Unit 1: Introduction to Marketing

Marketing Management

Batch 2012, GGSIPU

Meaning & scope

e.g. Computer: software in U.S, body in China, assembly in Taiwan, sold world over

e.g. Trade Unions: EU – 15 countries, common currency, common standards & regulations

e.g. Retail: Wal-Mart – affordability with convenience, made retail organised

e.g. ICT: videoconferencing, downloads, social media, online banking

e.g. Global Warming: packaging standards, recycle waste, energy conservation, green building

e.g.: Changing Customer: best quality, faster deliveries, personalisation, low costs

Globalization

Increased Disposable Income & Consumption

e.g. rise in per capita income, GDP/GNP, higher diminishing marginal utility

Improved Standard of Living

e.g. access, reach, declined mortality rate, gadgets, literacy

Growth in Niche Markets (and products)

e.g. facetone powder, deo without gas, 3-D cinema, fair & handsome, pink newspaper, CNG, Thai food

Varying Consumer Groups (differentiation)

e.g. ice cream flavours, grunge music genre, nanotechnology, kollywood

Result

What are the major forces driving the New Economy?

How are business and marketing practices changing as a result of the New Economy?

Summarizing

Marketing in new economy

Changing Marketing paradigm

Marketing is a social & managerial process by which individuals & groups obtain what they need & want through creating, offering and exchanging products of value with others.

***

Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchange that satisfy individual and organisational goals.

WHAT IS MARKETING?Definition

Needs, Wants & Demand

Need: can’t be created; it pre-exists (human biology)

Want: influenced desire (social status)

Demand: desire backed by money and willingness to spend (Audi 6 is a great social status but Toyota Corolla will do)

MARKETERS DO NOT CREATE NEEDS; NEED PRE-EXIST MARKETERS.

Marketers do not create need for Social Status but influence demand by making the product appropriate, attractive,

available to target segment.

Components of Definition

A product can be : Idea, Good and Service

Idea: take-away meals

Goods: food in the restaurant

Service: 30 minutes delivery or free, seating

SELLERS WHO CONCENTRATE THEIR THINKING ON PHYSICAL PRODUCT INSTEAD OF CUSTOMER’S NEED

ARE SAID TO BE SUFFERING FROM MARKETING MYOPIA.

Product is a ‘solution to a need’ for e.g. car for transportation, television for entertainment and phone for

communication.

Components of definition

Marketing Myopia defines product versus market orientation

e.g.:

Components of definition

How do consumers choose products to satisfy needs?

Based on Value, Cost & Satisfaction

Value is consumer’s estimate of the product’s overall capacity to satisfy a given need.

e.g. travel by public bus, auto rickshaw, bi-cycle, car, bike etc. based on lowest possible cost of acquisition, ownership and use.

Components of definition

Exchange

Is a ‘value creating’ process.

Barter or monetary transaction.

Marketing is the study of transactions (transaction behaviour). It seeks to elicit a behavioural response from consumers/distributors.

MARKETING CONSISTS OF THE ACTIONS UNDERTAKEN TO ELICIT DESIRED RESPONSES FROM A TARGET

AUDIENCE.

Components of definition

Marketing does not end with transaction of product (Exchange stage), it goes further towards augmenting marketing network through:

Relationship (Marketing)

A practice of building long term satisfying relationship with networks – customers, suppliers, distributors – for business.

Competition is not between companies but rather whole networks, with the prize going to the company that has built

the better network.

Components of definition

Market

A meeting place of buyers and sellers to transact.

Potential customers sharing a particular need and willing to engage in exchange to satisfy their need.

MARKETING MEANS WORKING WITH MARKETS TO ACTUALISE EXCHNAGES FOR THE PURPOSE OF

SATISFYING HUMAN NEEDS.

Components of definition

Marketers & Prospect

Marketer seeks prospects for exchange. A prospect is someone who is willing and able to engage in this exchange for value.

A marketer can be both – a seller and a buyer.

e.g. In case of buying a house, several buyers will try to market themselves to the sellers.

e.g. In seeking admission to college/job, several applicants define why their candidature should be considered against the job/college seat.

These two are examples of ‘Reciprocal Marketing’

Components of definition

Needs, wants & demands

Products (goods, services and ideas)

Value (satisfaction)

Exchange (transactions)

Relationships (networks)

Markets

Marketers & Prospects

MarketingCore Concept

Marketing Management is the process of formulating ideal marketing-mix whose goal is to produce satisfaction for the

parties involved.

Marketing-mix is combination of Product, Price Promotion and Placement (called as 4Ps).

It’s task is to influence (and not create) the level, timing and composition of demand for the company’s products in a way

that will help the organisation achieve its objective.

Marketing management

Marketers do not create needs.; need pre-exist marketers. Marketers influence demand by making the product

appropriate, attractive, affordable & easily available to target consumers.

Marketers job is to sell the benefits or services built into a physical product rather the product itself (or else they suffer ‘marketing myopia’).

Marketing emerges when people decide to satisfy needs and wants through an exchange.

A marketer seeks prospects for exchange; and a prospect is someone who is willing and able to engage in exchange.

A market consists of all the potential customers sharing a particular need or want who might be willing and able to satisfy that need or want.

In nutshell, marketing stimulates demand for company’s products.

Summary

There are 5 concepts under which organisations can choose to conduct their marketing activities:

The Production Concept:

Concentrate on high production efficiency (low price) and wide distribution (availability)

D > S like in most developing countries

Product’s high cost is decreased to expand the market.

Marketing philosophies

The Product Concept

Focus on quality, performance & innovative features. Improves them over the time. Often design products with little or no customer input. It rejects the idea of bringing marketing at the beginning

of product development. It asks “how can public know what kind of car they want

until they see what is available”! It leads to the kind of ‘marketing myopia’.

Marketing Philosophies

The Sales Concept

Calls for aggressive selling and promotion effort for unsought goods – like encyclopedia, insurance, water purifier, fire extinguisher.

Aim is to sell what they make rather than make what the market wants.

But Marketing is different from Selling/Sales. THE AIM OF MARKETNG IS TO KNOW AND UNDERSTAND THE

CUSTOMER SO WELL THAT THE PRODUCT FITS HIM WELL AND SELLS ITSELF.

Marketing philosophies

The Marketing Concept: Integrating activities toward determining & satisfying the

needs and wants of target market better than competitors. It rest on 4 pillars: target market, customer needs,

integrated marketing & profitability Target market: e.g. ‘Nothing sucks like an Electrolux’

(Vacuum cleaner) Types of needs: stated, real (stapler or tape), unstated,

delight (complimentary map with travel guide), secret (Facebook)

Responsive Vs. Creative Marketing:

Responsive marketer finds a stated need and fills it; creative marketer discovers and produces solutions that customer did not ask for but to which they enthusiastically respond.

Integrated Marketing: e.g. Airlines: better food, cleaner cabins, better trained cabin crew – combining all can deliver customer satisfaction.

MARKETING PHILOSOPHIES

Profitability

MARKETING PHILOSOPHIES

Selling Vs. Marketing:

Selling focuses on the needs of the seller; marketing on needs of buyers.

Selling is preoccupied with seller’s need to convert product into cash; marketing with the idea of satisfying the needs.

Marketing Philosophies

The Societal Marketing Concept:

Calls upon marketers to build social and ethical considerations into their marketing practices.

Preserve or enhance consumer’s satisfaction and society’s well-being.

Environment deterioration (like Global Warming) – ecological or green marketing E.g. Aquafina claims to save water through recycling; Aircel’s Save the Tiger campaign;.

Hunger, Poverty, Malnutrition, Illiteracy – humanistic marketing E.g. P&Gs ‘Shikha’ model – a portion from the sale of each P&G product goes into education for deprived, NACO on AIDS awareness.

Marketing philosophies

Can you identify a company that has over the time shifted from one marketing concept to other?

***

Can you name a category of products for which your negative feelings have softened? What precipitated this change?

Summarizing

Concept Development

Steps in marketing process

Analysis of Market Opportunity

Market Strategy DesignMarket Testing

Implementation

Selling

Concept Development

Requires environment scanning: - Economic conditions: e.g. demand for high-utility low-cost

products shoots up during economic meltdown - Competition: e.g. real-estate developers - Technology: symbian or android- Social-cultural factors: car with brand name ‘nova’ means

‘doesn’t go’ in Spanish- Political-legal factors: excise duty increased from 10 to

12% - Demographic factors: rice consumption is higher in

coastal/hilly areas than in plains; literacy, employment, income etc. (size and growth rate of population)

- Ecological factors: e.g. mining – Vedanta; energy – Suzlon

Marketing Process

Analysis of Marketing Opportunity

Requires understanding of: - marketing environment: e.g. market for bi-cycle will exist

or not (researching needs & trends, competition)- consumer behaviour: e.g. what sort of people will buy bi-

cycle? (buying behaviour and buying decision process)- segmentation: e.g. mountain bikes - targeting: e.g. customers who love hiking on cycle trails in

mountains

Firefox company is one example who markets mountain bikes (cycles) to hikers. The company analyzed and found a (niche) market with hikers.

Marketing process

Market Strategy Design

Strategies related to 4 Ps or Marketing-Mix that is based on:

a) Differentiation & b) Positioning

- Differentiation: is the act of designing a set of meaningful differences to distinguish the company’s offering from competitors’ offerings.

- Volume Industry: few but large competitive advantages – like construction.

- Stalemated Industry: small and few competitive advantages – like steel industry. Hard to differentiate the product or decrease manufacturing costs.

- Fragmented Industry: many opportunities to differentiate but each opportunity is small – like Restaurant.

- Specialized Industry: many opportunities and each gives high payoff.

Marketing process

Marketing process

Product Services Personnel Channel Image

features ordering ease

competence coverage symbol

performance delivery courtesy expertise media

durability installation credibility performance events

reliability customer training

reliability

repairability maintenance responsiveness

style communication

design

Differentiation variables

Positioning

Brand can sometimes successfully differentiate on attributes that appear to create a meaningful product difference but are actually irrelevant to creating that benefit.

Positioning is the act of designing the company’s offering and image so that they occupy a meaningful and distinct competitive position in the target customer’s minds.

The end result of positioning is the successful creation of a market focused value proposition (30 minute pizza delivery), a simple clear statement of why the target market should buy the product (taste, low price, hot and fresh, quality pizza).

Companies develop USP (unique selling proposition) for each brand. E.g. Colgate – cavity protection; 7Up – un-cola; Snickers – 4 pm chocolate; Complan – to gain height.

Marketing process

Positioning

A company selects the way in which it will distinguish itself from competitors based on the following criteria:

Important: product delivers highly valued benefit (e.g. Aquaguard: cleanse the impurities of water and cuts down on your health expenses).

Distinctive: not being offered by other like Aquguard claims 3 ways process - UV rays cleanse the impurities, reverse osmosis and a candle filter.

Superior: in comparison to other – Aquaguard – a TATA product.

Communicable Preemptive: difference is unique that it cannot be easily

copied. Affordable: for TG Profitable: to company

Marketing process

Marketing Mix: is set of marketing tool that a firm uses to pursue its marketing objectives in a target market.

McCarthy popularized a 4 factor classification of these tools called as 4Ps.

4Ps represent the sellers’ view of the marketing tools available for influencing buyers. It means each marketing tool

is designed to deliver a customer benefit.

Product – variety, quality, design, features, brand name, packaging, sizes, services, warranties, returns

Price – list price, discount, allowances, payment period, credit terms

Promotion – sales promotion, advertising, direct marketing, PR

Placement – channels, coverage, assortments, locations, inventory, transport

Marketing process

Marketing mix

Robert Lauterborn suggested that sellers’ 4Ps correspond to the customers 4Cs.

Marketing process

4 Ps 4 Cs

product customer needs & wants

price cost to the customer

placement convenience

promotion communication

Market Testing: ascertain if the proposed market is favorable to firm’s

product usually done through pilot tests/ sampling using market

research methods like forecasting, trend projection etc. Market testing uncovers the gaps between firm’s

understanding of target market and behaviour of the market towards firm’s product.

Implementation: putting plan to action or execution after feedback from

market testing.

Selling: product sales to generate revenue for the firm. Give further inputs in product development – better, faster,

cheaper.

Marketing process

Marketing Process consists of analyzing marketing opportunities, developing marketing strategies, planning marketing programs, and managing the marketing effort.

It involves: - ascertaining the generic needs- developing and offering a product to fulfill those needs- devising strategies to support the product being offered- focus on public interest (primary) and profits (secondary)

Marketing Process Summary

WHY?

A firm can’t serve all customers in the market because:

1) customers are too numerous and diverse in their buying requirements &

2) resources are limited.

Therefore, firm needs to identify the market segment that it can serve most effectively.

Marketing segmentation

• Identify and profile distinct groups of buyers who might require separate products or marketing-mix.

• Because buyers differ in their wants, purchasing power, geographical locations, buying attitudes and buying habits.

• A market segment consists of a large identifiable group within a market.

Market segmentation

5 LEVELS of MARKET SEGEMENTATION

1) Mass Marketing – seller engages in the mass production, mass distribution, and mass promotion of one product for all buyers.

1) Segment Marketing – recognizes that buyers differ in their wants, purchasing power, locations, buying habits. For e.g. car buyers seeking luxury (Rolls Royce); some seeking safety, (BMW) some just the basic transport (Alto), some seeking high performance (Audi) and some seeking tough looks (Fortuner).

1) Niche Marketing – represent a more narrowly defined group, a small group whose needs are not being well-served. It is one of sub-segments of a segment. It is characterized by distinctive set of traits who may seek a special combination of benefits. E.g. low nicotine tar or menthol based cigarette, cigarette for ladies. Customers are willing to pay premium price. E.g. Ferrari. Very few competitors.

Level of Market segmentation

5 LEVELS of MARKET SEGEMENTATION

4) Local Marketing – refers to marketing programs being tailored to the needs and wants of local customer groups (Regional-basis).

5) Individual Marketing – means customized marketing or one-to-one marketing i.e. individually designed products to meet each customer’s requirements.

Level of Market segmentation

3 PATTERNS of SEGMENTATION

1) Homogeneous – all consumers have roughly the same preference. One brand. E.g. Ice Cream with high sweet-high cream.

1) Diffused – consumers vary greatly in their preferences. Several brands. E.g. Ice Cream with less sweet-less cream; high sweet-less cream; less sweet-high cream; and high sweet-high cream is already there.

1) Clustered – cluster of several brands competing for market share.

Patterns of segmentation

5 BASES for SEGMENTATION

1. Geographic Segmentation: dividing the market into different geographical units such as nations, states, regions, cities, density, climate, topology etc. E.g. coffee – sold nationally but flavoured regionally or for e.g. coffee in more popular in South India while North Indians prefer tea.

1. Demographic Segmentation: age, life cycle stage (infant, adult, old), gender, income, social class (status).

1. Psychographic Segmentation: 2 different groups –

i) Lifestyle: cosmetics, beverages, furniture etc.

ii) Personality: independent, impulsive, masculine etc.

Bases for Segmentation

4. Behavioural Segmentation: the variables are:

i) Occasions: marriage, injury, illness, retirement, death (e.g. McDonald’s Breakfast, Valentines’ Day)

ii) Benefits (e.g. toothpaste’s benefit – medicinal, taste, cosmetic, economical)

iii) User Status (non-users, extra-users, first time users, habitual/regular users)

iv) Usage Rate (light, medium, heavy users)

v) Loyalty (hardcore loyals, split loyals, shifting loyals, switchers)

vi) Buyer-readiness stage (aware, unaware, informed, interested, desiring, intending to buy).

vii) Attitude (enthusiastic – like queue for apple products, harry porter books, positive, indifferent, negative, hostile)

Bases for Segmentation

5. Multi-attribute Segmentation (Geo-clustering)

The inhabitants in a cluster tend to lead similar lives, drive similar cars, have similar jobs, read similar magazines.

Normally based on Education and affluence, Family lifecycle, urbanization, race and ethnicity, mobility.

E.g. emerging, upscale, ethnic, big city mosaic, buy imported cars, read Hello magazine, eat high-end cornflakes, play tennis, wear designer clothes, annual income 1 Cr.

Bases for segmentation

Requirements for Effective Segmentation

To be useful market segment must be:

1) Measurable – the size, purchasing power and characteristics of the segments can be measured.

2) Substantial – the segments are large & profitable enough to serve. A segment should be the largest possible homogeneous group.

3) Accessible – the segments can be effectively reached & served.

4) Differentiable – the segments are distinguishable & respond differently to different marketing-mix.

5) Actionable – effective programs can be formulated for attracting & serving the segments.

Market segmentation

Targeting involves 2 steps:

1) Evaluating The Market Segments – The firm must look at 2 factors:

i. Overall attractiveness of the segment (such as size, growth, profitability, share) and,

i. Company’s objectives & resources (i.e. whether investing in the segment makes sense given the firm’s objectives & resources.)

targeting

2) Selecting The Market Segment – Which one out of the 5 segments?

i) Single-Segment Concentration: company selects a single segment. For e.g. small size car segment.

Its features are:

firm gains a strong knowledge of the segment’s needs & achieves a strong market position in the segment.

Firm enjoys ‘scale of economics’ & achieve specialization in production, distribution and promotion.

But risk is high.

targeting

ii) Selective Specialization: multi-segment coverage to diversify the risk of one segment. Even if one segment becomes unattractive, the firm can continue to earn money in other segments.

targeting

M1 M2 M3

P1

P2

P3

iii) Product Specialization: single (same) product being sold to several segments. For e.g. a microscope seller that sells microscope to university labs, govt. labs, and commercial labs. Risk here is the obsoletion of the technology with superior one.

Targeting

M1 M2 M3

P1

P2

P3

iv) Market Specialization: the firm concentrates on serving many needs of a particular customer group. For e.g. the same microscope seller, selling burners, chemical flasks, funnels to the university labs.

targeting

M1 M2 M3

P1

P2

P3

v) Full market coverage: the firm attempts to serve all customer groups with all the products that they might need. Only a large firm can undertake a full market coverage strategy. E.g. Coca Cola (soft drink market); General Motors (All vehicle market), IBM (servers).

Targeting

M1 M2 M3

P1

P2

P3

Studies how individuals, groups & organisations select buy, use & dispose goods, services, ideas or experiences to satisfy their needs & wants.

7 O’s Framework to identify consumer behaviour: Occupants: who constitutes the market? Objects: what does the market buy? Objectives: why does the market buy? Organisations: who participates in the buying? Operations: how does the market buy? Occasions: when does the market buy? Outlets: where does the market buy?

Consumer behaviour

Consumer behaviour

Marketing

Stimuli

ProductPricePromotionPlacement

Marketing Environme

nt

EconomicTechnologicalPoliticalCultural

Buyer’s Characteris

tics

CulturalSocialPersonalPsychological

Buyer’s Decision Process

Problem recognitionInformation searchEvaluationDecisionPost purchase behaviour

Buyer’s Decision

Product choice

Brand choiceDealer choice

Purchase timing

Purchase amount

Model of Consumer Behaviour

Factors Influencing Consumer Behaviour

1. Cultural Factors: includes a) Culture (set of values, perceptions), b) Sub-culture (culture within culture), c) Social class (caste system wherein members of different caste share similar values, interests and behaviour, reflects in income, occupation, education, area of residence).

1. Social Factors: includes a) Reference groups (groups that directly or indirectly influence the person’s attitudes or behaviours), b) Family and c) Roles & Statuses.

Consumer behaviour

3. Personal Factors: a) Age & lifecycle stage (infant stage, old age), b) Occupation, c) Economic circumstances – disposable income, savings, assets, debts, borrowing power, attitude toward spending & savings, d) Lifestyle – people coming from same subculture, social class, and occupation may lead quite different lifestyles reflected in their activities, interests, opinions & e) Personality & Self image – personality is person’s distinguishing psychological characteristics or traits like self confidence, defensive, adaptable, social, independent etc. Self image is how a person sees himself, different from others.

Consumer behaviour

4. Psychological Factors: needs that arise from psychological states of tensions are called psychogenic needs.

a) Motivation – presses to drive the person to act. 3 theories: Freud’s theory – real psychological forces shaping people’s behaviour are largely unconscious. Thus, it would require in-depth interviews. E.g. adopting vegetarianism due sense of guilt for animal killing or due to health benefits. Maslow’s theory – moving from psychological need to self actualization needs thus moving from lower need to higher need. Herzberg’s two-factor theory – which distinguishes between dissatisfiers and satisfiers. E.g. computer without warranty is not likely to be purchased (it would be a dissatisfier) yet its not the warranty for which computer is being purchased. It for the satisfiers the computer is being purchased like ease of use, enhance office productivity etc.

Consumer behaviour

b) Perception – is the process by which we interpret information to create meaningful picture.

Types of Perception:

Selective Attention – people are likely to remember stimuli that relate to a current need (thirsty person will notice water bottle) , or that are large enough in comparison to be noticed (accident).

Selective Distortion – people’s tendency to twist information into personal meanings and interpret information in a way that will support their preconceptions. (you discount the negatives about a brand if you like it for e.g. IBM ThinkPad).

Selective Retention – you only tend to remember what good points you have heard.

Consumer behaviour

c) Learning: involves change in a an individual’s behaviour arising from experience.

d) Beliefs & Attitudes: Through learning, people acquire beliefs and attitudes. Belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something. For e.g. Made in China is considered inferior. Japan, contrary, is known for high-tech innovations. France is fashion-market of the world; German cars are best in the world, Corruption in India has grown multifold etc.

Attitude is person’s favourable or unfavourable evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies toward some idea or object. E.g. God is great, IBM makes best servers, Sachin is world’s best batsman…People have attitudes toward almost everything – religion, politics, clothes, sports, music, food…

Consumer behaviour

Company needs to measure and forecast the size, growth, and profit potential of marketing opportunity.

Marketing prepares ‘Sales Forecasts’ – based on demand estimates.

Demand can be measured for different product levels (industry sales, company sales, product-line sales, product item sales), different space levels (World, Country, State, City) and different time levels (short term, medium, and long).

Market Demand: for a product is the total volume that would be brought by a defined customer group in a defined geographical area in a defined time period in a defined marketing environment under a defined marketing program.

Company Demand: is the company’s estimated share of market demand based on its marketing efforts.

Demand forecasting

• Market forecast shows expected market demand (not the maximum demand).

• Market Potential is the limit approached by market demand.

• For e.g. market potential for automobiles in a period of recession versus a period of prosperity.

• Estimating Current Demand is based on 3 things:

• TOTAL MARKET POTENTIAL

• AREA MARKET POTENTIAL – 2 types: Market Buildup & Multiple-factor Index

• INDUSTRY SALES & MARKET SHARES

Demand forecasting

Total Market Potential: (e.g. Samsung laptops market potential in Delhi)

Q = nqp

where, Q = total market potential

n = number of buyers (1,00,000,00 buyers)

q = quantity purchased by an average buyer (1 laptop per yr)

p = price of an average unit (Rs. 30,000)

Q = 1,00,000,00 x 1 x 30,000 = 3000, 00000000 (3000 Cr.)

Demand forecasting

Area Market Potential: estimate market potential based on geography.

Two methods are available: Market Buildup Method & Multiple Factor Index Method.

Market Buildup Method: used primarily by business marketers. It calls for identifying all the potential buyers in each market and estimating their potential purchases. For e.g. a raw aluminum supplier might identify aluminum based manufacturing companies, and compiles a directory of such companies. Then, it identifies amount of raw aluminum each company might purchase based on number of headcounts (say per 1000 employees in that industry) or based on percentage of the amount spent (say per Rs. 1 million of Sales in that industry).

Demand forecasting

Multiple-factor Index Method: used primarily by consumer marketers to estimate area market potential.

E.g. a drug manufacturer wants to find out area potential for its new drug in New Delhi.

He can create a multiple factor index made up of total population in Delhi, disposable income, retail sales. Each factor is assigned some weight based on its perceived importance to the company. For e.g. disposable income is most important therefore could be assigned 5% (or 0.5) as weight. Similarly, 0.3 to retail sales in India and 0.2 to population.

Now, suppose Delhi has 2% of India’s disposable personal income, 1.96% of India’s retail sales and 2.28% of India’s population – then the buying power index of Delhi would be:

0.5 (2) + 0.3 (1.96) + (0.2) (2.28) = 2.04

Demand forecasting

Industry Sales & Market Shares:

Deals with identifying its competitors and estimating their sales by collecting data from trade associations like TRAI for Telecom, ASSOCHAM (chambers of commerce), FICCI (industry reports), RBI for Banks etc. IMRB, A.C Neilson etc. independent marker agencies also conduct specialized surveys to report sales and market shares.

Marketers can compare industry growth with respect to its own. For e.g. industry is growing at 10% while company’s growth has declined for this respective period where overall market attractiveness and growth was high would mean company is losing its strength.

Demand forecasting

END OF UNIT IContents are copyright work of authors and hence

protected. The contents in this presentation have been used from Philip Kotler's Marketing Management : Planning, Analysis, Implementation & Control. These notes are my

personal and based on my understanding and interpretation of the book.

These notes are purely for non-commercial use.