlock)

Sets the cloth & yarn twist by rotating the fabric over cylinders through hot, then cold water baths. The cloth is held firmly & tightly to prevent shrinking.

Decatising (shrink-proofing)

Decating finishing is a shrinking process that gives the fabric stability. The fabric is wound on a perforated cylinder under tension & steam is passed through.

Sponging

It is a pre-shrinking process achieved by dampening the fabric with a sponge, then rolling it in moist Muslin. Woolen fabrics are treated, before cutting to prevent fabric shrinkage, in the finished garment, caused by the

stresses during manufacturing. "London Shrinking" is a popular sponging treatment which prevents shrinkage during manufacturing.

Chemical Finishing :

Wool garments & fabrics can be permanently shower proofed & stain proofed. Shower proofing, while allowing the fabric to shed water from the outside of the garment also allows the skin to breathe & exude water vapor. It is achieved through the use of waxes & silicones applied by various methods to the Wool.

Stain proofing does not make it impossible for grease & other stains to mark the fabric. But the stains can be removed with a household solvent.

All Wool fabrics can now be durably creased or pleated men's Wool trousers & women's Wool slacks & skirts can keep smart creases in all conditions of wear & weather. Another process enables Wool fabrics to be washed & drip dried with only the minimum of ironing.

Several different chemical finishes may be applied to Wool, depending on their end use. Products labeled SUPERWASH, are 100% Wool that can be machine washed (using ordinary laundry detergent) & machine dried.

The process that qualifies SUPERWASH certification is, a mild chemical treatment applied to the fiber to form a permanent microscopic film of resin, which spreads evenly over the surface, coating the scales on the fiber. The finish reduces friction & fiber entanglement & eliminates felting & shrinkage, if Woolens are machine washed & dried. Wool can also be treated, to make it highly resistant to moths, stains, moisture & fire.

To make it highly resistant to moths & other insects, stains, moisture & fire.

To, eliminate shrinkage.

To, add & retain color.

To, reduce static build up.

For ultraviolet protection

To, resist mildew formation.

To, allow for easier care & maintenance (washing & drying).

To, scour.

To, remove color (bleaching).

Quality Control :

Some of the key terms identified in the Act are;

Wool Referring to New Wool, can also include new fiber reclaimed from scraps & broken yarns.

Repossessed Wool Material that is obtained from scraps & clips of new woven or felted fabrics made of previously unused Wool.

Reused Wool: Wool obtained from old clothing, & rags that have been used or worn.

End Products of Wool :

Cardigans, Sweaters

Gloves

Mufflers,

Scarves, Shawls

Men’s Suiting, Ladies Dresses

Blankets & Quilts, Saddle Blankets

Socks & Stockings

Mattress pads & Mattress covers, Wool filled pillows

Upholstery, Rugs & Carpets

Wool dusters

Baseball windings, Tennis balls

Footwear

Knitting yarns, Embroidery yarns

Hats

Pet beds

Piano hammers

Board erasers

Office dividers & Sound proofing barriers

Gaming Table Covers

Oil & hazardous material clean up pads

WOOL CARE :

A few simple measures after every wear keep the Wool garments in great shape.

Sagging & Bulging

Empty the pockets of the garments, or they would end up bulging or sagging.

Dust removal

Brush the garments, to remove the dust & surface soil, which might become stains later on.

Wash Care

Follow, the Wash Care instructions carefully, which may vary for every quality of Wool. Some require hand wash, whereas the others require dry cleaning. Easy care garments can be machine washed & tumbled.

Stain removal

Rinse small stains immediately with cold water, seltzer & blot dry, with a clean cloth. Don’t use paper towels.

Drying of Woolens

Dry the Woolens, away from direct heat, or strong sunlight. Don’t tumble, unless the label says otherwise.

Airing of Woolens

For airing the knits, lay them flat on the bed, to rid them of the odors, like; smoke etc.

Storage of Wool

Prior to long term storage, dry clean the Woolens, to remove the body oils, which attract moths. All Woolens can be folded & stored with fresh blocks of Cedar or moth balls. Woven garments can be hung in garment bags.

Hanging of Woolens

Hang woven Woolen garments on good hangers, in a spacious, cool dry place. WOOLMARK & Wool blend fabrics, shed their crease, if hung in the steam of a bathroom, for a short while.

Lighter fabrics, such as Cool Wool & Light Wool, take a bit longer to shed their crease. Iron with a damp cloth or steam iron.

Rest the Wool

Avoid wearing the same outfit for two consecutive days, to allow the natural resilience & spring in the Wool fiber time to recover.

Check the wardrobe regularly, to look for dirt marks & stains.

Folding of Knits

Never hang your knits. Always fold them & store with breathing space.

Wool Moths (Know thy enemy)

How to tell if you have Wool moths, & what to do if you find them. The best way to win this war is not to let them get a foothold. The first signs of Wool moth infestations will be either the larval cases or the frass. The case making Wool moth larva spins a kind of silky Cocoon around itself as it eats. This Cocoon will be the same color as whatever it was eating, over white. The cases look like this:

If you find one of these, squeeze it. If nothing happens, then the moth has already matured & gone off to find Moth Love in the rest of your stash. Lucky, if the bug guts shoot out the end. This, moth won't be do any harm.

Frass is Wool moth larvae poop, which looks like finely ground coffee. It will likely be a similar color to whatever the larva was eating, only darker. A quick, spot check for, moths is to agitate whatever your Wool or your yarn is in, & then check the bottom of the container for frass. If there's frass, do search everything in the container, & then follow the tips below.

Case making Wool moth larvae tend to eat in a straight line. When you're looking at balls or skeins of yarn, look for ends, or sections of yarn where one ply is missing or thinner. A badly infested skein may look fine, but, simply fall into bits when you try to use it for anything. When looking at finished articles, the holes aren't huge & gaping at first, they just look like a place where your tension messed up, but under tension, will reveal the extent of the damage. In woven, fulled fabrics , they will often eat the raised fuzzy finish off the fabric, leaving it slick & shiny. In un-spun fiber & roving, the damage is harder to see; if you really haven't messed with the surface of it, you may be able to see the groove where they've eaten through, but you probably won't. If your sample seems to have a much shorter staple length than you remember, Wool moths might be the culprit.

When you find evidence, the first step is to put everything into the freezer. Put for, 48 hours in the freezer, 24 hours out, & in 72 hours, it will kill all the moths. Or, get the material soaking wet & put it in the microwave for, 3 minutes, the steam will kill anything on the fiber itself. The moths don't just eat your yarn; they'll eat cobwebs, pet hair, Wool carpeting. Moth balls will deter the larvae but won't kill them; Lavender & Cedar oil will also deter, but the scent must be strong. Fumigating your house with toxic insecticides will help. Once the yarn or fiber is free of moths, store it in an airtight heavy plastic bin. The adult moths are tiny, & very hard to notice. Once you know, what they look like you can spot them, as well as the frass.

Stains on Woolen clothing :

Stains require swift action. 'Don't panic'. Decide, if you can treat the stain yourself, or would prefer to take the garment to a dry cleaner. If you decide to treat the stain yourself, then follow the guide lines, below.

Alcoholic Drinks

Dab gently with an absorbent cloth, to soak the excess liquid. Sponge the area sparingly with equal parts of warm water & surgical Spirit.

Black Coffee

Mix alcohol & white Vinegar equally, soak a cloth in it gently & dab over the stained area, before pressing gently with an absorbent cloth.

Blood

Quickly dab a damp sponge on the mark, to remove excess blood. Dab the area gently, with undiluted Vinegar & follow with water.

Butter / Grease / Sauces

Lightly scrape the surface of the greasy mark with a spoon or knife, to remove any excess oil. Soak a cloth in proprietary dry cleaning fluid & gently dab the area.

Chocolate / White Coffee / Tea

Dab gently around the edge of the stain, with a cloth soaked in white Spirit, before following instructions for Black Coffee.

Egg / Milk

Dab gently with a cloth soaked in white Spirit. Repeat the action, with a cloth soaked in diluted white Vinegar.

Fruit / Red Wine / Fruit Juice

Dab the stain quickly, with a mixture of surgical Spirit & water (3:1 ratio).

Grass

Apply a mild soap or flakes or dab gently with a cloth soaked in surgical spirit.

Ink / Ball Point Pen

Dab gently with a cloth soaked in white spirit. Repeat with a cloth soaked in white Vinegar or surgical Spirit.

Lipstick / Makeup / Shoe Polish

Rub gently with a cloth soaked in Turpentine or spot cleaning spray or fluid. Rinse with mild soap water.

Urine

Act quickly. Lightly blot with a dry sponge, before applying undiluted Vinegar. Then treat, as for blood.

Wax

Carefully scrape as much wax, as possible, with a spoon or blunt knife. Place blotting paper over the mark & iron gently on (Dot 2) setting.

Ace Bleach

ACE is a new, gentle bleaching liquid that can be used to remove stains, even from the most delicate Wool & is endorsed by WOOLMARK.

Global Production of Wool :

Global Wool, production is approximately 1.3 million tons per annum of which 60% goes into apparel. Australia, China & New Zealand are leading commercial producers of Wool. Most Australian Wool comes from the merino breed. Breeds such as Lincoln & Romney produce coarser fibers & Wool of these sheep is usually used for making carpets.

Global Wool clip 2004- 2005

Australia: 25% of, global Wool clip (475 mil. kg greasy, 2004- 5)

China: 18%

New Zealand: 11%

Argentina: 3%

Turkey: 2%

Iran: 2%

United Kingdom: 2%

India: 2%

Sudan: 2%

South Africa: 1%

United States: 0.77%

Acknowledgements

I would like to convey my sincere thanks to the following people, who have gone out of the way to help me prepare the project about, “WOOL Processing (for Woolen & Worsted)”, by the way of providing the necessary literature & the fabric swatches of various varieties of Woolen & Worsted fabrics, necessary for this project.

1.) Mr. Praveen Patel- WOOLMARK India South Extension, New DELHI

2.) Mr. S.P. Gomber (Vice President) Reliance Industries Ltd., NARODA- AHMEDABAD

A lot of useful technical information &, the photographs, have been taken from the following websites;

Images of various breeds of Sheep www.rmncsba.org/members/members1.htmlImages of various breeds of Sheep www.sheep101.info/breedsA.htmlShetland Sheep www.ansi.okstate.edu/.../shetland/index.htmScouring & Cleaning of Wool gfwsheep.com/pastfarm/fall-00/news.11.htmlShearing of Sheep ag.ansc.purdue.edu/.../2003/sweater/washing.htm

Quiviot or Musk Oxwww.informatik.haw-hamburg.de/~klauck/muskox.html

Tibetan Yaks www.tibetanyaks.com/article.html Sheep Producing Merino Wool handspunhats.com/spinable_critters.htmS. American Wool bearing animals www.alpaca-journal.com

www.paco-vicunaregistry.com/Llamas www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/other/llama/

info@greenfencefarm.comWorsted Spinning Systems www.lambandwool.com/woolproc.htm

habetrot.typepad.com/habetrot/spinning/index.htmlWOOL COMBERS NSC COMBERS - www.nsc.frWOOL COMBERS SANT ANDREA COMBERS - www.finlane.com

(S.K. Sharma)