ManufacturingProcessesSECOND EDITION

J.P. KaushishFormerly, Deputy Director

Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, andFaculty, University of Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee)

New Delhi-1100012010

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES, Second EditionJ.P. Kaushish

© 2010 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this bookmay be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission inwriting from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-4082-4

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Second Printing (Second Edition) … … August, 2010

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited,New Delhi-110020.

iii

ContentsContents

PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................ xxv

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION................................................................................................... xxvii

1 MANUFACTURING: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES ................................................................................. 1–21

1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 11.2 CONCEPT OF MANUFACTURING...................................................................................... 21.3 MANUFACTURING PROCESS ........................................................................................... 31.4 TECHNOLOGY ................................................................................................................... 31.5 PRODUCTION METHOD.................................................................................................... 3

1.5.1 Types of Production Method ....................................................................41.6 PRODUCTIVITY ................................................................................................................. 4

1.6.1 Important Aspects for Increasing Productivity .......................................41.7 MANUFACTURING ATTRIBUTES ...................................................................................... 61.8 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) .......................................................................... 61.9 PRODUCT DESIGN AND CONCURRENT ENGINEERING ................................................. 71.10 SELECTING PRODUCT MATERIAL .................................................................................. 8

1.10.1 Types of Materials ....................................................................................81.10.2 Properties of Materials ............................................................................9

1.11 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES ....................................................................................... 91.11.1 Classification of Manufacturing Processes ..........................................101.11.2 Other Manufacturing Processes ............................................................11

1.12 INTRODUCTION TO BASIC MANUFACTURING PROCESSES ........................................ 121.13 PRODUCTION SHOPS ..................................................................................................... 181.14 MODERN CONCEPTS OF MANUFACTURING ................................................................. 181.15 HUMAN-FACTORS ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL SAFETY ..................................... 191.16 MANUFACTURING COST ................................................................................................ 20REVIEW QUESTIONS .................................................................................................................. 20

2 MATERIALS: STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES .................................................................................... 22–72

2.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 222.2 SELECTING MATERIALS FOR MANUFACTURING ......................................................... 23

iv Contents

2.3 METALS AND NON-METALS .......................................................................................... 232.4 NATURE OF METALS ...................................................................................................... 242.5 STRUCTURE OF METALS ............................................................................................... 242.6 PHYSICAL STATE OF METALS ...................................................................................... 252.7 SPACE LATTICE (OR CRYSTAL LATTICE) ..................................................................... 262.8 DENDRITES .................................................................................................................... 272.9 GRAIN AND GRAIN BOUNDARY ..................................................................................... 28

2.9.1 Effect of Grain Structure and Grain Size on Properties of Metals .......282.10 TYPES OF SPACE LATTICE ............................................................................................ 292.11 GRAIN REFINING ............................................................................................................ 302.12 IMPERFECTIONS IN LATTICE STRUCTURE OF A CRYSTAL ........................................ 312.13 SOLID-STATE DIFFUSION .............................................................................................. 322.14 CRYSTAL LATTICE UNDER STRESS ............................................................................. 332.15 DEFORMATION BY SLIP ................................................................................................. 33

2.15.1 Slip by Dislocation Movement ...............................................................342.16 DEFORMATION BY TWINNING ....................................................................................... 352.17 WORK-HARDENING (OR STRAIN-HARDENING) ............................................................ 362.18 COLD-WORKING ............................................................................................................. 37

2.18.1 Metals Most Adaptable to Cold-working ...............................................382.18.2 Cold-working Processes ........................................................................38

2.19 HOT-WORKING ................................................................................................................ 382.20 ALLOY ............................................................................................................................. 39

2.20.1 Purpose of Alloying ...............................................................................392.20.2 Phases of an Alloy and Phase Diagrams ...............................................40

2.21 PHASES OF STEEL ......................................................................................................... 412.21.1 Few More Terms Defined .......................................................................42

2.22 IRON-CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM ....................................................................... 422.23 PROPERTIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS ....................................................................... 45

2.23.1 Physical Properties ................................................................................452.23.2 Chemical Properties ..............................................................................472.23.3 Mechanical Properties ...........................................................................482.23.4 Fabricating Properties ...........................................................................53

2.24 STRESSES AND STRAINS .............................................................................................. 562.24.1 Stress–Strain Diagram (or �–� Diagram) ...............................................562.24.2 Engineering Stress and True Stress .....................................................602.24.3 Computing Various Tensile Properties from Tensile Test Results .......612.24.4 Compressive Strength ...........................................................................622.24.5 Bending Stress .......................................................................................632.24.6 Shear Strength .......................................................................................632.24.7 Working Stress (or Design Stress) ........................................................632.24.8 Factor of Safety ......................................................................................64

2.25 INSPECTION, TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL OF METALS ................................... 642.25.1 Tensile, Compression and Bending Tests .............................................652.25.2 Hardness Testing ...................................................................................652.25.3 Impact Test .............................................................................................672.25.4 Fatigue Test ............................................................................................682.25.5 Creep Test ..............................................................................................682.25.6 Non-destructive Inspection and Testing ...............................................68

REVIEW QUESTIONS .................................................................................................................. 69

Contents v

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3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 733.2 FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS ....................................................................... 733.3 GENERAL TERMS ABOUT IRON AND STEEL ............................................................... 743.4 PIG IRON ......................................................................................................................... 75

3.4.1 Impurities in Pig Iron ............................................................................753.4.2 Use of Pig Iron........................................................................................75

3.5 CAST IRON ...................................................................................................................... 753.5.1 Production of Cast Iron .........................................................................763.5.2 Composition of Cast Iron ......................................................................763.5.3 Properties of Cast Iron ..........................................................................763.5.4 Effect of Graphite Shape on the Properties of Cast Iron ......................773.5.5 Applications of Cast Iron .......................................................................77

3.6 TYPES OF CAST IRON .................................................................................................... 773.6.1 Grey Cast Iron ........................................................................................783.6.2 White Cast Iron (or Chilled Cast Iron) ...................................................793.6.3 Mottled Cast Iron ...................................................................................803.6.4 Malleable Cast Iron ................................................................................803.6.5 Ductile Cast Iron (or Nodular Cast Iron) ...............................................833.6.6 High Duty Cast Iron (or Meehanite Cast Iron) ......................................843.6.7 Alloy Cast Iron .......................................................................................863.6.8 Wrought Iron ..........................................................................................88

3.7 MECHANICAL AND FABRICATION PROPERTIES OF CAST IRONS .............................. 893.8 HEAT TREATMENT OF CAST IRONS ............................................................................. 903.9 INDIAN STANDARDS FOR CAST IRONS ........................................................................ 903.10 ABRASION RESISTANT IRON CASTINGS ...................................................................... 913.11 STEEL VS CAST IRON .................................................................................................... 92

3.11.1 Composition of Steel .............................................................................923.12 CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS ........................................................................................ 923.13 CARBON STEELS (OR PLAIN CARBON STEELS) .......................................................... 93

3.13.1 Composition of Carbon Steels ...............................................................933.13.2 Types of Carbon Steel ............................................................................94

3.14 ROLE OF CARBON IN STEELS ....................................................................................... 943.15 COMPARISON OF CAST IRON, MILD STEEL AND HIGH CARBON STEEL .................. 983.16 ALLOY STEELS............................................................................................................... 99

3.16.1 Purpose of Alloying Steels ....................................................................993.16.2 Effects of Alloying Elements on the Properties of Steel ....................100

3.17 CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEEL ........................................................................... 1013.17.1 Nickel Steels ........................................................................................1023.17.2 Nickel–Chrome Steels ..........................................................................1023.17.3 Manganese Steels ................................................................................1023.17.4 Tool and Die Steels ..............................................................................1033.17.5 Special Alloy Steels .............................................................................1043.17.6 Stainless Steels ...................................................................................1043.17.7 Corrosion Resistant Alloy Steels ........................................................1053.17.8 High Speed Steels (HSS) ......................................................................106

3.18 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS ........................................................................................ 106

vi Contents

3.19 CUTTING ALLOYS ......................................................................................................... 1073.19.1 Cast Alloys ...........................................................................................1083.19.2 Cemented Carbides ..............................................................................1083.19.3 Coated Tools ........................................................................................1093.19.4 Oxide Ceramics Tools Material ............................................................1093.19.5 Nitride Tool Materials ..........................................................................1103.19.6 Diamond Tools .....................................................................................1103.19.7 Abrasives ..............................................................................................110

3.20 HARD FACING ALLOYS ................................................................................................ 1113.21 LOW TEMPERATURE APPLICATION ALLOYS ............................................................. 1113.22 MAGNETIC ALLOY STEELS ......................................................................................... 1113.23 MARAGING STEELS ..................................................................................................... 1123.24 AUSTENITIC MANGANESE STEEL .............................................................................. 1123.25 CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS BASED ON COMMERCIAL NAMES............................. 1123.26 EFFECTS OF STEEL MAKING PROCESSES ON QUALITY OF STEEL........................ 114

3.26.1 Type of Steel .........................................................................................1143.26.2 Grain Size ............................................................................................1153.26.3 Effect of Hot-working on Metal ............................................................1153.26.4 Effect of Cold-working on Metal ..........................................................1153.26.5 Effect of Heat Treatment ......................................................................116

3.27 FABRICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF FERROUS METALS ....................................... 1163.27.1 Machinability .......................................................................................1163.27.2 Formability ...........................................................................................1173.27.3 Weldability ...........................................................................................117

3.28 RECOMMENDING STEELS AND CAST IRONS FOR MACHINE PARTS ....................... 1183.29 MARKET FORMS OF SUPPLY OF PIG IRONS AND STEELS ....................................... 1213.30 CODING OF IRONS AND STEELS................................................................................. 122

3.30.1 Coding of Plain and Alloy Castings .....................................................1223.30.2 Coding of Steels ...................................................................................124

3.31 CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS AS PER INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ..................... 1273.31.1 AISI Method of Classification ..............................................................1273.31.2 SAE Method of Classification ..............................................................128

REVIEW QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................ 128

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4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1324.2 ALUMINIUM ................................................................................................................... 132

4.2.1 Selection of Aluminium Alloys ...........................................................1334.2.2 Properties of Aluminium .....................................................................1334.2.3 Uses of Aluminium ..............................................................................134

4.3 ALUMINIUM ALLOYS .................................................................................................... 1344.3.1 Duraluminium......................................................................................1354.3.2 Y-Alloy ..................................................................................................1354.3.3 Aluminium Casting Alloys ..................................................................1354.3.4 Porous Aluminium ..............................................................................135

4.4 BIS SPECIFICATIONS FOR ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS ........................................ 1364.5 COPPER......................................................................................................................... 136

4.5.1 Properties of Copper ............................................................................1364.5.2 Uses of Copper .....................................................................................1374.5.3 Types of Copper ...................................................................................137

Contents vii

4.6 BIS SPECIFICATIONS FOR COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS .............................................. 1374.7 ALLOYS OF COPPER .................................................................................................... 1374.8 COPPER–ZINC ALLOYS (BRASSES) ............................................................................ 1374.9 COPPER–TIN ALLOYS (BRONZES) .............................................................................. 139

4.9.1 Beryllium Bronze (or Beryllium Copper) .............................................1394.9.2 Phosphor Bronze .................................................................................1404.9.3 Manganese Bronze...............................................................................1404.9.4 Gun Metal .............................................................................................1404.9.5 Bell Metal .............................................................................................1404.9.6 Silicon Bronze .....................................................................................1404.9.7 Aluminium Bronze ..............................................................................141

4.10 ZINC AND ITS ALLOYS ................................................................................................. 1414.11 TIN AND ITS ALLOYS ................................................................................................... 141

4.11.1 Solders .................................................................................................1424.12 NICKEL .......................................................................................................................... 1424.13 NICKEL ALLOYS ........................................................................................................... 142

4.13.1 Grouping of Nickel Alloys ....................................................................1434.13.2 Monel ...................................................................................................1434.13.3 German Silver ......................................................................................1444.13.4 Constantan...........................................................................................1444.13.5 Inconel .................................................................................................144

4.14 LEAD AND ITS ALLOYS ............................................................................................... 1444.14.1 Uses of Lead .........................................................................................1454.14.2 BIS Specifications for Lead .................................................................145

4.15 LIGHT METALS ............................................................................................................. 1454.16 MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS .................................................................................... 145

4.16.1 Dow Metal ............................................................................................1464.17 LOW MELTING METALS AND ALLOYS ........................................................................ 146

4.17.1 Alloy Becoming Fluid between 150 and 540°C ...................................1464.17.2 Alloys Becoming Fluid between 94.5 and 150°C ................................1474.17.3 Alloys Becoming Fluid at Less than 94.5°C ........................................147

4.18 BEARING METALS ........................................................................................................ 1484.18.1 Main Requirements (or Characteristics) of an

Antifriction Bearing Metal ...................................................................1484.19 CLASSIFICATION OF BEARING METALS .................................................................... 149

4.19.1 Soft Metal Bearings ..............................................................................1494.19.2 Hard Metal Bearing (or Bearing Bronzes) ...........................................1504.19.3 Other Bearing Metals ...........................................................................1504.19.4 Innovative Antifriction Bearing Materials and Techniques ................150

4.20 CHROMIUM ................................................................................................................... 1514.21 COBALT ......................................................................................................................... 1514.22 OTHER NON-FERROUS METALS ................................................................................. 1514.23 SUPERALLOYS ............................................................................................................. 1524.24 REFRACTORY METALS AND ALLOYS ......................................................................... 1524.25 SHAPE-MEMORY ALLOYS ............................................................................................ 1534.26 PRECIOUS METALS ...................................................................................................... 1544.27 METALLIC GLASSES .................................................................................................... 1544.28 NANOMATERIALS ......................................................................................................... 1544.29 METALS FOR NUCLEAR ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS ........................................... 154

viii Contents

4.30 OTHER IMPORTANT ENGINEERING MATERIALS ....................................................... 1554.30.1 Timber ..................................................................................................1554.30.2 Abrasive Materials ...............................................................................1554.30.3 Ceramics ..............................................................................................1564.30.4 Silica ....................................................................................................1584.30.5 Glasses .................................................................................................1584.30.6 Glass Ceramics ....................................................................................1594.30.7 Graphite ...............................................................................................1594.30.8 Diamond ...............................................................................................1594.30.9 Plastics and Polymers .........................................................................1604.30.10 Composite Materials ............................................................................160

4.31 TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS ........................................................................... 1614.31.1 Fibre Reinforced Plastics (or Reinforced Plastics) .............................1614.31.2 Metal–Matrix Composites (or Fibre–Metal Composites) .....................1634.31.3 Ceramic–Matrix Composites ................................................................163

4.32 SUPERCONDUCTORS ................................................................................................... 163REVIEW QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................ 164

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5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1665.2 A FOUNDRY SHOP ........................................................................................................ 1675.3 TYPES OF FOUNDRIES ................................................................................................. 1675.4 PREFERENCE FOR CASTING OVER OTHER PRODUCTION METHODS ..................... 1675.5 FOUNDRY PROCESSES ................................................................................................ 168

5.5.1 Molding ................................................................................................1685.5.2 Casting .................................................................................................170

5.6 CASTING IN GREEN SAND MOLD ................................................................................ 1715.7 FOUNDRY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT ........................................................................... 173

5.7.1 Hand Tools ...........................................................................................1745.7.2 Containers ...........................................................................................176

5.8 MOLD MATERIALS AND THEIR SELECTION .............................................................. 1775.9 MOLDING SANDS (OR FOUNDRY SANDS) ................................................................... 178

5.9.1 Natural Sands ......................................................................................1785.9.2 Synthetic Sands ...................................................................................1785.9.3 Special Sands .......................................................................................179

5.10 CONSTITUENTS OF MOLDING SANDS ........................................................................ 1795.11 SAND PREPARATION AND CONDITIONING ................................................................. 1805.12 CHARACTERISTICS (OR PROPERTIES) OF MOLDING SANDS................................... 1815.13 SOME COMMONLY USED SAND MIXTURES (OR MOLDING SANDS) ......................... 182

5.13.1 Molding Sand for Casting Different Metals .........................................1835.14 FOUNDRY BLACKINGS ................................................................................................. 1845.15 PATTERNS ..................................................................................................................... 1845.16 PATTERN COLOURS ..................................................................................................... 1845.17 MATERIALS FOR PATTERNS ....................................................................................... 1855.18 PATTERN ALLOWANCES .............................................................................................. 1855.19 TYPES OF PATTERNS ................................................................................................... 1875.20 CORES ........................................................................................................................... 1915.21 TYPES OF CORE ........................................................................................................... 193

5.21.1 Types of Core according to the Core Material .....................................1945.21.2 Types of Core according to the Position of Core Print .......................194

Contents ix

5.22 CHARACTERISTICS OF A CORE .................................................................................. 1955.23 CORE MATERIALS ........................................................................................................ 1955.24 MAKING OF CORES ...................................................................................................... 1965.25 TYPES OF MOLDS ........................................................................................................ 1985.26 MOLDING METHODS .................................................................................................... 204

5.26.1 Molding Methods according to the Mold Materials.............................2045.26.2 Molding Methods according to the Method of Making a Mold ...........205

5.27 CASTING METHODS ..................................................................................................... 2085.27.1 Sand Mold Casting ...............................................................................2085.27.2 Metallic Mold Casting ..........................................................................2095.27.3 Centrifugal Casting ..............................................................................2135.27.4 Precision Casting Processes ...............................................................2155.27.5 Full-mold Casting or Expendable-pattern Casting ..............................2175.27.6 Continuous Casting .............................................................................2185.27.7 Chill Casting ........................................................................................218

5.28 CLEANING OR FETTLING OF CASTING....................................................................... 2205.29 REPAIR OF CASTINGS .................................................................................................. 2215.30 METALS AND ALLOYS USED IN CASTING .................................................................. 2215.31 METAL MELTING FURNACES....................................................................................... 222

5.31.1 Types of Furnaces ................................................................................2225.31.2 Protecting the Melt from Dissolved Gases ..........................................228

5.32 INSPECTION AND TESTING OF CASTING ................................................................... 2295.33 CASTING DEFECTS AND THEIR REMEDY .................................................................. 230

5.33.1 Metallic Projection ...............................................................................2315.33.2 Cavities.................................................................................................2315.33.3 Discontinuities ....................................................................................2325.33.4 Defective Surface .................................................................................2325.33.5 Incomplete Castings ............................................................................2335.33.6 Incorrect Dimensions and Shapes ......................................................2335.33.7 Inclusions ............................................................................................233

5.34 TESTING OF MOLDING SANDS .................................................................................... 2345.34.1 Grain-fineness (or Sand Grain Size) Test ............................................2355.34.2 Permeability Test .................................................................................2365.34.3 Strength Test .......................................................................................2385.34.4 Clay Content Test ................................................................................2385.34.5 Moisture Content Test .........................................................................2385.34.6 Mold Hardness Test .............................................................................238

5.35 POURING METAL IN SAND MOLDS ............................................................................. 2385.35.1 Pouring Temperature ...........................................................................2395.35.2 Pouring Rate ........................................................................................240

5.36 DESIGNING GATING SYSTEM IN SAND MOLDS ......................................................... 2405.36.1 Gating System ......................................................................................2405.36.2 Vertical Element (Sprue) in a Gating System ......................................2425.36.3 Gating Ratio (or Gate Ratio) .................................................................2445.36.4 Designing of Risers ..............................................................................248

5.37 SOLIDIFICATION OF CASTINGS................................................................................... 2585.37.1 Solidification of Pure Metals ...............................................................2595.37.2 Solidification of Alloys ........................................................................260

Manufacturing Processes

Publisher : PHI Learning ISBN : 9788120340824 Author : KAUSHISH, J. P.

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