Marine Region 11 Arabian Seas - … · of the region and to the wider Indian Ocean ... ral unit...

MARINE REGION 11Arabian Seas

Anthony W. Chiffings

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND BIODIVERSITY

The Arabian Seas Marine Region includesmarine areas from Djibouti to Pakistan, in-cluding the northern part of Somalia, theRed Sea, the Gulf, and parts of the ArabianSea.1

Coastal and marine environmentsthroughout the Arabian Seas Region aresubject to increasing human pressures,many of which appear to have resulted inharmful environmental effects. Oil, phos-phate mining (Hanna 1982, 1983a), and do-mestic, urban and industrial pollutants are aproblem in several areas in the Gulf and theGulf of Aqaba and have resulted in localhabitat degradation, eutrophication and al-gal blooms. Throughout much of the Ara-bian Seas the coastal zone is becoming arepository for solid wastes. In the Red Sea,the ecological effects from oil exploitation,phosphate mining (Hanna 1982, 1983a,b),and industrial inputs (such as from mining)are of increasing concern, and will becomemore so if deep-sea metalliferous mud be-

gin to be mined (Hanna 1983a; Nawabi1983).

Ecological problems also result from theloss and degradation of productive coastalhabitats caused by coastal landfill, dredg-ing, and sedimentation. In some Gulf States(for example, Saudi Arabia), 40 percent ofthe coastline has now been developed, anda significant proportion of the shoreline ofcountries such as Kuwait and Bahrain is arti-ficial. Loss of habitat extends to other partsof the region and to the wider Indian Oceanwhere approximately 50 percent of man-grove forests may have been lost over thelast 20 years (IUCN/UNEP 1985c). Overfish-ing is a major concern in all areas of theregion.

Degradation of coral reefs from heavy col-lecting and other recreational and tourismuses is becoming widespread, particularlyin the Red Sea (Hanna and Ormond 1982;Ormond 1981; Hanna 1991). Fishing andhunting of adult turtles and birds (and theireggs) is extensive in some areas (Hanna1994). The effects of land-based activitiessuch as nutrient and sediment runoff from

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phosphate mining (Hanna 1982; Hanna andOrmond 1982), agriculture and grazing, andreductions in freshwater seepage due togroundwater extraction are also contribut-ing to degradation of coastal environments.

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The Arabian Seas Marine Region is a natu-ral unit created by the geological historythat formed the Arabian peninsula and itsassociated regional seas and the maritimeclimate that is dictated primarily by the sea-sonal monsoons associated with the Asiancontinent.

Map 11 shows ideal summer and winterwind distribution and surface circulation pat-terns for the Indian Ocean. Wyrtki (1973)and Shepherd, Price, and Roberts (1992)provide concise descriptions of the physicaloceanography of the Indian Ocean, includ-ing the monsoon gyre.

The Red Sea, a product of deep-oceanrifting, extends for 2,100 kilometers fromSuez to the Strait of Bab el-Mandeb, whichconnects it with the Gulf of Aden and the In-dian Ocean. The Sea has an average depthof 500 meters, with a maximum of over2,000 meters, and is noted for some of thehottest and most saline seawater in theworld. In the south, surface water tempera-tures exceed 30°C in summer, while salinityis 40o/oo in the north in winter and up to46o/oo in the middle of the Suez Canal.

The Red Sea has a number of unique fea-tures. It is the warmest and most saline ofthe world’s seas. It has no permanent in-flowing coastal rivers or streams, only sud-den brief torrents, and mostly northwesterlyprevailing winds, which contribute materialto the sea floor. The nature and distributionof sediments are unlike those in other seas.The Red Sea is partially isolated from theopen ocean (Hanna, personal communica-tion). It is located in an arid, tropical zone.Rainfall in general is sparse and varieswidely, with particular areas receiving norainfall for months or years. Over the sea,

rainfall may amount to as little as 10–15 mil-limeters per year, whereas along the coast-line its estimated range is from a fewmillimeters per year along the northern partof the western shore, gradually increasingto 180 millimeters at Suakin (19°N) (Ed-wards 1987). These unique features havecontributed to making the Red Sea vulner-able to the impacts of human activities.

The Gulf, in marked contrast, is a shallowsedimentary basin with an average depth of31 meters. Freshwater is supplied by theShatt el Arab and some Iranian rivers. Sur-face water temperatures range from 32–33°C in summer to 22–24°C in winter in thesouth but only 16°C in the north. Salinitiesgenerally range from about 38–40o/oo, in-creasing to more than 60o/oo in areas suchas the Gulf of Salwa, but falling to around37o/oo in the Gulf of Oman. Tides in the Ku-wait region range up to 3.5–4.0 meters,whereas south of Al Kobar, on the Saudicoast, they are is less than 1 meter. Evenso, strong tidal flows occur throughout theGulf.

The Gulf of Oman is deep and largelyopen to the influence of the northern IndianOcean (Arabian Sea). The oceanic coastsof Yemen and Oman are completely opento the influence of the northern IndianOcean and are, in parts, subject to largeoceanic upwellings that bring nutrientrichwater to the surface, causing high productiv-ity.

The coast of Pakistan constitutes thenorthern boundary of the Arabian Sea, withoceanic influences dominating over thoseof the continent, which is essentially a sub-tropical dessert. River flows are monsoonal,with the only major freshwater input comingfrom the Indus, at the eastern extremity thatdischarges some 200,000 gallons of waterand 450 million tons of suspended sedi-ment annually and forms the Indus cone, asubaqueous delta 1,500–2,000 kilometerslong (Pernetta 1993).

Currents in the Gulf and the Red Sealargely result from density gradients in the

40 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

water column. Evaporation in the Gulfcauses movement of water inward throughthe Strait of Hormuz. Surface salinity is high-est in the two large southern Gulf embay-ments where greatest evaporation occurs.Denser water formed in these regions sinkstoward the Strait of Hormuz while less-dense water enters along the surface andnorthern edge of the Strait, moving in acounterclockwise surface current and leav-ing the Gulf in the deeper and southern partof the Strait (Sheppard, Price, and Roberts1992).

Currents in the Arabian Sea result fromthe removal of surface water during thesummer monsoon and its replacement bycooler upwelling water (Sheppard, Price,and Roberts 1992).

Surface water density in the Red Searises with a fall in water temperature to thenorth and evaporation causing increasedsalinity. Decreasing temperatures andevaporation in the Gulf of Suez result in theformation of dense water that turns underand is returned southward in the deep RedSea (Sheppard, Price, and Roberts 1992).

Circulation and exchange in the Red Seais not well understood, but is thought to bequite complex as a product of the low-en-ergy regimes involved. In simple termsthough, in winter (September–June) sur-face water is driven into the Red Sea by pre-vailing winds from the southeast, beneathwhich there is a deep outward flow of moredense, saline water. During summer, pre-vailing winds change to the northwest, driv-ing the upper water layer out of the RedSea over a deeper inward flow from theGulf of Aden. Net outflows are 10 percenthigher in salinity, and balance the effects ofevaporation in the Red Sea.

Tides in the two regional seas are in therange of 0.5–1.5 meters. In both the RedSea and the Gulf, tidal movement providesnutrients necessary for the vigorous growthof benthic biota. The central Red Sea is al-most tideless and has wind-driven seasonal

changes in water level that are more signifi-cant.

The Arabian Sea coastline of the Arabianpeninsula has a tidal range of 1.5–2.5 me-ters over most of its length, but these tidesare thought to be subordinate to the persist-ent impact of high-energy waves (Shep-pard, Price, and Roberts 1992). ThePakistani coast has tides of up to a 3.5-me-ter range (Pernetta 1993).

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The main body of the Red Sea lies in a riftvalley separating the African and Arabianplates (Drake and Girdler 1964; Quennel1958). Plateaus and mountains rise steeplyto more than 1,000 meters above sea levelnorth of Jeddah and 3,660 meters inYemen. The coastal plain is from 2–50 kilo-meters wide and slopes up gently to theeast until it meets the mountains. The moun-tains are deeply cut by valleys but streamsflowing in the uplands fail to cross thecoastal plain to reach the sea (Schwartz1982).

The Gulf of Aqaba is 170 kilometers longand 14–26 kilometers wide and forms partof the Afro-Syrian Rift System with steepwalls dropping to great depths (2,000 me-ters in places). It is separated from the RedSea by the 6-kilometer wide Straits of Tiran.Fringing reefs lie along most of the SinaiPeninsula shoreline (Hanna, personal com-munication).

The Gulf of Suez is a wide, shallow basinwith an average depth of 20–30 meters,greater depths in the central trough, and adepth of 90 meters at the entrance to theRed Sea. The fringing reefs in the Gulf ofSuez are not as well developed as those inthe Gulf of Aqaba.

The Red Sea Barrier Reef is located 10–40 kilometers off the coast of Saudi Arabiaand is about 400 kilometers long and sev-eral kilometers wide. The platform surfaceis 30–60 meters deep, on which sit manysteep-sided patch reefs. Almost continuous

Marine Region 11: Arabian Seas 41

marginal coral reefs occur along much ofthe coast from the Gulf of Aqaba to theStrait of Bab al-Mandeb. A similar descrip-tion of the reef morphology also applies tothe African side of the Red Sea. The main-land coast along the southern Red Sea hasexperienced less uplift than other areas,with some subsidence in recent times. TheFarasan and Dahlak Archipelagos are rel-icts of an ancient carbonate platform a fewhundred meters thick that grew on ancientevaporitic salt deposits.

The Gulf lies between the Arabian andIranian plates, and there is a strong con-trast between the sheer eastern coast andthe flat, low western coast. The Arabianwestern coast is generally low, flat andsandy. Beach sands may be cemented intobeach rock. Often a sandbar overtopped bydunes isolates large lagoons flooded in win-ter but dry and covered by salt or gypsumfor the rest of the year. Extensive algal andintertidal flats occur south of the Bahrain ar-chipelago. The coast of the United ArabEmirates is characterized by a number ofbroad, sandy flats and lagoons and edgedwith barrier and fringing reefs.

At the northern end of the Gulf is the vastdeltaic plain of the Euphrates, Tigris andKarun rivers that is formed of swamps,sandbars, spits and islands with fluctuatingboundaries. The eastern coast is a regionof extensive continental sedimentation. It isflat and low as far as Bushehr, then rockyand cliffed. In front of Ras Musandam thecoast forms a large recess at the Strait ofHormuz, with two main islands—Queshmand Hormuz. Along the north shore, cliffsand deltaic plains alternate.

The open, oceanic coast of Oman andYemen includes sandy and rocky stretcheswith ragged cliffs. The southern coast of theArabian peninsular is composed of rockyheadlands with cliffs alternating with shoresof fine sands buffeted by oceanic swells.

The Baluchistan coast (700 kilometers,75 percent of which is in Pakistan) is steepwith rugged outcrops and is dominated by

short, sandy beaches backing on to high,near-vertical cliffs or sometimes sandyplains or dunes. Much of the area is volcani-cally active. Eastward, greater variation oc-curs, from steep cliffs, up to 145 metershigh, to tidal lagoons, including tidal deltas,and mud volcanoes. The Indus Delta, withits extensive mudflats, tidal channels andmangroves, has already been described(see Pernetta 1993).

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The following discussion is adapted fromSheppard, Price, and Roberts (1992) andHanna (1991 and 1994).

Sabkha

Sabkha is a widespread inter- and supra-tidal habitat, measuring many kilometersacross in places. It forms flat plains, withcrusts of sodium chloride and gypsum, withimportant “algal mats” a few centimetersthick, beneath which is a black reducinglayer. The mats are complex associationsof cyanophytes, bacteria and diatoms.Pools are a special feature of sabkha.Those with subterranean connection withthe sea have a relatively high benthic diver-sity. With increasing isolation from the sea,diversity falls and the persistent microbial bi-ota then forms a typical mat. These arehighly productive and fix nitrogen. Whendesiccated in summer, mats become dryand crisp, breaking into characteristic poly-gons.

Large areas of Sabkha are found in theUnited Arab Emirates, the Bar al Hiskmannpeninsula in Oman, along the shores of theGulf of Suez, and much of the Saudi RedSea coast.

Marshes and Wetlands

Salt marshes have been greatly reduced oreliminated throughout much of Arabia, al-though marshes of the Shatt al Arab still


cover approximately 18,500 square kilome-ters. Eleven halophytic community typeshave been described, largely on the basisof elevation and periodicity of immersion. Inplaces, reed vegetation is strongly en-hanced by sewage enrichment, when itmay reach heights of up to 5 meters. In theGulf and parts of the Red Sea (not thenorthern Red Sea), many new marsh com-munities are appearing as a result of sew-age outfalls along the coast of Saudi Arabiaand near Port Sudan. Enrichment not onlystimulates marsh development, but in thecase of the Red Sea, also adds significantnutrient loads. These areas act as a focusfor numerous species of birds, especially mi-grants.

About 3 percent of the Egyptian coast iscomprised of saltmarsh (Hanna 1994). Salt-marshes in the northwestern Red Sea arelocated around Ras-Mohammed, Abu-Mon-qar, Wadi El-Gemal islands and Gebel Elba.

Numerous deltas and estuaries with ex-tensive intertidal mudflats and their associ-ated wetlands occur along the Pakistanicoast. The Indus Delta has an estimated3,000 square kilometers of delta marshes.

Sandy Shores

Most sandy shores in the northern Red Seaare narrow beaches adjoining coral reefflats, which themselves are usually narrow.Broader beaches occur where the reefedge swings further out from shore, leavinga lagoon. Sand beaches are most importantand extensive in the Arabian Sea. A studyby McCain (1984) found that in the Gulfevery square meter could contain 400,000animals, each over 0.5 millimeters in size,with faunal abundance significantly corre-lated to slope. The total number of speciesfound in this study was 147, much less thanon the rocky shores. Sandy beaches arealso a feature of parts of the Gulf of Omanand the Pakistani coastline.

Rocky Shores

The diversity of rocky shores is significantlyhigher than that of sandy beaches or mud,although biomass may be less. Hanna(1994) found that about 20 percent of theEgyptian Red Sea coast is formed by rocky,erosional, wave-cut cliffs. Basson and oth-ers (1977) note that the rocky intertidal inthe Gulf is much less productive than sandyintertidal areas, attributing this to intenseheating at low tides in summer. The rockyshores of Oman show a general increase indiversity southward, although little taxo-nomic work has been done in this area(Jones 1986; Campbell 1988).

Detailed descriptions of the Red Sea areprovided by Jones, Ghamrawy, andWahbeh (1987). Much of the availablerocky intertidal zone of the north occurs inerosion notches of fossil cliffs. These pro-vide a more moist and sheltered habitatthan do the horizontal expanses of intertidalrock that are common in the south and sup-port a greater range of the fauna.

Rocky shores are a major feature of theGulf of Oman and the Pakistani coastline,as well as the Arabian Sea shore of Omanand Yemen.

Mangroves

The mangroves of Arabia include communi-ties that grow on soft-bottom and hard-bot-tomed substrates, the latter being moreprevalent in the northern Red Sea. Com-pared with other Indian Ocean mangroves,the number of mangrove and associatedspecies in the Arabian Seas Marine Regionis low, although most of the characteristicfaunal zones are still present. Low diversityis attributed to the generally severe climaticand environmental conditions (such as highsalinity), in conjunction with the more lim-ited range of suitable habitats and niches.

Avicennia marina grows in both types ofsubstrates and is the dominant mangrovespecies, tolerating the high salinities (40–


50o/oo) and extremes of water temperature(12–35°C) associated with the ArabianSeas region. In the Red Sea, three otherspecies are known but are uncommon. Thenorthern latitudinal limit (27–28°N) of natu-rally occurring mangal ecosystems in boththe Red Sea and Gulf is attributed largely tocold winter temperatures.

Mangroves are tallest (5–7 meters) in thesouthern Red Sea, where the continentalshelf is wider and the intertidal slopes moregradual, allowing development of bettersedimentary conditions. In parts of Oman,Avicennia reaches 6 meters, whereas in theGulf it is poorly developed and oftenstunted (1–2 meters), at least along west-ern shores. Productivity of mangroves inthe region is considered to be generallylow, with the exception of the Indus delta(see below), although few quantitative stud-ies have been undertaken.

Interactions between mangroves and ad-jacent ecosystems are probably greatest inthe southern Red Sea and undoubtedlymake a significant contribution to coastalproductivity. Important mechanisms includetransfer of nutrients and energy, aided bymovements of fauna. Stabilization of shore-line sediments is also enhanced by man-groves, particularly in the southern RedSea.

The Indus Delta has an estimated 44 per-cent of its intertidal area (260,000 hectares)covered in mangroves of four species,Avicennia officinalis, Rhizophora conjugata,Ceriops tagal, and Salsola foetida, thatreach heights of 12–15 meters. These spe-cies line the tidal channels that extend in-land for considerable distances. Tidalinfluence reaches 97 kilometers upstreamas far as Tatta. These mangrove systemsare extensively studied (Pernetta 1993).Mangrove areas are also found at othersites along the Pakistani coast.

Coral Reefs

The diverse and spectacular coral reefs forwhich the Red Sea is renowned are foundonly in its central and northern half. North of20°N reefs are typically well developed anddrop steeply into deepwater; south of 20°N,reefs occur in a shallow, turbid environmentand are less developed. Greatest develop-ment occurs in offshore barrier reefs and inreefs fringing 1–7 kilometers wide alluvialplains on the mainland. Thinner reefs coverthe Gulf of Aqaba and other northernshores. The continental shelf widens to thesouth and mainland shores are dominatedby mangrove and sand beaches. Well-de-veloped reefs occur around the Farasanand Dahlak Islands, which also support ex-tensive mangroves.

The Gulf of Aden has very poor reefs be-cause of upwelling water and sandy shore-lines, and this condition continues down thecoast of Somalia for 500 kilometers andnorth to the Muscat area of Oman. Furthernorth, Musandam has the most diversereefs, while Iran probably has the most de-veloped. The coast of the United Arab Emir-ates is low lying and mostly swampy.Offshore the water is very shallow and richin seagrasses, and while it is generallymuddy and unsuitable for most corals, thereare numerous patch reefs.

Algal reefs occur in the southern RedSea in low-energy conditions. They supportdense brown algal cover and provide impor-tant hard substrate in otherwise sandy ar-eas.

A longitudinal series of coral reefs liealong the axis of the Red Sea on ridges re-sulting from normal faulting and upwardmovement of underlying salt deposits.These are widespread in the Red Sea. At-olls are also numerous and are foundmostly on the ridges. Diverse reefs arefound between Ras Shukhei and Quseiralong the Egyptian coast and in the area ofRas Mohammad and the Straits of Tiran(Hanna, personal communication).


There is a fairly distinct Arabian coral spe-cies grouping. Within it, there is a single,principal division into a Red Sea group, anda Gulf of Oman/Arabian Sea group, whichthen fuses with the Gulf. In the Red Seathere are 13 principal coral communities,some of which can be subdivided furtherinto a total of 22 recognizable units. Mostshow considerable localization, correlatedwith latitude but linked with gross changesin coastal bathymetry and morphology. Onany one reef in the Red Sea, the generalpattern of coral diversity with depth followsthat of most Indo-Pacific reefs, rising to amaximum at 5–20 meters deep before de-clining. About two-thirds of species have adepth distribution that is not significantlyskewed to deep or shallow water. Coralcover is usually less than 50 percent, but insheltered areas one or two species, espe-cially Porites, may cover 80 percent of thesubstrate.

In the Gulf, fewer coral communities ex-ist: only five are recorded from Bahrain. Ku-wait, Qatar, Bahrain and the United ArabEmirates have 30 species or less. Despitethis, coral cover is high. The richest reefsknown surround Saudi Arabian coral cays.At the entrance to the Gulf, Musandam con-tains reefs dominated by Porites and Acro-pora. In the Capital Area of Oman,substantial monospecific reefs of Pocil-lopora damicornis occur. Coral-dominatedcommunities become rare further south.

Seagrasses

Eleven seagrass species are known for theArabian Seas Marine Region, of which Ha-lodule uninervis and Halophila ovalis arethe most prevalent. Diversity is greatest inthe Red Sea proper (10 species) and low-est in southeast Arabia (4 species) and theGulf (4 species). Seagrass beds also attaingreatest development in the Red Sea, par-ticularly toward the south, despite the re-verse trend shown by certain species. Theseagrass distribution and diversity of the

Pakistani coast is not well described at thistime.

Studies on seagrass standing crop havebeen undertaken mostly in the northernRed Sea. Highest biomass is associatedwith Thalassodendron ciliatum, Thalassiahemprichii and Syringodium isoetifolium.Biomass of Halodule uninervis–dominatedcommunities in the Gulf are comparable tofigures for similar species in the Red Seaand elsewhere.

Seagrasses provide a mostly indirectfood source and habitat for both residentfauna and temporary visitors, including com-mercially important fish and crustaceans(for example, Penaeus semisulcatus). De-spite regional variation, available data sug-gest that both species richness andabundance of fauna are greater in the Gulfthan in the Red Sea, at least in its northernparts. Benthic fauna (within seagrasses andsand or silt) in the Gulf are principally sus-pension feeders, that utilize more abundantorganic particulates than occur in theclearer waters of the northern Red Sea.

Upwellings

In summer, prevailing winds flow down theRed Sea for its entire length, reinforcing theclockwise airflow in the Arabian Sea. Thisgenerates strong southwesterly winds, lead-ing to cool, nutrient-rich upwelling. Up-wellings result in higher nutrients and thedevelopment of Ecklonia kelp beds inplaces, inhibiting the development of coralreefs.

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The following discussion is adapted fromSheppard, Price, and Roberts (1992).

Plants

SeaweedsThere are extensive areas dominated bymacroalgae on both reefs and other sub-


strates. Brown algae are mostly of smallspecies, although large forms occur on reefcrests and in the Arabian Sea where up-welling is important. Green and red typesare ubiquitous, the latter including somespecies that grow deeper in the Red Seathan anywhere else due to their utilizationof blue light and energy-conserving growthpatterns. Calcareous red algae are mainlyrestricted to very shallow areas. For manyspecies, vigorous water movement is essen-tial, although dense algal growth also oc-curs on unconsolidated substrate, helpingto stabilize it. In a list derived from numer-ous earlier collections, Papenfuss (1968) re-corded nearly 500 species of algae fromthe Red Sea. Basson and others (1977)and Basson (1979) recorded only aboutone-tenth of this number of fleshy algae inthe Gulf, and there has been little system-atic collecting subsequently to indicate whatthe true numbers are.

In the Gulf there is usually a gradationfrom coral to algal domination on limestoneplatforms as stress increases, causing a de-mise of both corals and reef growth. Inthese conditions, usually termed “marginal,”algal dominance arises from shading,greater tolerance of temperatures below18°C, and high levels of dissolved nutrients.

PhytoplanktonMany species of plankton found in the In-dian Ocean are absent from the Gulf andthe Red Sea. Of 452 known Indian Oceandinoflagellates, 130 have been recorded inthe Arabian Sea, 88 in the Red Sea, andfewer still in the Gulf. The decline westwardin the Red Sea is partly compensated bythe presence of several endemics and byblooms of Oscillatoria erythraeum. Cell den-sities similarly decline westward. While thetrend is similar in winter and summer, win-ter cell counts are one to two orders of mag-nitude greater. There is a large input ofmesoplankton from the Gulf of Aden atpeak times of influx, though most do not sur-vive beyond the central Red Sea. In the

Gulf, plankton densities are much greaterthan in the Red Sea, most being diatoms.Phytoplankton in the Arabian Sea is alsodominated by diatoms as is typical of tropi-cal upwelling areas. This area is the mostfertile part of the Arabian Seas Marine Re-gion

Pelagic primary productivity of the RedSea is highest in the south. In the very clearGulf of Aqaba, significant production contin-ues to depth of about 200 meters (com-pared to 40 meters in the Arabian Sea).Summer values are approximately halfthose of winter.

ZooplanktonZooplankton diversity declines westward.Peak numbers throughout the Red Sea laga few weeks behind those of phytoplankton.Calanoid copepods are the most importantgroup with 300 species in the Arabian Sea,60 in the southern Red Sea, and 46 in thenorth. Euphausiids are important in terms ofbiomass, although of 22 Indian Ocean spe-cies, only 10 occur in the Red Sea. In theGulf, zooplankton shows marked temporaland geographic variation; diversity is lessthan in the Arabian Sea but is similar to thatin the Red Sea with 33–45 species per cu-bic meter near offshore islands. Densitiesare high and as many as 3,000 individualsper cubic meter have been recorded.

There is marked vertical stratification ofzooplankton in the Red Sea. Peak diversityand abundance remain within the photiczone, but a secondary maximum is foundnear the oxygen minimum layer at 400-me-ters. Close to shore, demersal zooplanktonand larvae of reproducing invertebratestend to dominate measurements of num-bers and productivity.

Fish

There are marked differences throughoutthe Arabian Seas Region in the structureand composition of fish assemblages, re-


flecting the heterogeneous nature of the en-vironment.

The most diverse assemblages occurwithin the Red Sea with a total of approxi-mately 1,000 species present (includingnonreef species). The Gulf supports onlyabout 200 species in total, of which at least125 are found on reefs. Within the Red Seathere are major differences in assemblagecomposition between areas north and southof latitude 20°N. This may be due to the dif-ferences in reef habitat between these ar-eas or differences in water quality,particularly the limit of penetration by nutri-ent-rich water from the Gulf of Aden (whichoccurs at around 20°N), and north–southgradients in temperature, salinity and turbid-ity.

The Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez support dis-tinctive fish assemblages. Those of the Gulfof Suez share greater affinities with south-ern Red Sea assemblages than with theGulf of Aqaba, probably due to its shallow,turbid nature. The Gulf of Aden marks a divi-sion between a fauna dominated by RedSea species to one dominated by IndianOcean species in the Gulf of Oman and theGulf. Upwelling of cold water in the ArabianSea appears to provide this major bio-geographic barrier. Compared with the RedSea, reefs of the Gulf and Gulf of Omansupport low-diversity fish assemblages.This probably reflects the scarcity of reef

habitat and the extreme environmental con-ditions.

Although the region is relatively rich interms of commercial finfish and shellfishspecies, the fisheries sector plays only a mi-nor role in most national economies. Inmost countries the contribution of the fisher-ies sector to the gross domestic product isless than 1 percent. However, in the Sultan-ate of Oman revenue from fish was equiva-lent to 36.5 percent of the total oil exportrevenue for 1984, and fish currently are themost important export product after petro-leum. In general, fisheries of the regionseem to be suffering from overexploitation.This is particularly true in the case of theshrimp fisheries. Aside from overexploita-tion resulting from inadequate fisheriesmanagement, degradation of the environ-ment is probably a major cause of the de-cline in fish and shrimp catches. Thisdegradation includes the elimination of im-portant nursery areas (especially forshrimp) by land reclamation and dredgingin the coastal areas, destruction of feedingand breeding habitats by bottom trawling,and increased marine pollution by dis-charge of liquid and solid wastes into themarine environment. In addition, selectivefishing for species of predator fish mayhave upset the balance between the differ-ent species.

Table 11.1 Breeding Turtle Records and Counts around ArabiaLocation Green Hawksbill Loggerhead Olive Ridley

Gulf islands 750–1,000 100–300Daymaniyat Islands +Capital Area, Oman + +Rass al Hadd 6,000Masirah Island + 80 30,000 230Gulf of Kutch +Gulf of Aden —Red Sea + +

— Data not available.


Marine Reptiles

Sea SnakesA recent review of snakes of Arabia (Gas-peretti 1988) records that of the 55 speciesof sea snakes, 9 or 10 occur in somecoastal waters of Arabia. All but one spe-cies of sea snake are found in shallowcoastal waters, which may be turbid andwhere there is organically rich substrate.Notably, sea snakes do not occur in theRed Sea.

TurtlesTable 11.1 gives details of breeding turtlerecords and counts around Arabia (Miller,personal communication; Symens, personalcommunication; Sheppard, Price, andRoberts 1992).

The region is now very important for sev-eral species of turtles. A significant reduc-tion in numbers of turtles fromoverexploitation has taken place (Miller1989; Frazier, Bertram, and Evans 1987).The most important part of the region for tur-tles is the Arabian Sea both in terms of num-bers of breeding species and abundance ofnesting individuals. Present levels of turtlepopulations are clearly reduced, providing afocus for conservation efforts in the region(Clarke and others 1986).

Marine Mammals

DugongThe dugong occurs in both the Gulf andRed Seas. It has not been recorded alongthe Arabian shores of the Arabian Seawhere very few sites of suitable habit occur.In Oman, there have been no confirmedsightings of dugong. The estimated Gulfpopulation is 7,310 (about 1,300) individu-als, making this the most important area forthe species in the western part of its range,and second in global importance only toAustralia. In the Red Sea dugong are esti-mated to number about 4,000. Dugong are

actively hunted and are also caught acci-dentally (Preen 1989).

Whales and DolphinsThere has been no systematic survey ofwhales or dolphins in any of the coastal wa-ters of the Arabian Seas. The greatest num-ber of records come from the Arabian Sea,where both dolphins (and toothed whales)and several baleen whales have been re-ported. At least a dozen species of dolphin,and finless porpoise, have been recordedfor the Arabian Sea and coastal waters.Fourteen species of cetacean, includingthree species of great whale (blue, Bryde’sand sperm), have been recorded in the Gulfof Aden (Smith and Smith 1991).

Gallagher (1991) lists 14 species oftoothed whale and dolphin from Oman,based on a collection of stranded car-casses. Humpback whales are believed tobreed off Oman, and the highly productiveupwellings that occur along this coast arethought to be an important feeding area forthis endangered species (Reeves, Leather-wood, and Papastravrou 1991). Papas-tavrou and Salm (1991) describe asmall-scale marine mammal fishery inOman.

Basson and others (1977) reported thatseveral species of dolphin occur in the Gulf,some in schools of hundreds. Four small-ce-tacean species are known to occur in theGulf, including the finless porpoise (Neopho-caena phocanoides). Three to four speciesof great whales have also been recorded,although it is probable that these animalsare not resident but strand after becomingtrapped (Preen, personal communication).

Concern about the long-term survival ofmarine mammals in the Gulf has arisen asa result of a series of die-offs. In 1983 atleast 38 dugong and 33 dolphins strandedalong the Saudi Gulf and Bahrain. This die-off was coincidental with the Nowruz oilspill, but there was no direct evidence tolink the two events (Preen 1989). In 1986over 500 dolphins died in Saudi Arabia,


Bahrain and Qatar (Preen 1991). In 1991 atleast 79 dolphins and 14 dugongs strandedalong the Saudi coast of the Gulf of Salwa.This die-off coincided with the Gulf War oilspill, but occurred several hundred kilome-ters south of the most heavily polluted area(Preen 1991).

Frazier, Bertram, and Evans (1987) re-ported that eight species of dolphins andtoothed whales occur in the Red Sea andclaimed that the Spotted dolphin (Stenallaattenuata) was the most common.IUCN/MEPA (1987) reported from theircoastal surveys along the Saudi coast thatmore than 90 percent of dolphin sightingswere of the common dolphin (Delphinus del-phis), whereas in the southern Red Sea, atleast around the Farasan islands, the spin-ner dolphin (Stenella longirostris) is themost abundant species (Preen, personalcommunication). These differences in re-porting may reflect either an area differ-ence, or misidentification. While baleenwhales were not reported by Frazier, Ber-tram, and Evans (1987) or IUCN/MEPA(1984, 1987) more recent evidence sug-gests that some whales are relatively com-mon in at least the southern Red Sea. Fourwhales, thought to be Bryde’s whales, wereobserved during an aerial survey of theFarasans in August 1987 (Preen 1989),and in another survey in September 1993,three animals were seen (probablyBalaenoptera edeni) and four skeletons lo-cated. Local fishermen maintain that whalesoccur in the area all year-round (Preen, per-sonal communication). Four whale skele-tons, possibly B. edeni, B. physalus, B.borealis, and B. musculus, were recordedin Yemen in 1988 (Preen, personal commu-nication) and whales, possibly Bryde’s havebeen seen blowing off Kamaran Island (Por-ter, personal communication).

It should be noted that the whole of the re-gion is part of the Indian Ocean WhaleSanctuary established in 1979 to provideprotection to the great whales from commer-cial whaling (Holt 1983).

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The following provisional biogeographicclassification of the Arabian Seas Regionwas prepared by Tony Chiffings and isbased on the approach of Hayden, Ray,and Dolan (1984) and other sources asnoted (see Map 11).

Realms and Regions

Hayden, Ray, and Dolan (1984) defined anequatorial boundary separating the north-ern Indian Ocean from the greater part ofthe Indian Ocean at between 5–10°S lati-tude. They consider it to be a single oceanrealm. This classification is well supportedby the physical evidence. Regional circula-tion is strongly influenced by monsoonsdown to a latitude of 10°S, resulting in asemiannual reversal of the surface circula-tion. Regional water movement is also influ-enced by the outpouring of cold,high-salinity water from the Arabian Gulf,and to some extent the Red Sea, leading toan independent rudimentary meridian circu-lation (Dietrich 1973). It should be notedthat in no other ocean does such a revers-ing, monsoon gyre form (Wyrtki 1973).

The boundary between the northern In-dian Ocean monsoon system of circulationand the subtropical gyre is well defined by asubsurface front that separates the low-oxy-gen, high-nutrient waters in the north fromthe high-oxygen, low-nutrient waters in thesouth (Wyrtki 1973). Nutrients, chlorophyll“a” concentrations, and primary productiondata presented by Krey (1973) also supportthis division.

Wyrtki (1973) provides a concise descrip-tion of the physical oceanography of the In-dian Ocean, including the monsoon gyre.Sen Gupta and Naqvi (1984) review thechemical oceanography of the northern In-dian Ocean.

Hayden, Ray, and Dolan (1984) consid-ered the coastal area from Pakistan to So-malia to be the Coastal-margin realm


“Eastern monsoon (J),” a realm that also ap-pears on the eastern side of India. Bothshare common wind distribution and sur-face current patterns. The important distinc-tion between the two is the high volume ofriver runoff in the Bay of Bengal and a largeexcess of evaporation over precipitationand runoff in the Arabian Sea, Arabian Gulfand Red Sea (Sen Gupta and Naqvi 1984).

The Red Sea and Arabian Gulf are bothconsidered by Hayden, Ray, and Dolan(1984) as marginal seas. Again, this distinc-tion is well supported by the physicaloceanographic evidence (for example,Detrich 1973; Wyrtki 1973; Morcos 1970and Hunter 1982 and 1983).

Comparison of surface distributions oftemperature, salinity, oxygen, phosphate-phosphorus, nitrate-nitrogen, relative trans-parency, and silicates all suggest thatSocotra Island and its associated islandsshould be considered a barrier between theeastern Somalia coast and the Gulf of Adenand that the Gulf of Aden should be consid-ered a region separate to both the Red Seaand the upwelling area along the Omancoast. Based on these data the lattershould also be considered a region in itsown right (Swallow 1984; Currie, Fisher,and Hargreaves 1973; Wyrtki 1973; McGill1973; El-Sayed and Jitts 1973). Distributiondata for total pigment concentrations duringboth monsoon periods for the Red Sea andwestern Arabian Sea presented by Halim(1973) also support this conclusion.

Tertiary production data for the IndianOcean presented by Cushing (1973) sup-port both the classification of the northernIndian Ocean into a distinct realm, and theidentification of the areas adjacent to theOmani and northern Somali coasts as dis-tinct regions. Limited total net biomass distri-bution data presented by Rao (1973) alsosupport the latter conclusion.

Based on temperature and salinity dataand inferred circulation (Morcos 1970; Ed-wards 1987), five distinct regions are recog-nized within the Red Sea. The southern

(RS1), central (RS2) and northern (RS3)Red Sea form distinct regions based largelyon salinity discontinuities and inferred mix-ing.

Weikert (1987) describes a sharp nutrientdecline in surface waters at 19°N consistentwith the maximum extension of Gulf ofAden water, which is presumably reflectedalso in the rate of salinity change shown inEdwards (1987). Weikert (1987) also di-vides the body of the Red Sea into three re-gions in tabulated data for daily primaryproduction, phytoplankton and zooplanktonbiomass, and abundance of the oceanic wa-ters. The northern segment extends downto 24°N, the central segment from there ondown to 18°N, and the southern segmentfrom there on. These divisions fit well withthe physical parameters.

The Gulf of Aqaba (RS4) and the Gulf ofSuez (RS5) form two additional distinct re-gions, with the Gulf of Suez being relativelyshallow (50 meters), vertically well mixeddue to wind, and having well-developed lati-tudinal salinity and temperature gradients.This is in contrast to the Gulf of Aqaba that,as a deep (800–1,800 meters) continuationof the Red Sea, has seasonally related verti-cal mixing and less evident salinity and tem-perature gradients (Morcos 1970).

The Arabian Gulf has been regionalizedon the basis of temperature, salinity, and cir-culation patterns presented by Hunter(1982) into five biogeographic regions. Aswith the Red Sea, discontinuities in salinityhave been used as the principal demarca-tion element. The Arabian Gulf is a shallowsea (mean depth 35 meters) where evapo-ration exceeds runoff and precipitationgives rise to dense, saline waters, particu-larly in the shallow areas (less than 10 me-ters) of the southern and southwesterncoasts (Hunter 1982). These areas formthree of the regions determined here in thisreport—the Kuwait-Saudi coastal region(AG3), the Gulf of Salwa (AG4), and theQatar-UAE region (AG5). The strongly influ-enced freshwater region of the Shatt-al-


Arab (AG2) and the body of the Gulf from a10-meter depth across to the Iranian coast-line (AG1) form the forth and fifth regions,respectively.

Faunal Provinces

The Somalia, southern Arabian peninsula,and Arabian Gulf coasts are classified as asingle faunal province (Western Indianocean) by Hayden, Ray, and Dolan (1984).The Pakistani coast is considered the west-ernmost extent of a province (Indo-Polyne-sian) that extends right through to southernChina, along the northeastern coast of Aus-tralia, and around the New Hebrides andNew Caledonia. The Red Sea is classifiedas a separate province.

The identification of the Red Sea byBriggs (1974) as a separate province is wellsupported by the information in more recentreviews of the fauna and flora of the RedSea (in Edwards and Head 1987).Crossland and others (1987), in reviewingall of the available data for the eastern sideof the Red Sea, classified it into four differ-ent regions based on a review of existingbiological data. This is a classification thatcould be extended across to the westerncoast given the consistency with relevantisoclines (see above), and commonality ofphysiography and such biological featuresas coral reefs (Bemert and Ormond 1981).Such a conclusion is consistent with that ofMoore (1987) when considering the nutrientand phytoplankton status.

The five regions recognized above for theRed Sea appear to be largely consistentwith the floral and faunal subprovinces rec-ognized by Crossland and others (1987), al-though they placed the southern boundaryfor the central segment at 22°N, not 24°N.This is coincidental with the start of thesouthward-extending continental shelf, sug-gesting that the shallow bathymetry is an im-portant controlling fact for these southern,inshore communities. This is an observationthat Moore (1987) also strongly supports. It

is important to note that in Edwards andHead (1987) the discussion of subdivisionsdoes not always make the distinction be-tween nearshore coastal distributions andthose offshore or oceanic .

The inclusion of the Arabian Gulf byBriggs (1974) in the Western Indian Oceanprovince may no longer be appropriate.Price (1982) reported that 12 percent ofechinoderms are endemic and that the lev-els of endemism for Arabian Gulf fish ishigher than originally thought, and may ap-proach those of the Red Sea. As a result,the Arabian Gulf has been recognized as aseparate faunal province here.

Within the Arabian Gulf itself the divisioninto subprovinces is difficult in that the bio-topes of the Gulf have not been specificallyconsidered in this way before. In addition,while the coastal areas of Kuwait, SaudiArabia and Bahrain have been extensivelystudied (for example, Basson 1977; Jones1986; MEPA 1987b,c; Price, Vousden, andOrmond 1983; Price and others 1987) stud-ies elsewhere in the Gulf are limited. Basedon this work, it seems reasonable to identifythe Gulf of Salwa and the Kuwait-Saudicoasts as separate and distinct bio-geographic entities. The status of the Iraq-Iran and the Qatar-UAE coastal regionsremains unqualified.

Until more evidence is forthcoming, thenorthern region of the Gulf of Oman and thePakistani region can appropriately be con-sidered as part of the Indo-Polynesian prov-ince, as identified by Briggs (1974).

It should be noted that Sheppard, Price,and Roberts (1992) have most recently pro-vided a detailed analysis and discussion ofthe biogeography of the Arabian region.They concluded that it was appropriate todesignate the whole region as a bio-geographic subregion, and not at the levelof its component seas and gulfs. Even so,they recognized important ecological gradi-ents or controls in species distribution andabundance that have been a prime consid-eration here for the boundaries identified in


establishing the individual provinces, as thisis considered most meaningful to the proc-ess of identifying areas for which MPAs areneeded.

ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING MPAS

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The following information is provided byChiffings (1992) and is based on data fromthe World Conservation Monitoring Center(WCMC) and other sources as indicated.

Nineteen marine protected areas havebeen identified as having been declared un-der relevant national legislation (Map 11).Numerous other areas have been proposedas MPAs in scientific surveys and evalu-ations conducted over the last 10–15 years.There are also a number of coastal pro-tected areas, many of which include interti-dal terrain but have not been included asMPAs in this report because available infor-mation suggests that the marine compo-nent is relatively minor or incidental. A list ofthese areas is included in the Appendix.

The present level of management and ac-tive protection against human degradationfor most existing marine protected areas isnot known. Some countries are making pro-gress toward the establishment and man-agement of MPAs, these include Oman,Saudi Arabia and Egypt. These initiativesshould be recognized and encouraged.However, in most parts of the region thepresent level of protection for conservationof biodiversity is low.

Bahrain

Bahrain has no identified marine conserva-tion areas except for Ras Tubli (Tabuli Bay)as a Nature Reserve, although the distribu-tion of principal habitats is well understood.Damage from oil spills as result of the 1991Gulf War was considerably less than on theSaudi coast. The Gulf of Sulwa region, in-

cluding Bahraini and Qatari waters, con-tains the world’s second largest populationof dugong (Preen 1989) and therefore con-stitutes an area of vital conservation signifi-cance for this species.

Djibouti

Coral reefs occur to the west of the port ofDjibouti and in the archipelago of the SeptFréres, at the entrance to the Red Sea. Anarea of coral reef extending from the light-house at Musha to the Ile du Large is pro-tected (IUCN 1992).

The following MPAs have been identified:\ Musha Territorial Park (Iles Moucha)\ South Maskali Islands Integral Re-

serve (occurs within Musha TP)

Egypt

Egypt has proposed a number of MPAs forthe northern Red Sea and along the Sinaipeninsula in both the Gulf of Suez and Gulfof Aqaba. The Government of Egypt hasrecognized the need for sustainable devel-opment in coastal regions and has re-quested assistance from the GEF todevelop a coastal zone management pro-gram. This initiative would provide an impor-tant opportunity to establish a system ofMPAs to conserve marine biodiversity andmanage the use of marine resources in asustainable manner. To date, six MPAshave been declared (one of which is an ex-tension to an existing area).

The following MPAs have been identified:\ Abu Gallum Multiple Use Manage-

ment Area\ Gebel Elba Conservation Area\ Nabq Multiple Use Management Area\ Ras Mohammed National Park

Ras Mohammed Sector, additional marineareas:\ Tiran-Sanafir Islands Protected Area


Ethiopia

The state of knowledge for much of the Gulfof Aden and the western Red Sea is ex-tremely poor, with the exception of specificareas in Sudan and the Egyptian coast.The Ethiopian coastline is one of the leastpopulated coastlines in the world and isowned by some of the poorest people in theworld. Until recently the country has beentorn by civil war for extended periods oftime. One MPA has been declared but itspresent biological and management statusis unknown. At present an IUCN adviser isworking with the new Eritrean governmenton marine conservation issues.

The following MPAs have been identified:\ Dahalac Marine National Park

Islamic Republic of Iran

There is a number of protected areas alongthe Iranian coast. These include two of thethree biogeographic zones covered by thiscountry’s coastline, the exception being theIndo-Pacific. However, the majority of theseseem to be coastal terrestrial areas with oth-ers being proposed marine areas (for exam-ple, Hara Marine Park). Only oneestablished MPA could be confirmed. Itspresent legal status is not clear because itwas declared prior to the Revolution in1979. Likewise its level of management, theextent of degradation following eight yearsof war with Iraq, and possible impacts fromthe more recent Gulf War are not known.

The following MPA has been identified:\ Shidvar Wildlife Refuge

Iraq

There are no declared MPAs along the rela-tively short Iraqi Arabian Gulf coastline,which is restricted to an area next to thetown of Faw by the mouth of the Shatt alArab (mouth of the Euphrates and Tigris riv-

ers). Areas that have not been developedand that are recommended for protection in-clude the mudflats near Khore Zubair andKhor abd Allah (WCMC 1991). Prior to theGulf War clear evidence of mangrove die-off in these areas was available in satelliteimagery, and aerial surveillance immedi-ately after the war showed strong indica-tions of impact from oil spills, as well asother war damage. Drainage of the marshareas of the Tigris-Euphrates Delta, and thedamming of these two rivers may have avery large impact on the northern Gulf ma-rine ecosystems.

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia, through its Meteorologicaland Environmental Protection Administra-tion (MEPA), has had detailed coastal sur-veys undertaken by IUCN for both itsArabian Gulf and Red Sea coasts (MEPA1987a,b,c). A National Coastal Zone Man-agement Plan has been proposed, which in-cludes the identification of environmentallysensitive areas that need to be evaluated indetail prior to establishing a system of pro-tected areas. An initial evaluation of theseareas has been undertaken for the NationalCommission for Wildlife Conservation andDevelopment (NCWCD) to identify areas forinclusion in the National Protected AreasSystem Plan (Chiffings 1989; Child andGrainger 1990). With the adoption of theSystem Plan, a review of each of the recom-mended areas and preparation of detailedmanagement proposals is planned.

The northern Saudi Arabian Gulf coastalarea was severely impacted by oil spills asa result of the Gulf War. Environmental con-sequences of the oil spills and burning oilwells have been determined from a numberof studies (see Al-Rabah 1993; Price andRobinson 1993; CEC/NCWCD 1992, 1994;Sadiq and McCain 1993). A large-scale re-evaluation of proposed MPAs has beenmade, based on detailed surveys and stud-ies on damage and recovery, by an interdis-


ciplinary team of more than 50 scientistsfrom six European countries, Saudi Arabia,Kuwait and Bahrain (CEC/NCWCD 1992,1994). As a result, a new MPA is being es-tablished comprising the two large embay-ments north of Jubail and the offshore coralislands. Other identified areas on the SaudiGulf coast (for example, Tarut Bay) are suf-fering from severe degradation due to devel-opment.

The following MPAs have been identified:\ Farasan Islands Protected Area\ Um Al-Qamari Island Protected Area

Kuwait

Kuwait has no designated marine protectedareas, although based on a major study bythe Kuwait Institute for Scientific Researchin 1988, the government had identified a se-ries of nature conservation areas that wereproposed in its Master Action Plans(WCMC 1991). While the coral islands ofQaru, Kubbar and Umm al-Muradum areonly small areas on a regional scale, theyare important to the protection of rare, high-latitude coral reefs and green turtle–nestingbeaches. The shallow waters of Kuwait Bayare a critical nursery habitat for commercialspecies of shrimp and fish and contain aunique species of mudskipper. The Bay, un-fortunately, is rapidly succumbing to intenseurban development pressure, including infill-ing.

Oman

Oman has a strong commitment to acoastal zone management program, whichhas been developed with IUCN, that in-cludes the identification, declaration andmanagement of MPAs. Oman is a particu-larly successful example of coastal zonemanagement planning in the Arabian Seas.The government’s commitment to coastalzone management has resulted in signifi-

cant contributions to conservation of coastaland marine environments.

There are five coastal protected areas,three of which are MPAs and cover a rangeof environments, species, objectives andmanagement issues. These vary from theremote Daymaniyat Islands where there areminimal resource use conflicts and globallysignificant habitats for hawksbill turtles andseabirds to the Qurum mangroves that lie inthe heart of a major residential area (Priceand Humphrey 1993). Other factors alsocontributing to marine conservation includetraditional fishing controls, fisheries legisla-tion and strict controls over land develop-ments.

The following MPAs have been identified:\ Daymaniyat Islands National Nature

Reserve\ Khawr Salalah BS Managed Nature

Reserve\ Quru Managed Nature Reserve\ Ra’s al Hadd (Turtle Reserve) Man-

aged Nature Reserve\ Ra’s al Jumayz National Nature Re-

serve

Pakistan

At present the status of MPAs in Pakistan isnot clear. While Preen (1993) reports four,Niaz Rizvi, and Abdul Majid (personal com-munication) report no MPAs in Pakistan.Those proposed are intended to protect tur-tle nesting beaches. The exception is therecognition of the Indus Delta as a region ofmajor conservation significance. Pernetta(1993) provides greater detail.

Qatar

Qatar has recently completed a detailedcoastal inventory using fine scale, airborneimage analysis, but has not declared MPAsas yet.


Republic of Yemen

The Republic of Yemen has identified fourareas as proposed MPAs, including the Is-land of Socotra. The state of knowledge ofthe Republic’s coastline is reasonably wellknown, particularly with respect to exploitedfish resources. Available information is sum-marized in Sanders and Morgan (1989).

Sudan

The Sudan Marine Conservation Commit-tee—an interdepartmental committee estab-lished in 1978—is responsible for marineconservation in Sudan. At present the Com-mittee is concentrating on conservation ac-tivities in the Port Sudan area and a MarineNational Park at Sanganeb (Nasr 1985). In1984, Sudan agreed to cooperate withEgypt and established a protected area thatincludes the offshore islands and coastalmangrove stands in the Abraq, El Deib andGebel Elba areas (Hanna, personal commu-nication)

The following MPAs have been identified:\ Sanganeb Atoll Marine National Park\ Abraq, El Deib and Gebel Elba area

Conservation Area

United Arab Emirates

Information on coastal marine areas in theUnited Arab Emirates (UAE) is very sparse.Except for some areas that have been iden-tified as proposed MPAs and Khor Dubaithat has been declared a Nature Reserve,no areas have been declared. The centralwestern area of the UAE (bounded by Abual Abyad Island, Bu Tinah shoal and Ru-wais) contains a large proportion of the Gulfdugong population and is of internationalsignificance for the conservation of this spe-cies (Preen 1989).

Other National Initiatives

In the Red Sea, protected areas have alsobeen established in other countries (for ex-ample, Israel and Jordan), often in conjunc-tion with zoning and other resource usepolicies. Further information on marine con-servation in the regions is available inIUCN/UNEP (1985b), Ormond (1987), andSheppard and Wells (1988).

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The following information is provided bySheppard, Price, and Roberts (1992).

UNEP Regional Seas Programme

Included in the Regional Seas Programmeare the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region,and the Kuwait Action Plan (KAP) region(also known as the Gulf or the Regional Or-ganization for Protection of the Marine Envi-ronment sea area or region).

The Kuwait Action Plan forms part of thebroader Kuwait Regional Convention for theProtection of the Marine Environment fromPollution. All Gulf countries are signatoriesto the convention, the aims of which includethe prevention and control of pollution fromships and other causes, the establishmentof national standards, and the developmentof national research and monitoring pro-grams relating to all types of pollution. TheKAP operates through close cooperationwith international organizations, regional or-ganizations (for example, ROPME) andalso with many national organizations, insti-tutions and focal points. Many of the majorconservation and research initiatives in boththe Gulf and Red Sea have been part ofUNEP’s Regional Seas Program. After the1991 Gulf War, ROPME was revitalized andmoved back into its secretariat in Kuwait.

The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ActionPlan is based on the Regional Convention


for the Conservation of the Red Sea andGulf of Aden. Actively involved have beenregional organizations such as ALECSO(Arab League Educational, Cultural and Sci-entific Organization), PERSGA (Environ-mental Program for the Red Sea and Gulfof Aden) and others, with ALECSO coordi-nating all activities and providing the interimsecretariat for PERSGA, based at MEPA inJeddah, Saudi Arabia. At present a revisedplan is being drawn up following a recentmeeting in January 1994 at Arab Leagueheadquarters in Cairo.

Other Regional and InternationalAgreements

In addition to the UNEP Regional Seas Pro-gramme, there are other important regionalagreements (Johnston 1981; Couper 1983;IUCN/UNEP 1985a,b; IUCN 1987). In-cluded are the African Convention on Con-servation of Natural Resources, theSaudi-Sudanese Red Sea Commission(deep-sea mining), the Arab Declaration onEnvironment and Development, the Gulf Co-operative Council (GCC), Marine Emer-gency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC), GulfArea Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organiza-tion (GAOCMAO). These and other agree-ments relate to environmental managementand pollution control.

Important international agreements in-clude parts of the United Nations Conven-tion on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), theConvention on International Trade in Endan-gered Species (CITES), the Ramsar Con-vention, the Bonn Convention on MigratorySpecies, the Indian Ocean Alliance, Interna-tional Biological Program (IBP), Man andthe Biosphere Programme (MAB), theWorld Heritage Convention and others(Johnston 1981, Couper 1983) (Table 11.2).

Upholding regional and internationalagreements is particularly important in seaslike the Red Sea and Gulf whose transboun-dary resources constitute global commonsshared by many countries.

World Heritage

There are no World Heritage Sites in the re-gion with a marine component.

Ramsar

The following Ramsar sites include marinehabitat components:• Shadegan Marshes and mudflats of Khor-

al Anaya and Khor Musa (Iran)

UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme

As yet there are no marine Biosphere Re-serves in the region.

MARPOL

The Red Sea, Gulf, Gulf of Oman and Gulfof Aden have been declared Special Areasunder Annex I and V of the MARPOL treaty.

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The following assessment is based onChiffings (1992).

Table 11.2 Countries in the ArabianSeas Region that Are Party to theMajor Conventions

CountryWorld

Heritage RamsarUNESCO

MAB

Egypt ✓ ✓ ✓

Iran ✓ ✓ ✓

Jordan ✓ ✓

KuwaitOman ✓

Pakistan ✓ ✓

Saudi Arabia ✓

United ArabEmiratesYemen ✓


Gulf of Aden (GA)

There is only one site protected (IlesMoucha and South Maskali Islands) andthree more identified. The biogeographic re-gion is poorly represented, but even morepoorly described. The coastlines of So-malia, Djibouti and the Republic of Yemenall need surveying before it will be possibleto make recommendations on the locationof suitable MPAs. The one exception to thisis the Socotra Island archipelago that formsa boundary between the major Somali up-welling and the Gulf of Aden. This completearea should have very high priority for es-tablishment as a Biosphere Reserve. Thismay require a cooperative effort betweenSomalia and the Republic of Yemen. Priorto the present civil war a proposal to estab-lish Socotra Island (only) as a BiosphereReserve was being prepared by the Envi-ronmental Protection Council of Yemen, to-gether with UNESCO. A GEF fundedcoastal zone management program, fo-cused on the Red Sea, was also to begin atthe time that civil war broke out.

Southern Red Sea (RSl)

With two existing MPAs and numerous pro-posals for additional areas, the eastern RedSea coast of the southern Red Sea zone iswell covered in terms of MPAs that will en-sure adequate conservation of biodiversitywhen the proposed areas are proclaimedand actively managed. At present, the riskof severe human degradation is relativelylow but ever increasing as development pro-ceeds in both southern Saudi Arabia andYemen. It is worth noting that commercialoil fields have been found offshore of theYemen coast.

The western side of the southern RedSea area is very poorly represented andjust as poorly documented. There is one ex-isting MPA in the Dahlac Islands. The area,however, does not seem to threatened bymajor development proposals. The Ethio-

pian and Eritrean people were until recentlyin the grip of one of the worst famines inmodern African history and suffering theravages of a civil war. This coast will needsurveying before it will be possible to makerecommendations on the location of suit-able MPAs.

Central Red Sea (RS2)

Although there are as yet no establishedMPAs, the eastern side will be well coveredby the Saudi system of proposed MPAs.However the western side is in need ofstrengthening. There are three existingMPAs along this coast but few other siteshave been identified. Before a decision istaken as to where major biodiversity MPAsshould be established in Sudan and south-ern Egypt, coastal and marine inventoriesneed to be completed and compiled. In thecase of the Sudan this could be arrangedthrough the Sudan Marine ConservationCommittee. The Egyptian coast has beenassessed in the past (Hanna, personal com-munication) and these data need to bebrought together for analysis and identifica-tion of priority sites and information gaps.

Northern Red Sea (RS3)

There are three existing MPAs in this zoneand numerous proposals for additional ar-eas. This is the one section of the Red Seathat has a good coverage of proposedMPAs on both coasts. It is now necessaryto develop detailed management plans forthese areas, particularly on the Egyptiancoast as tourism is a fast-growing industrythat may threaten the natural marine re-sources it depends on. The impact of oil pol-lution on the Egyptian Gulf of Suez andnorthern Red Sea are a major cause of reefand fisheries deterioration (Hanna, per-sonal communication).


Gulf of Aqaba (RS4)

There are two existing MPAs in the Gulf ofAqaba and proposals for a number of addi-tional areas. The eastern side has beenwell surveyed by Saudi Arabia and Jordan,and the Sinai side by Fishelson (1980). Asit is an area of low population and repre-sents an important international security cor-ridor, extensive impacts from developmentare relatively unlikely in the immediate fu-ture.

Gulf of Suez (RS5)

There are no existing MPAs and those pro-posed are clumped at the Red Sea end ofthe Gulf. The same comments apply hereas for the western, central Red Sea. Exist-ing data need to be brought together to al-low an initial assessment before proceedingin the selection representative areas.

Southern Oman (OM)

There is one existing MPA and numeroussites have been identified for MPA status.This area is part of the Omani CZM pro-gram and as such has a good repre-sentation of MPAs intended to conservebiodiversity.

Indo-Pacific (IP1)

There are four existing MPAs. On theOmani side of the Gulf of Oman the samecomments apply as above for the southernOmani coast.

The Iranian and Pakistani coasts are verypoorly represented with no existing MPAsand few additional areas proposed. Again,the present state of knowledge about thiscoast is poor and therefore requires system-atic documentation before appropriate rec-ommendation on the location of suitableMPAs. Because of the importance of partsof this coastline to individual species (for ex-ample, turtles and migratory waders), de-

tailed knowledge about specific areas al-ready exists. The next step is to review thisinformation to identify what additional infor-mation is necessary in order to proceed fur-ther. Preen (1993) has done this forPakistan and proposes a list of protected ar-eas.

Arabian Gulf Basin (AGl)

There is one existing MPA. There are sev-eral other coastal areas that appear to pro-vide a good geographic cover, but theexistence of a marine component, its actualextent, and the present biological and man-agement status of each of the sites needs tobe established.

Shatt al Arab (AG2)

There are no existing MPAs. The Shade-gan marshes (included in a protected areathat includes intertidal elements) is a site ofmajor international significance for a widerange of both resident and migratory birds,hence their status as a Ramsar Treaty site.As with the rest of the Gulf their present bio-logical status needs to be assessed so thata remediation plan can be prepared for theGulf region as a whole (see below).

Southern Coastal Arabian Gulf (AG3)

There are no existing MPAs and althoughthe extent of proposed MPAs representsthe biodiversity needs of this region, the pre-sent biological status of these areas needsto be assessed following the impacts of theGulf War. The ever-increasing impacts ofdevelopment are also a major threat, withsome areas already suffering major habitatloss and associated environmental degrada-tion.

Gulf of Salwa (AG4)

There are no existing MPAs. Two areas pro-posed by Saudi Arabia are representative


of the western part of the Gulf of Salwa.Given the relatively pristine nature of thearea and its global importance to the con-servation of Dugong (Preen 1989), there isthe urgent need though, to see these andcomparable areas in Bahrain and Qatar wa-ters committed as a major Biosphere Re-serve.

Qatar-UAE Coastal (AG5)

There are no existing MPAs, and while theUnited Arab Emirates have proposed agood representative sample of areas on theeastern side of the region these may notfully meet biodiversity conservation needs.Although it represents a diverse and impor-tant set of habitats there is no known sys-tematic, nor overall, survey of the region.This region is also an area of particular con-servation significance to dugong (Preen1989). Again, surveying at a regional scaleto identify nature and extent of major bio-topes is the most important priority at thistime.

PRIORITY AREAS ANDRECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations and priorityareas are a product of the review processcarried out to develop this report. Due tothe limited feedback from some parts of theregion they do not necessarily representthe views of the relevant authorities withineach of the listed countries. Priorities for Ku-wait and Oman were submitted by relevantgovernment authorities.

��

Further contact with many of the countriesin the region will be required to identify ar-eas of national conservation significance.Based on the submissions received, the fol-lowing areas can be highlighted.

Egypt

• El-Ghardaqa • Abu Monqar and El-Gaftun Islands• Shadwan and Gubal Islands• Tiran/Sanifar Islands and Ras Moham-

med• Gabel Elba together with Siyal and Rawa-

bel Islands

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

• Farasan-Gizan area

Kuwait

• Coral Islands of Qaru, Kubbar and Ummal-Muradam

• Kuwait Bay

Oman

• Daymaniat Islands

� ��

The areas listed below have been identifiedas being of highest priority at the regionallevel after consideration of the criteria listedin the introduction to this report. Most areasare proposals for the establishment of newMPAs rather than direct support to the man-agement of existing areas, although insome instances the priority areas are largeand include one or more smaller MPAs. Im-proved management of such MPAs shouldbe a priority. In some cases only limited in-formation has been available to describeparticular areas.

Proposed New MPAs

\ The Arabian Gulf-Gulf of Salwa (SaudiArabia, Bahrain, Qatar (26°0′N,50°5′E)): As a complete bio-geographic province this area is ofglobal importance. It is also has globalstatus as a major conservation area


for the dugong and other rare and en-dangered species. It is therefore rec-ommended that, over and above thespecific areas identified in Saudi Ara-bia, the Gulf of Salwa, shared be-tween Saudi Arabia, Bahrain andQatar, be considered a priority areafor the establishment of a regionalMPA (such as a Biosphere Reserve)so as to ensure the protection of a ma-jor part of the Gulf dugong popula-tion—the largest known outside ofAustralia (Preen 1989). Protectionshould also be afforded to the sea-grass beds, reefs and island of thecentral western area of the UAE (ap-proximately bounded by Abu al AnyadIsland, Bu Tinah shoal and Ruwais),as this area supports most of the re-mainder of the Gulf dugong populationand is suspected of being an impor-tant turtle feeding area.

\ Farasan-Gizan Area-Red Sea (SaudiArabia (16°8′N, 42°5′E)): This area in-cludes the Farasan archipelago ofover 100 islands (largest, 381 squarekilometers) with its extensive series offringing and patch reefs. Inshore wa-ters include large areas of mangroves,mudflats and seagrass beds that sup-port one of the three important dugongpopulations known from the Red Seaand a large shrimp fishery. Preliminaryevidence suggests that the area is animportant site for cetaceans, withherds of up to 600 spinner dolphinsseen in the area and large baleenwhales occurring among the FarasanIslands throughout the year. Most ofthe area is largely undisturbed andhas been the subject of a number ofrecommendations for protection(UNEP/IUCN 1988). There is an MPAestablished in the immediate vicinity ofFarasan Islands. It is recommendedthat protection be extended to cover awider area of the archipelago.

\ Tiran Islands Area (Egypt, Saudi Ara-bia (28°0′N, 34°8′E)): These islandsoccur at the mouth of the Gulf ofAqaba and include Tiran, Sinafir andBurqan Islands. There are well devel-oped and diverse reefs and abundantfish life, and dugong have been re-corded. Green turtles nest on Tiranand Sinafir Islands. The straits be-tween the islands are an importantshipping lane. The islands have beenproposed for protection by a numberof studies (UNEP/IUCN 1985a,b,c)and are included in the Saudi coastalplanning process. The Egyptian gov-ernment also has a coast guard sta-tion on one island and has appointedpark rangers to the area. Parts of thearea fall within three Egyptian MPAs:Ras Mohammed National Park, NabqMultiple Use Management Area, andTiran-Sanafir Islands Protected Area.

\ Straits of Gubal (Egypt (27°5′N,34°0′E)): This area lies at the en-trance to the Gulf of Suez and in-cludes the islands of Gubal, Giftun,Shadwan, El-Ghardaqa, Abu-Ramada, Magawish, Abu-Monquar, El-Fanidir, Abu-Galawa and Abu Sadaf.The Straits are a major shipping lanefor ships passing through the Suez Ca-nal. The area includes well-developedand diverse coral reefs and nestinggrounds for hawksbill turtles and hasbeen the subject of a number of rec-ommendations for protection(UNEP/IUCN 1988).

\ Southern Egypt (proposed) MarinePark: Mersa Alam—Sudanese Border(Egypt (23–27°N, 33–35°5′E)): Thissection of the Egyptian Red Sea coastincludes the Gebel Elba and Ras Ba-nas areas, both of which exhibit highbiodiversity, and typical marine areasof the western Red Sea coast. Thearea is described by UNEP/IUCN(1988) and has been proposed for a


large MPA that would incorporate arange of levels of protection (see alsoOrmond 1980, 1981). There is an ex-isting MPA at Gebel Elba.

\ Socotra Island (Yemen (26°0′N,51°0′E)): The Socotra Island archipel-ago forms the boundary between themajor Somali upwelling and the Gulfof Aden and is of high priority for pro-tection.

\ Wejh Bank (Saudi Arabia (25°6′N,36°8′E)): The Wejh Bank is a verylarge complex of reefs surrounding acentral lagoon containing many smallpatch reefs and mangroves. Patchreefs have high coral cover and du-gong may be present. The area lies inan isolated region with little effectsfrom development (UNEP/IUCN1985a,b,c). The Wejh Bank area isone of the three very important areasfor dugong along the eastern Red Seacoast.

\ Qishran Islands-Ras al Askar (SaudiArabia (20°3′N, 39°8′N)): On the cen-tral Red Sea Coast near the town ofAl-Lith, this area straddles bio-geographic areas RS1 and RS2. Thethird of the three most important du-gong areas on the east coast, it in-cludes numerous islands, mangroveareas, coral reefs and seagrass beds.Quishran and other islands in the areaare known turtle-breeding sites (Miller1989).

\ Marshes of the Tigris and Euphrates(Iraq (30°5′N, 40°0′E)): The drainingof these marshlands and the dammingof the two rivers has the potential ofdramatically altering the ecology ofthe marine systems in the northernGulf, as well as the critical transmigra-tory feeding, and breeding habitats forwaders.

\ Ras Suwahil (Saudi Arabia (28°7′N,34°8′E)): The area has been identifiedas a proposed MPA.

\ Outer Indus Delta (Pakistan (24°0′N,67°5′E)): The area extends southeastfrom Karachi to the Indian border.Management plans are being pro-posed.

This report has not concentrated on theimportant marine and coastal bird areas inthe region. These have been identified overthe past two years in a project that culmi-nated in the publication, Important Bird Ar-eas (IBAs) in the Middle East, by BirdlifeInternational. Over 100 of the 400 sites iden-tified are coastal and marine and havebeen selected because of the occurrence ofglobally or regionally threatened species,concentrations of seabirds or waterfowl, orthe presence of species wholly or largely re-stricted to the Middle East (Porter, personalcommunication).

��

No existing MPAs have been recom-mended as individual priority sites for man-agement support. However, a number ofexisting MPAs fall within some of the areasproposed above, and these MPAs shouldbe candidates for management support.These include the Farasan Islands (SaudiArabia), Nabq Multiple Use ManagementArea, Ras Mohammed National Park and Ti-ran-Sanafir Islands Protected Area (Egypt),and Gebel Elba Conservation Area (Egypt).

��

The following are recommendations for ac-tion at the regional or national levels of ac-tivity. To date, there is not enough detailedknowledge of specific areas or incountryprograms to make sensible recommenda-tions as to where more specific efforts shouldbe placed. A general note, however, is thataction at the local level may frequently have


a training and awareness role well beyondthe return to the immediate region.

This region is one where the coastal re-sources are either extremely well docu-mented and a major coastal zonemanagement undertaking has already beeninitiated, or where there is little or no sys-tematic understanding and conservation ef-forts are the domain of a very small numberof concerned government officials.

At this time the major knowledge gapsare the lack of systematic surveys of spe-cies and community composition for largeparts of the region—the Gulf of Aden, thewestern side of the Red Sea, particularlythe southern and central region, the Qatar-UAE region of the Arabian Gulf, and thenorthern side of the Arabian Gulf and Gulf

of Oman. Considering the extensive natureof these areas, it is proposed that in the firstinstance there should be an emphasis onsystematic survey using a systems ap-proach that identifies the nature and extentof key biotopes at regional scales. This canbe done relatively quickly and cheaply by asmall team using modern mapping tech-niques including satellite imagery, obliqueaerial photography, and limited ground sur-vey (for example, Price and others 1987,MEPA 1987b). This is a particularly power-ful approach when coupled with local knowl-edge and expertise. This kind of approachis likely to prove to be the most efficientmethod of gathering the data necessary tocarry out an assessment of priority areasfor MPAs.


Appendix Unconfirmed/Proposed MPAs in the Arabian Seas Marine RegionCountry/Territory Protected Area Name Zone

IUCNCategory

Area(hectares)

Egypt Giftun Islands MP RS5 PROGubal Islands MR RS5 RECHamata Marine Zone NA RS3 PROHurghada NR RS5 PROQulan Islands MR RS3 PRORas Burkha RS4 RECRas Garra RS5 RECShadwan (Shaker) Island MR RS5 PROSouthern Egypt MP RS3 RECStraits of Tiran MP RS3 REC

Iran Chah Bahar and Pizom Bays IP1 PROHalileh Rud Mud Flats (Hale-Rud Marshes) AG1 PRO 20,000Hormoz Island Biosphere Reserve AG1 IKhouran Straits Biosphere Reserve AG1 PROQeshm Islands and Bandar Marine Park AG1 PRORude-e-Gaz (Rud-e-Hara) Mangroves AG1 PROShadvar BR (Sheedvar) AG1 PRO

Jordan Aqaba MaNR RS4 PROAqaba MP RS4 PRO

Kuwait Bobiyan MP AG2 RECFailaka Island (North) NR A3 RECFailaka Island (South) NP AG3 RECFailaka Island (South) NRA AG3 RECJal al Zhor NP AG3 PRO 30,000Jal al Zhor NRA AG3 PROKhawr Mu Fattah PA AG3 PROKubbar (Jazirat Kubbar) PA AG3 REC 600Qaruh MP AG3 REC

Oman Al Hallaniyah NScR OM PRO 2,500Al Salamah NNR I P1 PRO 60Arkad NRR PRO 264,000Bandar Jissah NScR IP1 V 700Bandar Khayran NNR IP1 VIII 1,400Barr al Hikman NNR OM PRO 288,000Bu Rashid NNR IP1 PRO 50Dalkut-Kharfot NNR OM IVEast Masirah NNR OM PRO 4,500East Sharbithat OM IVFanaku NNR IP1 PRO 20Hamar an Nafun NNR OM PRO 120Jabal Abu Daud NScR IP1 PRO 35,000Jabal Bani Jabir NScR IP1 PRO 138,000Jabal Hammar NSR + Sidah NNR OM IV & V


Country/Territory Protected Area Name Zone

IUCNCategory

Area(hectares)

Jabal Letub NNR IP1 PRO 8,900Jabal Qamar NScR OM V 58,000Jabal Qatar NNR IP1 PRo 44,000Jabal Samhan NNR OM IV & V 346,000Janabah Coast NScR OM PRO 69,000Jazirat Abu Sir NNR IP1 PRO 150Jazirat Habalayn NNR IP1 PRO 10Jazirat Hamra NNR IP1 PRO 30

Oman (continued) Jazirat l Khayl NNR IP1 PRO 300Jazirat Musandam NNR IP1 PRO 500Jazirat Umm al Fayyar in NNR IP1 PRO 50Jazirat Umm al Ghanam NScR IP1 PRO 500Kachalu NNR IP1 PRO 10Khatmat Malahah NNR PRO 50Khawr Balid NNR OM PRO 200Khawr Bat’ha NRR PRO 30Khawr Dahariz NNR OM IV 150Khawr Hawasinah NRR PRO 10Khawr Juraym NNR PRO 20Khawr Kashmir NRR PRO 50Khawr Mughsayl NScR OM VIII 10Khawr Nabr NNR PRO 2,300Khawr Qurm NSCR OM VIII 70Khawr Rawri NNR OM IV & V 1,100Khawr Saham NNR PRO 80Khawr Sallan NNR PRO 100Khawr Sawli NNR OM IV 300Khawr Shinas NNR PRO 2,100Khawr Taqah NNR PRO 300Kuria Muria NNR OM IV 250,000Marbat NScR + Raaha NNR OM IV &V 26,000Masirah Straits NNR OM PRO 86,000Musandam NRR PRO 132,000Musandam Peninsula IP1 PRO 15,800North Jazir NNR OM PRO 15,000Ra’s Suawadi NScR IP1 V 1,500Ras Abu Daud OM VIRazat NNR OM IV 1,000Sadh NScR OM V 3,500Salalal NNR OM VIII 6,800Shinas NScR IP1 PRO 300South Jazir NScR + Khur Ghauri NNR OM IV & V 18,000South Masirah NNR OM PRO 19,000Wadi ash Shuwaymiyah NRR + Shuway.NScR

OM IV & V 12,500

Wadi Hawir NNR IP1 PRO 3,300



IUCNCategory

Area(hectares)

Wadi Nhart NNR OM IV 5,500Wahibah NRR OM PROWardi Hinna NSR OM V

Pakistan Astola Island (Haft Talar) IP1 REC 0Hawkes Bay/Sandspit Beaches IP1 REC 0Jiwani turtle beaches IP1 REC 0Ormara turtle beaches IP1 REC 0Pasni Coast IP1 REC 0

Saudi Arabia Abu Ali/Dawhat Dafi & Musallamiyah AG3 IV 0Abu Duda RS2 I 0Al Hasani & Libana Islands RS3 IV 0Al Uqayr Bay & Coastal Region AG4 IV 0Arabiyah Island AG3 IV 0Coastline South of Sharm Zubeir RS3 IV 0Ghubbet Bal’aksh RS3 IV 0Harimal Island RS2 IHarqus Island AG3 IV 0

Saudi Arabia Inner Farasan Bank Reefs & Islands RS1 IV 0 (continued) Jana Islands AG3 I 0

Jeddah Salt Marshes RS2 IV 0Jurayd Island AG3 IV 0Karan Island AG3 I 0Khawr al Ja’afirah & Islands., Ras al Tarfa RS1 IV 0Khor Al Wahla RS1 I 0Khor Amiq & Raqa RS1 IV 0Khor Itwad RS1 IV 0Khor Nahud RS1 IV 0Kurayn Islands AG3 IV 0Marqa Islands RS1 I 0Marsa al Usalla & Mersa Tawil RS2 I 0Marsa Umm Misk RS2 IV 0Mastura Beach RS2 I 0Mersa al Sarraj RS2 IV 0Oreste Point RS1 IV 0Outer Farasan Bank Reefs & Islands RS1 IX 0Qalib Islands Chain RS3 IQishran RS1-

2I 0

Qurayyah region AG3 IVRas Abu Madd to Sharm Hasi RS2 II 0Ras Baridi-Sharm al Kwawr RS2 IVRas Hatiba RS2 II 0Ras Suwahil & Maqna N. Beach RS4 IX 0Safaniya/Manifa Bay complex AG3 IV 0Sharm Dumagha & Sharm Antar RS3 IV 0



IUCNCategory

Area(hectares)

Sharm Yanbu RS2 I 0Sharm Zubeur RS3 I 0Shi’Abu Al Liqa RS1 IV 0Shib Al Kabir RS1 IV 0Shu’aybah RS2 II 0South Gulf of Salwah AG4 IX 0Tarut Bay Complex AG3 VIII 0Tiran Islands area RS3 IX 0Wejh Bank RS2 IX 0

Sudan Mukawwar MNR RS2 PRO 1,200Port Sudan MNP RS2 PRO 0Sanganeb Atoll MNP RS2 PRO 100Suakin Archipelago NP RS1 PRO 0

United Arab Emirates Abu al Abyadh Islands PriR AG5 UA 0Abu Dhabi mangrove & coastal wetlands AG5 REC 1,500Arzaneh Islands BS AG5 REC 0Ganadah (Ras Ganadah) Lagoon &mangrove

AG5 REC 22,000

Hammanya Lagoon AG5 REC 200Jebel Ali turtle beaches R AG5 REC 1,500Kalba mangroves AG5 REC 0Khor Dubai marshes AG5 REC 0Merawwah Islands AG5 REC 0Qarnein Islands AG5 REC 0Ramms Lagoon R AG5 REC 0Umm al-Qaiwain Lagoon & island PriR AG5 UA 1,000Zirkuh Islands BS AG5 REC 0

Yemen, Republic of Al Khawkhah RS1 REC 0Al Mukha RS1 REC 0Dhubab RS1 REC 0Hidran marshes RS1 REC 0Humar Island RS1 REC 0Jabal Sabir-Wadi Thabad wadis RS1 REC 0Kumran islands R RS1 PRO 0Ra’s Katanib Island RS1 REC 0Ras Isa MP RS1 REC 0Uqban (Ukban) Islands RS1 REC 0Wadi Rima estuary RS1 REC 0Wadi Siham RS1 REC 0Zubayr Islands RS1 REC 0Zuqur Islands MNP RS1 REC 0

Yemen Nishtun GA REC 0Perim Isles GA REC 0Ra’s Abu Quizara GA REC 0Socotra Island PA GA PRO 362,500


The following recommendations aremade for actions that are considered to beof regional priority:• The Arabian Gulf as a complete bio-

geographic province is of global impor-tance in its own right. It has global statusas a major conservation area for dugong(classified as vulnerable) and other rareor endangered species.

• A regional survey of the Gulf of Aden is abasic first step to identifying areas for in-clusion in a system of MPAs. Particularattention should be given to the Socotraarchipelago. The Royal Geographic Soci-ety of the U.K. planning for a expeditionto study biogeographic features of theGulf of Adenand adjacent areas hasbeen disrupted due to recent politicalevents in Yemen, as has a GEF-fundedcoastal zone management program forYemen.

• Where some information already exists,for example, in Pakistan, Iran, Egypt andthe Sudan, support should be given toenable reviews, such as that recentlycompleted for Pakistan, to be undertakento identify major gaps in knowledge(Pernetta 1993).

• A preliminary appraisal should be ob-tained of the vulnerability of the coast ofEthiopia and the Sudan to developmentpressures in order to establish a priorityon the need for further action. After identi-fying areas of present or high potentialimpact, a program should be supportedto enable resource use planning andmanagement so that exploitation can beundertaken in a sustainable manner.

NOTE

1. The region, originally referred to as the NorthWest Indian Ocean Region, includes the Red Seaand its two Gulfs, the Gulf of Aden, the Ara-bian/Persian/Iranian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, andthat part of the northern Indian Ocean generally

referred to as the Arabian Sea. The descriptor“Arabian Seas” has now been adopted as aclearer description of the region biogeographi-cally, without compromising local naming conven-tions. In keeping with the convention adopted bySheppard, Price, and Roberts (1992), the Ara-bian/Persian/Iranian Gulf shall be referred tothroughout the text as the “Gulf” (see also thediscussions on naming conventions and bio-geographic considerations in the same reference).

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