MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MARITIME SCIENCE MASTER …€¦ · Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Frank Maes Assessor:...

1

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MARITIME SCIENCE MASTER DISSERTATION

Academic year 2017 – 2018

Legal challenges concerning offshore wind installations along

the coastline of the North Sea

Shari De Gendt

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of: Master of Science in Maritime Science

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Frank Maes

Assessor: Klaas Willaert

2

PERMISSION I declare that the content of this Master’s Dissertation can be consulted and/orreproduced,providedthatthesourceisacknowledged. ShariDeGendt

3

Acknowledgements Firstofall, Iwould liketoemphasishowcompellingthepastyearhasbeen.SincethestartoftheMScinMaritimeScience,ithasbeenarealrollercoasterwherebyIwasabletoexploreandplunge into the marvelous maritime sector. In this context, I especially want to express mygratitude to Prof. Dr. Maes who stimulated me to choose this topic, and gave me theopportunitytoget incontactwithpractitioners. Inaddition, Iwouldliketothankmyassessor,KlaasWillaertfortheguidanceandcorrections.Specialthanksgoesouttomydearfriendsandfamily,whosupportedmethroughouttheentireprocessofwritingmysecondmasterdissertation.Inparticular,IwouldliketoacknowledgetheadviceandcorrectionsprovidedforbyLauraKherbeck,MarcDeGendtandMaxMinne,whoallinsomewayoranotherhelpedmetofruitfully finishwritingthismasterdissertation.Lastbutnot least, I would like tomention thatmy brother, RubenDeGendt, provided the necessarymoralsupporttohandinthismasterdissertationintime.

4

ABSTRACTOffshore wind development faces several legal challenges during the different stages of theoffshorewind turbine’s lifecycle. In theNorth Sea, the race for spacehasmade it evenmorecomplextoreconcileoffshorewinddevelopmentwiththeothermarineactivitiesatsea.Duringthepre-installationphase it is therefore important to adoptmarine spatial plans. In addition,severalenvironmentalinstrumentsneedtobetakenintoaccountbeforeandwhentheoffshorewind turbines are installed. However, not only the pre-installation of offshore wind turbinesencountersproblems.Inordertobringthegeneratedwindenergytoshoreaftertheinstallationof the turbines, they need to be connected to the shore. In Belgium, this proved to be asignificantchallengeaswell.Moreover,vesselsfacemoreandmorerisksofcollisionsduetotheincrease in offshore wind turbines in the North Sea. It is therefore important to assess theregime concerning safety zones and the risks for the turbines. Lastly, during thedecommissioning phase, the offshore wind developers are confronted with the questionwhetherornottheycouldandshouldleavetheoffshorewindturbineatsea.Iftheydecidetoremove the installation, the question remains how to remove the turbine in the mostsustainableway.Thedecommissioningphaseis,however,notexaminedinthisanalysis.

5

ListofAcronymsandAbbreviationsBOG BelgianOffshoreGridBOP BelgianOffshorePlatformBPNS BelgianPartoftheNorthSeaCAES CompressedairenergystorageCJEU CourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnionCMS ConventiononfMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimalsCO2 CarbondioxideCoP ConferenceofthePartiesCREG CommissionforRegulationofElectricityandGasdB DecibelDG Directorate-GeneralDGMARE Directorate-GeneralforMaritimeAffairsandFisheriesEC EuropeanCommissionEcoQOs EcologicalQualityObjectivesECT EnergyCharterTreatyEEZ ExclusiveEconomicZoneEIA EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentEMODnet EuropeanMarineObservationandDataNetworkEPC EuropeanParliamentandtheCouncilETS EmissionsTradingSystemEU EuropeanUnionFESS FlywheelenergystoragesystemFiT FeedinTariffGAIRS GenerallyAcceptedInternationalRulesandStandardsGES GoodEnvironmentalStatusGGEs GreenhouseGasEmissionsGHG GreenhouseGassesGIS GeographicInformationSystemHV HighvoltageIMO InternationalMaritimeOrganisationIMP IntegratedMaritimePolicyIOC-UNESCO IntergovernmentalOceanographicCommissionofUNESCOIRENA InternationalRenewableEnergyAgencykWh Kilowatt-hourMASPNOSE MAritimeSpatialPlanningintheNOrthSeaMOG ModularOffshoreGridMoU MemorandumofUnderstandingMSDF MarineStrategyFrameworkDirectiveMSPD MaritimeSpatialPlanningDirectiveMSP MarineSpatialPlanningMUMM ManagementUnitoftheNorthSeaMathematicalModelsMV MeanVoltage

6

MW MegawattMWh Megawatt-hourNECAPs NationalEnergyandClimateActionPlansNIMBY NotInMyBackYardNM NauticalMilesNon-ETS Non–EmissionsTradingSystemNSCOGI NorthSeaCountries’OffshoreGridInitiativeO&M OperationsandMaintenanceOSPAR Oslo/Paris Convention for the Protection of the Marine

EnvironmentoftheNorth-EastAtlanticOWFs OffshoreWindFarmsPHS PumpedHydroStorageRES RenewableEnergySourcesRED RenewableEnergyDirectiveSEA StrategicEnvironmentalAssessmentSEL SoundExposureLevelTEU TreatyontheEuropeanUnionTFEU TreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnionTGC TradableGreenCertificateTSO TransmissionSystemOperatorTWh Terrawatt-hourUNCLOS UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeaWFD WaterFrameworkDirectiveWTO WorldTradeOrganization

7

TableofContentsi. Abstractii. ListofAcronymsandAbbreviationsiii. TableofContents

1.INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................91.1.RECENTDEVELOPMENTS................................................................................................................................91.1.1.InBelgium....................................................................................................................................................91.1.2.RegionalCooperation..........................................................................................................................11

1.2.RESEARCHQUESTION....................................................................................................................................121.3.METHODOLOGY..............................................................................................................................................14

2.STATUSOFTHEINDUSTRY:TECHNICALCONSIDERATIONS............................................153.LEGALFRAMEWORKINRELATIONTOTHELIFECYCLEOFANOFFSHOREWINDTURBINE.................................................................................................................................................263.1.GENERALBACKGROUND................................................................................................................................263.2.OVERARCHINGFRAMEWORK:INTERNATIONALLAWOFTHESEA.......................................................293.2.1TerritorialSea:TerritorialSovereignty........................................................................................313.2.2.ExclusiveEconomicZoneandContinentalShelf:SovereignRights.................................32

3.3.PRE-INSTALLATIONPHASE........................................................................................................................363.3.1.InternationalRegulation....................................................................................................................36

3.3.1.1.EnvironmentalInstruments..........................................................................................................................................37A.TheConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals(hereaftertheBonnConvention).................................................................................................................................................................................38B.ConventionfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheNorth-EastAtlantic(hereafterOSPARConvention).................................................................................................................................................................................39C.ConventiononTransboundaryEnvironmentalImpactAssessment(hereafterEspooConvention).......42

3.3.1.2.EnergyCharterTreaty(ECT).........................................................................................................................................443.3.2.EuropeanRegulation...........................................................................................................................48

3.3.2.1.BlueGrowthStrategy......................................................................................................................................................493.3.2.2IntegratedMaritimePolicy(IMP)................................................................................................................................503.3.2.3.RenewableEnergyDirective(RED).............................................................................................................................523.3.2.4.EUMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective(MSFD)................................................................................................563.3.2.5.MarineSpatialPlanning(MSP)....................................................................................................................................58

A.Definition.................................................................................................................................................................................58B.TheMaritimeSpatialPlanningDirective(MSPD)......................................................................................................62

3.3.2.6.Habitats-andBirdsDirectives:Natura2000...........................................................................................................663.3.3.BelgianRegulation................................................................................................................................71

3.3.3.1.BelgianMSP........................................................................................................................................................................713.3.3.2.Tenders,ConcessionsandPermits.............................................................................................................................74

A.DomainConcession..............................................................................................................................................................75B.MarineProtectionPermit..................................................................................................................................................78C.Licensetolaysubmarinecables......................................................................................................................................80

3.4.INSTALLATIONANDOPERATIONS&MAINTENANCEPHASE.................................................................813.4.1.TransnationalOffshoreGridintheNorthSea..........................................................................813.4.2.SafetyZonesandtheRiskofCollisionsandAllisions................................................................85

4.CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................................925.ANNEXES............................................................................................................................................936.REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................................946.1.LEGISLATIONANDSOFTLAW......................................................................................................................946.2.CASELAW......................................................................................................................................................100

8

6.3.LEGALDOCTRINE.........................................................................................................................................100

1. Introduction

1.1.RecentDevelopments

1.1.1.InBelgium1. Offshorewindenergygenerationcouldmakeasignificantcontributiontomeetingthedemandof

electricityinthecomingdecades.1AnidealsettingforthedevelopmentofoffshorewindactivitiesistheNorthSea,whichischaracterizedbyrelativelyshallowwatersandexcellentwindconditions.2OftheNorthSeaStates,Belgiumisconsideredtobeoneoftheleadingcountriesinthisregard.3Ithas become a leading countrymainly because of its introduction ofmarine spatial planning.4 Inorder tomaintain thisposition,however,a clearandcomprehensive legal frameworkmustbe inplacethatiscomplementarytothemarinespatialplanninginstrument.Thefocusofthisframeworkshouldencompassthewholelifecycleoftheoffshorewindturbines,assessingtherisksthatcomealongwiththeiroperation,maintenanceanddecommissioning.

2. On the 20th of December 2017, the Secretary of State for the North Sea, Philippe De Backer,introducedhislong–termvisionwithregardtotheBelgianpartoftheNorthSea(BPNS)in2050.5Inhisvision,theSecretaryofStatestressedtheimportanceofthreecore-principles:naturalness,blueeconomy and innovation, andmultiple use of space.6 The latter will gain importance, especiallysince the Belgian government recently announced its plans to develop additional offshore windfarms(OWFs)initspartoftheNorthSea.7

1SeeEUROPEANENVIRONMENTAGENCY,Europe’sonshoreandoffshorewindenergypotential:Anassessment of environmental and economic constraints, 2009, 85p,https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/europes-onshore-and-offshore-wind-energy-potential;O.WOOLLEY,P.J.SCHAUMBERGandG.St.MICHEL,“EstablishinganOffshoreElectricityGrid:ALegalAnalysis of Grid Developments in the North Sea and in USWaters”, inM.M. ROGGENKAMP, L.BARRERA-HERNÁNDEZ, D. N. ZILLMAN and I. DEL GUAYO (eds.), Energy Networks and the Law:InnovativeSolutionsinChangingMarkets,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,2012,180.2 T. SÖDERQVIST, B. BAS, M. DE BEL, A. BOON, N. ELGINOZ, R. GARCÃO, E. GIANNAKIS, A.GIANNOULI, P. KOUNDOURI, A. MOUSSOULIDES, J. NORRMAN, L. ROSÉN, J.-J. SCHOUTEN, M.STUIVER,S.TSANI,P.XEPAPADEASandA.XEPAPADEAS,“Chapter4:Socio-economicAnalysisofaSelected Multi-use Offshore Site in the North Sea”, in P. KOUNDOURI (ed.), The Ocean ofTomorrow:InvestmentAssessmentofMulti-useOffshorePlatforms:MethodologyandApplications,Springer,2017,44.3 C. DEGREEF andW.GELDHOF, “Offshore energy and the Belgian legal framework: all at sea?”,TRNI2015,56.4F.MAESandJ.SEYS,“Ruimtelijkeplanningopzee:waarBelgiëgoedin is”,DeGroteRede2014,19.5 See P. DE BACKER, “Langetermijnvisie Noordzee 2050”, 38 p,http://thinktanknorthsea.be/downloads?permalink=visie2050_nl.6 See P. DE BACKER, “Langetermijnvisie Noordzee 2050”, 38 p,http://thinktanknorthsea.be/downloads?permalink=visie2050_nl.7 L. PAUWELS and P. MERTENS, “Regering zet in op groene Noordzeestroom: dubbel zoveelwindmolens op zee”, VRTNWS 20 April 2018, https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2018/04/20/groen-

10

3. Atthemoment,onlyfouroftheninelicensedwindfarmsarealreadyoperational,namelyC-Power,

Belwind,NorthwindandNobelwind.8TheotherOWFsincludingMermaid,Northwester2,Seastar,RentelandNortheraretobeinstalledby2020.9WecanaskourselveswhattheimpactwillbeontheotheractorsintheNorthSea,whilekeepinginmindthepresenceofthoseninelicensedOWFsandtheforeseenexpansionofOWFsontheoppositesideoftheonesthatalreadyhavealicense.TheexpansionwillleadtoanobviouschangeofappearanceoftheBPNS.Inordertoavoidpossibleconflicts, the legal framework needs to be able to provide solutions for the future increase inactivities. In order to assess probable conflicts, an analysis of the current legal framework isthereforenecessary.

Figure1.Draftofthefuturedesignatedareaforoffshorewindfarms.10

licht-voor-groene-noordzeestroom--dubbel-zoveel-windmolens/.8 BOP, 165 MW nieuwe capaciteit windenergie op zee operationeel, 2017,http://www.belgianoffshoreplatform.be/nl/news/165-mw-nieuwe-capaciteit-windenergie-op-zee-operationeel/.9Ibid.10 L. PAUWELS and P. MERTENS, “Regering zet in op groene Noordzeestroom: dubbel zoveelwindmolens op zee”, VRTNWS 20 April 2018, https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2018/04/20/groen-licht-voor-groene-noordzeestroom--dubbel-zoveel-windmolens/.

11

1.1.2.RegionalCooperation

4. TheBPNSstretchesoutoveranareaof3454km2.11 Inorder toarrange themostoptimal spatialuses, Belgiumneeds to co-operatewith its neighbouring countries that surround the rest of theNorthSea.TheEUthereforeadoptedtheMarineSpatialPlanningDirective(MSPD)in2014,whichrequiresallcoastalMemberStatestopreparecross-sectorialmarinespatialplansby2021.12Apartfrom obligations such as the application of the ecosystem-based approach, these plans need toentailcross-bordercooperation.13Suchan integratedandcross-borderapproach isvital for large-scaleoffshorewindprojectsandtheirinterconnectors.14

5. The EU therefore set up a project in 2010 called MASPNOSE.15 This project focused on thefacilitation of cross-border cooperation between European countries on an ecosystem-basedMSP.16 Theproject encompassed the ThorntonBank casewhereby theNetherlands andBelgiumeventually set up common objectives and identified potential interferences between OWFs andshipping.17

6. This analysis looks further into the contribution of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED).18 ThisDirective established the 20-20-20 targets, which aim at a 20% reduction in EU greenhouse gasemissions(GGE)from1990levelsanda20%increaseofRESintheshareofEUenergyconsumptionby2020.19Ontopofthat,theDirectiveaimsata20%increaseintheEU’senergyefficiency.20

11F.MAESandJ.SEYS,“Ruimtelijkeplanningopzee:waarBelgiëgoedinis”,DeGroteRede2014,15. 12Art.15(4)Directive2014/89/EUof theEuropeanParliamentandof theCouncilof23July2014establishingaframeworkformaritimespatialplanning,OJL257,28August2014,135.13 GGSD FORUM, Issue Paper: Marine Spatial Planning: Assessing net benefits and improvingeffectiveness, 2017, 14,https://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/GGSD_2017_Issue%20Paper_Marine%20Spatial%20Planning.pdf.14EWEA,EWEApositionon theCommissionproposal foraDirectiveestablishinga framework formaritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management, 2013, 1,http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/publications/position-papers/130218-MSPDirective-Briefing.pdf;I.KONSTANTELOS,D.PUDJIANTO,G.STRBAC,J.DEDECKER,P.JOSEPH,A.FLAMENT,P.KREUTZKAMP, F. GENOESE, L. REHFELDT, A. - K.WALLASCH, G. GERDES,M. JAFAR, Y. YANG, N.TIDEMAND,J.JANSEN,F.NIEUWENHOUT,A.VANDERWELLEandK.VEUM,“IntegratedNorthSeagrids:Thecosts,thebenefitsandtheirdistributionbetweencountries”,EnergyPolicy2017,28.15SeeS.HOMMES,F.MAES,A.VANHULLE,D.GOLDSBOROUGH,M.PASTOORS,T.K.SØRENSENandV. STELZENMÜLLER, “MASPNOSE: Preparatory Action onMaritime Spatial Planning in the NorthSea:reportoncross-borderMaritimeSpatialPlanningintwocasestudies”,X,2012,84p.16J.P.M.VANTATENHOVE,“Transboundarymarinespatialplanning:areflexivemarinegovernanceexperiment?”,JournalofEnvironmentalPolicyandPlanning2017,786-787.17Ibid.,787.18 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on thepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesourcesandamendingandsubsequentlyrepealingDirectives2001/77/ECand2003/30/EC,OJL140,5June2009,16.19 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the

12

7. While the 20-20-20 targets are binding at EU level only, the Directive set mandatory nationaltargetsforeachMemberStateaswell.21ForBelgium,thistargetwassetat13%ofitsgrossenergyusage.22ItisimportanttonotethatBelgium,liketheotherMemberStates,isfreetodecidehowtoreach their targets.23MostNorth Sea States including Belgium, however, consider offshorewindenergyasa substantial contributor for reaching their renewableenergy targets.24 In this context,theninegovernmentsof thecountries surrounding theNorthSeaalsosignedamemorandumofunderstanding (MoU) for regional cooperationonoffshorewindenergy.25Besides the targets for2020, the EU already established targets for 2030.26 These targets will be discussed in anothersection.

1.2.ResearchQuestion

8. Theoverarchingresearchquestionisthefollowing:“Whatarethelegalchallengesfacedduringthepre-installation, installation, O&M, and decommissioning phase of OWFs?”. This overarchingquestion encompasses thus legal challenges in every step of the lifecycle of an offshore windturbine. promotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesourcesandamendingandsubsequentlyrepealingDirectives2001/77/ECand2003/30/EC,OJL140,5 June2009,16;P.MÄNTYSAARI,EUElectricityTradeLaw:TheLegalToolsofElectricityProducersintheInternalElectricityMarket,Springer,2015,97.20 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on thepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesourcesandamendingandsubsequentlyrepealingDirectives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC, OJ L 140, 5 June 2009, 16; H. K. MÜLLER and M. M.ROGGENKAMP,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySourcesintheNorthSea–ReinventingtheWheeloraNeedforMoreCoordination?”,IJMCL2014,728.21Art.3Directive2009/28/ECof theEuropeanParliamentandof theCouncilof23April2009onthe promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequentlyrepealingDirectives2001/77/ECand2003/30/EC,OJL140,5June2009,16.22Art.3andAnnex1(A)Directive2009/28/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof23April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending andsubsequentlyrepealingDirectives2001/77/ECand2003/30/EC,OJL140,5June2009,16.23 T. CHELLINGSWORTH and D. VANHERCK, “De Noordzee en de ontwikkeling van een offshoregrid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht, Antwerpen, Intersentia,2015,101.24H.K.MÜLLER,ALegalFrameworkforaTransnationalOffshoreGridintheNorthSea,PhDthesisLawUniversityofGroningen,2015,1;S.BIGERNA,C.A.BOLLINOandS.MICHELI,TheSustainabilityof Renewable Energy in Europe, Springer, 2015, 31; E. LUDEWIG,On the Effect ofOffshoreWindFarms on the Atmosphere and Ocean Dynamics, Springer International Publishing Switzerland,2015,ix.25WINDEUROPE,OffshoreWindEnergyintheNorthSea: industryrecommendationsfortheNorthSeas Energy Forum, 2017, 6, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/policy/position-papers/WindEurope-Offshore-wind-energy-in-the-north-sea.pdf.26Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament, theCouncil, theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions:Apolicyframeworkforclimateandenergyintheperiodfrom2020to2030,Brussels,22January2014,COM/2014/015final;S.BIGERNA,C.A.BOLLINOandS.MICHELI,TheSustainabilityofRenewableEnergyinEurope,Springer,2015,2-3.

13

Therefore,theanalysiswillassesstheexistinginternational,EuropeanandBelgianregulationsthatimpacteachoneofthesephases.Duringeveryphase,wewillalsolookintotheenvironmentalandeconomicchallengesthataccompanythestrictlegalobstructions.

9. Thequestionsregardingthepre - installationphasewillbemerelyabout the influenceofseveralinternational instruments such as OSPAR, the influence of EU instruments related to theenvironmentandbluegrowthsuchastheMSPD,theproblemsfacedduringthetenderprocedure,andtheproceduretoacquirepermitsinBelgium.

10. Thequestionsrelatedtothisphasearethen:

“InwhatwaydoesMSPaidthefunctioningofOWFs,andaretherestillimprovementspossible?”

“WhichprinciplesstipulatedinMSPdoesanoffshorewinddeveloperneedtotakeintoaccountwhenheisdesigninghisOWF?”

“WhatistheimpactofanOWFontheenvironment?”

“Howdoesanoffshorewinddeveloperacquirehispermitsandwhatare thepossiblepitfallsduringthisprocedure?”

11. IntheinstallationstagetheanalysisfocusesonthefactthattheOWFneedstobeconnectedtoanonshoreelectricitygridinordertomakeitsenergyavailableforhouseholds.Theinstallationstageand O&M phase are analysed together out of practical considerations. Several issues betweenthesestagesoverlapespeciallywithregardtothenavigationseparationschemesandthepossiblerisksthatareassociatedwithvesselsinthevicinityoftheOWF.Thenecessityofsafetyzonesandthepossibilityofanexemptionregimearealsoanalysedinthatsetting.Theimpactontheshippingindustryingeneralisaddressedaswell.Consequently,thesequestionsarose:

“WhatarethecurrentproblemstoconnecttheOWFswiththeonshoreelectricitygrid?”

“Whatistheregulationsurroundingthelayingofcablesandpipelines?”

“Whatarethe legalconsequences ifavesseldamagesanoffshorefeedercableconnectingtheOWFandtheonshoreelectricitygrid?”

“Whatistheoffshorewinddeveloper’scompetenceinthesafetyzonesurroundingtheOWFs?”

“Shouldcertainactivitiesbeallowedwithinthesafetyzoneandifso,whichones?”

“WhatistheimpactofthepresenceofanOWFontheshippingindustry?”

14

1.3.Methodology

12. The foundation of this dissertation is made up of a literature review and consists mainly of ananalysisandevaluationofthecurrentBelgianlegalframework.Toprovideamoreholisticviewofthe issues, however, this analysis also includes a description of the relevant international andEuropeanlegislation.Themainfocusisthusadescriptiveresearch.

13. Thiscontributionanalysesandevaluates the legal frameworkwithregardto thepre -installation,installation,O&M,anddecommissioningphase.Beforeexaminingtheseparatephases,thecurrentstatusoftheoffshorewindindustryisassessed.Theexaminationofmoretechnicalconsiderationsisnecessaryinordertogetamorecompleteoverviewoftheissuesaddressedinlatersectionsoftheanalysis. Inaddition, the frameworkprovidedby the international lawof thesea isexplored.DuetothefactthattheUNCLOSprovisionshaveanimpactonbasicallyeveryphaseofthelifecycleoftheOWFs,thislegalinstrumentisexaminedinaseparatesection.

14. Then, the legal instruments that leave a mark on the regulation concerning the pre-installationphase are dealt with. These instruments are the Bonn Convention, the OSPAR Convention, theEspooConventionand theEnergyCharterTreaty.The first three instrumentscanbeclassifiedasinstrumentswishingtoprotecttheenvironmentinonewayoranother.Thelatter,isimportanttomakethereaderawareoftheonlyinternationalinstrumentrelatedtoenergyregulation.

15. After the international section, the analysis moves on to the European regulation. In the pre-installationphase,theinstrumentsinfluencingtheplanningmethodsareassessed.Theinstrumentsconcerned are the Blue Growth Strategy, the Integrated Marine Policy, the Renewable EnergyDirective,theMarineStrategyFrameworkDirectiveandtheMarineSpatialPlanningDirective.Thelatter is themost important in the context of this dissertation and receives therefore themostattention.Furthermore,theHabitats-andBirdsDirectivesareanalysedbecausetheseinstrumentscanposechallengesforthedevelopmentofoffshorewindactivities.TheEUregulationconcerningenvironmentalimpactassessmentandstateaidisalsorelevantforthedevelopmentofOWFs,butis not examined in this dissertation. The third section is about the Belgian regulation, andmorespecifically about the tender, concession and permit procedure. In addition, the BelgianimplementationoftheaforementionedEuropeaninstrumentsisaddressed.

16. ThesectionconcerningtheinstallationandO&Mphasesmakesananalysisofthenecessityandthelegal issuesconcerningthe installationofa transboundaryoffshoreelectricygrid. Inaddition, thesectionlooksintotheadditionalrisksofcollisionsforvesselscausedbythepresenceoftheOWFs.In this light, the legal framework concerning the safety zones is examined. Moreover, theimportanceofnavigationseparationschemesandtheimpactoftheinstallationofanOWFontheseschemes are addressed. It should be noted that the multiple use of OWFs is not going to beaddressedinthisanalysis.

15

17. The last stage concerning thedecommissioningof theoffshorewind turbines is not examined inthis analysis and further research should be done in order to provide a full overview of theinstrumentsregulatingthelifecycleoftheoffshorewindturbines.Suchanexaminationshouldlookintothesustainablewaystoremovetheturbines.Inaddition,suchananalysisshouldlookintothepossibilitiestoabandonthestructure inordertoserveasanenvironmentalhotspotforexampleformusselsandsoon.

18. Whiletheenergypoliciesandregulationsplayaroleaswell,duetotheirinfluencewithregardtotariffsandsoon,thesewillnotbediscussedindetail.

2. StatusoftheIndustry:TechnicalConsiderations

19. Inordertogetacomprehensiveoverviewoftheoffshorewindindustry,thissectionisdedicatedtothetechnicalconsiderationswithregardtotheOWFs.

20. The popularity of offshore wind energy can be explained by the fact that it is cost effective,environmentally friendly (in comparison to non-renewables), and socially popular amongst amajorityof thepopulationbecausetheyarenot located in thepopulation’svicinity.27Apart fromtheseaspects,thereareotheruniqueadvantagesofOWFs.Thefirstadvantagerelatestothefactthatthere isnorequirementof land,whichresults inacloserproximitytocoastal loadcentres.28Furthermore,thereisthelackofheightandnoiserestrictionswhichimpliesthatthedevelopercaninvestinoffshorewindturbineswithalargercapacity.29Byenlargingthedimensions,thedevelopershaveexploitedthepositiverelationshipbetweentherotordiameterandthegeneratingcapacityinordertodevelopincreasinglypowerfulwindturbinesthatcangenerateuptot10,15and20MW.30

27 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.),MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,2.28M. AHMAD,Operation and Control of Renewable Energy Systems,Wiley Online Library, 2017,175.29A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook 2016, 442; M. AHMAD, Operation and Control of Renewable Energy Systems, WileyOnlineLibrary,2017,175.30A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook 2016,442;UPWIND,Design limitsand solutions for very largewind turbines:a20MWturbine is feasible, 2011,http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/upwind/21895_UpWind_Report_low_web.pdf?utm_source=Wiser-Blog-Scaling+Turbines&utm_campaign=Wiser+Blog-Scaling+Turbines&utm_medium=email.

16

21. Apart from these aspects, wind as such can be described as an intangible, fungible and non-

exclusive resourceand is causedby theheatingof theearth’s surfaceby the sun.31 Theoffshorewindturbinesareaeromechanicaldevicesthatcancapturethewind’skineticenergyandconverttherotationalmovementofarotorintoelectricalormechanicalenergy.32Theglobalpotentialforwindenergyisestimatedtobearound72terawatts,whichisquitesignificantifyouknowthatthetotalelectricitygenerationin2016amountedto24,353TWh.33Intherenewableenergymix,windenergyrepresentedalmost34%ofthetotalnewlyinstalledrenewableenergycapacityin2016.34

22. Whilethetechnicalandgeographicalparametersgoverningthedeploymentofindividualoffshorewind turbines vary considerably, turbines are usually installed in arrays that consist of rows ofindividualturbines.35Theinstallationofasinglewindturbineisnamelynottheendgoal,itneedstobe integrated into a wind farm.36 A wind farm consists of a number of turbines, switchgear,transformersandasubstationonshoretofeedtheelectricalpowerintothegrid.37

31 R. BARNES, “Energy Sovereignty in Marine Spaces”, IJMCL 2014, 573 – 599; L. CRADDEN, P.LAPORTEWEYWADAandM.ATCHESON,“TheOffshoreEnvironment”,inJ.CRUZandM.ATCHESON(eds.),FloatingOffshoreWindEnergy:TheNextGenerationofWindEnergy,Springer,2016,22.32 R. BARNES, “Energy Sovereignty inMarine Spaces”, IJMCL 2014, 573 – 599; R. A.MEHDI,W.OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M. McGUGAN, J.-U.SCHRÖDERHINRICHSandM.LUCZAK(eds.),MARE-WINT:NewMaterialsandReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,4.33R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,573–599;X.WANG,X.ZENG,J.LI,X.YANGandH.WANG,“Areviewonrecentadvancementsofsubstructures foroffshorewindturbines”,EnergyConversionandmanagement2018,103.34 X. WANG, X. ZENG, J. LI, X. YANG and H. WANG, “A review on recent advancements ofsubstructuresforoffshorewindturbines”,EnergyConversionandManagement2018,103.35O.ANAYA-LARA,“Chapter12:Offshorewindfarmarrays”, inC.NGandL.RAN(eds.),OffshoreWind Farms: Technologies, Design andOperation,Woodhead Publishing, 2016, 389; A. CHIRCOPand P. L’ESPERANCE, “Functional Interactions and Maritime Regulation: The MutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,442.36 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.),MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliability in Offshore Wind Turbine Technology, Springer, 2016, 6-7; C. L. BOTTASSO and M.MUSKULUS,“Chapter7:DesignMethods”,inG.VANKUIKandJ.PEINKE(eds.),Long-termResearchChallenges in Wind Energy - A Research Agenda by the European Academy of Wind Energy,Springer,2016,60-61.37L.W.M.M.RADEMAKERS,H.BRAAMandT.S.OBDAM,“Chapter18:Operationandmaintenanceof offshore wind energy systems”, in J. D. SØRENSEN and J. N. SØRENSEN (eds.),Wind EnergySystems:Optimisingdesignandconstructionforsafeandreliableoperation,WoodheadPublishing,2011,546.

17

23. While awind farm leads to economies of scale, there is a risk of a decrease of the total energyconverted to electricity, compared to the samenumberof isolated turbinesoperatingunder thesame wind inflow conditions.38 In order to reduce this risk, developers need to analyse theaerodynamic effects of wake turbulence from each individual turbine over the entire proposedwindfarmarea.39

24. Ontheonehand,thedeveloperstrytominimizethepossiblewakeinteractionsbetweenthewindturbinesandontheotherhandtheytrytomaximizethepoweroutput.40Theythereforedeterminethespacingwithinandbetweentherowsofturbines.41Thespacebetweentheturbinesregularlyequals a distance that is seven times greater than the turbine rotor diameter.42 Moreover, thearraysareoftenspacedinalinearseriesoragridpattern,orareirregularlyspacedinordertotakeintoaccountthesite-specificfactorssuchasthelocationofshippingnavigationlanes.43Intheend,thisanalysisshouldhelptodeterminetheefficiencyofthevariousturbinesindifferentlayouts,andresultinanoptimizationofthelayoutoftheOWF.44

25. Thelayoutofawindfarm,however,isnotonlydrivenbyaerodynamicfactors.45

38 K.E. JOHNSON and N. THOMAS, “Wind farm control: addressing the aerodynamic interactionamongwindturbines”,Proceedingsofthe2009AmericanControlConference2009,2104.39 K.E. JOHNSON and N. THOMAS, “Wind farm control: addressing the aerodynamic interactionamong wind turbines”, Proceedings of the 2009 American Control Conference 2009, 2104; R. A.MEHDI,W.OSTACHOWICZandM.LUCZAK,“Introduction”,inW.OSTACHOWICZ,M.McGUGAN,J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.), MARE-WINT: New Materials and Reliability inOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,6-7.40L.WANG,A.C.C.TAN,M.CHOLETTEandY.GU,“Comparisonoftheeffectivenessofanalyticalwake models for wind farm with constant and variable hub heights”, Energy Conversion andManagement2016,189.41L.WANG,A.C.C.TAN,M.CHOLETTEandY.GU,“Comparisonoftheeffectivenessofanalyticalwake models for wind farm with constant and variable hub heights”, Energy Conversion andManagement 2016,189;A.CHIRCOPandP. L’ESPERANCE, “Functional InteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodationofOffshoreWindFarmsandInternationalNavigationandShipping”,OceanYearbook2016,442.42A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,442.43Ibid.,443.44 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.),MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliability in Offshore Wind Turbine Technology, Springer, 2016, 6-7; A. C. PILLAI, J. CHICK, L.JOHANNINGandM.KHORASANCHI,“Offshorewindfarmlayoutoptimizationusingparticleswarmoptimization”,JournalofOceanEngineeringandMarineEnergy2018,74.45 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.),MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,6-7.

18

26. Thedevelopersneedtotake intoaccountotherfactorsaswell, including:seabedconditions,gridconnectionlocations,hydrography,bathymetryandthewindresourceinanarea.46Consequently,OWFs need to be located where the wind resource and the transmission-to-shore options areoptimum.47

27. The cost of the electrical infrastructure providing the transmission-to-shore is typically between15% and 30% of the total cost of an OWF and consists of an internal distribution network,transmission network to shore, and substations or converter stations.48 The generated powerproduced by the OWF thus needs to overcome this cost. Furthermore, locations where thisoptimumisreachedmayoftenbeinconflictwithnational,regionalorinternationalmarinespatialplans,andothersectorssuchasfisheriesandshippingmaytakeprecedenceintheseareas.49

28. Theoffshorewindturbinesaremoreorlessstructurallysimilartotheirland-basedcounterparts.50The offshore turbines, however, need to withstand harsher environmental conditions, whichincludeforexample:alargewaterdepth,currents,wavesandcomplexseabedconditionsetc.51Theharshenvironmentcanbeaproblemwithregardtothereliability,maintainabilityandavailabilityofoffshorewindturbines.52 Inorder towithstandthehostilesalineenvironment,allcomponentsneed to be marinized to minimize corrosion.53 In addition, developers add high-grade marinecoatingstoalltheexteriorcomponents.54

29. The turbines’ predominant design consists of a horizontal-axis machine with three bladespositionedupwindofthetower.55

46Ibid.47Ibid.,3. 48 J. SERRANO GONZÁLEZ, M. BURGOS PAYÁN and J. RIQUELME SANTOS, “Optimum design oftransmissions systems for offshore wind farmsincluding decisionmaking under risk”, RenewableEnergy2013,115.49 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.), MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,3.50A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,442.51 X. WANG, X. ZENG, J. LI, X. YANG and H. WANG, “A review on recent advancements ofsubstructuresforoffshorewindturbines”,EnergyConversionandmanagement2018,105.52 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.),MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,3.53W.MUSIALandB.RAM,Large-ScaleOffshoreWindPower in theUnitedStates:AssessmentofOpportunitiesandBarriers,Colorado,NREL,2010,69.54Ibid.55 X. WANG, X. ZENG, J. LI, X. YANG and H. WANG, “A review on recent advancements ofsubstructuresforoffshorewindturbines”,EnergyConversionandManagement2018,104;E.HAU,WindTurbines:Fundamentals,Technologies,Application,Economics,Springer,2013,814.

19

30. The turbine can be divided into three main components: the tower, the nacelle and the rotorassembly.56Besidestheturbineinstallation,theinstallationofafoundation,substationandcableswillberequired.57

31. The first component of the turbine usually takes the form of a hollow steel cylinder, which ismounted on an offshore substructure.58 Such a tower needs to be able towithstand the uniquecombinationof loadingforcescausedbytheexposuretoontheonehand,thewindwhich isnotonly the energy sourcebut also themaindisturbanceof the system, andon theother hand thewavesandcurrents.59A ladderor lift is integrated in the tower toallowtheservicepersonnel toaccessthenacellefromtheircrewtransfervessels(CTV).60Apartfromtheladder,thetowermighthouseelectricalequipmentandlimitedaccommodationsincasethepersonnelisforcedtoremaininthetowerasaconsequenceofextremeweatherconditions.61

32. Another important characteristic of the tower is its height, reported as the hub height, wheredevelopersusuallywanttoinstallwindspeedmeasurementsystems.62Thetowerheightdependson threemain factors: the rotor diameter, theminimumheight above sea level required for thelowermost extremity of the rotor dictated by national regulations, and site-specificconsiderations.63 These conditions relate to the water depth, bottom conditions and broaderenvironmentalconsiderationssuchaswind,wave,currentandiceconditions.64

56R.POUDINEH,C.BROWNandB.FOLEY,EconomicsofOffshoreWindPower:ChallengesandPolicyConsiderations,Springer,2017,100.57 M. ASGARPOUR, “Chapter 17: Assembly, transportation, installation and commissioning ofoffshorewindfarms”, inC.NGandL.RAN(eds.),OffshoreWindFarms:Technologies,DesignandOperation,WoodheadPublishing,2016,531.58A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,442.59 S.CHANDRASEKARAN,DynamicAnalysisandDesignofOffshoreStructures, Springer, 2015,25;J.W.VANWINGERDEN,D. SCHLIPFandP.GEBRAAD, “Chapter4:Control”, inG.VANKUIKand J.PEINKE(eds.),Long-termResearchChallengesinWindEnergy-AResearchAgendabytheEuropeanAcademyofWindEnergy,Springer,2016,28. 60P.O.LLOYD,“Healthandsafetyofoffshorewindfarms”,inC.NGandL.RAN(eds.),OffshoreWindFarms:Technologies,DesignandOperation,WoodheadPublishing,2016,574.61A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,442. 62B.H.BAILEY,“Windresourcesforoffshorewindfarms:characteristicsandassessment”,inC.NGand L. RAN (eds.), Offshore Wind Farms: Technologies, Design and Operation, WoodheadPublishing,2016,35-43.63A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,442.64Ibid.,444.

20

33. Thesecondcomponent,thenacelletowhichtherotorwiththebladesisattached,isconnectedtothe top of the tower bymeans of a yaw gearing.65 The latter enables the nacelle to rotate 360degrees,which allows thewind turbine to changedirection in order to face thedirectionof thewind.66 The nacelle houses the mechanical equipment, including the gearbox, required tomanipulatethepitchandthespeedoftheturbineblades, inadditiontotheelectricalgeneratorsemployedtoproduceelectricity.67

34. Thirdly, there is the rotorwhich is connected to a shaft,which goes through a gearbox into thegenerator.68 The rotor itself is the instrument to which the blades are attached. The blades areforced to rotatedue to thepressureexertedby thewindand then they turn thedriveshaft thatengagestheelectricalgeneratorshousedinthenacellewhichresultsintheproductionofpower.69

35. Thedesignofthebladesisofvitalimportancebecauseitisconsideredtobethekeycomponentforthe further technical development of the entire wind turbine system.70 In addition, an optimaldesigncanresultinmorereliableandefficientwindturbines.71

36. The efficiency refers to the aerodynamical efficiency and the fact that the blades need to bestructurallysoundenoughtobearallthemechanicalandaerodynamicloads.72Anaerodynamicallyefficientblade is thus theprimenecessity toextractmaximumpower fromawindturbine.73Thedevelopersthereforeusefibre-reinforcedplastics,whichshouldbeabletocopewiththeextremehigh-cyclefatigueloads.74

65 M. ASGARPOUR, “Chapter 17: Assembly, transportation, installation and commissioning ofoffshorewindfarms”, inC.NGandL.RAN(eds.),OffshoreWindFarms:Technologies,DesignandOperation,WoodheadPublishing,2016,534.66M.CARBAJALES-DALE, “Chapter21- LifeCycleAssessment:Meta-analysisofCumulativeEnergyDemandforWindEnergyTechnologies”,inT.M.LETCHER,WindEnergyEngineering:AHandbookforOnshoreandOffshoreWindTrubines,AcademicPress,2017,442. 67A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,442.68 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.),MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,5-7.69A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,442.70E.HAU,WindTurbines:Fundamentals,Technologies,Application,Economics,Springer,2006,270.71 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.),MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,6-7.72Ibid.73 T. BAGHERPOOR and L. XUEMIN, “Structural Optimization Design of 2MW Composite WindTurbineBlade”,EnergyProcedia2017,1226.74R.NIJSSENandD.LEKOU,“Chapter1:Materialsandstructures”, inG.VANKUIKand J.PEINKE

21

37. Balancingtheaerodynamicandstructuralparametersisbecomingincreasinglychallenging,aswindturbinesgetlargerandmoresophisticated.75Thedesignofthebladesistypicallyseenasatooltogetacompetitiveadvantage.76

38. Nowadays,offshorewindturbinesareoftenequippedwithhelicopterlandingplatformstopermitpersonnelaerialaccess,eventhoughaccessingtheturbinesbyvesselisthemosteconomicalaccessmethod.77Suchplatformshaveproven tobeahandyasset to service the turbinesduringcertaintypesof inclementweatherconditionsastheyprovidefastaccess incomparisontotheworkboatsolution.78

39. In addition to the components of the turbine, the offshore wind turbines are composed of asupportstructurewhichconsistsofasubstructureandafoundation.79Themaindesigndriversforthese substructures are a combination of high loads, materials fatigue and the cost closelyinterlinkedwiththesheersizeofsupportstructurecomponents.80Thereexisttwoprimarymethodsformountingtheoffshorewindturbines:fixedorfloatingsubstructuresorfoundations.81Mostofthecurrentlyinstalledoroperatingturbinesaremountedonfixedfoundations.82

(eds.), Long-term Research Challenges in Wind Energy - A Research Agenda by the EuropeanAcademyofWindEnergy,Springer,2016,1.75 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.),MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,6.76 J.M.ADRIAN,Modularization in theWindTrubine Industry:Discontinuity in theGovernanceofValueChainsanditsSpatialImplications,Zürich,LITVerslag,2017,165.77SeeG.VANBUSSELandC.SCHÖNTAG,“OperationandMaintenanceAspectsofLargeOffshoreWindfarms”, EWEC CONFERENCE 1997, 272-275; A. CHIRCOP and P. L’ESPERANCE, “FunctionalInteractions andMaritime Regulation: TheMutual Accommodation of OffshoreWind Farms andInternationalNavigationandShipping”,OceanYearbook2016,442.78 N. AKBARI, C. A. IRAWAN, D. F. JONES and D. MENACHOF, “A multi–criteria port suitabilityassessmentfordevelopmentsintheoffshorewindindustry”,RenewableEnergy2017,118–133.79SeeS.BHATTACHARYA,“CivilEngineeringAspectsofaWindFarmandWindTurbineStructures”,inT.M.LETCHER,WindEnergyEngineering:AHandbookforOnshoreandOffshoreWindTrubines,AcademicPress,2017,231.80R.NIJSSENandD.LEKOU,“Chapter1:Materialsandstructures”, inG.VANKUIKand J.PEINKE(eds.), Long-term Research Challenges in Wind Energy - A Research Agenda by the EuropeanAcademyofWindEnergy,Springer,2016,1.81A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,444.82 A. ESTANQUEIRO, A. COUTO and L. RODRIGUES JR., “A SpatiotemporalMethodology for DeepOffshoreResourceAssessment”,inL.CASTRO-SANTOSandV.DIAZ-CASAS(eds.),FloatingOffshoreWindFarms,Switzerland,Springer,2016,144.

22

40. In principle there are six types of fixed foundations: a monopile, a gravity based foundation, ajacket,atripod,atri-pile,andasuctionbucket.83Anillustrationofthetypesoffoundationsisaddedtothisanalysisintheannexes.

41. Thepreferenceforfixedfoundationscanbeexplainedbythefactthatmostoffshorewindturbinesareinstalledinanareawithawaterdepthoflessthan50m.84Fixedfoundationscanonlybeusedinshallowwaterandtransitionalwatersitesduetothefactthatitisnotfeasibletoinstallthemonaloose or soft seabed.85 Developers have therefore been paying a lot of attention to the floatingfoundations,becausethesecanbeusedinwaterdepthsexceeding50-60mandcanbeinstalledonalooseseabed.86

42. Asof50mwaterdepth, theapplicationof floatingstructuresbecomesmoreattractivethanfixedones.87Ontheonehand,becausethefloatingfoundationscanbeusedonalooseseabed,ontheotherhandbecause there is aneconomicbreakpointatwhicha fixed foundationbecomesmorecostlyincomparisontothefloatingfoundation.88Ontopofthat,thefloatingsupportedstructureshavegreater flexibilityofconstructionand installationprocedures, theability to transferonerousbending loads onto water rather than the rigid seabed, and easier removal upon sitedecommissioning.89

43. Thedownsideoffloatingstructuresisthattheyareconsideredtobemorecomplexindesignandinstallation.90

83J.JIA,ModernEarthquakeEngineering:OffshoreandLand-basedStructures,Germany,Springer,2017,81.84 X. WANG, X. ZENG, J. LI, X. YANG and H. WANG, “A review on recent advancements ofsubstructuresforoffshorewindturbines”,EnergyConversionandManagement2018,106.85A.PEIFFERandD.RODDIER,“FloatingWindTurbines:TheNewWaveinOffshoreWindPower”,inJ. H. LEHR, J. KEELEY and T. B. KINGERY (eds.), Alternative Energy and Shale Gas Encyclopedia,Canada,Wiley,2016,69. 86Ibid. 87A.PEIFFERandD.RODDIER,“FloatingWindTurbines:TheNewWaveinOffshoreWindPower”,inJ. H. LEHR, J. KEELEY and T. B. KINGERY (eds.), Alternative Energy and Shale Gas Encyclopedia,Canada, Wiley, 2016, 69; A. HENDERSON, M. COLLU and M. MASCIOLA, “Overview of FloatingOffshoreWindTechnologies”,inJ.CRUZandM.ATCHERSON(eds.),FloatingOffshoreWindEnergy:TheNextGenerationofWindEnergy,Springer,2016,118.88A.PEIFFERandD.RODDIER,“FloatingWindTurbines:TheNewWaveinOffshoreWindPower”,inJ. H. LEHR, J. KEELEY and T. B. KINGERY (eds.), Alternative Energy and Shale Gas Encyclopedia,Canada, Wiley, 2016, 69; A. HENDERSON, M. COLLU and M. MASCIOLA, “Overview of FloatingOffshoreWindTechnologies”,inJ.CRUZandM.ATCHERSON(eds.),FloatingOffshoreWindEnergy:TheNextGenerationofWindEnergy,Springer,2016,118.89EWEA,Report:WindinourSails:ThecomingofEurope’soffshorewindenergyindustry,2011,62,http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/publications/reports/23420_Offshore_report_web.pdf.90R.PERVEEN,N.KISHORandS.R.MOHANTY,“Off-shorewindfarmdevelopment:Presentstatusandchallenges”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews2014,782.

23

44. Thereareatthemomentonlytwoprincipletypesoffloatingsubstructures:thesparbuoyandthesemi-submersible.91 The most important floater-specific issues are: the floating stability, stationkeeping,andthefloatermotioncontrolsystem.92

45. The floating stability refers to a stable equilibrium and reflects a total integrity against downflooding and capsizing.93 The problems concerning the floating stability often relate to thewindturbine thrust and loads due to the occurrence of sea waves and the up wind yaw stability.94Secondly,therecanbeissuesconcerningthestationkeepingsystem,whichisvitalforkeepingthewindturbineinpositioninsuchawaythatitcangenerateelectricityandtransfertheelectricitytoits destined receiver.95 The last category of specific issues relates the to floater motion controlsystem,whichisusedtominimizetheexcitationinthepitchmodeofmotionofthefloaterunit.96

46. Apartfromtherequirementsfortheindividualturbines,theOWFneedstobeaccompaniedbygridinterconnection infrastructure.97 The latter includes the submarine cables or array cables thatcollectthepowerproducedbythewindfarm,theoffshoresubstation,andtheexportcabletotheshore.98Thanks to thegrid interconnection infrastructure, thepowergeneratedby the individualturbines canbedelivered to the land-based consumers.99 In thepast, the connection to thegridwasnotproblematicduetothesmallsizeandinfluenceofthewindturbines.100 91A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,444.92 J.NICHOLS,K.O.RONOLDandA. L.HOPSTAD,“KeyDesignConsiderations”, in J.CRUZandM.ATCHESON (eds.),FloatingOffshoreWindEnergy:TheNextGenerationofWindEnergy, Springer,2016,262.93Ibid.94R.PERVEEN,N.KISHORandS.R.MOHANTY,“Off-shorewindfarmdevelopment:Presentstatusandchallenges”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews2014,782;A.HENDERSON,M.COLLUand M. MASCIOLA, “Overview of Floating Offshore Wind Technologies”, in J. CRUZ and M.ATCHESON (eds.),FloatingOffshoreWindEnergy:TheNextGenerationofWindEnergy, Springer,2016,93;A.PEIFFERandD.RODDIER,“FloatingWindTurbines:TheNewWave inOffshoreWindPower”, in J. H. LEHR, J. KEELEY and T. B. KINGERY (eds.), Alternative Energy and Shale GasEncyclopedia,Canada,Wiley,2016,72.95 J.NICHOLS,K.O.RONOLDandA. L.HOPSTAD,“KeyDesignConsiderations”, in J.CRUZandM.ATCHESON (eds.),FloatingOffshoreWindEnergy:TheNextGenerationofWindEnergy, Springer,2016,264.96Ibid.97R.POUDINEH,C.BROWNandB.FOLEY,EconomicsofOffshoreWindPower:ChallengesandPolicyConsiderations,Springer,2017,97.98Ibid.99A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,445.100R.PERVEEN,N.KISHORandS.R.MOHANTY,“Off-shorewindfarmdevelopment:Presentstatusandchallenges”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews2014,782.

24

47. Evennow, for the smallerOWFsor those closer to shore, thepowermaybebroughtdirectly toshore via submarine electrical cables which results in an injection into the grid at distributionvoltage.101

48. ThesituationhasbecomemorecomplexsincetheintroductionoflargerOWFs.ForthelargerOWFsor those at greater distances from the shore, which produce the growing share of the installedcapacity,oneormultipleoffshoresubstationsneedtobeinstalled.102Theoffshoresubstationsaretypicallylocatedwithintheboundariesofthewindfarmandmountedonsteeljacketstructuresormonopiles.103 They are used to increase the power to a transmission voltage of approximately133kV,beforethepoweristransmittedtotheonshoregrid.104ThetransmissionisrequiredinordertotransformthepowercollectedattheinnerdistributioncablesatmediumvoltagetoanHVlevelsuitable for long-distance transmission.105 The transmission is thus necessary in order to avoidelectricallossesduringthepowertransferviacables.106

49. Due to the increase in generating capacity of an OWF, a rise in scale or number of offshoresubstations becomes unavoidable.107 Besides, it is also economically viable in the sense that thelifetime cost of power losses due to transmission of high power at the MV level becomescomparable to the capital cost of having an offshore substation.108 By optimizing the operatingvoltage for a given cable, the viable power transmission distance at a given power can besignificantlyextended,andthehighervoltagelevelalsoincreasesthetransmissioncapacity.109

101A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,445.102 S. RODRIGUES, C. RESTREPO, G. KATSOURIS, R. TEIXEIRA PINTO, M. SOLEIMANZADEH, P.BOSMAN and P. BAUER, “A Multi-Objective Optimization Framework for Offshore Wind FarmLayoutsandElectricInfrastructures”,Energies2016,233.103 M. J. KAISER and B. F. SNYDER, Offshore Wind Energy Cost Modeling: Installation andDecommissioning,London,Springer,2012,208.104O.ANAYA-LARA,D.CAMPOS-GAONA,E.MORENO-GOYTIAandG.ADAM,OffshoreWindEnergyGeneration:Control,Protection,andIntegrationtoElectricalSystems,UnitedKingdom,Wiley,2014,141.105O.ANAYA-LARA,“Offshorewindfarmarrays”,inC.NGandL.RAN(eds.),OffshoreWindFarms:Technologies, Design and Operation, Woodhead Publishing, 2016, 395; J. REBLED LLUCH, Powertransmission systems for offshore wind farms: technical-economic analysis, bachelor thesisUPCommens,2015,31.106Ibid. 107A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,446.108O.ANAYA-LARA,“Offshorewindfarmarrays”,inC.NGandL.RAN(eds.),OffshoreWindFarms:Technologies,DesignandOperation,WoodheadPublishing,2016,395.109T.K.VRANAandO.MO,“OptimalOperationVoltageforMaximalPowerTransferCapabilityonVeryLongHVACCables”,EnergyProcedia2016,408.

25

50. The number of substations is determined by the size of the wind farm, the voltage level whichaffects themaximum length of a feeder, and the capacity of thewind farm, the capacity of thetransformerandtheHVcable.110Theneedforanoffshoresubstationbasicallydependsuponthepowergeneratedandthedistancetotheshore,whichdeterminesthetrade-offsbetweencapitalexpendituresandtransmissionlosses.111

51. The location of such a substation is vital when the developer is designing a collector system.112Mainlybecausethislocationwillhaveanimmenseinfluenceonthelayoutofthecablingandasaconsequence thereof on the expenditure of the project.113Usually, fibre optic cables accompanytheelectricalexportcableinordertofacilitatetheremotesystemsthataremonitoringtheOWF.114Furthermore, the offshore substations can function as central service and accommodationplatformsforthepersonneloftheOWF.115Theycancontaindatamonitoringandcontrolsystemsandmaintenanceandequipmentsupportfacilitiesaswell.116

52. Another obstacle in the context ofwind energy development is the current limitation in storagetechnology.117Theavailabilityofwindenergy ishighlydependentonweatherconditionsandthiscan be challenging in case of mismatches between wind supply and energy demand.118 Someenergystoragesystemshavebeeninvestigatedandappliedoverthelastfewyears,including:thepumped hydro storage (PHS), the flywheel energy storage system (FESS), the compressed airenergystorage(CAES)andsoon.119 Ifastoragesystem isnot installed, theenergygeneratedbytheOWFscanbedirectedintotheelectricitygrids,butitcannotbestoredforuseondemand.120Asaconsequence,theenergyeitherhastoberejectedordiverted.121

110O.ANAYA-LARA,“Offshorewindfarmarrays”,inC.NGandL.RAN(eds.),OffshoreWindFarms:Technologies,DesignandOperation,WoodheadPublishing,2016,395. 111 M. J. KAISER and B. F. SNYDER, Offshore Wind Energy Cost Modeling: Installation andDecommissioning,London,Springer,2012,29.112O.ANAYA-LARA,“Offshorewindfarmarrays”,inC.NGandL.RAN(eds.),OffshoreWindFarms:Technologies,DesignandOperation,WoodheadPublishing,2016,395.113Ibid.114A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,445.115EWEA,Report:WindinourSails:ThecomingofEurope’soffshorewindenergyindustry,2011,76,http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/publications/reports/23420_Offshore_report_web.pdf.116A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,446.117R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,579.118 C. QIN, G. SAUNDERS and E. LOTH, “Offshorewind energy storage concept for cost-of-rated-powersavings”,AppliedEnergy2017,148.119Y.FAN,A.MUandT.MA,“Studyontheapplicationofenergystoragesysteminoffshorewindturbinewithhydraulictransmission”,EnergyConversionandManagement2016,339.120B.DROSTE-FRANKE,B.P.PAAL,C.REHTANZ,D.U.SAUER,J.-P.SCHNEIDER,M.SCHREURSandT.

26

53. Inprinciple,thisissuecanbeavoidedandevensolvedifStatescooperatetoallocateandexchangetheirsurplusenergy inorder tomanagethe fluctuations insupplyanddemand.122Currently,gridconnections are, however, still designed to serve exclusively the national energy markets inindividual States, with little regard for regional cooperation or the direct transmission betweenStates.123

3. LegalFrameworkinRelationtotheLifecycleofanOffshoreWindTurbine

3.1.Generalbackground

54. Thefirstoffshorewindfarms inEuropewereallbuiltasdemonstrationprojects inthe1990sandwerelocatedintheterritorialsea.124Theirexistencewastheresultoftheideaofa‘GreenEurope’thatwascreatedinthe1970s,andgraduallyturnedintooneofthenormativefoundationsoftheEU.125Eversincethatidea,theEUhasbeentryingtostimulateandobligateitsMemberStatestoshift towards the use of renewable energy sources.126 Many Member States invested in thedevelopmentofoffshorewindenergyinordertoreachthe20-20-20targets,accountingevenfor43,1%oftherenewableelectricitytechnologiesinstalledby2020.127

55. Inordertoenablethisdevelopment,thecoastalstatesneedtoensurethattheyhavetherequiredlegal powers offshore, a legal regime for developing offshore wind energy and bringing theelectricityonshore.128

ZIESEMER, Balancing Renewable Electricity: Energy Storage, Demand Side Management, andNetwork Extension from an Interdisciplinary Perspective, Berlin, Springer, 2012, 3; R. BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,579.121 R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,579. 122Ibid.123 R. LONG, “Harnessing OffshoreWind Energy: Legal Challenges and Policy Conundrums in theEuropeanUnion”,IJMCL2014,697-698.124H.K.MÜLLERandM.M.ROGGENKAMP,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySourcesintheNorthSea-ReinventingtheWheeloraNeedforMoreCoordination?”,inN.BANKESandS.TREVISANUT(eds.),EnergyfromtheSea:AnInternationalLawPerspectiveonOceanEnergy,Leiden,Brill,2015,168.125 H. JÖRGENS and I. SOLORIO, “The EU and the promotion of renewable energy: an analyticalframework”, in I. SOLORIO and H. JÖRGENS (eds.), A Guide to EU Renewable Energy Policy:Comparing Europeanization and Domestic Policy Change in EU Member States, Cheltenham,EdwardElgarPublishing,2017,3.126Art.194TFEU.127 J.SERRANOGONZÁLEZandR.LACAL-ARÁNTEGUI,“Areviewofregulatoryframeworkforwindenergy inEuropeanUnion countries:Current stateandexpecteddevelopments”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews2016,589.128SeeCommunication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions-OffshoreWindEnergy:Actionneededtodeliver on the Energy Policy Objectives for 2020 and beyond, Brussels, 12 December 2008,COM/2008/0768final/2.

27

56. In principle, every State can establish their own planning regimes and regulatory processes tomanage and coordinate theirmarine activities, including the development ofOWFs.129 However,duetothefactthatmarineactivitiesaretransboundarybynature,theEUacknowledgedthatthelegislation concerning these activities should be governed by a transboundary regime.130 In thiscontext, cross- border cooperation is key for building a common and streamlined planningapproachandmakingoptimaluseofthemaritimespace.131ThepotentialsynergiesresultingfromsuchatransboundaryapproachthusneedtobetakenintoaccountbytheMSPregimesoftheEUMemberStates.132

57. Not only the installation of OWFs can benefit from a transnational approach, also the gridinvestments,whicharenecessary toconnect theOWFswith theonshoreelectricitynetwork, runlessriskofbeingsub-optimal.133Asub-optimalelectricitynetworkcansignificantlyslowdownthedevelopmentofoffshorewindenergyprojectsandthedevelopmentofawell-functioningEurope-widemarket for electricity.134 Belgium already encountered difficulties regarding such a networkwith its Stevin-project.135 The latter and its importancewill be discussed further in-depth in theanalysis.

58. Overthepastfewyears,ithasbecomeclearthatthedevelopmentofOWFscanfacevariouslegalchallenges. The root of the problems is typically related to the range of spatial and functionalimpactsofOWFsonexistingmarineuses.136

129WINDEUROPE,OffshoreWindEnergyintheNorthSea:industryrecommendationsfortheNorthSeas Energy Forum, 2017, 9, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/policy/position-papers/WindEurope-Offshore-wind-energy-in-the-north-sea.pdf.130 J. P. M. VAN TATENHOVE, “Transboundary marine spatial planning: a reflexive marinegovernanceexperiment?”,JournalofEnvironmentalPolicyandPlanning2017,783.131WINDEUROPE,OffshoreWindEnergyintheNorthSea:industryrecommendationsfortheNorthSeas Energy Forum, 2017, 9, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/policy/position-papers/WindEurope-Offshore-wind-energy-in-the-north-sea.pdf.132Ibid.133EWEA,EWEApositionontheCommissionproposalforaDirectiveestablishingaframeworkformaritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management, 2013,http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/publications/position-papers/130218-MSPDirective-Briefing.pdf.134 Adv.RvS nr. 51.473/1 bij het ontwerp van besluit van de Vlaamse Regering houdende dedefinitieve vaststelling van het ontwerp van gewestelijk ruimtelijk uitvoeringsplan ‘OptimalisatievanhethoogspanningsnetwerkinVlaanderen’,BS28juni2012.135 A. FURNIERE, “Elia announces ambitious offshore energy scheme”, FLANDERSTODAY, 4November 2013; http://www.flanderstoday.eu/innovation/energy-manager-elia-plans-ambitious-offshore-grid.136 G. SEVERINSEN, “Chapter 42: Offshore Windfarms”, in M. SALOMON and T. MARKUS (eds.),Handbook on Marine Environment Protection: Science, Impacts and Sustainable Management,Springer International Publishing, 2018, 813-821; A. CHIRCOP and P. L’ESPERANCE, “FunctionalInteractions andMaritime Regulation: TheMutual Accommodation of OffshoreWind Farms andInternationalNavigationandShipping”,OceanYearbook2016,439.

28

59. Firstofall,theOWFstendtooccupylargeoceanspacesonanexclusivebasisforalongperiodof20to30years,dependingonthestipulation intheconcession.137Their functional impactconsistsoflocal wind and visibility conditions, possible displacement of shipping navigation routes and lowoverflight, the possible displacement of commercial and recreational fishing activities, increaseddanger of allisions and collisions, and the interference with radar functionality.138 Furthermore,OWFstendtohaveanenvironmental impactonthelivelihoodofseveralanimalpopulationssuchasbirds,bats,andmarinemammals.139Inthislight,itisnotsurprisingthatothermarineuserswantto limit the impact of OWFs on their activities.140 The methods to avoid conflicts between themarineusersandtypesofimpactswillbeaddressedinothersectionsofthisanalysis.

60. Locating wind turbines in the marine environment, however, is still attractive for the Belgiangovernmentbecauseoftheavailabilityofgeographicalusableareas.141Inaddition,theseaareacanaccommodateextensivearrayscapableofproducingpoweronalargescale.142ClusteringthewindturbinesinarraysreducetheuseofspaceandthecostsrelatingtoO&M.143Furthermore,installingwind turbines offshore is more beneficial than installing wind turbines onshore due to a higherreliabilityasaresultofconsistentlyhigherwindspeeds.144Thewindconditionsontheseawithanaverage of 10 m/s are more favourable in comparison to the wind conditions on land with anaveragebetween6-8m/s.145Asaresult,thereisahigherproductionperunitinstalled.146

137 R. POUDINEH, C. BROWN and B. FOLEY, Economics of OffshoreWind Power: Challenges andPolicy Considerations, Springer, 2017, 112-113; A. CHIRCOP and P. L’ESPERANCE, “FunctionalInteractions andMaritime Regulation: TheMutual Accommodation of OffshoreWind Farms andInternationalNavigationandShipping”,OceanYearbook2016,441. 138A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,441.139 See J. KÖPPEL (ed.),WindEnergyandWildlife Interactions: Presentations from theCWW2015Conference,Springer,2017,289p.140WINDEUROPE,OffshoreWindEnergyintheNorthSea:industryrecommendationsfortheNorthSeasEnergyForum,2017,8–9,https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/policy/position-papers/WindEurope-Offshore-wind-energy-in-the-north-sea.pdf.141 E. LUDEWIG,On the Effect ofOffshoreWind Farms on theAtmosphere andOceanDynamics,SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland,2015,1.142A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,439.143F.TARTARIandT.NISHINO,“Numericalstudyonthelimitofpowerextractionbyadensecross-streamarrayofwindturbines”,EuropeanJournalofMechanics-B/Fluids2017,350.144 E. LUDEWIG,On the Effect ofOffshoreWind Farms on theAtmosphere andOceanDynamics,SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland,2015,1;A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractions andMaritime Regulation: TheMutual Accommodation of OffshoreWind Farms andInternationalNavigationandShipping”,OceanYearbook2016,439.145J.LÜDEKE,“Chapter9:ExploitationofOffshoreWindEnergy”,inM.SALOMONandT.MARKUS(eds.), Handbook on Marine Environment Protection: Science, Impacts and SustainableManagement,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2018,166.146Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicand

29

61. Besidesthehigherreliability,thereislesslikelihoodofimpactsthattriggerpublicopposition,suchasnoise, loweringofpropertyvaluesand interferencewith landscapeaesthetics.147Thisway, thegovernmentavoidsproblemsconcerning theNIMBY–effect,whichassumes thateveryoneagreeswith theusefulnessof theproject,butprefers tohave it in someoneelse’sbackyard rather thantheirown.148

3.2.OverarchingFramework:InternationalLawoftheSea

62. Even though the regulation of energy is considered to be a matter of national rather than

international law, it is important to stress that international law plays a key role in energyregulationinsixaspects.149Firstofall,itprovidesaframeworkforhowtransboundaryorcommonresourcesaretobeutilized.150Inse,itisessentialtoknowwhocontrolsanon-exclusiveresourceinorder to avoid conflicts and to stimulate countries to resource co-operation.151 In the context ofoffshorewindenergythiscanbetricky,sincewindenergyisaproductofcommon-poolresources,which result from complex natural processes that reach beyond the exclusive control of anyState.152Asaresult,thisrequiresacoordinatedregulationbetweenStatesinaccordancewiththenaturalpatternsoftheenergysystem.153

63. Second, international law may constrain the ability of States to control or interfere in energyproduction activities, especially via international investment and trade law.154 Such interferencecan take the shape of tariffs or restrictions with regard to state aid for example. Furthermore,internationallawfacilitatesaccesstoandsupplyofenergyresources.155

Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - OffshoreWind Energy: Action needed todeliver on the Energy Policy Objectives for 2020 and beyond, Brussels, 12 December 2008,COM/2008/0768final/2.147A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,439.148 E. LUDEWIG,On the Effect ofOffshoreWind Farms on theAtmosphere andOceanDynamics,Springer International Publishing Switzerland, 2015, 1; R. POUDINEH, C. BROWN and B. FOLEY,EconomicsofOffshoreWindPower:ChallengesandPolicyConsiderations,Springer,2017,113. 149 A. RØNNE, “Chapter 10: Energy Law& Regulation ofWind Energy”, in H. TEGNER ANKER, B.EGELUNDOLSENandA.RØNNE(eds.),LegalSystemsandWindEnergy:AComparativePerspective,AHAlphenaandenRijn,KluwerLaw International,2008,246;R.BARNES,“EnergySovereignty inMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,588.150SeeL.DELCASTILLO-LABORDE,“EquitableUtilizationofSharedResources”,MPEPIL2008,37-56;R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,588.151 See N. J. SCHRIJVER, “Fifty Years Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources”, in M.BUNGENBERG and S. HOBE (eds.), Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, London,Springer,2015,15-29.152R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,588.153Ibid.154Ibid.155Ibid.

30

Sincemanyresourcesareusuallynotlocatedinthenearvicinityoftheenergyusers,thereisaneedforinternationalnetworksofsupplytosupportthetransferofenergyandrawmaterials.156

64. In addition, international law set out a basic framework for controlling the transboundaryconsequencesofenergyuse,suchastransboundarypollution.157Asidefromthat,internationallawaddresses global problems that cannot be satisfactorily solved on a unilateral basis, and tries tocoordinateglobal initiatives.158 Lastbutnot least, international law facilitates thecoordinationofdomesticenergylawregimesandpolicies,includingfinance,technologicalsupportandtrainingfordevelopingcountries.159

65. The regulation foroffshoreenergyprojects isalsoembedded in thecontextof international law,andisespeciallystipulatedintheframeworkoftheinternationallawofthesea.160Theinternationalruleshavebeendrafted at a high level of generality, providing for their extension tonewoceanuses.161Inthiscontext,themostrelevantinstrumentistheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawof theSea,whichwasadopted in1982and ratifiedbyBelgiumon the13thofNovember in1998(hereafterUNCLOS).162 The aforementioned convention introduced a newoffshore zone, namelytheExclusiveEconomicZone(EEZ)andestablishedotherconceptstoindicatedifferentzonesintheseaborderingaState’scoast.163Thejurisdictionofacoastalstatedependsonthespatialambitofthose marine spaces, which are defined on the basis of their distance from the coast.164 Theconvention,however,doesnotsetmanyconditionsonthedevelopmentofblueenergy,includingOWFs,inareasunderthesovereigntyorjurisdictionofStates.165

156Ibid.157Ibid.,588-589.158S.V.SCOTT, “Lookingback toanticipate the future: international law in theeraof theUnitedStates”,inR.MAGUIRE,B.LEWISandC.SAMPFORD(eds.),ShiftingGlobalPowersandInternationalLaw:ChallengesandOpportunities,London,Routledge,2013,20;R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,588–589.159R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,588–589. 160O.WOOLLEY,P.J.SCHAUMBERGandG.St.MICHEL,“EstablishinganOffshoreElectricityGrid:ALegalAnalysisofGridDevelopmentsintheNorthSeaandinUSWaters”,inM.M.ROGGENKAMP,L.BARRERA-HERNÁNDEZ, D. N. ZILLMAN and I. DEL GUAYO (eds.), Energy Networks and the Law:InnovativeSolutionsinChangingMarkets,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,2012,183.161A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation Of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,441.162UnitedNationsConventionofMontegoBayontheLawoftheSeaof10December1982,UnitedNations Treaty Series, vol. 1833, 3;www.un.org/depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm.163C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legalframework:AllatSea?”,TRNI2015,56.164Y.TANAKA,TheInternationalLawoftheSea,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,2015,196.165E.J.MARTÍNEZPÉREZ,“TheEnvironmentalLegalFrameworkfortheDevelopmentofBlueEnergyin Europe”, in G. ANDREONE (ed.), The Future of the Law of the Sea: Bridging Gaps between

31

3.2.1TerritorialSea:TerritorialSovereignty

66. Thezoneclosesttotheshoreistheterritorialsea,whichextendstomaximum12NMstartingfrom

theState’snormalbaseline.166Theconventiondoesnot setaminimumbreadthof the territorialsea.167Thenormalbaselinecanbedefinedas the low–water linedrawnalong thecoast.168ThebreadthoftheterritorialseainBelgiumextendstothemaximumof12NM.169

67. Intheterritorialsea,thecoastalstatehasfullsovereignrightsandisfreetosetlaws,regulateuse,anduseanyresource.170Theonlyconditionisthatwithregardtotraffic,thecoastalstatetakesintoaccount the recommendations of the competent international organisation (IMO), customarypractices, and thenature anddensity of the traffic.171 Besides these stipulations, the conventiondoes not specificallymention anything concerning the control of energy in the territorial sea.172Since a State’s sovereignty extends to its territorial sea, the sovereignty over energy resourcesshouldbetreatedinthesamewayasonlandterritory.173

68. Foreign vessels have a right of innocent passage through the territorial sea of a third state.174Duringtheinnocentpassage,theforeignvesselsmaynotbehamperedbythecoastalstateexceptin accordancewith UNCLOS.175 An example of such an exception is the creation of safety zonesaroundinstallationssuchasOWFswithinwhichnavigationisprohibitedorrestricted.176

National,IndividualandCommonInterests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,129.166 Art. 2, §1 juncto art. 3 UNCLOS; O. WOOLLEY, P. J. SCHAUMBERG and G. St. MICHEL,“EstablishinganOffshoreElectricityGrid:ALegalAnalysisofGridDevelopments in theNorthSeaand inUSWaters”, inM.M.ROGGENKAMP, L. BARRERA-HERNÁNDEZ,D.N. ZILLMANand I.DELGUAYO (eds.), Energy Networks and the Law: Innovative Solutions in ChangingMarkets, Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,2012,183.167 J. E. NOYES, “The Territorial Sea and Contiguous zone”, in D. R. ROTHWELL, A. G. OUDEELFERINK,K.SCOTTandT.STEPHENS(eds.),TheOxfordHandbookofTheLawoftheSea,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,2015,94.168Art.5UNCLOS;Y.TANAKA,TheInternationalLawoftheSea,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,2015,45.169Wet6oktober1987totbepalingvandebreedtevandeterritorialezeevanBelgië,BS22oktober1987.170 Art. 2 UNCLOS; E. SCHACHTNER, “Marine Protected Areas andMarine Spatial Planning, withSpecialReferencetotheBlackSea”,inP.D.GORIUP(ed.),ManagementofMarineProtectedAreas:ANetworkPerspective,Wiley,2017,212.171Art.22UNCLOS.172R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,591.173Art.2UNCLOS;R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,591.174Articles17to19UNCLOS.175Art.24UNCLOS;K.N.SCOTT,“TiltingatOffshoreWindmills:RegulatingWindFarmDevelopmentwithintheRenewableEnergyZone”,JournalofEnvironmentalLaw2006,103.176Art.21,60(4)and60(5)UNCLOS;K.N.SCOTT,“TiltingatOffshoreWindmills:RegulatingWindFarmDevelopmentwithintheRenewableEnergyZone”,JournalofEnvironmentalLaw2006,103.

32

69. Inthis light, it is importantthatthe locationofgenerationfacilitiesdoesnothamperordenytherightofpassage.177

70. With regard to innocent passage it is relevant to stress that a coastal state can encounterlimitations regarding theexerciseof criminalandcivil jurisdictionvis-à-vis foreign shipsand theircrews.178Coastalstatesdopossess legislative jurisdictionregardingthe innocentpassagethroughthe territorial sea with respect to the protection of navigational aids and facilities and otherfacilitiesorinstallations,andtheprotectionofcablesandpipelines.179

71. Whilemorethan90%oftheBelgianOWFsare located inarangefromtheThorntonbanktotheBlighBankandthusoutsidetheterritorialsea,thezoneremainsimportantinthelightofthelayingof cables and the grid connection to shore.180 The coastal state has for example the right toestablishcertainconditionsforthecablesorpipelinesenteringitsterritoryorterritorialsea.181

3.2.2.ExclusiveEconomicZoneandContinentalShelf:SovereignRights

72. Beyond the territorial sea,coastalStatescanhaveanEEZandacontinental shelf.182ThesezonesarethemostimportantoneswhenitcomestotheEuropeanoffshorewindactivities,becausethemajorityofEuropeanOWFsislocatedinthem.183Contrarytotheterritorialsea,thecoastalStatesonly have limited sovereign rights in these zones, which they can exercise for the purpose ofexploring and exploiting natural resources.184 Both concepts are closely related, but they haveseparatefeatures.185

177Art.24UNCLOS;R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,591.178Art.27UNCLOS;E.D.PAPASTAVRIDIS, “CrimesatSea:ALawof theSeaPerspective”, inE.D.PAPASTAVRIDIS and K. N. TRAPP (eds.), Crimes at sea/ Hague Academy of International Law,Leiden,Brill,2014,8.179 Art. 21(1)(b) and 21(1)(c) UNCLOS; Y. TANAKA, The International Law of the Sea, Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,2015,95.180Art.79(4)UNCLOS;AnnexIoftheRoyalDecreeconcerningtheestablishmentofamarinespatialplan, BS 28 maart 2014; F. MAES, “Hernieuwbare energie op zee en scheepvaart: het Belgischmarien ruimtelijk plan”, in A. CLIQUET and F. MAES (eds.), Recht door zee: hedendaagsinternationaalzee-enmaritiemrecht:liberamicorumEddySomers,Antwerpen,Maklu,2015,59;T.CHELLINGSWORTHandD.VANHERCK,“DeNoordzeeendeontwikkelingvaneenoffshoregrid”,inK.DEKETELAEREandB.DELVAUX(eds.),JaarboekEnergierecht,Antwerpen,Intersentia,2015,108.181 Art. 79(4) UNCLOS; C. DEGREEF and W. GELDHOF, “Offshore energy and the Belgian legalframework:AllatSea?”,TRNI2015,58.182SeeY.TANAKA,TheInternationalLawoftheSea,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,2015,123-150.183 WINDEUROPE, Offshore Wind in Europe: Key trends and statistics 2017, 2018, 15,https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/about-wind/statistics/WindEurope-Annual-Offshore-Statistics-2017.pdf.184Art.56and77UNCLOS;C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legalframework:AllatSea?”,TRNI2015,57.185C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legalframework:AllatSea?”,

33

73. First of all, the EEZ canbe establishedby a declaration from the coastal state, and extends to amaximumof200NMfromthebaseline.186Thus,contrarytotheterritorialseaor thecontinentalshelf, the existence of the EEZ does not come into being as an automatic consequence ofsovereignty.187 Belgium defined her EEZ in article 2 of the Law of 22 April 1999 concerning theexclusiveeconomiczoneofBelgiumintheNorthSea.188

74. Every other North Sea state also established an EEZ, which gave them the sovereign right togenerateoffshorewindenergyoutsidetheirterritorialsea.189WhenthesestatesestablishedtheirEEZ, they had to decide whether to extend their existing laws or adopt a new legal regime foroffshorewind,duetothefactthatlawsneedtobeexplicitlydeclaredapplicabletotheEEZ.190Asseen in the section about the technical considerations, OWFs also require a construction ofinstallationsandconnectionstotheshore.ThecoastalstatesthusalsohadtodecidehowtodesignthepermittingregimeandhowtoclassifythecablesconnectingtheOWFstotheshore.191

75. IfyouexaminethelegalframeworksoftheNorthSeaStatesappliedtooffshorewinddevelopment,two different approaches can be identified.192 They have classified OWFs either as installationsrequiring some sort of construction permit, or as an activity aimed at producing electricity andfalling under the relevant national electricity legislation.193 In Belgium, a developer needs anoffshore domain concession in order to construct theOWF, but he does not need a productionlicense.194

TRNI 2015, 57; Y. TANAKA, The International Law of the Sea, Cambridge, Cambridge UniversityPress,2015,139.186Art.57UNCLOS;K.N.SCOTT,“TiltingatOffshoreWindmills:RegulatingWindFarmDevelopmentwithintheRenewableEnergyZone”,JournalofEnvironmentalLaw2006,95.187 K. N. SCOTT, “Tilting at Offshore Windmills: Regulating Wind Farm Development within theRenewableEnergyZone”,JournalofEnvironmentalLaw2006,95.188Art.2Lawof22April1999concerningtheexclusiveeconomiczoneofBelgiumintheNorthSea,BS10July1999;T.CHELLINGSWORTHandD.VANHERCK,“DeNoordzeeendeontwikkelingvaneenoffshore grid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht, Antwerpen,Intersentia,2015,118.189H.K.MÜLLERandM.M.ROGGENKAMP,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySourcesintheNorthSea–ReinventingtheWheeloraNeedforMoreCoordination?”,IJMCL2014,728.190Ibid.191H.K.MÜLLERandM.M.ROGGENKAMP,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySourcesintheNorthSea–ReinventingtheWheeloraNeedforMoreCoordination?”,IJMCL2014,728.192Ibid.,729.193 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23April 2009 on thepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesourcesandamendingandsubsequentlyrepealingDirectives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC, OJ L 140, 5 June 2009, 16; H. K. MÜLLER and M. M.ROGGENKAMP,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySourcesintheNorthSea–ReinventingtheWheeloraNeedforMoreCoordination?”,IJMCL2014,729.194Art.6Wet29April1999betreffendedeorganisatievandeelektriciteitsmarkt,BS11mei1999(hereafter Electricity Act); C. DEGREEF andW.GELDHOF, “Offshore energy and the Belgian legalframework:AllatSea?”,TRNI2015,61-64.

34

76. In the EEZ, the coastal state has sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting,conservingandmanagingthe livingandnon-livingnatural resourcesof thewaterssuperjacent totheseabedandoftheseabedanditssubsoil.195Theserightscanalsobeexercisedwithregardtootheractivitiesfortheeconomicexploitationandexplorationofthezone,suchastheproductionofenergyfromthewater,currentsandwinds.196Ontopofthat,thecoastalstatehasjurisdictionwithregard to the establishment and use of artificial islands, installations and structures.197 As aconsequenceoftheserights,theEEZ isthemostadequatezonetodevelopoffshorewindenergyactivitiesin.

77. TheBelgianlegislationincorporatedthesovereignrightsprovidedinarticle56UNCLOSinarticle7of theBelgianActof13June1969ontheexplorationandexploitationofnon–livingresourcesoftheterritorialseaandthecontinentalshelf(hereafterActoftheContinentalShelf).198TheBelgianregulation thereby confirmed that artificial islands, installations and other structures that arepermanentlyerectedintheterritorialseaoronthecontinentalshelf,andthepersonsandgoodsontheseartificialislands,installationsorstructuresaresubjecttoBelgianlaw.199Article38oftheActconcerning the Exclusive Economic Zone of Belgium in the North Sea extended the scope ofapplicationofarticle7oftheActoftheContinentalShelftoallotherartificialislands,installationsandstructures.200

78. Besidestheprovisionsinarticle56UNCLOS,article60UNCLOSisalsorelevantfortheregulationofOWFs.ThisarticlestatesthatacoastalstatehastheexclusiverightinitsEEZtoconstruct,operateanduse,andregulateartificialislands,installationsandstructuresforthepurposesprovidedforinarticle56andothereconomicpurposes,andinstallationsandstructureswhichmayinterferewiththeexerciseoftherightsofthecoastalStateinthezone.201Acoastalstatealsohasprescriptiveandenforcement jurisdictionwith regard to these structures.202 Further specifications concerning theprecise nature of the right are not given, although the right presumably flows from the State’sgeneralsovereignrightsoverresourcesintheEEZ.203

195Art.56(1)UNCLOS.196Art.56(1)UNCLOS.197Art.56(1)UNCLOS.198 Art. 7 of the Belgian Act of 13 June 1969 on the exploration and exploitation of non–livingresourcesoftheterritorialseaandthecontinentalshelf,BS8October1969;T.CHELLINGSWORTHandD.VANHERCK,“DeNoordzeeendeontwikkelingvaneenoffshoregrid”,inK.DEKETELAEREandB.DELVAUX(eds.),JaarboekEnergierecht,Antwerpen,Intersentia,2015,120.199C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legalframework:AllatSea?”,TRNI2015,57.200Art.38oftheBelgianActof22April1999concerningtheExclusiveEconomicZoneofBelgiumintheNorthSea,BS10July1999.201Art.60(1)and60(2)UNCLOS.202Art.60UNCLOS;BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,590-591.203R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,590.

35

79. Decisions concerning the placement and operation of such structures must take into accountnavigationalconcerns,whilsttheirremovalmusthavedueregardtofishingandprotectionofthemarineenvironment.204VesselsstillhavethefreedomofnavigationintheEEZ,andStatesneedtokeepthisinmind.205Apartfromthat,itisimportanttonotethattheconceptsof‘installations’and‘structures’ are not defined as such byUNCLOS.206 Legal doctrine has helped out by stating thatwindturbinesandconnectionstationsareconsideredtobecoveredbytheseconcepts.207

80. Anotherregime,namelythecontinentalshelf,comprisestheseabedandsubsoilofthesubmarineareas beyond the territorial sea and applies in principle to a distance of 200 NM from thebaseline.208Inthiszone,thecoastalstatecanalsoexercisethesovereignrightsforthepurposeofexploration and exploitation of its natural resources.209 If the natural prolongation of the landterritorybelowthesea,however,islongerthan200NM,Statesmayclaimacontinentalshelfuptoamaximumof350NMmeasuredfromthebaseline.210WhenaStateextendsitscontinentalshelf,thestateneedstoinformtheCommissionontheOuterLimitsoftheContinentalShelfaboutthis.211After the Commission is informed, it will provide recommendations on the basis of which thecoastalstateshallestablishthefinalboundary.212

81. WhileUNCLOSdoesnotdirectlymentionprovisionsconcerning thecontrolof theenergysupply,article79UNCLOSdoesstatethatallstatesareentitledto laysubmarinecablesandpipelinesonthe continental shelf.213 In addition, UNCLOS confirms that coastal states have jurisdiction overcablesandpipelinesconstructedorused inconnectionwiththeeconomicactivities intheEEZorconnectedtoinstallationsunderthejurisdictionofthecoastalstate.214

204R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,590–591.205Art.38(2)UNCLOS;A.CLIQUET,“Marienebeschermdegebieden:eendruppelindeoceaan?”,inA.CLIQUETandF.MAES(eds.),Rechtdoorzee:hedendaagsinternationaalzee-enmaritiemrecht:liberamicorumEddySomers,Antwerpen,Maklu,2015,89.206C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legalframework:AllatSea?”,TRNI2015,57.207Ibid.208Art.76UNCLOS.209Art.77(1)UNCLOS.210 Art. 76(6) UNCLOS; C. DEGREEF and W. GELDHOF, “Offshore energy and the Belgian legalframework:AllatSea?”,TRNI2015,57.211Art.4AnnexIIUNCLOS;C.REICHERT,“DeterminationoftheOuterContinentalShelfLimitsandtheRoleoftheCommissionontheLimitsoftheContinentalShelf”,IJMCL2009,393.212C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legalframework:AllatSea?”,TRNI2015,57.213Art.79UNCLOS;R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,591.214 See arts. 48(2), 76, 79(4) and 87(1)(c) UNCLOS; H. K. MÜLLER and M. M. ROGGENKAMP,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySources intheNorthSea-ReinventingtheWheeloraNeedforMoreCoordination?”,inN.BANKESandS.TREVISANUT(eds.),EnergyfromtheSea:AnInternationalLawPerspectiveonOceanEnergy,Leiden,Brill,2015,158.

36

82. Cablesorpipelinesthatarenotlinkedtoanyoftheseactivitiesstillfallunderthegeneralfreedomtolaycablesandpipelines.215

83. Other states, however, also have the right to lay submarine cables and pipelines in the EEZ andacross the continental shelf.216 Their right is in a certain way restricted in the sense that thedelineation of the pipeline’s course is subject to the coastal state’s consent.217 Moreover, thisaction will not affect the coastal state’s jurisdiction over cables and pipelines constructed inconnection with the exploration of its continental shelf or exploitation of its resources or theoperationsofartificialislands,installationsandstructuresunderitsjurisdiction.218

84. Furthermore,allstatesneedtopaydueattentiontothepositionofexistingsubmarinecablesandpipes and the access for their repair.219 In Belgium, the other States need to obtain a federalauthorizationfromtheBelgiangovernmentinordertoconstructcablesandpipelinesusedforthefunctioningofartificialislands,structuresorinstallations.220

85. Theaforementionedprovisionsarevitalforthecreationandmaintenanceofenergynetworksandpermits the coastal State to take reasonablemeasures to ensure the enjoyment of its resource-relatedrights.221

3.3.Pre-installationPhase

3.3.1.InternationalRegulation

86. The zonal fragmentation of UNCLOS and the functional jurisdiction associated with it has comeunderincreasingcriticisminthelightoftheobstaclesitposestoconcertedactiontoaddressglobalproblems, such as climate change, sustainable energy for all and conservation of marinebiodiversity.222 There are, however, several other legal instruments that complementUNCLOS inorder to provide an adequate framework to develop OWFs. These global, regional and nationalinstrumentswillbediscussedaccordingtotheirimportanceduringeachphaseofthelifecycleofanOWF.

215Art.87(1)(c)UNCLOS.216Art.58UNCLOS.217 Art. 79(3) UNCLOS; T. DUX, Specially ProtectedMarine Areas in the Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ):TheRegimefortheProtectionofSpecificAreasoftheEEZforEnvironmentalReasonsunderInternationalLaw,Münster,LITVerslag,2011,104. 218Art.79(4)UNCLOS.219 Art. 79 UNCLOS; C. DEGREEF and W. GELDHOF, “Offshore energy and the Belgian legalframework:AllatSea?”,TRNI2015,58.220 Art. 4 of the Belgian Act of 13 Juni 1969 on the exploration and exploitation of non-livingresourcesoftheterritorialseaandthecontinentalshelf,BS8October1969.221R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,591.222 C. REDGWELL, “Mind the Gap in the GAIRS: The Role of Other Instruments in LOSC RegimeImplementationintheOffshoreEnergySector”,IJMCL2014,602.

37

3.3.1.1.EnvironmentalInstruments

87. Even thoughwindenergy technologiesdeliverenvironmentalbenefits in termsof reducedGGEs,they can impact the environment significantly, for example with regard to biodiversity.223 Moreprecisely,OWFs’ impacts on the environment include: impacts on fauna as a result of collisions,nuisanceanddisplacement fromnoise, vibrationsandelectromagnetism,barriereffect, seascapeimpact, and habitat destruction.224 Such impacts are expected to turn up especially during theperiodsofconstructionanddecommissioningduetotheincreasedactivityduringthesephases.225Itisforexamplecurrentlynottechnicallypossibletoreducenoiseemissionsduringthesephasestotheprescribedthresholdsof160dBSEL(soundexposurelevel).226

88. Theimpacts,however,needtobeaddressedbeforethestartoftheactivitiesandthatiswhythefollowingsectionsaddresstherelevantenvironmentalinstrumentsinrelationtotheprotectionoftheenvironmentinthevicinityofOWFs.ThisanalysisisrelevantintheplanningphaseoftheOWF,because wind energy projects can be unable to obtain planning consent if they contraveneregulationonprotectedspeciesandhabitats.227Inthiscontextthefollowinginstrumentscanplayarole:theConventiononBiologicalDiversity228,theBonnConvention229,theBernConvention230,theRamsarConvention231,theEspooConvention232andtheOSPARConvention233.DuetothefactthattheEUregulation ismore relevant forouranalysis, themajorityof these instrumentswillnotbeexaminedinthisthesis. 223 P. RODDIS, “Eco-innovation to reduce biodiversity impacts ofwind energy: Key examples anddriversintheUK”,EnvironmentalInnovationandSocietalTransitionsX,X.224SeeJ.MANNandJ.TEILMANN,“Environmentalimpactofwindenergy”,Environ.Res.Lett.2013,3p; D. RODRÍGUEZ-RODRÍGUEZ, D. A. MALAK, T. SOUKISSIAN and A. SÁNCHEZ-ESPINOSA,“AchievingBlueGrowththroughmaritimespatialplanning:OffshorewindenergyoptimizationandbiodiversityconservationinSpain”,MarinePolicy2016,8.225R.LONG,“DiscussionSummary-ForumonOffshoreWindEnergy:Actors,LegalInstrumentsandDecision-MakingProcedures”,inH.-J.KOCH,D.KÖNIG,J.SANDENandR.VERHEYEN(eds.),ClimateChangeandEnvironmentalHazardsRelatedtoShipping:AnInternationalLegalFramework,Leiden,Brill,2012,232.226Ibid.227 P. RODDIS, “Eco-innovation to reduce biodiversity impacts ofwind energy: Key examples anddriversintheUK”,EnvironmentalInnovationandSocietalTransitionsX,X.228ConventionofRiodeJaneiroonBiologicalDiversityof5June1992,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.1760,79.229ConventionofBonnontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimalsof23June1979,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.1651,28395.230 Convention of Bern on the Conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats of 19September1979,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.1284,209.231ConventionofRamsaronWetlandsofInternationalImportanceespeciallyasWaterfowlHabitatof2February1971,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.996,245.232 Convention of Espoo on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context of 25February1991,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.1989,309.233 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic of 22September1992,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.2354,67.

38

A.TheConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals(hereaftertheBonnConvention)

89. TheBonnConventionaimstoconserveterrestrial,marineandavianmigratoryspeciesthroughouttheir area of natural distribution.234 In addition, the treaty has the objective of promoting thefavourable conservation status of those species.235 When States ratify the convention, theyacknowledgetheimportanceofmigratoryspeciesbeingconserved,andtheneedtotakeactiontoavoidanymigratoryspeciesbecomingendangered.236

90. Article V obliges States to make complementary agreements covering the whole of the areathroughout which migratory species are distributed. The scope of protection of the migratoryspecies varies, dependingon theAppendix inwhich the species appear.237 TheBonnConventionstimulates theParties toconcludeadditionalagreements inorder toprotect the species listed inAppendixIorII.238

91. In addition to theprovisions in theConvention, theConferenceof theParties (CoP) to theBonnConvention has adopted a number of resolutions to address the adverse impacts of wind farmdevelopment on migratory species.239 Firstly, there is the Resolution about wind turbines andmigratory species.240 The main goal of the resolution was to stimulate the Parties to conductresearchtoevaluatetheenvironmentalimpactofwindturbinesonmigratoryspecies,andtourgethePartiesto identifytheareaswherethosespeciesarevulnerable.241Otherrelevantresolutionsinclude the resolution concerning theFurtherSteps toAbateUnderwaterNoisePollution for theProtection of Cetaceans and Other Biota242, the resolution on the Adverse AnthropogenicMarine/Ocean Noise Impacts on Cetaceans and Other Biota243 and the resolution on renewableenergyandmigratoryspecies244.

234E.J.MARTÍNEZPÉREZ,“TheEnvironmentalLegalFrameworkfortheDevelopmentofBlueEnergyin Europe”, in G. ANDREONE (ed.), The Future of the Law of the Sea: Bridging Gaps betweenNational,IndividualandCommonInterests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,138.235 Art. I(1)(c) of the Bonn Convention; See J. HARRISON, Saving the Oceans Through Law: TheInternational Legal Framework for the Protection of the Marine Environment, Oxford, OxfordUniversityPress,2017,51.236 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,48. 237B.VANHEUSDENenG.VANHOORICK,Milieurechtinkortbestek,Mortsel,Intersentia,2011,72.238Seearts.II(3)(c),IV(3)andVoftheBonnConvention.239R.LONG,“OffshoreWindEnergyDevelopmentandEcosystem-basedMarineManagementintheEU:AretheRegulatoryAnswersReallyBlowingintheWind?”,inM.H.NORDQUIST,J.N.MOORE,A. CHIRCOP and R. LONG (eds.), The Regulation of Continental Shelf Development: RethinkingInternationalStandards,Leiden,Brill,2013,30.240 CoP,Wind Turbines andMigratory Species, UNEP/CMS/Resolution 7.5 (Rev. COP12), Manila,October2017.241Ibid.242 CoP, Further Steps to AbateUnderwater Noise Pollution for the Protection of Cetaceans andotherMigratorySpecties,UNEP/CMS/Resolution10.24,Bergen,November2011.243 CoP, Adverse Anthropogenic Marine/Ocean Noise Impacts on Cetaceans and Other Biota,

39

92. In Europe, the Habitat – and Bird Directives245 provide additional protection and impose (more)strictobligationsontheEUMemberStates.246

B.ConventionfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheNorth-EastAtlantic(hereafterOSPARConvention)247

93. TheOSPARConventionimposesageneralobligationonherPartiestotakeallpossiblemeasuresin

order to prevent and eliminate pollution and to take the necessary measures to protect themaritimeareaagainstadverseeffectsofhumanactivitiessoastosafeguardhumanhealthandtoconserve marine ecosystems, and restore where possible the marine areas which have beenadversely affected.248 In addition, the Convention requires from the Parties to apply theprecautionaryprincipleandthepolluterpaysprinciple.249

94. TheformerisoftenusedasakeyargumentagainsttheconstructionofOWFs.Eventhoughalotofresearchhasbeenconductedtomaptheenvironmental impactofOWFs,a lotofuncertaintystillremains about the impact of OWFs.250 The principle as such entails that a State needs to takemeasuresbeforethereisfullscientificcertaintyaboutanactivity,ifthereisachancethatbytakingsuchmeasures the State can prevent far-reaching and irreversible damaging consequences fromthatactivity.251

UNEP/CMS/Resolution9.19,Rome,December2008.244 CoP, Renewable Energy and Migratory Species, UNEP/CMS/Resolution 11.27 (Rev.COP12),Manila,October2017.245CouncilDirective92/43/EECof21May1992ontheconservationofnaturalhabitatsandofwildfauna and flora,OJ L 206, 22 July 1992, 7; Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 2 April 1979 on theconservation of wild birds, OJ L 103, 25 April 1979 repealed by Directive 2009/147/EC of theEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof30November2009ontheconservationofwildbirds,OJL20,26January2010,7.246SeeE. J.MARTÍNEZPÉREZ,“TheEnvironmentalLegalFramework for theDevelopmentofBlueEnergyinEurope”,inG.ANDREONE(ed.),TheFutureoftheLawoftheSea:BridgingGapsbetweenNational,IndividualandCommonInterests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,144p.247 Convention for the Protection of theMarine Environment of the North-East Atlantic,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.2354,67. 248Art.2(1)(a)OSPARConvention;A.CLIQUET,“Marienebeschermdegebieden:eendruppelindeoceaan?”, in A. CLIQUET and F.MAES (eds.),Recht door zee: hedendaags internationaal zee- enmaritiemrecht:liberamicorumEddySomers,Antwerpen,Maklu,2015,99.249 Art. 2(2)(a) and 2(2)(b) OSPAR Convention; F.M. PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorthSea–AreNationalPoliciesandLegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,40.250 See J. LÜDEKE, “Chapter 9: Exploitation of Offshore Wind Energy”, in M. SALOMON and T.MARKUS (eds.), Handbook on Marine Environment Protection: Science, Impacts and SustainableManagement,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2018,168-180.251 T. KOIVUROVA, Introduction to international environmental law, New York, Routledge, 2014,128.

40

95. An example of the application of the precautionary principle is the obligation to use noisemitigationtechniquessuchasbubblecurtains,whichdependonanairbarrierorsound-dampeningobstaclesplacedbetweenthepileandthewater.252

96. Secondly,theOSPARConventionrequirestheapplicationofthepolluterpaysprinciple,whichtheOECDintroducedinarecommendationin1972.253ItoriginatesfromeconomicconceptssuchastheCoase theorem concerning the external (social) costs and the idea of A. C. Pigou concerning theinternalisationoftheexternalcostsintothecostsofeconomicactivity.254IntheOSPARConvention,theprinciplerequiresthatthecostsofpollutionprevention,controlandreductionmeasuresshallbe borne by the polluter.255 The Convention thus establishes a responsibility for the ContractPartiestoapplythepolluterpaysprinciple.

97. In addition, the OSPAR Commission stressed the importance of the ecosystem approach in itsStrategyfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheNorth-EastAtlantic2010–2020.256TheOSPAR Commissionwas established in accordancewith article 123 and 197 UNCLOS, and is thecompetentregionalorganizationguidinginternationalcooperationontheprotectionofthemarineenvironment of the North-East Atlantic. The Commission is made up of representatives of theGovernments of 15 Contracting Parties and the European Commission, which represents theEuropeanUnion.257

98. The ecosystem approach adopted by the OSPAR Commission embodies a strategy to halt thedegradationofbiodiversityandourecosystemsasawhole.258However,itdoesnothaveaformal,universallyagreeddefinition,butisusuallybasedonthreecoreelements.259

252J.LÜDEKE,“Chapter9:ExploitationofOffshoreWindEnergy”,inM.SALOMONandT.MARKUS(eds.), Handbook on Marine Environment Protection: Science, Impacts and SustainableManagement,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2018,177.253 SeeM.MUNIR, “History and Evolution of the Polluter Pays Principle: How an Economic IdeaBecameaLegalPrinciple?”,SocialScienceResearchNetwork2013,25p.254 H. R. COASE, “The problem of Social Cost”, Journal of Law and Economics 1960, 1-44; A. C.PIGOU, Economics of Welfare, AMS Press, New York, 1978, 837p; See M. STOCZKIEWICZ, “ThePolluterpaysprincipleandStateaidforenvironmentalprotection”,JEEPL2009,171-196.255Art.2(2)(b)OSPARConvention.256OSPARCOMMISSION,TheNorth-EastAtlanticEnvironmentStrategy:StrategyfortheProtectionof the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic 2010–2020, 2010,https://www.ospar.org/site/assets/files/1200/ospar_strategy.pdf.257 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,43.258 F. M. PLATJOUW, Environmental law and the Ecosystem Approach: Maintaining ecologicalintegritythroughconsistencyinlaw,NewYork,Routledge,2016,19-20.259See F.M.PLATJOUW,Environmental lawandtheEcosystemApproach:Maintainingecologicalintegrity through consistency in law, New York, Routledge, 2016, 220p; A. TROUWBORST, “ThePrecautionaryPrincipleandtheEcosystemApproachinInternationalLaw:Differences,SimilaritiesandLinkages”,RECIEL2009,28.

41

99. In the strategy, the OSPAR Commission reflects those core elements in its interpretation of theecosystem approach.260 The elements consist of the holistic management of human activities,which should be based on the best available knowledge on the components, structure anddynamicsofecosystems,therebyachievingthesustainableuseofecosystemgoodsandsatisfyingthehumanneedsinawaythatdoesnotcomprisetheintegrity,orhealth,ofecosystems.261

100. TheContractingPartiestotheOSPARConventionhadtoimplementtheecosystemapproachwithinthe framework of their obligations and commitments, such as under the EU Marine StrategyFrameworkDirective(MSFD).262Asaresult,theNorthSeaStatesestablishedtheBergenStatementin2010263,which reaffirmed theconceptual framework for the implementationof theecosystemapproach within the North Sea, and mainly focused on the contribution by OSPAR to theimplementationoftheMSFD.264

101. In2002,theNorthSeaStateshadalreadyrecognizedtheneedtomanageallhumanactivitiesthataffecttheNorthSea,inawaythatconservesbiodiversityandensuressustainabledevelopmentbyestablishingtheBergenDeclaration.265Theframeworkofthisdeclarationalsoincludedthetriallingof Ecological Quality Objectives (EcoQOs) and indicators tomonitor the health of theNorth Seaecosystem.266 260OSPARCOMMISSION,TheNorth-EastAtlanticEnvironmentStrategy:StrategyfortheProtectionof the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic 2010–2020, 2010, 2,https://www.ospar.org/site/assets/files/1200/ospar_strategy.pdf.261 OSPARCOMMISSION,TheNorth-EastAtlanticEnvironmentStrategy:StrategyfortheProtectionof the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic 2010–2020, 2010, 2,https://www.ospar.org/site/assets/files/1200/ospar_strategy.pdf;F.M.PLATJOUW,EnvironmentallawandtheEcosystemApproach:Maintainingecologicalintegritythroughconsistencyinlaw,NewYork,Routledge,2016,19-60.262 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,43.263 Ministerial Meeting of the OSPAR Commission, Bergen Statement, Bergen, 2010; F. M.PLATJOUW,“MarineSpatialPlanningintheNorthSea–AreNationalPoliciesandLegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,43.264 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,43.265FifthInternationalConferenceontheProtectionoftheNorthSea,BergenDeclaration,Bergen,2002; F. MAES, J.-B. CALEWAERT, J. SCHRIJVERS, V. VAN LANCKER, A. VANHULLE, P. VANDENABEELE, E. VERFAILLIE, S. DEROUS, A. VOLCKAERT, S. DEGRAER and B. DEWACHTER, “GAUFRE:TowardsaspatialstructureplanforthesustainablemanagementoftheBelgianpartoftheNorthSea”, in J.-B.CALEWAERTandF.MAES (eds.), ScienceandSustainableManagementof theNorthSea:Belgiancasestudies,Gent,AcademiaPress,2007,185.266SeeOSPARCOMMISSION,QualityStatusReport2010.Chapter10:ProtectionandConservationof Biodiversity and Ecosystems, 2010,https://qsr2010.ospar.org/en/media/chapter_pdf/QSR_Ch10_EN.pdf; F. M. PLATJOUW, “MarineSpatialPlanningintheNorthSea–AreNationalPoliciesandLegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,43.

42

102. Furthermore,theBergenDeclarationstatedthatMarineSpatialPlanning(MSP)couldbeusedasatool to support the ecosystem approach.267 It should be noted, however, that there is no legalframeworkforMSPattheOSPARlevel.

103. In addition, the third Annex to the OSPAR Convention specifically tackles the pollution fromoffshoresources.268TheAnnexstatesthatdisusedoffshoreinstallationsandpipelinesmaynotbedumped,norleftinthemaritimeareawithoutapermitissuedbythecompetentauthority.269Theprovisions in theAnnex are especially relevant in the decommissioning phase or after accidents.Besides thoseprovisions, theOSPARCommissionconductedanassessmentof theenvironmentalimpactofOWFsandprovidedguidelinestominimizetheirimpact.270

C. Convention on Transboundary Environmental Impact Assessment (hereafter EspooConvention)271

104. TheEspooConventionaddresses the transboundaryeffectsof certainactivitiesandobligates theContractParties toconductanenvironmental impactassessment (EIA)at theproject levelof theproposedactivity.272InadditiontothefactthattheEIAmustbeundertakenpriortoanydecisiontoauthorizeorundertakeanactivity,Statesneedto includeat leastthe informationprovidedfor inAppendixIIoftheEspooConvention.273Theinformationneedstocontainforexampleadescriptionof theplannedactivity,alternativesolutions,correctivemeasures,an identificationofthegaps inknowledgeanduncertaintiesandsoon.

105. Inprinciple,aContractPartyisonlyobligatedtoconductanEIAfortheactivitieslistedinAppendixIoftheEspooConvention.274

267 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,43.268Annex IIIOn thePreventionandEliminationofPollution fromOffshoreSourcesof theOSPARConvention.269Arts.5,7and8AnnexIIIOnthePreventionandEliminationofPollutionfromOffshoreSourcesoftheOSPARConvention.270OSPARCOMMISSION,Assessmentof theEnvironmental ImpactofOffshoreWindFarms,2008;OSPARCOMMISSION,OSPARGuidance on Environmental Considerations forOffshoreWind FarmDevelopment,2008.271 Convention of Espoo on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context of 25February1991,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.1989,309.272 Arts. 2(3) and 2(7) of the Espoo Convention; H. TEGNER ANKER, “Chapter 7: EnvironmentalAssessment Procedures”, in H. TEGNER ANKER, B. EGELUND OLSEN and A. RØNNE (eds.), LegalSystems and Wind Energy: A Comparative Perspective, AH Alphen aan den Rijn, Kluwer LawInternational,2008,156.273Art.4oftheEspooConvention;E.J.MARTÍNEZPÉREZ,“TheEnvironmentalLegalFrameworkfortheDevelopmentofBlueEnergy inEurope”, inG.ANDREONE(ed.),TheFutureof theLawof theSea: Bridging Gaps between National, Individual and Common Interests, Springer InternationalPublishing,2017,137.274Art.2(3)EspooConvention.

43

106. The activity of constructing major installations for the harnessing of wind power for energyproduction,suchasOWFs,alsoappearsonthislistinAppendixI.Thus,ContractingPartiesneedtoconductanEIAbeforeinstallingOWFs.Partiescandeviatefromtheprinciple,inthesensethattheycanapplythetermsoftheEspooConventiontootheractivitiesthatwerenotenlistedonAppendixI.275

107. ThisispossibleinanycasewheretheStatesinvolvedagreetodoso,iftheproposedactivitieshavea harmful transboundary impact due to their breadth, location, and long-distance effect.276 AnexampleofsuchacaseistheactivityofcablelayingintheNorthSea.WhilethisactivityisnotlistedinAppendixI,theNorthSeasCountries’OffshoreGrid(NSCOGI)initiativestatedthattheprinciplesestablishedintheEspooConventionhadtobeusedtoguidethecoordinationofnationalprocessestoauthorizetheplannedtransboundaryinfrastructure.277

108. TheobligationtoconductanEIAisconnectedtothedutyofStatestopreventtransboundaryharm,andthedutiestonotifyandconsultthepotentiallyaffectedStatesinrelationtoplansoractivitiesthatmightgiverisetosuchharm.278Inaddition,therequirementtoconductatransboundaryEIAislinked to the implementation of the general concept of sustainable development and theapplicationoftheprecautionaryprinciple.279

109. The sustainable development conceptwas introduced by the Brundtland Commission in 1987.280The concept can be defined as a development that meets the needs of the present withoutcomprisingtheabilityofthefuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds.281

275E.J.MARTÍNEZPÉREZ,“TheEnvironmentalLegalFrameworkfortheDevelopmentofBlueEnergyin Europe”, in G. ANDREONE (ed.), The Future of the Law of the Sea: Bridging Gaps betweenNational,IndividualandCommonInterests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,137.276 Art.2(5) junctoAnnex IIIof theEspooConvention;E. J.MARTÍNEZPÉREZ,“TheEnvironmentalLegalFrameworkfortheDevelopmentofBlueEnergyinEurope”,inG.ANDREONE(ed.),TheFutureoftheLawoftheSea:BridgingGapsbetweenNational,IndividualandCommonInterests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,137. 277MemorandumofUnderstandingoftheNorthSeasCountries’OffshoreGridInitiative,Brussels,3December2010;E.J.MARTÍNEZPÉREZ,“TheEnvironmentalLegalFrameworkfortheDevelopmentofBlueEnergyinEurope”,inG.ANDREONE(ed.),TheFutureoftheLawoftheSea:BridgingGapsbetweenNational,IndividualandCommonInterests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,137.278SeeICJ9April1949,CorfuChannelCase(UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandv. Albania) I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 28; N. CRAIK, The International Law of Environmental ImpactAssessment: Process, Substance and Integration, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008,141-143; C. M. KERSTEN, “Rethinking Transboundary Environmental Impact Assessment”, YaleJournalofInternationalLaw2009,203.279H.SCHOUKENS(ed.),N.MOSKOFIDISandJ.DEMULDER,HandboekMilieueffectrapportagerecht,Brugge,DieKeure,2016,42.280 BRUNDTLAND COMMISSION, Report of the World Commission on Environment andDevelopment:OurCommonFuture,1987,http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf.281Ibid.

44

110. The definition introduces the need for balancing four equally important facets.282 Those facetsincludetheprotectionoflong-termecologicalsustainability,thesatisfactionofbasicneeds,andthepromotionofintragenerationalandintergenerationalequity.283

111. Theconventionalsoestablishednotificationandconsultationprocedures,whichcanbeusedbytheauthoritiesandthegeneralpublicofthestatesthatarelikelytobeaffectedbyanactivity.284Inthiscontext, Belgium contacted its neighbouring states, the Netherlands, France and the UnitedKingdom in order to consult them in the framework of the Espoo Convention about theirdevelopmentplansconcerningOWFs.285Inthatway,thesestatesaddressedtheirconcernsabout:thelackofknowledgeabouttheimpactoftheOWFdevelopmentonthetransportofsediment,theimpactoftheenergy-island,theimpactoftheelectricitysocketatsea,theexpansionsofports,andthelimitedknowledgeaboutcumulativeenvironmentalimpactsoftheOWFs.286

112. ThemajordisadvantageoftheexistenceofuncertaintiesaboutthecumulativeeffectsofOWFs,isthatitcancausesubstantialdelaysduringtheconsentingprocedure.Thisistypicallyaggravatedbythelackofclarityabouthowtoassessthosecumulativeeffects.287

3.3.1.2.EnergyCharterTreaty(ECT)288

113. The regionalmultilateral ECTentered into force inApril 1998andapplies to all formsof energy,includingtherenewableenergygeneratedbyOWFs.289TheECTprovidestogetherwiththeEnergyCharterProtocolonEnergyEfficiencyandRelatedEnvironmentalAspects290auniquemultilateralframeworkforenergycooperation.291

282 E. HOLDEN, K. LINNERUD and D. BANISTER, “Sustainable development:Our Common Futurerevisited”,GlobalEnvironmentalChange2014,130.283Ibid.284 Arts. 3 and 5 of the Espoo Convention; H. TEGNER ANKER, “Chapter 7: EnvironmentalAssessment Procedures”, in H. TEGNER ANKER, B. EGELUND OLSEN and A. RØNNE (eds.), LegalSystems and Wind Energy: A Comparative Perspective, AH Alphen aan den Rijn, Kluwer LawInternational,2008,157.285 F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,425.286Ibid.287E.A.WILLSTEED,S.JUDE,A.B.GILLandS.N.R.BIRCHENOUGH,“Obligationsandaspirations:Acritical evaluation of offshore wind farm cumulative impact assessments”, Renewable andSustainableEnergyReviews2018,2332.288EnergyCharterTreatyofLisbonof17December1994,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.2080,95.289 A. RØNNE, “Chapter 10: Energy Law& Regulation ofWind Energy”, in H. TEGNER ANKER, B.EGELUNDOLSENandA.RØNNE(eds.),LegalSystemsandWindEnergy:AComparativePerspective,AH Alphen aan den Rijn, Kluwer Law International, 2008, 249; S. BRUCE, “International EnergyLaw”,MPEPIL2014,nr.11.290EnergyCharterProtocolonEnergyEfficiencyandRelatedEnvironmentalAspectsofLisbonof17December1994,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.2080,3.291BALIM,“TheLinkagebetweenDoubleTaxTreatiesandGovernment-to-BusinessAgreementsin

45

114. The fundamentalaimof theECT is topromoteand facilitate the investmentand trade inenergymarkets and the cooperation in the energy field in line with WTO provisions and nuclear non-proliferationregimes.292Bydoingso,theECTwantstostrengthentheruleoflawonenergyissuesand create a level playing field by removing trade barriers in order to improve the efficientoperationoftheenergymarketsinEuropeandEurasia.293Inaddition,theECTdesirestominimizethe risks associated with energy-related investment and trade.294 The ECT also tries to facilitateknowledgeexchange.295

115. The ECT introduces both commercial and environmental obligations, though the latter areaspirationalratherthanprescriptiveinnature.296TheECTdidforexampleincorporatethepolluterpaysprinciple inarticle19 (1).297 Inaddition,article19comprises tenotherobjectives related toenvironmentalmatterssuchaspublicparticipation,theuseofenvironmentallysoundtechnologies,EIA etc.298 Aside from the environmental obligations, the ECT contains binding regulation oninvestment,tradeandtransitrelatedissues,anditincludesadisputesettlementmechanism.299

116. Basically, theprovisionsofECTcanbedivided into fivebroadcategories.300Firstofall, there isacategoryofprovisionsabouttheprotectionandpromotionofforeignenergyinvestments,whichisbasedontheextensionofnationaltreatment,orthemost-favourednationtreatment.301

theExtractiveIndustry”,inR.PETRUZZIandK.SPIES(eds.),TaxPolicyChallengesinthe21stCentury,Wien,LindeVerslag,2014,661.292 P. ALTO, “The new International Energy Charter: Instrumental of incremental progress ingovernance?”,EnergyResearchandSocialScience2016,94-95.293 ENERGY CHARTER SECRETARIAT, The Energy Charter Treaty and Related Documents: A LegalFrameworkforInternationalEnergyCooperation,2004,14,http://www.ena.lt/pdfai/Treaty.pdf;R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,593;S.BRUCE,“InternationalEnergyLaw”,MPEPIL2014,nr.11. 294BALIM,“TheLinkagebetweenDoubleTaxTreatiesandGovernment-to-BusinessAgreementsintheExtractiveIndustry”,inR.PETRUZZIandK.SPIES(eds.),TaxPolicyChallengesinthe21stCentury,Wien,LindeVerslag,2014,661.295S.BRUCE,“InternationalEnergyLaw”,MPEPIL2014,nr.11. 296Ibid.297Art.19(1)EnergyCharterTreaty;M.STOCZKIEWICZ,“ThePolluterpaysprincipleandStateaidforenvironmentalprotection”,JEEPL2009,178.298Art.19EnergyCharterTreaty.299R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,593. 300 ENERGY CHARTER SECRETARIAT, The Energy Charter Treaty and Related Documents: A LegalFramework for International Energy Cooperation, 2004, 14, http://www.ena.lt/pdfai/Treaty.pdf;BALIM,“TheLinkagebetweenDoubleTaxTreatiesandGovernment-to-BusinessAgreementsintheExtractive Industry”, inR.PETRUZZIandK. SPIES (eds.),TaxPolicyChallenges in the21stCentury,Wien,LindeVerslag,2014,661.300 ENERGY CHARTER SECRETARIAT, The Energy Charter Treaty and Related Documents: A LegalFrameworkforInternationalEnergyCooperation,2004,14,http://www.ena.lt/pdfai/Treaty.pdf.301Ibid.

46

117. The second category deals with the free trade in energy materials, product and energy-relatedequipmentandisbasedonWTOrules.302Furthermore,theECTdealswiththefreedomofenergytransit through pipelines and grids,which is especially important for the connection ofOWFs toshore.303 On top of that, the ECT focuses on reducing the negative environmental impact of theenergycycle through improvingenergyefficiency.Lastly, theTreatyprovidesmechanisms for theresolutionofstate-to-stateorinvestor-to-state-disputes.304

118. The scope of application of the ECT extends to the contracting States’ territories, including theterritorial waters and other maritime zones where the States exercise sovereign rights andjurisdiction.305Thereare52StatespartytotheEnergyCharterTreaty,includingtheEU.306Thenewcharter, called the International Energy Charter307, has 64 signatory states as of August 2015therebyexceedingthenumberoftheoriginalsignatoriestotheEnergyCharterTreaty.308

119. In addition, article 18 of the ECT proclaims that the Contracting States have sovereignty andsovereign rights over energy resources.309 In comparison to UNCLOS, these rights need to beexercisedinaccordancewithandsubjecttotherulesofinternationallaw.310Furthermore,theECTdoesnot limit a State’s authority anddiscretion as tohow to structure theownershipof energyresources.311Thus,theECTleavestheownershipofresourcesunaffected.312

120. Fromtimetotime,theECTtriestomodernizeinordertoensureitsimportanceforenergysecuritycooperation,investmentprotectionanditsnormativeinfluenceglobally.313

302 ENERGY CHARTER SECRETARIAT, The Energy Charter Treaty and Related Documents: A LegalFramework for International Energy Cooperation, 2004, 14, http://www.ena.lt/pdfai/Treaty.pdf;BALIM,“TheLinkagebetweenDoubleTaxTreatiesandGovernment-to-BusinessAgreementsintheExtractive Industry”, inR.PETRUZZIandK. SPIES (eds.),TaxPolicyChallenges in the21stCentury,Wien,LindeVerslag,2014,661. 303Ibid.304 ENERGY CHARTER SECRETARIAT, The Energy Charter Treaty and Related Documents: A LegalFrameworkforInternationalEnergyCooperation,2004,14,http://www.ena.lt/pdfai/Treaty.pdf.305Arts.1(10)(a)and1(10)(b)EnergyCharterTreaty.306 P. ALTO, “The new International Energy Charter: Instrumental of incremental progress ingovernance?”,EnergyResearchandSocialScience2016,94.307Ministerial Conference on the International Energy Charter, International Energy Charter, TheHague,20May2015.308 P. ALTO, “The new International Energy Charter: Instrumental of incremental progress ingovernance?”,EnergyResearchandSocialScience2016,94.309Art.18(1)EnergyCharterTreaty.310Arts.1(10)(a),1(10)(b)and18(1)EnergyCharterTreaty.311Art.18(3)EnergyCharterTreaty.312R.BARNES,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,592. 313BALIM,“TheLinkagebetweenDoubleTaxTreatiesandGovernment-to-BusinessAgreementsintheExtractiveIndustry”,inR.PETRUZZIandK.SPIES(eds.),TaxPolicyChallengesinthe21stCentury,Wien,LindeVerslag,2014,661;S.BRUCE,“InternationalEnergyLaw”,MPEPIL2014,nr.11.

47

121. Even though several States signed the new International Energy Charter, there remain severalissues unsolved related to energy security, access to energy, the negative environmental andclimatic externalities created by the extraction, production, transport and consumption ofenergy.314

122. TheCharterremains,however,importantbecauseitarticulatesapoliticalwilltoreducetransactioncosts,createthenecessaryorderandmitigatethenegativeexternalitiesoftheenergysector.315Ontopof that, itprovidesan international forum,which is relevantbecause theexisting institutionsdealing with energy only have a partial scope with a limited amount of members.316 Thesemultilateral institutions typically co-exist and need to compete with strong bilateral and blocrelations,whichcandiminishtheircontributionstotheinternationalenergyregulationscene.

123. One of those institutions is the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), which has theobjective of promoting the adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy.317IRENA’smandate includes the facilitationof dialogue, promotionof research andeducation, andthedevelopmentof policy recommendations.318At themoment, there are156 Stateswhoare apartyofIRENA,withafurther25Statesinaccession.319

124. Another shortage of the ECT is that it refers little to other groups of actors such as energycompanies, international financial institutions or NGOs, which have assumed more weight ininternational energy governance.320 However, there is no mention of the various segments ofrenewablesorprioritisationofanysourcesofenergyorrankingtheminanyway.Whilethiswidecoverage seeks to attract as many actors as possible by offering something for everyone, itrepresentsincrementalprogressinrelationtotheexistingstructureofinstitutionsofinternationalenergy governance.321 Overall, the IRENA plays a more critical role for the development ofrenewables,andmoreinparticularfortheinternationalframeworkconcerningOWFs.

125. An analysis of other instruments, such as customary international law in relation to energy law,wouldbetooextensiveinthiscontext.

314 P. ALTO, “The new International Energy Charter: Instrumental of incremental progress ingovernance?”,EnergyResearchandSocialScience2016,92.315Ibid.,92-93.316Ibid.,92.317Art. IIof theStatuteof the InternationalRenewableEnergyAgency (IRENA),Bonn,26 January2009,RENA/FC/Statute.318Art. IV(A)of the the Statuteof the InternationalRenewableEnergyAgency (IRENA),Bonn,26January2009,RENA/FC/Statute.319 Seehttp://www.irena.org/irenamembership. 320 P. ALTO, “The new International Energy Charter: Instrumental of incremental progress ingovernance?”,EnergyResearchandSocialScience2016,94.321Ibid.

48

3.3.2.EuropeanRegulation

126. In addition to the UNCLOS and the OSPAR, a number of EU Directives are also of particular

relevancetothegovernanceoftheNorthSeaecosysteminrelationtothedevelopmentofOWFs.These are in particular the Habitats Directive322, the Birds Directive323, the Marine StrategyFrameworkDirective324, theDirectiveonMaritimeSpatialPlanning325, and theRenewableEnergyDirective.326 Other important EU instruments that will be analysed in this context are the BlueGrowthstrategy327andtheIntegratedMaritimePolicy.328

127. The EU Emissions trading scheme329, the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive330 and theStrategic Environmental Assessment Directive331 also plays a role in the development of theoffshorewindindustrybutwillnotbediscussedinthiscontext.

322CouncilDirective92/43/EECof21May1992ontheconservationofnaturalhabitatsandofwildfaunaandflora,OJL206,22July1992.323CouncilDirective79/409/EECof2April1979ontheconservationofwildbirds,OJL103,25April1979.324 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008establishingaframeworkforcommunityactioninthefieldofmarineenvironmentalpolicy(MarineStrategyFrameworkDirective),OJL164,25June2008.325Directive2014/89/EUoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof23July2014establishingaframeworkformaritimespatialplanning,OJL257,28August2014,135.326 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23April 2009 on thepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesourcesandamendingandsubsequentlyrepealingDirectives2001/77/ECand2003/30/EC,OJL140,5June2009,16.327Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocial Committee and theCommitteeof theRegions: BlueGrowthOpportunities formarine andmaritimesustainablegrowth,13September2012,COM/2012/0494final;Communication(Comm.)to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and theCommitteeoftheRegions-InnovationintheBlueEconomy:realizingthepotentialofourseasandoceans for jobs and growth, Brussels, 13 May 2014, COM(2014) 254 final/2; Commission StaffWorking Document (Comm.). Report on the Blue Growth Strategy: Towards more sustainablegrowthandjobsintheblueeconomy,31March2017,SWD(2017)128final,3.328Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocial Committee and the Committee of the Regions - An Integrated Maritime Policy for theEuropeanUnion,10October2007,Com/2007/0575final. 329 Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 2003establishinga scheme forgreenhousegasemissionallowance tradingwithin theCommunityandamendingCouncilDirective96/61/EC,OJL275,25October2003,32;Directive2009/29/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof23April2009amendingDirective2003/87/ECsoastoimproveandextendthegreenhousegasemissionallowancetradingschemeoftheCommunity,OJL140,5June2009,63.330Directive2014/52/EUoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof16April2014amendingDirective2011/92/EUontheassessmentoftheeffectsofcertainpublicandprivateprojectsontheenvironment,OJL124,25April2014,1.331 Directive 2001/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 June 2001 on the

49

3.3.2.1.BlueGrowthStrategy

128. The European Commission adopted the Blue Growth Strategy in 2012, believing that the blue

economy could be a driver for Europe’swelfare and prosperity.332 The strategywas launched inordertoanticipatechangesresultingfromclimatechangeandtheexpectedincreaseofscarcityofnaturalresources, increasedvulnerabilityoftheplanet,growthinurbanizationandthedensityofthehumanpopulation in coastal areas.333 It is partof the frameworkof the IntegratedMaritimePolicy334, which aims to stimulate marine activities in order to create smart, long-term andsustainable socio-economic growth, while safeguarding the natural resources provided by thesea.335

129. Three pillars consisting of different components form the heart of the strategy. The first pillaradoptsasectorialapproachandencompassesoceanstrategy,aquaculture,marinebiotechnology,seabed mining and coastal tourism.336 The second category pays attention to knowledge, legalcertaintyandsecurityintheblueeconomy.337Inthisframework,theEUwantstoimproveaccessto information about the sea. On top of that the Strategy focuses on the implementation ofmaritimespatialplanstoensureanefficientandsustainablemanagementofactivitiesatsea.338Thethirdaspect relates to integratedmaritimesurveillance,whichneeds togive theauthorities fromtheMSmoreinformationovertheactivitiesatsea.339

assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment, OJ L 197, 21September2001,30.332Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeand theCommitteeof theRegions -BlueGrowthopportunities formarineandmaritime sustainable growth, 13 September 2012, COM/2012/0494 final; Commission StaffWorking Document (Comm.). Report on the Blue Growth Strategy: Towards more sustainablegrowthandjobsintheblueeconomy,31March2017,SWD(2017)128final,3.333ECORYS,BlueGrowth–ScenariosandDriversforSustainableGrowthfromtheOceans,SeasandCoasts, 2012, 7,https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/sites/maritimeaffairs/files/docs/publications/blue_growth_third_interim_report_en.pdf.334Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocial Committee and the Committee of the Regions - An Integrated Maritime Policy for theEuropeanUnion,Brussels,10October2007,COM/2007/0575final.335I. MASTERS, K. JOHNSON and G. DALTON, “Introduction”, in K. JOHNSON, G. DALTON and I.MASTERS (eds.), Building Industries at Sea: ‘Blue Growth’ and the New Maritime Economy,Denmark,RiverPublishers,2018,2.336 See Commission Staff Working Document (Comm.). Report on the Blue Growth Strategy:Towardsmoresustainablegrowthandjobs intheblueeconomy,31March2017,SWD(2017)128final.337Ibid.338V. FRENCH,N.-C.CHU, F. SANTORO, I. SOUSAPINTO,D.BORGES,N.McDONOUGH,ReviewofOceanLiteracyinEuropeanMaritimePolicy.EUSeaChangeProject,X,2015,6.339Ibid.

50

130. The third pillar contains sea basin strategies, which focus on the seas in which the EUMS canexercisetheirsovereignrights.Theseseabasinstrategiesneedtoensuretailor-mademeasuresandfostercooperationbetweentheMS.340

131. SOMAetalexpresstheirconcernaboutthefactthatthestrategyismerelybasedonatechnology-oriented approach and misses a social innovation aspect.341 A report from ECORYS alsoacknowledged that the BlueGrowth Strategy is unlikely to reach its full potentialwithout publicacceptanceandsupport.342

132. In the context of this dissertation, however, it seems clear that the Blue Growth Strategy hascontributedtotheboomitknowstoday.ThankstotheexistenceoftheBlueGrowthStrategyandthefactthattheEUwantedtostimulateblueenergy,theMaritimeSpatialPlanningDirectivewasadopted.343Nevertheless,inordertobetterimplementthestrategyitisrecommendedtoadoptacomplementaryfundinginstrument.344

3.3.2.2IntegratedMaritimePolicy(IMP)

133. As of the 1990s, several governments adopted programmes to establish integrated ocean

policies.345 In 2007, the EU followed this international trendwith the adoption of the IntegratedMaritimePolicy.346ThemaingoaloftheIMPistofostercoordinatedandcoherentdecision-makingtomaximisethesustainabledevelopment,economicgrowthandsocialcohesionofMemberStates,andnotably thecoastal, insularandoutermost regions in theUnion,aswellasmaritimesectors,through coherentmaritime-related policies and relevant international cooperation.347 As it is anintegrated policy, the IMP incorporates the objectives established in other marine policies andlegislation suchas thedesignationofMarineProtectedAreas (MPAs) complementing theNatura2000sites,thedevelopmentofoffshorerenewableenergyandsustainablefisheries.348

340Ibid.341K.SOMA,S.W.K.VANDENBURG,E.W.J.HOEFNAGELandM.STUIVER,“Socialinnovation–AfuturepathwayforBluegrowth?”,MarinePolicy2018,363.342SeeECORYS,BlueGrowth–ScenariosandDriversforSustainableGrowthfromtheOceans,Seasand Coasts, 2012,https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/sites/maritimeaffairs/files/docs/publications/blue_growth_third_interim_report_en.pdf.343K.SOMA,S.W.K.VANDENBURG,E.W.J.HOEFNAGELandM.STUIVER,“Socialinnovation–AfuturepathwayforBluegrowth?”,MarinePolicy2018,364.344J.-S.FRITZandJ.HANUS,“TheEuropeanIntegratedMaritimePolicy:Thenextfiveyears”,MarinePolicy2015,3.345SeeT.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,60.346Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocial Committee and the Committee of the Regions - An Integrated Maritime Policy for theEuropeanUnion,Brussels,10October2007,COM/2007/0575final.347Art.3(1)MaritimeSpatialPlanningDirective.348 W. QIU and P. J. S. JONES, “The emerging policy landscape for marine spatial planning in

51

134. ThevisionoftheIMPisdescribedbytheEUintheGreenPaper“TowardsaFutureMaritimePolicyfortheUnion:aEuropeanVisionfortheOceansandSeas”,whichwaspresentedbytheEuropeanCommissionon7June2006.349Inthispaper,thecross-sectorialmanagementwasidentifiedasoneofthemainwaystopromotegrowthofthemaritimeeconomiesintheMemberStates.350

135. In addition, it called for an effective coordination and integration of marine policy areas at alllevels.351 After a consultation period of one year the EU adopted the Bluebook,which proposedcertaingoals,suchasthesustainabledevelopmentofeconomicgrowth,employmentandmarineenvironmental conservation.352 The Bluebook also emphasized the importance of MSP as animplementationmechanismforsustainabledevelopment.353

136. The IMP incorporated theMSFD as its environmental pillar.354 However, both instruments havedifferentpolicyobjectivesduetoseveralreasons.Firstofall,thereisthetimeaspect:theMSFDisolderthanthe IMP.Furthermore,differentDirectorate-Generalstookcareofthedevelopmentofthe instruments.355TheMSFDwastheresponsibilityof theDGEnvironmentandconcentratedonenvironmentalprotection.TheIMPontheotherhand,wasassignedtoDGMAREandfocusedonpromotingthemarineeconomy.356ItisnowonderthenthattheIMPemphasizesthepromotionofcross-sectorialintegrationandmaritimeeconomicgrowthmorethantheMSFD.357

137. SeeingthedifferentapproachesoftheIMPandtheMSFD,itisfairtosaythatthereisstillroomforimprovement of the consistency of the EU’s actions especially with regard to blue energy. EventhoughblueenergyisrecognizedasakeycomponentoftheBlueGrowthStrategyandtheIMP,itisnotgiventhesameimportanceacrossalltheEU’spoliciesandstrategies.358

Europe”,MarinePolicy2013,186.349Communication(Comm.)totheCouncil,theEuropeanParliament,theEuropeanEconomicandSocial Committee and the Committee of the Regions: Towards a futureMaritime Policy for theUnion—AEuropeanVisionfortheOceansandSeas,Brussels,7June2006,COM(2006)275final;T.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,63.350T.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,63.351Ibid.352 Ibid.353N.SOININEN,“Marinespatialplanning in theEuropeanUnion”, inD.HASSAN,T.KUOKKANENandN.SOININEN(eds.),TransboundaryMarineSpatialPlanningandInternationalLaw,NewYork,Routledge,2015,189.354 W. QIU and P. J. S. JONES, “The emerging policy landscape for marine spatial planning inEurope”,MarinePolicy2013,186. 355T.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,64.356Ibid. 357 W. QIU and P. J. S. JONES, “The emerging policy landscape for marine spatial planning inEurope”,MarinePolicy2013,186.358M.ABADCASTELOS,“TheBlackSeaandBlueEnergy:Challenges,OpportunitiesandtheRoleof

52

138. There is for exampleno specific sectiondevoted toblue energy in the EnergyUnion FrameworkStrategy.359

3.3.2.3.RenewableEnergyDirective(RED)360

139. TheRenewable EnergyDirective provides a common regulatory framework for thepromotionof

energyfromrenewablesourcessuchasoffshorewindenergy.361Itestablishedthe20-20-20targetsandsetmandatorynationaltargetsfortheoverallshareofenergyfromrenewablesources.TheMScanmeet the 20-20-20 targets by using domestic resources, transfer of guarantees of origin forrenewablesbymeansofinternationalagreementsorthroughasystemofprivatetrade.362

140. The targets aimat a 20% reduction in EU’sGGEs from1990 levels, a 20% increaseofRES in theshare of EU energy consumption by 2020 and a 20% increase in the EU’s energy efficiency. 363Furthermore,theREDisakeycomponentoftheEUClimateandEnergyPackageadoptedin2008tocontributetotheEU’sfulfilmentofKyotoProtocolobjectives.364

the European Union”, in G. ANDREONE (ed.), The Future of the Law of the Sea: Bridging GapsbetweenNational,IndividualandCommonInterests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,158.359SeeCommunication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicand Social Committee, the Committee of the Regions and the European Investment Bank: AFramework Strategy for a Resilient EnergyUnionwith a Forward-Looking Climate Change Policy,Brussels, 25 February 2015, COM(2015) 80 final; M. ABAD CASTELOS, “The Black Sea and BlueEnergy:Challenges,OpportunitiesandtheRoleoftheEuropeanUnion”,inG.ANDREONE(ed.),TheFutureof the Lawof theSea:BridgingGapsbetweenNational, IndividualandCommon Interests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,158.360 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23April 2009 on thepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesourcesandamendingandsubsequentlyrepealingDirectives2001/77/ECand2003/30/EC,OJL140,5June2009,16.361 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23April 2009 on thepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesourcesandamendingandsubsequentlyrepealingDirectives2001/77/ECand2003/30/EC,OJL140,5 June2009,16; J.SERRANOGONZÁLEZandR.LACAL-ARÁNTEGUI, “A review of regulatory framework for wind energy in European Unioncountries:Currentstateandexpecteddevelopments”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews2016,589.362 Arts. 4, 7 and 9 RED; R. LONG, “HarnessingOffshoreWind Energy: Legal and Challenges andPolicyConundrumsintheEuropeanUnion”,IJMCL2014,703.363 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23April 2009 on thepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesourcesandamendingandsubsequentlyrepealingDirectives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC, OJ L 140, 5 June 2009, 16; H. K. MÜLLER and M. M.ROGGENKAMP,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySourcesintheNorthSea–ReinventingtheWheeloraNeed forMore Coordination?”, IJMCL 2014, 728; P.MÄNTYSAARI, EU Electricity Trade Law: TheLegalToolsofElectricityProducersintheInternalElectricityMarket,Springer,2015,97.364KyotoProtocoltotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeof11December1997, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2303, 162; Communication (Comm.) to the EuropeanParliament,theCouncil, theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions – 20 20 by 2020 – Europe’s climate change opportunity, Brussels, 23 January 2008,

53

141. Inaddition,itprovidesrulesconcerningjointenergyprojectsbetweenMemberStates,guaranteesoforigin,administrativeprocedures, informationandtraining,alongwithaccess to theelectricitygrid.365 As such, the Directive contributes to the regulatory stability required to promote theinstallationofOWFs.366

142. The RED has been the object of revision since 2016 in order to adopt targets for 2030, but theprocessofrevisingisnotfinishedyet.367ThereforeitisnotsureyetwhatthetargetsintheREDIIwill comprise. However, the EU did adopt a 2030 strategywhereby the EU stated the followingtargets.368Thesetargetsincludea40%cutinGGEscomparedto1990levelstobesharedbetweenETS (Emission Trading System) and non-ETS sectors, at least a 27% share of renewable energyconsumptionandatleast27%energysavingscomparedwiththebusiness-as-usualscenario.369

143. Inaddition to theRED, it is important to remind the reader that thereareotherEU instrumentsthatcontributetothedevelopmentoftheoffshorewind industry. ItconcernsseveralEUprimaryandsecondarylawinstruments.AkeyfeatureofEUlawisthattheEUcanonlyactwithinthelimitsofcompetencesconferreduponitbytheMSundertheTEU370andTFEU371andotherEUtreaties.372Secondly, there isa rangeofdiverseprovisions in theEU treaties relating toenergy, the internalmarket,trans-Europeannetworksandinfrastructurethat impactthedevelopmentoftheoffshorewind industry. While the EU and the MS share the competence for the formulation andimplementation of energy policies, the EU legislative proposals need to respect the principles ofsubsidiarityandproportionality.373

COM/2008/0030final;W.QIUandP.J.S.JONES,“TheemergingpolicylandscapeformarinespatialplanninginEurope”,MarinePolicy2013,185.365Art.1RED.366J.SERRANOGONZÁLEZandR.LACAL-ARÁNTEGUI,“AreviewofregulatoryframeworkforwindenergyinEuropeanUnioncountries:Currentstateandexpecteddevelopments”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews2016,589.367ProposalforaDirectiveoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilonthepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesources(recast),COM/2016/0767final-2016/0382(COD),Brussels,30November2016.368Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions:Apolicyframeworkforclimateandenergyintheperiodfrom2020to2030,COM/2014/015final,Brussels,22January2014.369Ibid.370TreatyontheEuropeanUnion(Consolidatedversion2016),OJC202,7June2016.371TreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion(Consolidatedversion2016),OJC202,7June2016.372art5(2)TEU.373Art.5(1)TEUandart4(2)(i)TFEU.

54

144. The principle of subsidiarity entails that with regard to areas which do not fall within the EU’sexclusivecompetence,theEUshallactonlyifandinsofarastheobjectivesoftheproposedactioncannotbesufficientlyreachedbytheMS,butcanratherbebetterachievedatEUlevelduetothescaleortheeffectsoftheproposedaction.374

145. Thetechnicalcomplexityoftheelectricenergymarketandtheinherentpeculiarityofelectricityasa commodity required a certain level of centralize control and regulation.375With regard to theelectricity market, several directives were adopted, which in accordance with the principle ofsubsidiarity allowed theMS to establish their own implementation strategies andmethods as ameansofachievingtheEU-mandatedgoalofelectricenergyrestructuring.376

146. The principle of proportionality states that the action of the EU must be limited to what isnecessary to achieve the objectives of the Treaties.377 In this light, the RED introduced theobligation to use only necessary and proportionate procedures for renewable energy with theintentiontomaketheproceduresmoreefficient.378Theprinciplewasalsoexplicitlyrecognized inthecontextofoffshorewindenergydevelopmentinacasethatreachedtheCourtofJusticeoftheEuropean Union (CJEU).379 The case concerned the prohibition of OWFs in nature conservationareasintheItalianPugliaregion.TheCJEUstatedthat:“theprincipleofproportionality(…)requiresthat measures adopted by Member States in this field do not exceed the limits of what isappropriateandnecessaryinordertoattaintheobjectiveslegitimatelypursuedbythelegislationinquestion”. Moreover, the CJEU added: “when there is a choice between several appropriatemeasures recoursemustbehad to the leastonerous,and thedisadvantages causedmustnotbedisproportionatetotheaimspursued”.380

374Art.5(3)TEU.375R. J. SERRALLÉS, “Electricenergy restructuring in theEuropeanUnion: Integration, subsidiarityandthechallengeofharmonization”,EnergyPolicy2006,2546.376 See for example Directive 96/92/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19December 1996 concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity, OJ L 027, 30January 1997; Directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of27September2001onthepromotionofelectricityproducedfromrenewableenergysourcesintheinternal electricity market, OJ L 283, 27 October 2001; Directive 2009/28/EC of the EuropeanParliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy fromrenewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and2003/30/EC, OJ L 140, 5 June 2009, 16; R. J. SERRALLÉS, “Electric energy restructuring in theEuropeanUnion:Integration,subsidiarityandthechallengeofharmonization”,EnergyPolicy2006,2546.377Art.5(4)TEU.378Art.13RED;R.J.SERRALLÉS,“ElectricenergyrestructuringintheEuropeanUnion:Integration,subsidiarityandthechallengeofharmonization”,EnergyPolicy2006,2546.379CJEU21July2011,nr.C-2/10AziendaAgro-ZootecnicaFranchinisarlandEolicadiAltamuraSrlvRegionePuglia,ECLI:EU:C:2011:502,ECR2011,I-06561.380M.PEETERSandT.SCHOMERUS,“AnEU lawperspectiveontheroleof regionalauthorities inthefieldofrenewableenergy”,inM.PEETERSandT.SCHOMERUS(eds.),RenewableEnergyLawintheEU:LegalPerspectivesonBottom-upApproaches,Cheltenham,EdwardElgarPublishing,2014,

55

147. Fromanoffshorewindpowerperspective,theEUtreatyobjectivesforenergyarequiteinventive.The objectives focus on the functioning of the energy market, the security of supply and thepromotion of energy efficiency and savings.381 In addition, the objectives want to ensure thedevelopment of new and renewable forms of energy and the interconnection of energynetworks.382Moreover, theTFEUstates that theEU isobligedtocontribute to theestablishmentanddevelopmentoftrans-Europeanenergynetworksandinfrastructures.383Thelatterisessentialforthecompletionofthesubseapowergridatregionalseaslevels.

148. In this analysis the stress lies on the environmental considerations that need to be taken intoaccount in order to reach these objectives, but the EU is also obliged to take internal marketconsiderationsintoaccount.

149. Themore regionalapproach towardsoffshore renewableenergyprovidedby theEUcanonlybeapplauded. Several advantages result from such an approach. Firstly, there is the cost-effectiveadvantageduetotherationalizationandconvergenceofthedisparateapproachestothesupportschemespursuedby theMS.384Associatedwith this aspect, there is a possibility of reducing therestrictions on cross-border access to energy resources.385 Consecutively, the offshore windindustry will be able to attract capital investment.386 In addition, the EU creates an equalopportunityforallcoastalEUMStodeveloptheresource.387

150. The most important contribution of a regional approach, however, is that it will bring thefunctioning of the internal energy market in relation to the production and transmission ofelectricityfromoffshorewindintolinewithEUtreatyprovisionsonthefreemovementofgoods.388Atthemoment,theenergyregulationisstillatoddswithsomeprinciplesofEuropeantradelawoftheinternalmarketandthefreemovementofgoodsacrosstheinternalbordersofEUMS.389

27.381Art.194(1)TFEU.382Art.194(1)(c)TFEU.383Art170(1)TFEU.384 R. LONG, “Harnessing OffshoreWind Energy: Legal Challenges and Policy Conundrums in theEuropeanUnion”,IJMCL2014,712.385Ibid.386Ibid.387Ibid.388 Arts. 34-37 TFEU; R. LONG, “Harnessing Offshore Wind Energy: Legal Challenges and PolicyConundrumsintheEuropeanUnion”,IJMCL2014,712-713.389 R. LONG, “Harnessing OffshoreWind Energy: Legal Challenges and Policy Conundrums in theEuropeanUnion”,IJMCL2014,712-713.

56

3.3.2.4.EUMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective(MSFD)

151. TheMarine Strategy FrameworkDirective is considered tobe themostdevelopedbranchof the

Integrated Maritime Policy.390 The MSFD was adopted to establish a framework for thedevelopment ofmarine strategies designed to achieve ‘Good Environmental Status’ (GES) of themarineareasby2020.391Thus,theMSFDcalledforthedevelopmentofamarinestrategybyeachMemberState.TheprovisionsintheMSFDarealsoinfluencedbytheEU’swaterpolicy,andshouldbereadtogetherwiththeprovisionsoftheWaterFrameworkDirective(WFD)392,astheyshareacloseconnectionintermsofcontent,objectivesandregulatorydesign.393

152. The concept of GES refers to: the environmental status of marine waters where these provideecologicallydiverseanddynamicoceansand seaswhichare clean,healthyandproductivewithintheirintrinsicconditions,andtheuseofthemarineenvironmentisatalevelthatissustainable,thussafeguarding the potential for uses and activities by current and future generations.394 TheassessmentoftheGESisbasedonelevenqualitativedescriptors.395Thelastofthesedescriptorsisparticularly relevant in the context of this dissertation because it requires the introduction ofenergytobeatlevelsthatdonotadverselyaffectthemarineenvironment.396

153. ThemarinestrategiesdevelopedbytheMSneedtoprotectandpreservethemarineenvironment,prevent itsdeteriorationorevenrestore themarineecosystems inareaswhere thesehavebeenadverselyaffected.397 Inaddition, thestrategiesneedtopreventandreduce inputs inthemarineenvironment in order to ensure that there are no significant impacts on or risks to the marinebiodiversity,marineecosystems,humanhealthor legitimateusesof the sea.398ThemaingoaloftheMSFD is to achieve a use of themarine environment at a level that is sustainable, therebysafeguardingthepotentialforusesandactivitiesbycurrentandfuturegenerations.399 390T.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,59.391 Art. 1(1)MSFD; I.MASTERS, K. JOHNSON andG. DALTON, “Introduction”, in K. JOHNSON, G.DALTON and I.MASTERS (eds.),Building Industries at Sea: ‘Blue Growth’ and the NewMaritimeEconomy,Denmark,RiverPublishers,2018,5.392 Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000establishingaframeworkforCommunityactioninthefieldofwaterpolicy,OJL327,22December2000,1.393T.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,64-65.394Art.3(5)MSFD.395SeeAnnexIoftheMSFD.396Nr.(11)AnnexIoftheMSFD.397Art.1(2)(a)MSFD.398Art.1(2(b)MSFD.399 Art. 3(5) MSFD; F. M. PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in the North Sea – Are NationalPoliciesandLegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?TheCaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,50.

57

154. Furthermore, those strategies had to include an initial assessment of the current environmentalstatus of national marine waters and the environmental impact and socio-economic analysis ofhuman activities.400Moreover, theMS needed to determine what GESmeans for their nationalmarinewaters.401Then,theMSneedtoestablishenvironmentaltargetsandassociatedindicatorstoachieveaGESby2020.402

155. Ontopofthat,theyneededtoestablishamonitoringprogram,becausethestrategyneedstobereviewedandupdatedeverysixyears.403TheMSalsoneedtoconductanimpactassessmentwithadetailed cost-benefit analysis before any newmeasure is considered.404 The previous obligationsconcerningmonitoring, assessment and adaptivemanagement are all essential for implementingtheecosystemapproach imposedbytheMSFDontheMS.405Evennow,themajorchallenges forimplementing this approach are the lack of data and knowledge, and the difficulty to integrateexistinginformationduetodifferentstandardsandformats.406AtthetimeoftheadoptionoftheMSFD theMS identified a sever lackof datawith regard to the impact of underwater noise andmarine litter on the ecosystems.407 The lack of data imposed enormous financial and temporalchallengesforsomeMemberStates.408

156. Furthermore, the MSFD requires the application of the precautionary principle with regard toadaptivemanagementsothatmeasuresaretakenwhencause-effectrelationshipsarenotyetfullyestablished scientifically, andmodifiedwhenmore knowledgebecomes available.409 Last but notleast, theMS need to develop a program of measures designed to achieve or maintain GES by2020.410 Another obligation imposed by theMSFD on theMS relates to regional cooperation.411

400Art.5(2)(a)(i)MSFD;T.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,68.401Art.5(2)(a)(ii)MSFD.402Art.5(2)(a)(iii)MSFD.403 Art. 5(2)(a)(iv) MSFD; OECD,OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Sweden, 2014, 155,https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/oecd-environmental-performance-reviews-sweden-2014_9789264213715-en#page1.404 Art. 13(3) MSFD; OECD, OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Sweden, 2014, 155,https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/oecd-environmental-performance-reviews-sweden-2014_9789264213715-en#page1.405 Art. 1(3)MSFD; T.MARKUS, S. SCHALKE and N.MAIER, “Legal Implementation of IntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,68.406T.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,90.407 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?TheCaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,52–53.408T.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,90.409Preamblenr.44oftheMSFD;F.M.PLATJOUW,“MarineSpatialPlanningintheNorthSea–AreNational Policies and Legal Structures Compatible Enough? The Case of Norway and theNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,52.410Art.5(2)(b)(i)MSFD;F.M.PLATJOUW,“MarineSpatialPlanningintheNorthSea–AreNational

58

Moreover,theMSFDrequiresthatMScooperateandcoordinatetheiractivitiesonaregionalscale,evenwiththirdcountrieslocatedinthesamemarineregionofsubregion.412

157. For the development of OWFs, there is one article that deserves some more explanation. Itconcernsarticle14(1)MSFDwhichcontainsthecircumstancesunderwhichaMScandeviatefromthe target to achievegoodenvironmental statusby2020. Theplanningand installationofOWFscan fallwithin the scopeof theexceptionsdue to the fact thatMSmaydeviatewhen there aremodifications or alterations to the physical characteristics of marine waters brought about byactionstakenforreasonsofoverridingpublicinterestwhichoutweighthenegativeimpactontheenvironmentexist.413TheexceptioncanapplytotheplanningandestablishmentofOWFsbecausethey can contribute to a reduction of GHGs, which falls under a reason of overriding publicinterest.414

158. Due to the generic terminology, such as the concept of GES, the success of the MSFD mainlydependsonhowwelltheMSimplementtheMSFDprovisionsintonationallaw.415Inaddition,thesuccesslikelyalsodependsonimprovedregionalcooperationanddatasharing.416

3.3.2.5.MarineSpatialPlanning(MSP)

A.Definition

159. MSPiskeytoenhancingoffshorewinddevelopment,butitsimportancegoesfarbeyonditsrolein

supporting and facilitating the development of the offshore renewable energy industry.417 TheconceptwasfirstusedinAustraliaforthemanagementoftheGreatBarrierReef,andwasadaptedtoamoremulti-disciplinaryapproachbytheGAUFREproject.418The latter isnowadaysusedasaglobalstandard.419

PoliciesandLegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?TheCaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,50–51. 411 Arts. 3(9) and 6(2)MSFD; F.M. PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in the North Sea – AreNational Policies and Legal Structures Compatible Enough? The Case of Norway and theNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,42.412Art.6(2)MSFD.413Art.14(1)(d)MSFD;T.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,83.414T.MARKUS,S.SCHALKEandN.MAIER,“LegalImplementationofIntegratedOceanPolicies:TheEU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,83.415 OECD, OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Sweden, 2014, 155, https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/oecd-environmental-performance-reviews-sweden-2014_9789264213715-en#page1.416Ibid.417 M. YOUNG, “Building the Blue Economy: The Role of Marine Spatial Planning in FacilitatingOffshoreRenewableEnergyDevelopment”,IJMCL2015,172.418F.DOUVERE,“Marieneruimtelijkeplanning:vandeUniversiteitGentnaaralleuithoekenvande

59

160. The reasons for the MSP’s key role are the following. First of all, MSP provides stability, legalcertainty,predictability,transparencyandclarityforinvestors.420Inaddition,itcanbringdownthecostsofwindenergyandreducethecapitalcoststhroughanoptimumintegrationofOWFsintothemarine environment.421 In other words, good site location will help developers to avoid costlyinvestments in inappropriate sites.422 Thirdly, MSP brings about the increased coordination andimproved cooperation between states in the EU or between countries in a specific geographicalarea,specificallywithregardtocabling,pipelines,shippinglanes,andOWFs.423

161. Assuch,MSPneeds tobeapproachedasaholisticand transboundaryprocess.424Transboundarycooperation is considered a necessary component of effective MSP especially for the sake ofimplementing an ecosystem-based approach.425 Such an approach is critical with regard to theeliminationorminimizationofnegativeeffectsonsensitivehabitats.426Associatedwith this,MSPcanbeusedtomapthediverseusageoftheseaandtheseabottomandhowthisusageaffectsthemarineenvironment.427

wereld”, in A. CLIQUET and F. MAES (eds.), Recht door zee: hedendaags internationaal zee- enmaritiemrecht:liberamicorumEddySomers,Antwerpen,Maklu,2015,43-44.419Ibid.420WINDEUROPE,OffshoreWindEnergyintheNorthSea:industryrecommendationsfortheNorthSeas Energy Forum, 2017, 9, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/policy/position-papers/WindEurope-Offshore-wind-energy-in-the-north-sea.pdf;F.M.PLATJOUW,“MarineSpatialPlanning in the North Sea – Are National Policies and Legal Structures Compatible Enough? TheCaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,55.421WINDEUROPE,OffshoreWindEnergyintheNorthSea:industryrecommendationsfortheNorthSeas Energy Forum, 2017, 9, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/policy/position-papers/WindEurope-Offshore-wind-energy-in-the-north-sea.pdf.422H.STENHANSEN,“ObstaclesforWindEnergyDevelopmentduetoEUlegislation”,ResearchGate2011,19.423J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,250-251.424H.STENHANSEN,“ObstaclesforWindEnergyDevelopmentduetoEUlegislation”,ResearchGate2011, 32; N. SOININEN, “Marine spatial planning in the European Union”, in D. HASSAN, T.KUOKKANEN and N. SOININEN (eds.), Transboundary Marine Spatial Planning and InternationalLaw,NewYork,Routledge,2015,190.425J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,237.426H.STENHANSEN,“ObstaclesforWindEnergyDevelopmentduetoEUlegislation”,ResearchGate2011,19.427J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,250-251.

60

162. Thus,theMScanprovideahighlevelofenvironmentalprotectionthroughtheadoptionofMSP.428Marine spatial planning is therefore crucial in the context of wind energy from a natureconservationpointofview.429ThroughMSP,MemberStatescanalsoexplorevariousalternativesandgetthepublicandotherstakeholdersinvolvedveryearlyoninthedecision-makingprocess.430Furthermore, other sea users already occupy many attractive zones for OWFs, and workingtogetherwiththeseuserscanavoidconflictsandcreatesynergiesinordertousethespacethatisleftasoptimalaspossible.431

163. Marine spatial planning is often described as an integrated, policy-based approach to theregulation, management and protection of the marine environment, including the allocation ofspace, which addresses the multiple, cumulative and potentially conflicting uses of the sea andtherebyfacilitatessustainabledevelopment.432

164. The first official definition was created by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission ofUNESCO(IOC-UNESCO)anddefinedMSPasapublicprocessofanalysingandallocatingthespatialandtemporaldistributionofhumanactivitiesinmarineareastoachieveecological,economic,andsocial objectives that are usually specified through a political process.433 Nowadays, theinternationalcommunitygenerallyacceptsthisdefinition.434ThedefinitionintheMaritimeSpatialPlanning Directive is more rudimentary and explains MSP as a process by which the relevantauthoritiesoftheMSanalyseandorganizehumanactivitiesinmarineareastoachieveecological,economicandsocialobjectives.435

165. Inordertobesuccessfulamaritimespatialplanneedstofulfilseveralconditionsandgothroughthreestagesthatneedtobeconductedinacontinuous,iterativeandadaptiveway.436

428 N. SOININEN and D. HASSEN, “Marine spatial planning as an instrument of sustainablegovernance”,inD.HASSAN,T.KUOKKANENandN.SOININEN(eds.),TransboundaryMarineSpatialPlanningandInternationalLaw,NewYork,Routledge,2015,4.429H.STENHANSEN,“ObstaclesforWindEnergyDevelopmentduetoEUlegislation”,ResearchGate2011,19.430J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,250-251.431A.M.O’HAGAN,“RegulationandPlanninginSeaBasins-NEAtlantic”,inK.JOHNSON,G.DALTONand I.MASTERS (eds.),Building IndustriesatSea: ‘BlueGrowth’and theNewMaritimeEconomy,Denmark,RiverPublishers,2018,327.432 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,34–35. 433F.DOUVERE,“Marieneruimtelijkeplanning:vandeUniversiteitGentnaaralleuithoekenvandewereld”, in A. CLIQUET and F. MAES (eds.), Recht door zee: hedendaags internationaal zee- enmaritiemrecht:liberamicorumEddySomers,Antwerpen,Maklu,2015,49.434Ibid.435Art.3(2)MaritimeSpatialPlanningDirective.436F.MAESandJ.SPEYS,“Ruimtelijkeplanningopzee:waarBelgiëgoedinis”,DeGroteRede2014,

61

166. Firstly, there is the planning and analysis phase whereby the protection, enhancement andsustainableuseandthedevelopmentof theareaneedstobeexamined.437Duringthisstage, theMSneedtopayattentiontothefactthattheirmarinespatialplansneedtobebasedasmuchaspossibleonscientificresearchaboutthemarineenvironmentandtheprobableimpactsofseveralmarineactivities.438

167. The second phase concerns the implementation of the plan, which is performed by executingplanned work and investments, encouragement, and through regulations, incentives andenforcements of the proposed changes and on-going activities, both on and below the seasurface.439 In thiscontext,anorganizationor legalentitywith theauthority tounite the involvedgovernments needs to be appointed in order to facilitate a systematic and result-orienteddebate.440WithoutaclearpoliticalmandatealotofgoodintentionsrelatedtoMSPstrandbeforethey get executed due to a continuous debate about the division of competences between thedifferentdepartmentsoftheinvolvedministries.441

168. Thirdly, there is the monitoring and evaluation stage during which the MS need to assess theeffectivenessoftheplaninordertodeterminethepossibleimprovements,andtoestablishreviewandadaptionprocedures.442Thus,maritimespatialplansneedtobepartofacontinuouswill forimprovement,whichtakesintoaccountnewsocietalchallenges.443

21;J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,251.437J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,251.438F.MAESandJ.SPEYS,“Ruimtelijkeplanningopzee:waarBelgiëgoedinis”,DeGroteRede2014,21; F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,419. 439J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,251.440F.MAESandJ.SPEYS,“Ruimtelijkeplanningopzee:waarBelgiëgoedinis”,DeGroteRede2014,21.441 F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,418. 442J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,251.443Ibid.

62

169. Themonitoringprocessneedstocomprisetheimpactsoftheexistingandnewactivitiesatseaandthemaritime spatial plan itself.444 The evaluation stage reflects the adaptive aspect of theMSPsince the results of the evaluation are fed back to the first stage of planning and analysis, afterwhichtheprocessrestarts.445TosustaintheadaptiveaspectoftheMSPitisnecessarytoestablishacontinuousfinancingmechanism.446

170. Intheend,theMSPmustbetheresultofatransparentandparticipatoryprocess,whichtakesintoaccountthefuturechallenges.447Thus,thefinaldecisiononwhatusagewillbeassignedtodifferentareaswillbeamatterofsocietalchoice.448

B.TheMaritimeSpatialPlanningDirective(MSPD)449

171. In 2008, the EU adopted MSP as a policy objective, which resulted in 2014 in a Directive thatestablished a framework formaritime spatial planning.450 TheMSPDwas designed to implementthe Integrated Maritime Policy in the EU.451 The MSPD recognized the increasing demand formaritimespacefordifferentpurposes,aswellasthemultiplepressuresoncoastalresourcesandacknowledgedtheneedforanintegratedplanningandmanagementapproach.452

444F.MAESandJ.SPEYS,“Ruimtelijkeplanningopzee:waarBelgiëgoedinis”,DeGroteRede2014,21.445F.MAESandJ.SPEYS,“Ruimtelijkeplanningopzee:waarBelgiëgoedinis”,DeGroteRede2014,21;J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,251.446J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,251.447F.MAESandJ.SPEYS,“Ruimtelijkeplanningopzee:waarBelgiëgoedinis”,DeGroteRede2014,21.448J.F.LINDGREN,K.ANDERSSONandH.LANDQUIST,“Infrastructure,MarineSpatialPlanningandShipwrecks”, in K. ANDERSSON, S. BRYNOLF, J. F. LINDGREN and M. WILEWSKA-BIEN (eds.),Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation,Berlin,Springer,2016,251.449Directive2014/89/EUoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof23July2014establishingaframeworkformaritimespatialplanning,OJL257,28August2014,135.450 F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,418.451N.SOININEN,“Marinespatialplanning in theEuropeanUnion”, inD.HASSAN,T.KUOKKANENandN.SOININEN(eds.),TransboundaryMarineSpatialPlanningandInternationalLaw,NewYork,Routledge,2015,190.452 Preamble (13) MSPD; M. YOUNG, “Building the Blue Economy: The Role of Marine SpatialPlanninginFacilitatingOffshoreRenewableEnergyDevelopment”,IJMCL2015,150.

63

172. Toachievethis,theMSPDrecommendedatransboundaryandintegratedapproachwithregardtoMSPwhichshouldcontributetotheeffectivemanagementofmarineactivitiesandthesustainableuse of the existing marine and coastal resources, by creating a framework for consistent,transparent,sustainableandevidence-baseddecision-making.453

173. TheEuropeanCommissionemphasizedthateventhoughagreatdealofMSPcouldbeachievedatthe national level, it considered it important to pursue action at EU level to achieve a coherentframeworkforMSPwithintheEU.454Pastexperiencehasdemonstratedthatthesectorialapproachtomanagingdifferentmarineactivitiesisnotachievingthebalancedandresponsibledevelopmentthatisneededfromasustainabilityperspective.455

174. A common approach would therefore enable a more comprehensive application of MSP in atransboundarycontext.Assuch,theECtriestobalancethetwooverarchinggoalsofMSP,namelytheallocationofspacetodifferentmarineusersandtheprotectionofthemarineenvironment.456

175. TheMSPDonlyappliestomarinewaters,andnottocoastalwaters,whichlimitsthescopeoftheEU-wideapplicationofMSPmostlytotheEEZoftheMS.457ThescopeofthesubjectsthatneedtobeaddressedbytheMSintheirmarinespatialplansextendstotheinfrastructureassociatedwithenergy installations,aquacultureareas, fishingareas,maritime transport routesand traffic flows,military training areas, nature and species conservation sites and protected areas, rawmaterialextractionareas,scientific research, tourism,andunderwaterculturalheritage.Thus, thecontentofthemarinespatialplansisusuallyquiteextensive.458

453 Preamble (9)MSPD;R. LONG, “HarnessingOffshoreWindEnergy: LegalChallengesandPolicyConundrumsintheEuropeanUnion”,IJMCL2014,708. 454Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocial Committee and the Committee of the Regions – Maritime Spatial Planning in the EU –AchievementsandFutureDevelopment,Brussels,17December2010,COM(2010)771final.455 M. YOUNG, “Building the Blue Economy: The Role of Marine Spatial Planning in FacilitatingOffshoreRenewableEnergyDevelopment”,IJMCL2015,155.456Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocial Committee and the Committee of the Regions – Maritime Spatial Planning in the EU –Achievements and Future Development, Brussels, 17 December 2010, COM(2010) 771 final; M.YOUNG, “Building theBlueEconomy:TheRoleofMarineSpatialPlanning inFacilitatingOffshoreRenewableEnergyDevelopment”,IJMCL2015,155.457Art.2(1)MSPD;N.SOININEN,“MarinespatialplanningintheEuropeanUnion”,inD.HASSAN,T.KUOKKANEN and N. SOININEN (eds.), Transboundary Marine Spatial Planning and InternationalLaw,NewYork,Routledge,2015,191.458 Directive 2002/59/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 June 2002establishingaCommunityvessel trafficmonitoringand informationsystemand repealingCouncilDirective93/75/EEC,OJL208,5August2002,10;Directive2014/89/EUoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof23July2014establishingaframeworkformaritimespatialplanning,OJL257,28 August 2014, 135; A. CHIRCOP and P. L’ESPERANCE, “Functional Interactions and MaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodationOfOffshoreWindFarmsandInternationalNavigationandShipping”,OceanYearbook2016,455.

64

176. TheMSPDrequiresfromtheMStoestablishandimplementtheirmarinespatialplan(s),assoonaspossible,andatthelatestby31March2021.459Itshouldbenotedthatthetimelinesforthemarinespatial plans were drafted to be as compatible as possible with the timetables set out in otherrelevantlegislation,suchastheMSFD.460

177. TheMSPDcontainsanumberofminimumrequirements related to themaritime spatialplans.461Firstofall,theMSneedtoensuretheinvolvementofstakeholdersandorganizetheuseofthebestavailabledata.462 Inaddition, cooperationamongMemberStatesandwith thirdcountries shouldbe part of the planning and management process in order to tackle issues of a transboundarynature.463

178. Thiscanbequitechallengingandrequirescarefulnegotiationswithregardtopolicyprioritiesandregulatorypracticeswithineach jurisdiction.464 In this context,draftinga transboundaryMSPhasmorechancetosucceedifthepolicyandlegislativestructuresanddiscoursesintheneighbouringjurisdictions are compatible.465 Thus, successful transboundary MSP mainly depends on thewillingnessofthecoastalstatestoconsidereachother’snationalpolicyprioritiesinexercisingtheirsovereigntyandsovereignrightsandtoadjustthemtowardscommongoalsforthebenefitofthewhole region.466However, theplanningdetails anddeterminationofmanagementobjectivesarelefttotheMemberStates.

179. AcriticalnoteregardingtheregionalcooperationobligationintheMSPDrelatestothefactthattheMSPD does not create new coordinating bodies or structures to harmonize the regionalcooperation.467 Instead theMSPD delegates the coordination of the cooperation to the existingregionalseaconventions,withoutspecifyingthetangibleroleoftheseregionalinstitutions.468

459Art.15(3)MSPD.460 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?TheCaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,53. 461Arts.6and8MSPD.462Arts.6(2)(d)and6(2)(e)MSPD.463Art.6(2)(g)MSPD;F.M.PLATJOUW,“MarineSpatialPlanning in theNorthSea–AreNationalPoliciesandLegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?TheCaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,57.464N.SOININEN,“Marinespatialplanning in theEuropeanUnion”, inD.HASSAN,T.KUOKKANENandN.SOININEN(eds.),TransboundaryMarineSpatialPlanningandInternationalLaw,NewYork,Routledge,2015,191.465 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,36–37.466Ibid.467R.LONG,“HarnessingOffshoreWindEnergy:LegalandChallengesandPolicyConundrumsintheEuropeanUnion”,IJMCL2014,710-711;F.M.PLATJOUW,“MarineSpatialPlanningintheNorthSea– Are National Policies and Legal Structures Compatible Enough? The case of Norway and theNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,36–37.468Art.11(2)(a)MSPD.

65

180. Moreover,theMSPDdoesnotprescribeindetailhowcooperationmechanismsonspatialplanningshouldlookorworkinpractice.469ThisunderminesthecompetitivenessinthewindenergysectorandthebenefitsthatcouldderivefromtheoffshorewindpowerasaEuropeanresource.470

181. In relation to the North Sea, however, it is likely that thiswill not cause any problems becauseregionalcooperationinMSPismoreadvancedinthisregion.471Itisrelevanttonotethataforumwassetupunderthename‘NorthSeasEnergyForum’.472Itbringstogetherrepresentativesofthepublic,privateandnon-governmental sectors fromtheNorthSeaCountries todiscusschallengesandopportunitiesforregionalcooperationinenergytopics,andspecificallyforthedeploymentanduseofoffshorewindenergy.473

182. EventhoughtheMSPDrequiresthecooperationwiththirdcountriesaswell,thereisnojointworkintheframeworkoftheMSPD.474

183. Anothernegativeaspectof theMSPD is that isdoesnotharmonisethescaleor levelofplanningwhich can have a negative effect on the overall level of integration of sectorial policies andcooperation betweenmember states.475 This can undermine the advantages identifiedwithMSPevenmore.476

184. SeveralUNCLOSprovisionswillalso influencetheregionalcooperationwithregardtoMSP intheNorth Sea.477 It concerns the provisions about the designation of sea lanes, the prescription oftrafficseparationschemes,consentonthedelineationofthecourseforthelayingofthepipelineson the continental shelf and themeasures toprotect andpreserve rareor fragile ecosystemsaswellasthehabitatofdepleted,threatenedorendangeredspeciesandotherformsofmarinelife.478

469R.LONG,“HarnessingOffshoreWindEnergy:LegalandChallengesandPolicyConundrumsintheEuropeanUnion”,IJMCL2014,710-711.470Ibid.471 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?TheCaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,58–59.472 Political Declaration on energy cooperation between theNorth Seas Countries, Luxemburg, 6June2016.473WINDEUROPE,OffshoreWindEnergyintheNorthSea:industryrecommendationsfortheNorthSeas Energy Forum, 2017, 6, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/policy/position-papers/WindEurope-Offshore-wind-energy-in-the-north-sea.pdf. 474 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?TheCaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,78. 475N.SOININEN,“Marinespatialplanning in theEuropeanUnion”, inD.HASSAN,T.KUOKKANENandN.SOININEN(eds.),TransboundaryMarineSpatialPlanningandInternationalLaw,NewYork,Routledge,2015,191.476 Ibid.477 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,41–42.478Arts.2,17,56and77UNCLOS.

66

185. There are also measures that can strengthen the implementation and success of the MSPD. Itconcerns for example the adoption of a geographic information system (GIS) datamanagementsystem.Thankstothissystemitwouldbepossibletotakeotherseausersanddevelopmentplansintoaccount,whichwouldallowthedesignationofthemostefficientareasandthereforereducetheoffshorewinddevelopmentcosts.479GoodmarinedatamanagementatEUlevelwillbekeytosupporteffectiveMSP.480

186. Another measure that could strengthen MSP is the strategic environmental and projectassessment,whichwillnotbediscussedinthisanalysis.

3.3.2.6.Habitats-andBirdsDirectives:Natura2000

187. UNCLOS is additionally concernedwith the protection of themarine environment, onwhich the

offshore energy sector has a major impact. While UNCLOS does not limit the extent of theexploitation of non-living energy resources, the Convention does stipulate that there is anobligationtoprevent,reduceandcontrolpollutionofthemarineenvironment.481Contrarytothedutieswith regard to living resources, there is thusnodutyofconservation,noranobligation toutilizetheseresourcessustainably.482

188. European instruments such as the Habitats- and Birds Directives, however, provide a stricterframework fornatureconservationandneeds tobe taken intoaccountduring the lifecycleofanOWF. The geographical scope of the Habitats and Birds Directives extends to the waters underjurisdiction of theMS and thewaterswhere theMS exercise their sovereign rights.483 Thus, theDirectives do not only apply to internal waters and the territorial sea, but also to the exclusiveeconomiczoneandthecontinentalshelf.484TheprovisionsoftheseDirectivesthereforealsohaveanimpactontheinstallationofanOWF.

479WINDEUROPE,OffshoreWindEnergyintheNorthSea:industryrecommendationsfortheNorthSeas Energy Forum, 2017, 10, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/policy/position-papers/WindEurope-Offshore-wind-energy-in-the-north-sea.pdf.480Ibid.481A.E.BERESFORD,G.M.BUCHANAN,F. J. SANDERSON,R. JEFFERSONandP.F.DONALD, “TheContributions of the EU Nature Directives to the CBD and Other Multilateral EnvironmentalAgreements”,ConservationLetters2016,486.482 C. REDGWELL, “Mind the Gap in the GAIRS: The Role of Other Instruments in LOSC RegimeImplementationintheOffshoreEnergySector”,IJMCL2014,602.483M.C.RIBEIRO,“TheProtectionofBiodiversityintheFrameworkoftheCommonFisheriesPolicy:WhatRoomfortheSharedCompetence?”,inG.ANDREONE(ed.),TheFutureoftheLawoftheSea:Bridging Gaps Between National, Individual and Common Interests, Springer InternationalPublishing,2017,68.484Ibid.

67

189. TheHabitats-andBirdsDirectivesareameansbywhichtheEuropeanUnionmeetsitsobligationsundertheBernConventionandBonnConvention.485Theyareconsideredtobethecornerstonesofthe EU’s biodiversity policy and form the legal bases for the implementationof theNatura2000Network.486ThelatterisacoherentEuropeanecologicalnetworkofprotectedareascalled“specialprotectionareas”undertheBirdsDirective,and“specialareasofconservation”undertheHabitatsDirective.487 The most important legal consequence of the designation of sites under theseDirectivesisthattheconditionorqualityoftheseprotectedareasshouldnotdeteriorate.488

190. AsaconsequencethereofMSneedtoassessthe implicationsoftheirplansandprojectsthatarelikelytohaveasignificanteffectontheseprotectedareas.489TohelptheMS,theECpublishedaninstructionmanualgiving interpretativeandmethodologicalguidanceonhowtoconductsuchanassessment.490 The assessment process consists of four phases including the description of theelementsoftheproject,theconservationobjectives,theeffectsonthemainspeciesandhabitats,and the possible corrective measures.491 If scientific doubts arise during the process, theprecautionaryprinciplehastobeapplied.492However,evenwhentheMSconcludethattheactivitycausesenvironmentaldamage,theymayauthorizetheprojectiftherearenoalternativesolutionsor if there are overriding reasons of public interest, although in that eventMS are obligated tocreateorimproveanotherhabitatelsewhereasacompensatingmeasure.493

485A.E.BERESFORD,G.M.BUCHANAN,F. J. SANDERSON,R. JEFFERSONandP.F.DONALD, “TheContributions of the EU Nature Directives to the CBD and Other Multilateral EnvironmentalAgreements”,ConservationLetters2016,486.486 H. REERS, S. HARTMANN, J. HURST and R. BRINKMANN, “Bat Activity at Nacelle Height OverForest”,inJ.KÖPPEL(ed.),WindEnergyandWildlifeInteractions:PresentationsfromtheCWW2015Conference,Berlin,Springer,2017,83.487M.C.RIBEIRO,“TheProtectionofBiodiversityintheFrameworkoftheCommonFisheriesPolicy:WhatRoomfortheSharedCompetence?”,inG.ANDREONE(ed.),TheFutureoftheLawoftheSea:Bridging Gaps Between National, Individual and Common Interests, Springer InternationalPublishing,2017,67.488Art.6.2HabitatisDirective;art.4.4BirdsDirective;F.M.PLATJOUW,“MarineSpatialPlanningintheNorthSea–AreNationalPoliciesandLegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,49.489 F.M.PLATJOUW, “Marine Spatial Planning in theNorth Sea–AreNational Policies and LegalStructuresCompatibleEnough?ThecaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,49.490 Arts. 6(3) and 6(4) of the Habitats Directive; DG ENVIRONMENT, Assessment of plans andprojects significantly affecting Natura 2000 sites. Methodological guidance on the provisions ofArticle6(3)and(4)oftheHabitatsDirective92/43/EEC,November2001.491 See DG ENVIRONMENT, Assessment of plans and projects significantly affecting Natura 2000sites.Methodological guidance on the provisions of Article 6(3) and (4) of theHabitatsDirective92/43/EEC,November2001.492E.J.MARTÍNEZPÉREZ,“TheEnvironmentalLegalFrameworkfortheDevelopmentofBlueEnergyin Europe”, in G. ANDREONE (ed.), The Future of the Law of the Sea: Bridging Gaps betweenNational,IndividualandCommonInterests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,140.493Ibid.

68

191. ThemainaimoftheHabitatsDirectiveistopromotethemaintenanceofbiodiversity.494Inordertoachievethis,theMSneedtotakemeasurestomaintainorrestorenaturalhabitatsandwildspecieslisted in the Annexes to the Habitats Directive at a favourable conservation status, introducingrobustprotectionforthosehabitatsandspeciesofEuropeanimportance.Inaddition,theHabitatsDirectiveestablishedaselectiveprotectionrestrictedtothenaturalhabitats listedinAnnexI,thehabitatsofspecies listed inAnnex II,andthespecies listed inAnnexes IVandV. It isstrikingthatprotection of the biodiversity related to the open and deep seas is under-represented in theseAnnexes.495 A revision of the Interpretation Manual of the European Union Habitats, however,made itpossible toextendscopeofapplicationofAnnex Iof theHabitatsDirective to importantdeepseaecosystems.496

192. Furthermore, the Habitats Directive states that it is prohibited for anyMS to deliberately kill ordisturb species in Annex IV.497 This is especially important for the offshore wind industry sinceoffshore wind turbines typically tend to interfere with the habitats of birds, bats and marinemammals.498 It is thus a legal obligation in Europe to avoid or at least reduce the bat and birdmortalitybywindfarmstoaminimum.499Fortheprotectionofthemarinehabitatsmentionedinthe Habitats Directive, it is necessary to avoid the Natura 2000 sites when planning the OWFactivitiesandlocations.500

193. TheBirdsDirective provides a framework for the conservation andmanagement ofwild birds inEuropeandpossiblehumaninteractionswiththosebirds.501ItisrelevanttonotethateventhoughtheBirdsDirectivecontainsseveralobjectives forawiderangeofactivities, theMSmaintain thediscretiontoprecisethelegalmechanismstoachievetheseobjectives.

194. Overall, there are mainly three categories of birds that occur in the North Sea region and getprotectionundertheBirdsDirective.502 494CouncilDirective92/43/EECof21May1992ontheconservationofnaturalhabitatsandofwildfaunaandflora,OJL206,22July1992,7.495M.C.RIBEIRO,“TheProtectionofBiodiversityintheFrameworkoftheCommonFisheriesPolicy:WhatRoomfortheSharedCompetence?”,inG.ANDREONE(ed.),TheFutureoftheLawoftheSea:Bridging Gaps Between National, Individual and Common Interests, Springer InternationalPublishing,2017,69.496Ibid.497Arts.12and13oftheHabitatsDirective.498M.PLATTEEUW,J.BAKKER, I.VANDENBOSCH,A.ERKMAN,M.GRAAFLAND,S.LUBBEandM.WARNAS,“AFrameworkforAssessingEcologicalandCumulativeEffects(FAECE)ofOffshoreWindFarmsonBirds,Bats andMarineMammals in the SouthernNorth Sea”, in J. KÖPPEL (ed.),WindEnergy andWildlife Interactions: Presentations from the CWW2015 Conference, Berlin, Springer,2017,223.499Ibid.500Ibid. 501CouncilDirective79/409/EECof2April1979ontheconservationofwildbirds,OJL103,25April1979,1.502M.PLATTEEUW,J.BAKKER, I.VANDENBOSCH,A.ERKMAN,M.GRAAFLAND,S.LUBBEandM.

69

195. Firstofall,therearetheseabirds,whichspendalltheirtimeatseaoutsidethebreedingseason.503Thesecondcategoryconsistsofcoastalbirds,whichliveyear-roundonthecoastforbreedingandrestingpurposes,butflydailyovertheNorthSea.504Then,therearealsothemigratoryandwaterbirds,whichmigrate seasonally along theNorth Sea shores or cross theNorth Sea between theEuropean continent and theBritish Isles.505 These three categories should be taken into accountwhenassessingtheimpactofOWFs.

196. Themain pressures onwildlife causedbyOWFs are underwater soundpulses frompiling duringconstruction,andhabitatlossandcollisionsduringoperation.506ThetwolastpressuresarepartofthethreewaysthroughwhichtheOWFsnegativelyaffectthebirdsandbats.ThefirstimpactthusrelatestothelossofhabitatinthesensethatsomespeciestendtoavoidtheOWFareasastheynolonger‘recognize’anOWFaspartoftheirhabitatandaredisplacedfromtheseareas.507Secondly,thereistheadditionalenergyexpenditure.508DuetothefactthatOWFsintersectwithforagingandmigration routes, several bird species are forced to fly around them.509 In the context of thesouthern North Sea, however, this effect is believed to be minimal.510 Then there is also theadditional mortality by collision because species flying through OWF areas run a higher risk ofcollisionandmortality.511

197. TheactivitiesofbatsaroundOWFshavebeenmonitoredthelastfewyearsandtheresultsstatedthattheirpresencearoundOWFsismorefrequentandregularthanpreviouslyassumed.512Batsareusuallypresentatover85kmfromtheshore,whichsuggestsseasonalmigrationacrosstheNorthSea.513

WARNAS,“AFrameworkforAssessingEcologicalandCumulativeEffects(FAECE)ofOffshoreWindFarmsonBirds,Bats andMarineMammals in the SouthernNorth Sea”, in J. KÖPPEL (ed.),WindEnergy andWildlife Interactions: Presentations from the CWW2015 Conference, Berlin, Springer,2017,224.503Ibid.504Ibid.505Ibid.506Ibid.507SeeJNCC,SeabirdDisplacementImpactsfromOffshoreWindFarms:reportoftheMROG,2015,http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/568_web.pdf.508 A. D. FOX, M. DESHOLM, J. KAHLERT, T. KJAER CHRISTENSEN and I. KRAG PETERSEN,“InformationneedstosupportenvironmentalimpactassessmentoftheeffectsofEuropeanmarineoffshorewindfarmsonbirds”,Ibis2006,129.509Ibid.510M.PLATTEEUW,J.BAKKER, I.VANDENBOSCH,A.ERKMAN,M.GRAAFLAND,S.LUBBEandM.WARNAS,“AFrameworkforAssessingEcologicalandCumulativeEffects(FAECE)ofOffshoreWindFarmsonBirds,Bats andMarineMammals in the SouthernNorth Sea”, in J. KÖPPEL (ed.),WindEnergy andWildlife Interactions: Presentations from the CWW2015 Conference, Berlin, Springer,2017,224.511Ibid.512Ibid.513M.PLATTEEUW,J.BAKKER, I.VANDENBOSCH,A.ERKMAN,M.GRAAFLAND,S.LUBBEandM.

70

198. InordertoprotectthespeciesandhabitatsinlinewiththeaforementioneddirectivesintheNorth

Sea,theMSneedtotakeeffectivepreventionandmitigationmeasures.514Thesemeasuresshouldeffectively ensure that cumulative effects on species are not putting the species’ conservationstatus orNatura 2000- site objectives at risk.515 TheMS can implement themitigationmeasuresthrough conditions on permits for OWFs, which can include restrictions on the maximumunderwater noise levels during construction.516 The latter canbe tackledby using sound screensand/orbubblecurtains.517Anotherpossibilityistoincreasetheminimumcapacityoftheindividualwindturbines,therebyinstallingalesseramountofturbinesintheOWF.518Moreover,thepermitscanimposetheobligationtoturntheturbinesofforslowthemdownduringintensivebirdorbatmigrationseasons.519 Lastly,a careful selectionofOWF locationscanenhance thehabitatqualitywithinthegeographicalrangeoftheimpactedspecies.520

199. TherelationbetweentheHabitatsandBirdsDirectiveandtheMSFDneedstobeaddressedaswell,specificallywithregardtotherelationbetweenarticle14(1)(d)oftheMSFDandarticle6(3)(4)andarticle7of theHabitatsDirective.The formerstipulates thepossibleexemptions todeviate fromtheGESandisparticularly importantfortheestablishmentofOWFs.TheaforementionedarticlesoftheHabitatsDirectivedescribetherequiredassessmentwithregardtoplansorprojectsthatarelikelytohaveasignificanteffectontheprotectedsitesandthepossibleexceptions.Iftheintegrityof a site is adversely affected and there are no feasible alternative solutions, then the plans orprojectscanonlybecarriedoutforimperativereasonsofoverridingpublicinterest.521Inaddition,this is only possible as long as the overall coherence of the Natura 2000 network is protectedthroughadequatecompensatorymeasures.522

WARNAS,“AFrameworkforAssessingEcologicalandCumulativeEffects(FAECE)ofOffshoreWindFarmsonBirds,Bats andMarineMammals in the SouthernNorth Sea”, in J. KÖPPEL (ed.),WindEnergy andWildlife Interactions: Presentations from the CWW2015 Conference, Berlin, Springer,2017,224.514M.PLATTEEUW,J.BAKKER, I.VANDENBOSCH,A.ERKMAN,M.GRAAFLAND,S.LUBBEandM.WARNAS,“AFrameworkforAssessingEcologicalandCumulativeEffects(FAECE)ofOffshoreWindFarmsonBirds,Bats andMarineMammals in the SouthernNorth Sea”, in J. KÖPPEL (ed.),WindEnergy andWildlife Interactions: Presentations from the CWW2015 Conference, Berlin, Springer,2017,219-220.515Ibid.516Ibid.517Ibid.518Ibid.519Ibid.520Ibid.,228.521Art.6(4)HabitatsDirective.522X,LinksbetweentheMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective(MSFD2008/56/EC)andtheNatureDirectives(BirdsDirective2009/147/EEC(BD)andHabitatsDirective92/43/EEC(HD)):Interactions,overlaps and potential areas for closer coordination, 2012, 18,http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/marine/docs/FAQ%20final%202012-07-27.pdf.

71

200. Theoverridingpublic interestexceptionunderarticle14(1)(d)of theMSFDhas fewer safeguardsthantheexceptionstipulatedintheHabitatsDirective.523Inthiscontext,theEChasstatedthattheMSFD exceptions cannot take precedence over article 6 of the Habitats Directive, as the Treatyrequires that stricter provisions take precedence when more than one provision applies to thesameissue.524

3.3.3.BelgianRegulation

3.3.3.1.BelgianMSP

201. TheBelgianmarinespatialplancomprisestheterritorialsea,thecontinentalshelfandtheEEZ,asestablishedintheRoyalDecreeconcerningtheestablishmentofamarinespatialplan.525ThelegalbasefortheBelgianmarinespatialplananditsprocedureisstatedintheActontheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentof20January1999,whichtitlewaschangedbytheActof20July2012.526The environmental principles on which the Act is based are the precautionary principle, thepreventiveprinciple,theprincipleofsustainabledevelopment,thepolluterpaysprincipleandtherestorationprinciple.527

202. Theprincipleofpreventiveactionandtherestorationprinciplehavenotbeenpreviouslyexplainedinthisanalysisandarethereforeexaminedinthissection.

523X,LinksbetweentheMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective(MSFD2008/56/EC)andtheNatureDirectives(BirdsDirective2009/147/EEC(BD)andHabitatsDirective92/43/EEC(HD)):Interactions,overlaps and potential areas for closer coordination, 2012, 18,http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/marine/docs/FAQ%20final%202012-07-27.pdf.524X,LinksbetweentheMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective(MSFD2008/56/EC)andtheNatureDirectives(BirdsDirective2009/147/EEC(BD)andHabitatsDirective92/43/EEC(HD)):Interactions,overlaps and potential areas for closer coordination, 2012, 18,http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/marine/docs/FAQ%20final%202012-07-27.pdf;M.C.RIBEIRO,“TheProtectionofBiodiversity intheFrameworkoftheCommonFisheriesPolicy:WhatRoomfortheSharedCompetence?”,inG.ANDREONE(ed.),TheFutureoftheLawoftheSea:BridgingGapsBetweenNational,IndividualandCommonInterests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,73.525M.PLATTEEUW,J.BAKKER, I.VANDENBOSCH,A.ERKMAN,M.GRAAFLAND,S.LUBBEandM.WARNAS,“AFrameworkforAssessingEcologicalandCumulativeEffects(FAECE)ofOffshoreWindFarmsonBirds,Bats andMarineMammals in the SouthernNorth Sea”, in J. KÖPPEL (ed.),WindEnergy andWildlife Interactions: Presentations from the CWW2015 Conference, Springer, Berlin,2017,224.526Wet20juli2012totwijzigingvandewetvan20januari1999terbeschermingvanhetmarinemilieu in de zeegebieden onder de rechtsbevoegdheid van België, wat de organisatie van demarieneruimtelijkeplanningbetreft,BS11september2012.527Arts.3and4Wet20 januari1999 terbeschermingvanhetmarienemilieu indezeegebiedenonderderechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS13maart1999.

72

203. Thepreventiveprincipleiscloselylinkedtotheprecautionaryprincipleandtheidentificationofthedifference between the principles depends on the ‘uncertainty’ criterion.528 If the environmentaleffectsofanactivityareknown,andtheMStakesactiontoavoidtheenvironmental impact, theactionwillbedefinedasapreventativemeasure.529Ontheotherhand,iftheeffectsareuncertain,thosesamemeasurescanbelabelledasprecautionarymeasures.530Inthiscontext,itisimportantto note that the scope of the preventive principle is broader than the no-harm rule.531 TheapplicationofthepreventiveprincipleimpliesthattheMSareawareofthefactthatrestorationisnot always possible, or that restoration could be costlier than the establishment of measures,whichimpedeorreducetheriskofdamage.532

204. Therestorationprinciple involves theobligationof thepublicauthorities toactoncethedamagehasbeencaused.533Thisprincipleiscloselylinkedtothepolluterpaysprinciple,sincetheprinciplealsorequiresthatthepartywhocausedthedamage,bearsthecostsofrestoration.

205. Theoffshorewindfarmdevelopersneedtotaketheseprinciplesintoaccountduringtheiractivitiesat sea. Moreover, thegovernmentneeds to consider theseprincipleswhen it drafts themarinespatialplan.534Thisconsiderationaspectimpliesthattheprinciplesonlyserveasguidelines,whichneedtobeassessedonacase-to-casebasis.535Assuch,theMShaveabest-effortsobligationandnotanobligationofresult.536

206. However,theprecautionaryprincipleforexamplecannotbewaivedbythelicensingauthorityandneeds to be assessed by the Scientific ServiceManagementUnit of theNorth SeaMathematicalModels(MUMM).537Thisassessmentalsofitsintotheframeworkoftheadviceprocedurefollowingtheenvironmental impactassessmentconcerningtherequest forapermitof the installationandexploitationofOWFsatsea.538

528 A. TROUWBORST, “Prevention, Precaution, Logic and Law: The Relationship between thePrecautionary Principle and the Preventative Principle in International Law and AssociatedQuestions”,ErasmusLawReview2009,116.529Ibid.530Ibid.531SeeL.-A.DUVIC-PAOLI,ThePreventionPrincipleinInternationalEnvironmentalLaw,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,2018,450p.532M. CAMPINS ERITJA, L. CASADOCASADO, J. E.NIETOMORENO,A. PIGRAU SOLÉ and I. PONTCASTEJÓN(eds.),EnvironmentalLawinSpain,AHAlphenaandenRijn,WoltersKluwer,2011,32.533Ibid.534Art.4Wet20 januari1999 terbeschermingvanhetmarienemilieuen terorganisatie vandemariene ruimtelijke planning in de zeegebieden onder de rechtsbevoegdheid van België, BS 12maart1999.535 F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,420.536Ibid.537Ibid.538Ibid.

73

207. One measure that can be taken to fulfil the requirement of the precautionary principle is toobligatetheoffshorewinddevelopertoestablishcontinuousmonitoringprogrammes, inadditiontostrictconditionsinthepermit.539

208. Furthermore,theBelgiangovernmentincorporatedcertainobligationsfortheestablishmentofthemarinespatialplan.Firstandforemost,theplanneedstobetheresultofaplanningprocedureanda public inquiry.540 Secondly, the plan needs to be the subject of a strategic environmentalassessment (SEA) andneeds to provide an amendment procedure.541Moreover, the planwill beevaluatedeverysixyearsandifnecessaryitwillberevisedaftertheevaluation.Thegovernment,however, does not have towait six years to intervene and response to new developments. Thepossibilitynamelyexiststodevelopanintermediateamendmentprocedure.542

209. Inaddition,theLawforeseesseveralaspectswithrespecttocontentthatarenecessarytodevelopthemarinespatialplan.543Tostartoff,theplanneedstobebasedonaspatialanalysisoftheBPNSanddevelopalong-termvision,whichindicatesthemeasures,instrumentsandactionstoexecutethe marine spatial plan.544 The plan also needs to pursue several economic, social andenvironmental goals, in addition to safety targets with a minimum of effective objectives andreliableindicatorstoachievethedesiredgoalordesiredbehaviouralchange.545

210. Themarinespatialplanisbindingandneedstobestrictlyobserved.Adecisiontoallowanactivitywithoutapermitthatbreachestheplancanbenullifiedbythecompetentcourt.546ThankstotheRoyalDecreeconcerningtheestablishmentofthemarinespatialplananditsfourAnnexes,thereisaverydetaileddelineationoftheareasthataredesignatedtospecificactivitiesandwherecertainactivitiesareforbidden.Theallowedactivitiescanentailactivitiesthataresubjecttopermitsandthatmakeuseofthedesignatedareas.Moreover,theycanentailanactivitythatisnotthesubjectofapermitandforwhichtherehasbeennodesignationofanareabesidesrouteingmeasures.547Anexampleofsuchanon-licensedactivityisshipping.

539Ibid.540 Art. 5bis, §1Wet 20 januari 1999 ter bescherming vanhetmarienemilieu in de zeegebiedenonderderechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS13maart1999.541 Art. 5bis, §1Wet 20 januari 1999 ter bescherming vanhetmarienemilieu in de zeegebiedenonderderechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS13maart1999.542 Art. 5bis, §2Wet 20 januari 1999 ter bescherming vanhetmarienemilieu in de zeegebiedenonderderechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS13maart1999.543 F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,422.544Ibid.545 Art. 5bis, §4Wet 20 januari 1999 ter bescherming vanhetmarienemilieu in de zeegebiedenonderderechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS13maart1999.546Art.59Wet20januari1999terbeschermingvanhetmarienemilieuenterorganisatievandemariene ruimtelijke planning in de zeegebieden onder de rechtsbevoegdheid van België, BS 12maart1999.547 F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,

74

3.3.3.2.Tenders,ConcessionsandPermits

211. Under the Belgian federal system, the competence concerning energy is a shared competencewherebyeachofthethreeregionshasjurisdictionoveritsownenergypolicy,withtheexceptionofnuclearplantsandthetransmissionnetworkregulation.548While the jurisdictionof theregions isterritorial, theFederal State remains in chargeof the territorial seaand theEEZandcanon thatbasisregulatetheoffshoreactivities.549ThisexplainswhythelegalframeworkforthedevelopmentofoffshorewindparksinBelgiumissettledunderArticles6and7oftheElectricityAct.550

212. In addition, it is important to note that the zone reserved in theBPNS for offshorewind energyexploitation is setby theRoyalDecreeof17May2004.551Thedesignatedarea foroffshorewindenergy covers 270 km2 for a total capacity of 2 000MW, of which approximately 170 km² arecurrentlyalreadyoccupiedbyexistingprojects.552Atthemoment,thetenderproceduresareclosedandnineOWFshaveobtainedalicense.TheSecretaryofState,however,recentlyannouncedheisconsidering recalling the concessions granted to Northwester II, Mermaid and Seastar.553 Thisconsideration is the consequence of the low prices awarded toOWFs in theNetherlands and inGermany.554

TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,420.548Art.6,§1,VIIvandeBijzonderewetvan8augustus1980tothervormingderinstellingen,BS15augustus1980;F.VANDENDRIESSCHE (ed.),C.DEGREEF,T.DERUYTTER,W.GELDHOFandT.VANDERSTRAETEN,EnergierechtinBelgiëenVlaanderen,Brussel,Larcier,2017,28-44.549 GwH 9 juli 2013, nr. 98/2013; F. VANDENDRIESSCHE (ed.), C. DEGREEF, T. DERUYTTER, W.GELDHOFandT.VANDERSTRAETEN,EnergierechtinBelgiëenVlaanderen,Brussel,Larcier,2017,35-36.550 F. VANDENDRIESSCHE (ed.), C. DEGREEF, T. DERUYTTER, W. GELDHOF and T. VAN DERSTRAETEN,EnergierechtinBelgiëenVlaanderen,Brussel,Larcier,2017,35-36.551KB17mei2004 totwijzigingvanhet koninklijkbesluit van20december2000betreffendedevoorwaardenenprocedurevoordetoekenningvandomeinconcessiesvoordebouwenexploitatievaninstallatiesvoordeproductievanelektriciteituitwater,stromenofwinden,indezeegebiedenwaarin België rechtsmacht kan uitoefenen overeenkomstig het internationaal recht, BS 29 Juni2004;R.BRABANT,S.DEGRAERandB.RUMES,“Chapter2.OffshorewindenergydevelopmentintheBelgianpartoftheNorthSeaandanticipatedimpacts:anupdate”,inS.DEGRAER,R.BRABANTand B. RUMES (ed.),Offshore wind farms in the Belgian part of the North Sea: Heading for anunderstandingofenvironmentalimpacts,Brussels,RoyalBelgianInstituteofNaturalSciences,2012,10.552 JOINTRESEARCHCENTRE INSTITUTEFORENERGYANDTRANSPORT,Theregulatory frameworkforwindenergyinEUMemberStates.Part1oftheStudyonthesocialandeconomicvalueofwindenergy – WindValueEU, 2015, 39,http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC93792/d1_regulatory_framework_wind_energy_in_ms_march_2015%20(2).pdf.553J.-L.VANDEVOORDE,“Oostendevreestvoorsputterendeoffshoremotor”,Flows8mei2017.554Ibid.

75

213. Ifthetenderproceduresareopenedagain,itisimportantthattheoffshorewinddeveloperknowswhatkindofpermitsand licensesareneededtodevelopOWFs intheBPNS.Therearethreekeypermitsandlicensesrequiredtodeveloptheoffshorewindactivity,namelyadomainconcession,amarine protection permit, and cable permits.555 In addition, the offshorewind developer shouldkeepinmindthathisOWFneedstobeauthorizedbytheFederalMinisterofEnergywithinthreeyearsafter thenotification that the latestconcession,permitor licensehasbeengranted.556Thisobligation also applies to an OWF in a demonstration phase.557Moreover, the developer is notallowedtoshutdownasignificantpartoftheOWFformorethanoneyear,exceptintheeventoflawful,thoroughtechnicalreasonsorforcemajeure.558

A.DomainConcession

214. Pursuanttoarticle6oftheElectricityAct,theoffshorewinddeveloperneedstoacquireadomainconcession from theFederalMinisterofEnergyafteranadviseof theCREG for constructingandoperating a power plant using water, currents or wind energy within the designated marineareas.559Assuch,adomainconcessionforwinddevelopmentgrantsarighttooccupyaparcel inthe zone reserved for wind development and has as a consequence that this part of the publicdomain is no longer accessible to the public.560 Moreover, by obtaining the concession thedevelopergetsanoccupationpermissionforthedevelopmentandoperationoftheOWF,withtheexceptionoftheoffshorecables.561

555C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legal framework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,66-67.556 Art. 14, 4° KB 20 december 2000 betreffende de voorwaarden en de procedure voor detoekenningvandomeinconcessiesvoordebouwendeexploitatievaninstallatiesvoordeproductievan elektriciteit uitwater, stromenofwinden, in de zeegebiedenwaarinBelgië rechtsmacht kanuitoefenenovereenkomstighetinternationaalzeerecht,BS30december2000.557 Art. 14, 4° KB 20 december 2000 betreffende de voorwaarden en de procedure voor detoekenningvandomeinconcessiesvoordebouwendeexploitatievaninstallatiesvoordeproductievan elektriciteit uitwater, stromenofwinden, in de zeegebiedenwaarinBelgië rechtsmacht kanuitoefenenovereenkomstighetinternationaalzeerecht,BS30december2000.558 Art. 14, 5° KB 20 december 2000 betreffende de voorwaarden en de procedure voor detoekenningvandomeinconcessiesvoordebouwendeexploitatievaninstallatiesvoordeproductievan elektriciteit uitwater, stromenofwinden, in de zeegebiedenwaarinBelgië rechtsmacht kanuitoefenenovereenkomstighetinternationaalzeerecht,BS30december2000.559B.SCHUTYSER,“EstablishingOffshoreWindFarmsinBelgium:HeadlinesandBottlenecks”,inM.M.ROGGENKAMPandU.HAMMER(eds.),EuropeanEnergyLawReportI,Antwerpen,Intersentia,2004,163.560Ibid.561C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legal framework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,66-67.

76

215. Theprocedureand theconditions for theapplicationof theconcessionand for theawardof theconcessionareelaborated in theRoyalDecreeof20December2000.562 The latter specifies thattheapplicantofthepermitneedstofulfilcertainconditionsbeforehispermitisgranted,includingforexample the requirementofanadapted functional and financial structure, sufficient financialmeans, the required technical capacities and so on.563 In this context, it is relevant to note thateverypartyconcernedcanhandinanapplicationofcompetitiontoobtainadomainconcessionforthesamelocation.564

216. With regard to the procedure for the application, Article 4 of the Royal Decree of 20December2000 states that the applicant needs to hand his application to the competent Minister. In hisapplication, the applicant needs to include several personal details, a summary with the globaldescriptionoftheproject,aseparatenoteansweringalltheselectioncriteria,adetailedplanaboutthe integrationof theOWF in thedesignated area and so on.565 The involvedministries and theCREG will evaluate the application and give advice and themanager of the transmission grid isconsultedaswell.566Afterthisprocedure,theywillpresenttheMinisterofEnergyeitheraproposalofawardingthedomainconcessionorarefusaltoawardthedomainconcession.567

217. Moreover,theRoyalDecreestipulatesanothersetofcriteriathatthedeveloperneedstotakeintoaccount. These criteria include for one the conformity of the installation with the technicalregulationsregardingtheoperationof,andaccessto,thetransmissiongrid.568Thesecondcriterionconcerns the impact of the installation on previously authorised activities at sea pursuant otherlegislationorregulation.569Thirdly,thereisthecriterionconcerningthequalityoftheproject,bothtechnicallyandeconomicallyinthelightofthebestavailabletechniques.570Inaddition,thequalityofthesubmittedO&Mplanwillbeassessed.571Iftheinstallationispermanent,theassessmentwillinclude the proposal of technical and financial provisions for the treatment and removal of theinstallation.572 562 KB 20 december 2000 (hereafter Decree on Concessions) betreffende de voorwaarden en deprocedure voor de toekenning van domeinconcessies voor de bouw en de exploitatie vaninstallaties voor de productie van elektriciteit uit water, stromen of winden, in de zeegebiedenwaarin België rechtsmacht kan uitoefenen overeenkomstig het internationaal zeerecht, BS 30december2000.563Seeart.2DecreeonConcessions.564Art.7DecreeonConcessions.565Seeart.4DecreeonConcessions.566B.SCHUTYSER,“EstablishingOffshoreWindFarmsinBelgium:HeadlinesandBottlenecks”,inM.M.ROGGENKAMPandU.HAMMER(eds.),EuropeanEnergyLawReportI,Antwerpen,Intersentia,2004,163.567Ibid.568Art.3,1°DecreeonConcessions.569Art.3,2°DecreeonConcessions.570Art.3,3°DecreeonConcessions.571Art.3,4°DecreeonConcessions.572Art.3,5°DecreeonConcessions.

77

218. The lastcriterionentails the locationof theprojectwithin thezonedesignated foroffshorewinddomainconcessions.573

219. TheRoyalDecreealso imposes severalobligationsupon thedeveloperoncehehasobtained thedomain concession. It concerns for example obligations regarding information, the start of theexploitation phase, the necessary measures to protect public safety, measures to protect theenvironmentandsoon.574

220. Withregardtotheconcession,itshouldbenotedthattheconcessionisrewardedtotheapplicantand not to the involved wind turbine installation.575 This can hinder the options to transfer theoffshorewind installations.With reference to the transfer, the developer-applicant should knowthatheneedstoinformtherepresentativeoftheFederalMinisterofEnergyabouttheenquirytosell, thefullorpartial transfer, thedivisionandrentof thedomainconcession.576Theconcessionholderisnotallowedtoconcludesuchatransfer,at leastnotbeforeaperiodof50workingdayshas expired during which the Minister can decide whether the transfer is compatible with theretentionofthedomainconcession.577

221. Domain concessions to build and operate power plants are granted for a fixed-termof 20 yearswithanextensionpossibilitytomaximum30years.578Adomainconcessionmaybegrantedpriortothe environmental permit, but will not come into effect until the environmental permit is inplace.579

222. After an alteration of the Electricity Act in 2014, it also became possible to acquire a domainconcession for the installationandexploitationofhydro-electricalenergystorage facilitiesatsea,also known as the energy islands.580 Further requirements regarding the procedure to obtain adomain concession for theseenergy islandsare stipulated in theRoyalDecreeof8May2014.581Furthermore, it will also be possible to obtain a domain concession for the construction andexploitation of installations necessary for the transmission of electricity, also known as theelectricitysocketsatsea.582

573Art.3,6°DecreeonConcessions.574Seeart.14DecreeonConcessions.575 F. VANDENDRIESSCHE (ed.), C. DEGREEF, T. DERUYTTER, W. GELDHOF and T. VAN DERSTRAETEN,EnergierechtinBelgiëenVlaanderen,Brussel,Larcier,2017,87.576Ibid.577Art.20DecreeonConcessions.578Art.13DecreeonConcessions.579Art.12DecreeonConcessions.580Art.6/1ElectricityAct.581 KB 8 mei 2014 betreffende de voorwaarden en de procedure voor de toekenning vandomeinconcessiesvoordebouwendeexploitatievan installatiesvoorhydro-elektrischeenergie-opslag in de zeegebieden waarin België rechtsmacht kan uitoefenen overenkomstig hetinternationaalzeerecht,BS6juni2014.582Art.13/1ElectricityAct.

78

223. The aforementioned installations, however, cannot enjoy financial aid and the system of thetradable green certificates thus does not apply to them in contrast to the installations of theoffshore wind farms.583 Article 7 of the Electricity Act further stipulates the different financialsupportmeasuresforoffshorewinddevelopment.584

B.MarineProtectionPermit

224. Besidesthedomainconcession,thedevelopmentofOWFsrequiresanenvironmentalpermit,alsocalledthemarineprotectionpermit.585Thispermitgrantsthepermitholderarighttoconstructtheinstallationandalicensetooperatetheinstallation.586

225. Thelegalframeworkgoverningthispermitissetoutinthreeinstruments,namelytheLawontheProtection of the Marine Environment of 20 January 1999 (hereafter the Marine EnvironmentLaw)587, the Royal Decree of 7 September 2003 concerning the procedure for licensing andauthorisingtheactivity(hereaftertheLicensingandAuthorisationDecree)588andtheRoyalDecreeof9September2003concerningrulesontheassessmentoftheenvironmental impact(hereafterthe EIA-Decree)589. The former prescribes that all maritime areas under Belgian jurisdiction fallundertheregimethatisestablishedbythislawandthesubsequentRoyalDecrees.590Thus,thelawdoesnotmakeadistinctionbetweenOWFsthatareestablishedintheterritorialseaandOWFsthatareestablishedintheEEZorthecontinentalshelf.591

226. Theproceduretoobtainthemarineprotectionpermitcanstartfollowingtworoutes.Ontheonehand, theprocedurecanstartviaapublichearingorontheotherhandbymeansofasimplifiedprocedure.592

583Art.6/1,§1ElectricityAct.584 See F. VANDENDRIESSCHE (ed.), C. DEGREEF, T. DERUYTTER, W. GELDHOF and T. VAN DERSTRAETEN,EnergierechtinBelgiëenVlaanderen,Brussel,Larcier,2017,271-273.585Art.25wet20 januari1999 terbeschermingvanhetmarienemilieu indezeegebiedenonderrechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS12maart1999.586C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legal framework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,62.587 Wet 20 januari 1999 ter bescherming van het mariene milieu in de zeegebieden onderrechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS12Maart1999.588 KB 7 september 2003 houdende de procedure tot vergunning en machtiging van bepaaldeactiviteitenindezeegebiedenonderderechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS17september2003.589 KB 9 september 2003 houdende de regels betreffende de milieu-effectenbeoordeling intoepassing van de wet van 20 januari 1999 ter bescherming van het mariene-milieu in dezeegebiedenonderderechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS17september2003.590 Wet 20 januari 1999 ter bescherming van het mariene milieu in de zeegebieden onderrechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS12Maart1999. 591B.SCHUTYSER,“EstablishingOffshoreWindFarmsinBelgium:HeadlinesandBottlenecks”,inM.M.ROGGENKAMPandU.HAMMER(eds.),EuropeanEnergyLawReportI,Antwerpen,Intersentia,2004,163.592Art.9LicensingandAuthorisationDecree.

79

227. If the applicant choses the former, the procedurewill include a public hearing duringwhich theaffected and involved persons can express their objections.593 Depending on the impact of theactivity,thepublicinquirycanbecross-borderandwillbeheldwithin45days.594

228. Onceagain,theapplicationprocedurerequiresthepersonaldetailsfromtheapplicantconcerningtheidentity,financialresourcesandsoon.595However, inthisproceduretheapplicantalsoneedsto submit an environmental impact study to theMUMMof theOperational Directorate NaturalEnvironment.596Afterthesubmission,theMUMMcarriesoutanEIA.597AsapartofitsassessmentMUMM can also execute other studies in order to give an opinion on the acceptability of theprojectregardingtheprotectionofthemarineenvironment.598

229. The MUMM then gives its report with recommendations, which is based on the EIA and theconsultation procedure, to the Federal Minister for theMarine Environment.599 Based on theseinstruments,theFederalMinisterfortheMarineEnvironmentdecideswhetherornottoissueanenvironmentalpermit.600 Inthis light,theMinistercandecidethathewillonlygrantthepermit ifthefutureholderwilltakeenvironmentalcompensationmeasures.601

230. While the operating license is granted for a period of 20 years, the period of the constructionauthorisationislimitedtoaperiodoffiveyears.602ThelatterisspecificallyissuedbytheMinistryoftheEnvironmenttocarryoutanactivityunderspecifiedconditionsandduringagivenperiod.603Inthiscontext,itwillbegrantedfortheperiodneededtoconstructalltheinstallationsfallingunderthescopeof the installation.604Thefive-yearperiodstarts fromthedayof thenotificationof thegrantingoftheauthorisationandcanbeextendedoncebyanotherfive-yearterm.605

231. Oncetheenvironmentalpermit isgranted,amonitoringprogrammeneedstobesetuptoassesstheeffectsoftheprojectonthemarineenvironment.606 593Art.18LicensingandAuthorisationDecree.594Art.18,§2LicensingandAuthorisationDecree.595Art.13LicensingandAuthorisationDecree.596Art.28§1oftheMarineEnvironmentLaw;art.7oftheEIA-Decree.597B.SCHUTYSER,“EstablishingOffshoreWindFarmsinBelgium:HeadlinesandBottlenecks”,inM.M.ROGGENKAMPandU.HAMMER(eds.),EuropeanEnergyLawReportI,Antwerpen,Intersentia,2004,163.598Seehttp://odnature.naturalsciences.be/mumm/en/windfarms/.599Art.38,§1LicensingandAuthorisationDecree.600Art.38,§1LicensingandAuthorisationDecree;C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgianlegalframework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,62.601Art.42LicensingandAuthorisationDecree.602Art.41,§1LicensingandAuthorisationDecree.603C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legal framework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,62.604Ibid.605Art.41,§1LicensingandAuthorisationDecree.606Arts.16and24EIA-Decree.

80

232. Thefederalgovernmentisresponsibletoimplementthislegalobligation.607Assuch,themonitoringhastwogoals.Forone, itenablestheauthoritiestomitigateorevenhalt theactivities incaseofextremedamagetothemarineecosystem.608Ontheotherhanditaimstounderstandandevaluatethe impact ofOWFson thedifferent aspects of themarine environment and support the futurepoliciesregardingOWFs.609Thepermitholdersmustpaythecostsoftheprogramme.610

233. Theholderofthemarineprotectionpermitneedstokeepinmindthatthispermitwillonlyenterinto force after all other required permits and licences have beenobtained,with amaximumoffouryearsafterthedateofissuance.611Inaddition,themarineprotectionpermitwillexpireiftheother required permits and licences are refused.612 The permit can also only be partially or fullytransferredwiththeformalandexpressconsentoftheMinisteroftheNorthSea.613However,thismechanismdoesnotapplyinthecaseofachangeofcontrolofthelicensee.614

C.Licensetolaysubmarinecables

234. Thethirdkeyelementthatisrequiredtoinstallandexploitanoffshorewindfarmisalicensetolaysubmarine cables in the BPNS.615 The application procedure is set out in the Royal Decree of 12March2002.616Asageneralprovision,thisdecreestipulatesthatthecablemustbelaidascloseaspossibletoexistinginstallationsandinsuchawayastominimisetheimpactontheseafloorandtheprotectedareasinthevicinity.617

607R.BRABANT,S.DEGRAERandB.RUMES,“Chapter2.OffshorewindenergydevelopmentintheBelgianpartoftheNorthSeaandanticipatedimpacts:anupdate”,inS.DEGRAER,R.BRABANTandB. RUMES (ed.), Offshore wind farms in the Belgian part of the North Sea: Heading for anunderstandingofenvironmentalimpacts,Brussels,RoyalBelgianInstituteofNaturalSciences,2012,10.608 Ibid.609Ibid.610Art.24EIA-Decree.611Art.42LicensingandAuthorisationDecree.612Art.41,§2LicensingandAuthorisationDecree.613Art.40LicensingandAuthorisationDecree;C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgianlegalframework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,63.614C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgianlegalframework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,63.615Art.4wet13juni1969inzakedeexploratieendeexploitatievanniet-levenderijkdommenvandeterritorialezeeenhetcontinentaalplat,BS8oktober1969.616KB12maart2002betreffendedenadereregelsvoorhetleggenvankabelsdieindeterritorialezeeof hetnationaal grondgebiedbinnenkomenof die geplaatst of gebruiktworden inhet kadervandeexploratievanhetcontinentaalplat,deexploitativevandemineralerijkdommenenandereniet-levenderijkdommendaarvanofvandewerkzaamhedenvankunstmatigeeilanden,installatiesofinrichtingendieonderBelgischerechtsmachtvallen,BS9mei2002.617Art.2KB12maart2002.

81

235. Thegrantingofthelicenseisonceagainthesubjectofseveralcriterions,whicharesimilartotheprovisionsintheaforementionedsections,andarestipulatedinarticle5oftheRoyalDecreeof20March2002.ThisRoyalDecreealsodemands forexampleevidenceof the financialandtechnicalcapacity of the applicant.618 To obtain the license, the applicant also needs to conduct anenvironmentalimpactassessment.619

236. Unlike the previous permits, the submarine cable license is not granted for a fixed term.620 Thelicense canexpire,however, if the licenseehasnot started theactivitieswithin3yearsafter thedateofthenotificationofthegrantingofthelicense.621Atthelicensee’srequest,thistermcanbeextendedbyaperiodof2years.622

237. Toconclude,itshouldbenotedthattherequirementsforatransactionofeitheroneofthethreepermits could hamper an M&A transaction and cause unwanted delays.623 Moreover, thedifferencesbetweenthethreerequiredinstrumentscanbethesubjectofuncertaintyofpotentialinvestorsintheoffshoreenergyprojects.624Theseareuncertaintiesshouldbeavoidedinordertoattractadditionalinvestors.

3.4.InstallationandOperations&MaintenancePhase

3.4.1.TransnationalOffshoreGridintheNorthSea

238. The increase inamountofOWFs resulted inaquestion concerning themostefficientmethod toconnectthegeneratedwindenergytotheshore.625Typically,theOWFsintheBPNSareconnectedto a transmission station via several dedicated cables that are not bundled together.626 Theoperator of the OWF concludes an individual connection contract with the transmission systemoperator (TSO) inorder toestablish sucha radial connection.627 This contract includesa capacityreservationontheBelgiantransmissiongrid.

618Art.6,§2,5°KB12maart2002.619Art.6,§2,12°KB12maart2002.620C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legal framework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,63.621Art.14KB12maart2012.622Art.14KB12maart2012;C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgianlegalframework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,63.623C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legal framework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,72.624Ibid.625 T. CHELLINGSWORTH and D. VANHERCK, “De Noordzee en de ontwikkeling van een offshoregrid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht, Antwerpen, Intersentia,2015,102.626Ibid.627C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legal framework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,68.

82

239. TheOWFoperatorscanoptforasharedconnectioncableorgridtogetherwithotherconcessionholders in order to reduce costs or facilitate the administrative hassles.628 In this context, it isimportant to note that the OWF operators have a right on subsidies for the expensesmade toconnecttothetransmissionnetwork.629

240. The reader should note that the offshore grid connection procedure is the competence of theBelgianfederalauthority.630ThereisonlyoneTSOinBelgium,whichiscalledEliaandtakescareofthe distribution network.631 Thus, Elia has a legal monopoly.632 The procedure to establish aconnectionisthefollowing.Thefirststepisanoptionalonewherebytheplantdeveloperrequestsanorientationstudyabouttheestimatedcostofconnection.633Then,theplantdeveloperappliesforaconnectiontotheTSO,whichwillperformadetailedstudybyproposingthetechnicalsolutionforthegridconnection.634 Inthisstage,theTSOwillofferacostproposalaswell. Iftheapplicantaccepts the proposal, the parties can conclude their connection agreement.635 As mentionedbefore, the plant developer then bears the costs of the grid connection to a Belgian onshoresubstation.

241. Since2014 it is,however,possible forOWFswithanoffshoredomainconcessiongrantedafter1July2007todeviatefromarticle13/1oftheElectricityActandtheaforementionedprocedure.636Assuch,thoseOWFscanoptnottoconnecttoasubstation.637

628O.WOOLLEY,P.J.SCHAUMBERGandG.St.MICHEL,“EstablishinganOffshoreElectricityGrid:ALegalAnalysisofGridDevelopmentsintheNorthSeaandinUSWaters”,inM.M.ROGGENKAMP,L.BARRERA-HERNÁNDEZ,D.N.ZILLMANandI.DELQUAYO(eds.),EnergyNetworksandtheLaw:InnovativeSolutionsinChangingMarkets,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,2012,181.629 Art. 7, §2 Electricity Act; see D. VERHOEVEN, “Recente ontwikkelingen in het federaleenergierecht.Offshorewind,kernenergie,gasvervoerenmarktorganisatie–eenbeetjevanalles,maar geen transitieplan”, in K. DEKETELAERE en B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht 2016,Mortsel,Intersentia,2017,1-34.630 Art. 6, §1, VII, 2e lid, c) van de Bijzondere wet van 8 augustus 1980 tot hervorming derinstellingen,BS15augustus1980.631 F. VANDENDRIESSCHE (ed.), C. DEGREEF, T. DERUYTTER, W. GELDHOF and T. VAN DERSTRAETEN,EnergierechtinBelgiëenVlaanderen,Brussel,Larcier,2017,113-116.632Ibid.633 JOINTRESEARCHCENTRE INSTITUTEFORENERGYANDTRANSPORT,Theregulatory frameworkforwindenergyinEUMemberStates.Part1oftheStudyonthesocialandeconomicvalueofwindenergy – WindValueEU, 2015, 39,http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC93792/d1_regulatory_framework_wind_energy_in_ms_march_2015%20(2).pdf.634Ibid.635Ibid.636 F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,427.637Art.4,4°Wetvan8mei2014houdendediversebepalingeninzakeenergie,BS6juni2016.

83

242. In2017,Eliaannouncedaninvestmentofapproximately400millioneuroinamodularoffshoregrid(MOG)intheNorthSea.638ItwillconnectfourOWFs,namelyRentel,Northwester2,MermaidandSeastar,totheBelgianonshoregridandwillalsoprovideopportunitiesforfuturedevelopmentandinterconnectionswithneighbouringcountries.639 Inaddition,Eliahasstartedthe“Nemo”project,whichissupposedtoestablishasubmarineconnectionbetweenthesubstationsinBelgiumandtheUnited Kingdom via a high voltage direct current (HVDC) cablewith a capacity of approximately1000 MW.640 This development is particularly interesting in the light of the Third ElectricityDirective641oftheEU,whichaimsatthedevelopmentofatrueinternalelectricitymarketthroughanetworkconnectedacrosstheEU.642

243. TheMOGwillconsistofanoffshoreplatformtowhichthefourOWFscanconnectandwhichwillbelinked to the shore through three submarine cables.643 The project is expected to start itsoperationsin2019.644Duringthepreparations,Eliaencounteredseveralproblemsrelatedtopublicresistance regarding the Stevin project, which main goal was to upgrade the electricity gridbetweenZomergemandZeebrugge.645Aftera settlementagreementwith thepartiesconcerned,Eliacouldcontinuetheproject.646InadditiontotheStevinproject,EliaintroducedtheHortaprojectwiththepurposetoconstructanewhigh-voltagesubstationinZomergem.647

244. InadditiontoElia’sgriddevelopment,itshouldbenotedthatseveralNorthSeaStatesareplanningtodevelopasuper-networkhighvoltagecableintheNorthSeaby2030.

638ELIA,Pressrelease:EliacompletesallmainconstructioncontractsforModularOffshoreGrid,13March2018.639ELIA,Pressrelease:Eliasettoinvestinan‘electricityplug’intheNorthSea,13April2017.640 T. CHELLINGSWORTH and D. VANHERCK, “De Noordzee en de ontwikkeling van een offshoregrid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht, Antwerpen, Intersentia,2015,104.641Directive2009/72/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof13July2009concerningcommonrulesfortheinternalmarketinelectricityandrepealingDirective2003/54/EC,OJL211,14August2009,55.642Communication(Comm.)totheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocial Committee and the Committee of the Regions - OffshoreWind Energy: Action needed todeliver on the Energy Policy Objectives for 2020 and beyond, Brussels, 12 December 2008,COM/2008/0768 final/2; C. DEGREEF and W. GELDHOF, “Offshore energy and the Belgian legalframework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,69.643ELIA,Pressrelease:Eliaawardssubmarinecable installationcontractfortheModularOffshoreGrid(MOG)toDEMEGroup,16August2017.644Ibid.645RvS24 juni2014,nr.227.836;RvS8 juli 2014,nr.228.020;RvS8 juli2014nr.228.021;RvS7oktober2014,nr.228.666;RvS7oktober2014,nr.228.667.646 T. CHELLINGSWORTH and D. VANHERCK, “De Noordzee en de ontwikkeling van een offshoregrid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht, Antwerpen, Intersentia,2015,124.647ELIA,Pressrelease:Eliareplaceshigh-voltagecablesbetweenZomergemandKruibeke,29March2018.

84

245. TheNorthSeaStateshavebeenconductingaresearchinordertoexploretheiroptionswithregardtothedevelopmentofanoffshoregridfortheNorthSea.648Inthiscontext,aregionalagreementwas signed by Germany, Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Luxembourg, Norway, theNetherlands, the United Kingdom and Sweden.649 Apart from these initiatives, there are othersubmarinesubstationslocatedintheNorthSea,butthesearemerelyorganizedonapoint-to-pointbasisbetweentwoNorthSeaStates.650

246. What are now the advantages of such a transboundary offshore grid? First of all, such acoordinated network of cables could reduce the amount of cables and the required investmentcosts.651Thus,thiswouldbebothbeneficialfromaneconomicandanenvironmentalpointofviewduetotheminimizedimpactontheenvironmentandtheuseofscarcespaceatsea.652Thankstoitsscalethetransboundarygridwouldalsobeabletoresolvetheproblemsofregularityofsupplyand difficulties of storage by moving away from a reliance on local generation.653 Moreover, itwouldstimulatethetransboundarytradeingreenelectricity.654

247. The development of a transboundary grid, however, also faces several legal uncertainties. Sincelegalcertaintyisextremelyimportantfortheoffshorewindindustryduetothelargeinvestmentsand long-term planning aspect, it is important to identify these uncertainties.655 The mainconsternation in this context relates to the classification of the cables. They either need to beclassified as part of the installation or as a transmission line.656 The legal classification of asubmarine cable depends on its location and destination point as stipulated in article 79(4)UNCLOS.657

648H.K.MÜLLERandM.M.ROGGENKAMP,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySourcesintheNorthSea–ReinventingtheWheeloraNeedforMoreCoordination?,”IJMCL2014,735.649MemorandumofUnderstandingoftheNorthSeasCountries’OffshoreGridInitiative,Brussels,3December2010.650 T. CHELLINGSWORTH and D. VANHERCK, “De Noordzee en de ontwikkeling van een offshoregrid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht, Antwerpen, Intersentia,2015,103.651 T. CHELLINGSWORTH and D. VANHERCK, “De Noordzee en de ontwikkeling van een offshoregrid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht, Antwerpen, Intersentia,2015,102.652Ibid.653C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legal framework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,70.654 T. CHELLINGSWORTH and D. VANHERCK, “De Noordzee en de ontwikkeling van een offshoregrid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht, Antwerpen, Intersentia,2015,102.655C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgianlegalframework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,71.656H.K.MÜLLERandM.M.ROGGENKAMP,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySourcesintheNorthSea–ReinventingtheWheeloraNeedforMoreCoordination?,”IJMCL2014,735.657 T. CHELLINGSWORTH and D. VANHERCK, “De Noordzee en de ontwikkeling van een offshoregrid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht, Antwerpen, Intersentia,

85

248. In the context of the transboundary grid, there would be cables connecting the transmissionsubstationsoftwocoastalstates. IfthosecablesdonotentertheterritorialseaandmerelycrosstheEEZofacoastalstate,thatcoastalstatewillnotbeabletoimposeobligationsontheuseandlaying of these cables because they do not fall within the scope of article 79(4) UNCLOS.658However,thecablesdofallwithinthescopeofarticle79(2)UNCLOS.

249. Another issue ariseswith regard to these transmission cableswhen anOWF, located in the EEZ,wants toconnect tosuchacable.659Thecablewouldbeused in the frameworkof theeconomicexploitationoftheEEZandthecoastalstatewouldthereforepossesssovereignrightswithregardtothatcable.660However, it isuncertainwhetherornotthecoastalstatehasarighttoprescribethattheOWFinitsEEZmustorcanconnect ina‘thirdpartyaccess-manner’tothattransmissioncable.661Asmostwindparksarestillsituatedrelativelyclosetotheshore,theneedforthird-partyaccesshasyettobeaddressed.662

3.4.2.SafetyZonesandtheRiskofCollisionsandAllisions

250. The impact of an OWF is characterized by many facets such as an impact on radar systems,

navigationalsafety,abilityofaviation,dataused for thepurposeofnavigation,air-trafficcontrol,weatherforecastingandsoon.663Thenextsectionaddressesthe impactonshippingbecausetheNorthSeaisoneofthebusiestnavigationalroutesintheworldwithseveralinternationalshippinghubssuchasRotterdamandAntwerpandOWFsareusuallydeployedinproximitytothoseports.Assuch,theOWFshavethepotentialtopresentsignificantchallengeswithrespecttonavigationinthisarea.664

2015,107.658Ibid.,108.659Ibid.,108.660Art.56(1)(a)UNCLOS;T.CHELLINGSWORTHandD.VANHERCK,“DeNoordzeeendeontwikkelingvan een offshore grid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht,Antwerpen,Intersentia,2015,109.661 T. CHELLINGSWORTH and D. VANHERCK, “De Noordzee en de ontwikkeling van een offshoregrid”, in K. DEKETELAERE and B. DELVAUX (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht, Antwerpen, Intersentia,2015,109.662 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23April 2009 on thepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesourcesandamendingandsubsequentlyrepealingDirectives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC, OJ L 140, 5 June 2009, 16; H. K. MÜLLER and M. M.ROGGENKAMP,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySourcesintheNorthSea–ReinventingtheWheeloraNeedforMoreCoordination?,”IJMCL2014,735.663A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation Of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,449.664A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation Of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,448.

86

251. Inthiscontext,thereadershouldberemindedofthefactthatvesselsdonotneedapermittousethenavigationroutesandthat thefreedomofnavigationwillapplyas longasthevesselandthecargodonothaveanimpactontheinterestsofBelgium.665

252. Firstofall,thereisanincreasedriskofship-to-shipcollisionsduetothegreatercongestioninthemarine areas outside the boundaries of the OWFs.666 Forcing maritime traffic to navigate in asmaller andmore confined area is destined to result in an increased risk of collisions. A secondhazard relates to the risk of an allision between a vessel and an offshore wind turbine or theirassociatedinfrastructure.667IfvesselswouldhaveanaccidentinthevicinityoftheOWF,thiscouldeven result in a shut downof thewind farmand in the end even to a reduced reliability of theelectricitygeneration.668

253. Inordertoavoidproblems, it is recommendedtodesignthewindturbinetowerstobecollision-friendly to ships.669 A future legal issue in this context could be about qualification of a physicalimpact between a traditional vessel and a floatingwind turbine.670 A third hazard relates to thereducedabilityforshipstomanoeuvreinthevicinityofOWFs.Adefinitionoftherestrictedabilitytomanoeuvre isprovided forbyRule3(g)ofCOLREGS671andgenerally relates toavessel that isunabletokeepoutofthewayofanothervessel.

254. Besidestheoffshorewindturbines,thecablescanalsohaveanimpactonthenavigationabilityofvessels.Forone,theycan impingeontheabilityofvesselstoanchor inthevicinityofanOWForthecorridorthroughwhichitsexportcableruns.672

665 F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,423.666 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.),MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,6-7.667A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation Of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,448.668 R. A. MEHDI, W. OSTACHOWICZ and M. LUCZAK, “Introduction”, in W. OSTACHOWICZ, M.McGUGAN, J.-U. SCHRÖDER HINRICHS and M. LUCZAK (eds.),MARE-WINT: New Materials andReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,6-7.669Ibid.670A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation Of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,448.671 Convention of London on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 20October1972,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.1050,16.672A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation Of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,449.

87

255. Moreover, thecablescancreateanadditionalnavigationalhazardbycompromisingtheabilityofvesselstoanchorincertainareasincaseofneed.673Ifavesselneedstosacrificeitsanchorinorderto avoid damaging a submarine cable, it will be entitled to compensation.674 In addition, thesubmarecablesmayposeriskstoordisplaceothermarineusessuchasfishing,dredging,trawlingand so on.675While the risk can bemitigated through cable burial or protection, the erosion orscouringofsedimentontheseafloorasaresultofcurrentsorweathercanexposetheburiedcableandincreasetheriskforconflictswithothermarineusers.676

256. Besidesthepropertydamageofvesselsandoffshorewindturbines,thereisalsoamaritimesafetyconcern that comes intoplay.677 TheOWF construction andoperationspersonnel, aswell as theseafarers,arenamelyexposedtothepreviouslymentionedrisks.678TheseverityofthesehazardswillincreaseaccordingtotheproximityofOWFstoshippinglanes,thedensityandscaleofmarinetraffic,aswellasfactorsrelatingtothewinds,currentsandwavepatterns.679

257. In order to reduce the risk of accidents and conflicts, the concession zones in the BPNS werediminishedandadaptedinfavourofshippingin2011.680Inaddition,itisrecommendedtoestablishamaritimenavigational riskassessment.681The lattercanrecommendre-routingasa risk-controloption tomitigate the navigational risks in the vicinity of an OWF. 682 Re-routing, however, canresult in addtional financial costs, environmental impact and even an decrease in energyefficiency.683

258. It is important to note that in the concession zones granted for offshore energy production, theexploitationof installationsfortheproductionofelectricityoutofwater,currentsandwindhavepriorityoverotheractivities,suchasfishingandshipping.684

673Ibid.674Ibid.675Ibid.676Ibid.677Ibid.,448.678Ibid.679Ibid.,448–449. 680SeeF.MAES,“RuimtelijkeplanningopzeeinBelgië:vanplannaarproceseneennieuwplan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,415-439.681R.A.MEHDI,J.-U.SCHRÖDER-HINRICHS,A.I.ÖLCERandM.BALDAUF,“AFrameworktoImprovethe Coexistence ofMaritimeActivities andOffshoreWind Farms”, in A. I. ÖLCER,M. KITADA, D.DALAKLISandF.BALLINI(eds.),TrendsandChallengesinMaritimeEnergyManagement,Springer,2018,514.682Ibid.683Ibid.684Art.8,§2KB20maart2014totvaststellingvanhetmarienruimtelijkplan,BS28maart2014.

88

259. Inordertoreducetheriskofallisionsandcollisions,thecoastalstatehasthediscretionaryrightto

establishsafetyzonesinwhichitmaytakeappropriatemeasuretoensurethesafetyofnavigationandoftheartificialislands,installationsandstructures.685Thesesafetyzonesshouldbedesignedtoensure that they are reasonably related to the nature and function of the artificial islands,installationsorstructures.686Moreover,thezonesmaynotexceedadistanceof500metresaroundthem,measuredfromeachpointoftheirouteredge.687Itispossibletodeviatefromthedistanceof500metresifthisisauthorizedbygenerallyacceptedinternationalstandardsoriftheInternationalMaritime Organization (IMO) recommends this.688 As the IMO has not recommended suchstandards, theexception iscurrently irrelevant.689Thesafetyzonesestablished in theEEZregimeapplymutatismutandistoinstallationsonthecontinentalshelf.690

260. Theestablishmentofasafetyzonepresupposestheexistenceofadomesticlawin,oranexecutiveorderbythecoastalstate,whichcansetupordeclaretheexistenceofasafetyzone.691InBelgium,the government determines the outer boundary of the safety zone of an OWF in the awardeddomainconcessionviaaMinisterialDecree.692Theboundariesof theOWFsarealsostipulated inthecoordinatesinarticle8,§1oftheRoyalDecreeof20March2014.693Thelatteralsoprovidesthepossibility to establish a safety zone of 500meters for the electricity socket at sea.694 The zonedesignated to the electricity socket can also be used as amooring, or to establish active natureconservationmeasuresas longastheseactivitiesdonothamperthefunctioningoftheelectricitysocket.695

685 Arts. Art. 56 (1)(b)(i) and 60 UNCLOS; S. T. PESCH, “Coastal State Jurisdiction aroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,513.686C.DEGREEFandW.GELDHOF,“OffshoreenergyandtheBelgian legal framework:Allatsea?”,TRNI2015,58.687KB11april2012totinstellingvaneenveiligheidszoneronddekunstmatigeeilanden,installatiesen inrichtingen voor de opwekking van energie uit het water, de stromen en de winden in dezeegebiedenonderBelgischerechtsbevoegdheid,BS1juni2012;F.MAESandJ.SPEYS,“Ruimtelijkeplanningopzee:waarBelgiëgoedinis”,DeGroteRede2014,20.688Art.60UNCLOS;S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,518.689 S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,518. 690ConventionofGenevaontheContinentalShelfof29April1958,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.499,311;S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,518.691S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,524. 692 F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,425.693KB20maart2014totvaststellingvanhetmarienruimtelijkplan,BS28maart2014.694Art.8,§3KB20maart2014totvaststellingvanhetmarienruimtelijkplan,BS28maart2014.695Art.8,§4KB20maart2014totvaststellingvanhetmarienruimtelijkplan,BS28maart2014;F.MAES,“RuimtelijkeplanningopzeeinBelgië:vanplannaarproceseneennieuwplan”,Tijdschrift

89

261. Inaddition,thecoastalstatecanalsoestablishsafetyzonesintheterritorialsea,asaconsequence

of the full sovereignty in this zone.696 However, UNCLOS does not provide specific rules for thesafetyzonesestablishedaroundinstallationsintheterritorialsea.697Whilethecoastalstatehastheright to establish safety zones of any size in the territorial sea, it needs to respect the otherprovisionsinUNCLOS,includingtherightofinnocentpassage.698

262. Allvesselsneedtorespectthesafetyzonesandthefactthattheinstallationsthemselvesareunderthejurisdictionofthecoastalstate.699Inthislight,thecoastalstateneedstogiveduenoticeoftheextentof the safety zone.700However, if theplansof the coastal state regardingOWFshave thepotentialtoimpedeinternationalnavigation,thiswillnecessitaterequestsforappropriaterouteingmeasurestotheInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO).701

263. In this context, it is relevant to stress that the coastal state does have the right to restrict thefreedomofnavigationunder thesafety zone regimeaccording toarticle60 (6)UNCLOS.Belgiumhas done so in the Royal Decree of 11April 2012,which prohibits shipping and fishing in safetyzones.702Thereisanexemptiontothisprohibitionforwarvessels,vesselsthatprovideassistanceincase of emergencies and vessels that are the property of or are commissioned by thegovernment.703 The scope of the exemptions also extends towards vessels in distress, a case offorce majeure, search and rescue vessels and vessels that take care of the maintenance of thesubmarinecablesandpipelines.704

voorMilieurecht2016,425.696 Art. 2 UNCLOS; E. SCHACHTNER, “Marine Protected Areas andMarine Spatial Planning, withSpecialReferencetotheBlackSea”,inP.D.GORIUP(ed.),ManagementofMarineProtectedAreas:ANetworkPerspective,Wiley,2017,212.697 S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,518. 698Art.24UNCLOS;K.N.SCOTT,“TiltingatOffshoreWindmills:RegulatingWindFarmDevelopmentwithintheRenewableEnergyZone”,JournalofEnvironmentalLaw2006,103;S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,518.699Art.60UNCLOS;S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,517.700Art.60UNCLOS.701A.CHIRCOPandP.L’ESPERANCE,“FunctionalInteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutualAccommodation Of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, OceanYearbook2016,440.702KB11april2012totinstellingvaneenveiligheidszoneronddekunstmatigeeilanden,installatiesen inrichtingen voor de opwekking van energie uit het water, de stromen en de winden in dezeegebiedenonderBelgischerechtsbevoegdheid,BS1juni2012.703Art.5,1°KB11april2012totinstellingvaneenveiligheidszoneronddekunstmatigeeilanden,installatieseninrichtingenvoordeopwekkingvanenergieuithetwater,destromenendewindenindezeegebiedenonderBelgischerechtsbevoegdheid,BS1juni2012.704Art.5,4°KB11april2012totinstellingvaneenveiligheidszoneronddekunstmatigeeilanden,installatieseninrichtingenvoordeopwekkingvanenergieuithetwater,destromenendewinden

90

264. Afteraconsultation, theoffshorewindoperatorcanagree tograntaccess to thesafetyzone forscientific research as well.705 The concession holder himself, and the holder of the permitsregardingthelayingofthesubmarinecablesarealsograntedaccessinthesafetyzones.706Inthiscontext, it is possible to create synergies between aquaculture and the offshore wind activitiessince theRoyalDecree explicitly states that the permit holder of an aquaculture project can getaccesstothesafetyzoneaswelliftheconcessionholderagreetothis.707

265. The Belgian marine spatial plan designated two areas between the OWFs for sustainableaquacultureontheconditionthattheeutrophicationdecreasesintheseareasandthattheactivityisestablishedwiththeconsentofthepermitholderoftheOWF.708Theconsentforjointuseoftheconcessionareaisinprincipleonlyofatemporarynatureandcanonlylastaslongasthetermoftheconcession,whichis20yearswithanextensionpossibilityof10years.709

266. ItisimportanttostressthattheOWFsdonotposessthestatusofislandsandthatthesafetyzoneconsequentlydoesnot constitute a territorial sea. Thus,with regard to the safety zonesand theOWFsintheEEZ,thecoastalstatecanonlyexercisejurisdictionbasedapermissivenormduetothefactthatarticle58UNCLOSexplixitlystatesthatthecoastalstatesonlyhassovereignrightsinthiszone.710WhileUNCLOScontaintsapermissivenormfor theexerciseofexclusive jurisdictionoverthe offshorewind installations, a parallel provision for safety zones ismissing.711 Therefore, thecoastal State cannot claim comprehensive and exclusive jurisdiction over the safety zonesurroundinginstallationsonitscontinentalshelforinitsEEZ.712

indezeegebiedenonderBelgischerechtsbevoegdheid,BS1juni2012.705Art.5,3°KB11april2012totinstellingvaneenveiligheidszoneronddekunstmatigeeilanden,installatieseninrichtingenvoordeopwekkingvanenergieuithetwater,destromenendewindenindezeegebiedenonderBelgischerechtsbevoegdheid,BS1juni2012.706Art.5,4°KB11april2012totinstellingvaneenveiligheidszoneronddekunstmatigeeilanden,installatieseninrichtingenvoordeopwekkingvanenergieuithetwater,destromenendewindenindezeegebiedenonderBelgischerechtsbevoegdheid,BS1juni2012.707Art.5,2°KB11april2012totinstellingvaneenveiligheidszoneronddekunstmatigeeilanden,installatieseninrichtingenvoordeopwekkingvanenergieuithetwater,destromenendewindenindezeegebiedenonderBelgischerechtsbevoegdheid,BS1juni2012.708 Arts. 10, § 2 and 10, §3 KB 11 april 2012 tot instelling van een veiligheidszone rond dekunstmatigeeilanden,installatieseninrichtingenvoordeopwekkingvanenergieuithetwater,destromenendewindenindezeegebiedenonderBelgischerechtsbevoegdheid,BS1juni2012.709 F. MAES, “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,425.710S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,524.711Art.60(1)(b)UNCLOS.712S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,524.

91

267. Consequently,thecoastalstateonlyhasarestrictedjurisdictioninthesafetyzones.Thejurisdictionisfunctionallylimitedtosafetymeasures.713Typically,coastalstatesbanallshippingactivitiesinthesafetyzonesunlessthecompetentauthoritiesspecificallyauthorizetheseactivities.714TheBelgiangovernmentdidsoaswell.715Inthiscontext,thecoastalstatecannotinterferewiththefreedomofoverflight.716 Article 60 UNCLOS namely only speaks of the breadth of the safety zones and theobligation for ships to respect them. This choice of words indicates that only the freedom ofnavigation can be restricted by the coastal State under the safety zone regime, and that thefreedomofoverflightremainsunrestrained.717

268. In this context, the coastal state is also not allowed to takemeasures for the protection of themarineenvironmentthatgobeyondthegeneral rightsof thecoastalState intheEEZandonthecontinental shelf.718 This is a pity because the elements for effectivemarine protection in theseareasarepresent.Ontheonehand,thecoastalstatedoeshavetheenforcementjurisdictioninthesafetyzonesandontheotherhandthereisacontrolandmonitoringsystemsetupbytheoffshorewind developer.719 The enforcement powers of the coastal State are namely extendedgeographicallybytheinclusionofsafetyzonesintheregimeofhotpursuit.720

269. While article 60 UNCLOS does not explicitly mention the enforcement jurisdiction, the IMO hasadopted a resolution721 related to safety zones and the safety of navigation around theoffshoreinstallationsand structureswhich recognizes theenforcementpowersof thecoastal state in thiscontext.722Thisinstrumentstipulatestherightsofthecoastalstatewithregardtotheviolationofasafety zone. On the one hand, the coastal state is entitled to take action in accordance withinternationallaw,andontheotherhandthecoastalstatecannotifytheflagstateifitdeemsthisnecessary.723 Even though the Resolution does not enter into detail about the possibility of thecoastal state to “take action in accordance with international law”, themere reference to suchenforcementjurisdictionacknowledgesitsexistence.724 713Art.60(4)UNCLOS.714S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,524–525.715 Art. 5 Koninklijk besluit tot instelling van een veiligheidszone rond de kunstmatige eilanden,installatieseninrichtingenvoordeopwekkingvanenergieuithetwater,destromenendewindenindezeegebiedenonderBelgischerechtsbevoegdheid,BS1juni2012.716Art.87(1)(b)UNCLOS. 717Ibid.718S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,527.719Art.111(2)UNCLOS.720S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,529.721Resolution671oftheIMOAssembly(19October1989),UN.Doc.RESA.671(16).722S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,520. 723Resolution671oftheIMOAssembly(19October1989),UN.Doc.RESA.671(16).724S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,

92

270. Themeasurestakenbythecoastalstateneedtobeaimedatensuringthesafetyofnavigationandtheinstallation.725Morespecifically,themeasuresshouldfocusonendingthevessel’spresenceinthesafetyzone.726Infirstinstance,thecoastalStatewouldberestrictedtonon-intrusivemeasuressuchas the request to leave the safety zone throughvisual andauditorymeans.727 Those signalsalsoneedtobegivenbeforethehotpursuitbeginsandwhile thedelinquentvessel is still in thesafetyzone.728Thesecondstepcanonlybetakenifthevesselfailstocomplywithsucharequest.Thisstepentailsthephysicalremovaloftheshipfromthesafetyzone.729Assuch,onlygovernmentvesselshave the rightofhotpursuit,privatevesselsbelonging to theoperatoror the installationcannotundertakethesefirststepsofengaginginhotpursuit.730Oncehotpursuitisinitiated,itmaynotbeinterrupted.731

4. Conclusion

271. Ifthereisoneaspectthathasbecomeclearafterthisanalysis,itisthattheregulationconcerningthe offshore wind development is complex and spread out over energy law, trade law andenvironmentallawonaninternational,Europeanandnationallevel.ThemostremarkableaspectinthatsenseisthestimulationoftheEuropeanUniontodevelopoffshorewindenergy.EventhoughtheEUadoptedseveralpolicies,suchastheIntegratedMarinePolicyandtheBlueGrowthStrategy,itisthesameorganizationthatconfrontstheoffshorewinddeveloperswithseveralchallengesanddifficulties.

272. IthasbecomeclearthatalotoftransboundaryaspectsareinvolvedintheinstallationoftheOWFsaswell.Thenecessityofsuchatransboundaryapproacharisesnotonlywhentheoffshoreoperatorisdealingwithenvironmentalaspects,butalsowhenheisdealingwiththestructureofthecablenetwork. There are, however, still several uncertainties regarding the regulation that serves as aframeworkfortheoffshorewindenergydevelopment.Onehottopicatthemomentrelatestotheuncertainty regarding the third party access of the submarine cables. If this issue is not handledwith,itcanhamperthecurrentdevelopmentsinthematteroftransboundarytransmissiongrids.

273. Apartfromtheuncertaintyregardingthirdpartyaccess,thereistheissueconcerningtherelationbetweenseveralEUinstruments.ThefocusonblueenergyisnotalwaysinconformitywithineveryEUinstrument.

IJMCL2015,527.725Ibid.726Ibid.727Ibid.728Art.111(4)UNCLOS.729S.T.PESCH,“CoastalStateJurisdictionaroundInstallations:SafetyZonesintheLawoftheSea”,IJMCL2015,530.730Ibid.731Ibid.

93

274. Whilethebluegrowthstrategyexplicitlystimulatesthedevelopmentofoffshorewindenergy,theOWFs often encounter obstacles either in the form of environmental obligations or trade lawobligations. In order to avoid conflicts, the EU should therefore takemeasures tominimize andavoidtheseconflictswithouttrulyexcavatingtheexistingregulations.

275. Regarding the scientific uncertainty, it remains important toestablishmonitoringprogrammes inordertoanticipatethelong-termimpactontheenvironment.Relatedtothis,itisrelevantfortheOWFoperatorstolookintosynergiesduringtheoperationstageofthewindfarminordertooffsetthe damages done during the installation and decommissioning phase. In this context, it is evenrelevant to look into the positive effects on fisheries and othermarinemammals. A safety zonesurrounding an OWF can in that sense also serve as a protection zone, thereby complementingeventhefunctionofamarineprotectedarea(MPA).

5. Annexes

Source:S.BHATTACHARYA,L.ARANY,G.NIKITASandN.NIKITAS,“Soil-StructureInteractions(SSI)forOffshoreWindTurbines”,IETEngineering&TechnologyReference2018,23p.

94

Source: ELIA, Press release: Elia completes all main construction contracts forModular OffshoreGrid,13March2018.

6. References

6.1.LegislationandSoftLaw

ConventionofGenevaontheContinentalShelfof29April1958,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.

499,311.

ConventionofRamsaronWetlandsofInternationalImportanceespeciallyasWaterfowlHabitatof

2February1971,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.996,245.

ConventionofLondonontheInternationalRegulationsforPreventingCollisionsatSea,20October

1972,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.1050,16

Convention of Bonn on the Conservation ofMigratory Species ofWild Animals of 23 June 1979,

UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.1651,28395.

95

ConventionofBernontheConservationofEuropeanwildlifeandnaturalhabitatsof19September

1979,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.1284,209.

UnitedNationsConventionofMontegoBayon theLawof theSeaof10December1982,United

NationsTreatySeries,vol.1833,3.

Convention of Espoo on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context of 25

February1991,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.1989,309.

ConventionofRiodeJaneiroonBiologicalDiversityof5 June1992,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,

vol.1760,79.

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic of 22

September1992,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.2354,67.

EnergyCharterTreatyofLisbonof17December1994,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.2080,95.

Energy Charter Protocol on Energy Efficiency andRelated Environmental Aspects of Lisbonof 17

December1994,UnitedNationsTreatySeries,vol.2080,3.

Fifth International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea, Bergen Declaration, Bergen,

2002.

MinisterialMeetingoftheOSPARCommission,BergenStatement,Bergen,2010.

Statute of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Bonn, 26 January 2009,

RENA/FC/Statute.

MemorandumofUnderstandingof theNorth SeasCountries’OffshoreGrid Initiative,Brussels, 3

December2010.

Ministerial Conference on the International Energy Charter, International Energy Charter, The

Hague,20May2015.

CoP, Adverse Anthropogenic Marine/Ocean Noise Impacts on Cetaceans and Other Biota,

UNEP/CMS/Resolution9.19,Rome,December2008.

CoP,FurtherStepstoAbateUnderwaterNoisePollutionfortheProtectionofCetaceansandother

MigratorySpecies,UNEP/CMS/Resolution10.24,Bergen,November2011.

PoliticalDeclarationonenergycooperationbetweentheNorthSeasCountries,Luxemburg,6June

2016.

96

CoP, Wind Turbines and Migratory Species, UNEP/CMS/Resolution 7.5 (Rev. COP12), Manila,

October2017.

CoP,RenewableEnergyandMigratorySpecies,UNEP/CMS/Resolution11.27(Rev.COP12),Manila,

October2017.

Resolution671oftheIMOAssembly(19October1989),UN.Doc.RESA.671(16).

Resolution672oftheIMOAssembly(19October1989),UN.Doc.RESA.672(16).

TreatyontheEuropeanUnion(Consolidatedversion2016),OJC202,7June2016,13.

Treaty of the Functioning of the European Union (Consolidated version 2016),OJ C 202, 7 June

2016,47.

CouncilDirective79/409/EECof2April1979ontheconservationofwildbirds,OJL103,25April

1979,1.

CouncilDirective 92/43/EECof 21May1992on the conservationof natural habitats andofwild

faunaandflora,OJL206,22July1992,7.

Directive96/92/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof19December1996concerning

commonrulesfortheinternalmarketinelectricity,OJL027,30January1997,37.

Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000

establishingaframeworkforCommunityactioninthefieldofwaterpolicy,OJL327,22December

2000,1.

Directive 2001/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 June 2001 on the

assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment, OJ L 197, 21

September2001,30.

Directive2001/77/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof27September2001onthe

promotionofelectricityproducedfromrenewableenergysourcesintheinternalelectricitymarket,

OJL283,27October2001,33.

Directive2002/59/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof27June2002establishinga

Community vessel traffic monitoring and information system and repealing Council Directive

93/75/EEC,OJL208,5August2002,10.

Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the

promotionof theuseofenergy fromrenewableenergy sourcesandamendingandsubsequently

97

repealingDirectives2001/77/ECand2003/30/EC,OJL140,5June2009,16.

Directive 2009/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 amending

Directive2003/87/ECsoastoimproveandextendthegreenhousegasemissionallowancetrading

schemeoftheCommunity,OJL140,5June2009,63.

Directive 2009/72/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 July 2009 concerning

commonrulesfortheinternalmarketinelectricityandrepealingDirective2003/54/EC,OJL211,14

August2009,55.

Directive2009/147/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof30November2009onthe

conservationofwildbirds,OJL20,26January2010,7.

Directive 2014/52/EUof the European Parliament andof the Council of 16April 2014 amending

Directive2011/92/EUontheassessmentoftheeffectsofcertainpublicandprivateprojectsonthe

environment,OJL124,25April2014,1.

Directive2014/89/EUoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof23July2014establishinga

frameworkformaritimespatialplanning,OJL257,28August2014,135.

ProposalforaDirectiveoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilonthepromotionoftheuse

of energy from renewable sources (recast), Brussels, 30 November 2016, COM/2016/0767 final-

2016/0382(COD).

Communication (Comm.) to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and

Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: Towards a futureMaritime Policy for the

Union—AEuropeanVisionfortheOceansandSeas,Brussels,7June2006,COM(2006)275final.

Communication (Comm.) to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and

Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - An Integrated Maritime Policy for the

EuropeanUnion,Brussels,10October2007,COM/2007/0575final.


Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - OffshoreWind Energy: Action needed to

deliver on the Energy Policy Objectives for 2020 and beyond, Brussels, 12 December 2008,

COM/2008/0768final/2.


Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – Maritime Spatial Planning in the EU –

98

AchievementsandFutureDevelopment,Brussels,17December2010,COM(2010)771final.


Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: BlueGrowth opportunities formarine and

maritimesustainablegrowth,Brussels,13September2012,COM/2012/0494final.


SocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions:Apolicyframeworkforclimateandenergyin

theperiodfrom2020to2030,Brussels,22January2014,COM/2014/015final.


SocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions-InnovationintheBlueEconomy:realizingthe

potential of our seas and oceans for jobs and growth, Brussels, 13 May 2014, COM(2014) 254

final/2.


SocialCommittee,theCommitteeoftheRegionsandtheEuropeanInvestmentBank:AFramework

Strategy foraResilientEnergyUnionwithaForward-LookingClimateChangePolicy,Brussels,25

February2015,COM(2015)80final.

DG ENVIRONMENT, Assessment of plans and projects significantly affecting Natura 2000 sites.

Methodological guidance on the provisions of Article 6(3) and (4) of the Habitats Directive

92/43/EEC,November2001.

CommissionStaffWorkingDocument(Comm.).ReportontheBlueGrowthStrategy:Towardsmore

sustainablegrowthandjobsintheblueeconomy,31March2017,SWD(2017)128final.

Bijzonderewetvan8augustus1980tothervormingderinstellingen,BS15augustus1980.

Wet 13 juni 1969 inzake de exploratie en de exploitatie van niet-levende rijkdommen van de

territorialezeeenhetcontinentaalplat,BS8oktober1969.

Wet6oktober1987totbepalingvandebreedtevandeterritorialezeevanBelgië,BS22oktober

1987.

Wet 20 januari 1999 ter bescherming van het mariene milieu in de zeegebieden onder

rechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS12maart1999.

Wet22april1999betreffendedeexclusieveeconomischezonevanBelgie indeNoordzee,BS10

juli1999.

99

Wet29april1999betreffendedeorganisatievandeelektriciteitsmarkt,BS11mei1999.

Wet 20 januari 1999 ter bescherming van het mariene milieu in de zeegebieden onder de

rechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS13maart1999.

Wet 20 juli 2012 tot wijziging van de wet van 20 januari 1999 ter bescherming van hetmarine

milieu in de zeegebieden onder de rechtsbevoegdheid van België, wat de organisatie van de

marieneruimtelijkeplanningbetreft,BS11september2012.

Wetvan8mei2014houdendediversebepalingeninzakeenergie,BS6juni2016.

KB 20 december 2000 betreffende de voorwaarden en de procedure voor de toekenning van

domeinconcessies voor de bouw en de exploitatie van installaties voor de productie van

elektriciteit uit water, stromen of winden, in de zeegebieden waarin België rechtsmacht kan

uitoefenenovereenkomstighetinternationaalzeerecht,BS30december2000.

KB12maart2002betreffendedenadereregelsvoorhetleggenvankabelsdieindeterritorialezee

ofhetnationaalgrondgebiedbinnenkomenofdiegeplaatstofgebruiktwordeninhetkadervande

exploratie van het continentaal plat, de exploitatie van deminerale rijkdommenen andere niet-

levende rijkdommendaarvanofvandewerkzaamhedenvankunstmatigeeilanden, installatiesof

inrichtingendieonderBelgischerechtsmachtvallen,BS9mei2002.

KB 7 september 2003 houdende de procedure tot vergunning en machtiging van bepaalde

activiteitenindezeegebiedenonderderechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS17september2003.

KB9september2003houdendederegelsbetreffendedemilieu-effectenbeoordelingintoepassing

vandewetvan20januari1999terbeschermingvanhetmariene-milieuindezeegebiedenonder

derechtsbevoegdheidvanBelgië,BS17september2003.

KB 17 mei 2004 tot wijziging van het koninklijk besluit van 20 december 2000 betreffende de

voorwaardenenprocedurevoordetoekenningvandomeinconcessiesvoordebouwenexploitatie

vaninstallatiesvoordeproductievanelektriciteituitwater,stromenofwinden,indezeegebieden

waarin België rechtsmacht kan uitoefenen overeenkomstig het internationaal recht, BS 29 Juni

2004.

KB11april2012totinstellingvaneenveiligheidszoneronddekunstmatigeeilanden,installatiesen

inrichtingen voor de opwekking van energie uit het water, de stromen en de winden in de

zeegebiedenonderBelgischerechtsbevoegdheid,BS1juni2012.

KB20maart2014totvaststellingvanhetmarienruimtelijkplan,BS28maart2014.

100

KB 8 mei 2014 betreffende de voorwaarden en de procedure voor de toekenning van

domeinconcessiesvoordebouwendeexploitatievan installatiesvoorhydro-elektrischeenergie-

opslag in de zeegebieden waarin België rechtsmacht kan uitoefenen overeenkomstig het

internationaalzeerecht,BS6juni2014.

Adv.RvSnr.51.473/1bijhetontwerpvanbesluitvandeVlaamseRegeringhoudendededefinitieve

vaststelling van het ontwerp van gewestelijk ruimtelijk uitvoeringsplan ‘Optimalisatie van het

hoogspanningsnetwerkinVlaanderen’,BS28juni2012.

6.2.CaseLawICJ 9 April 1949, Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v.

Albania)I.C.J.Reports1949,p.28.

CJEU21 July2011,nr.C-2/10AziendaAgro-ZootecnicaFranchini sarlandEolicadiAltamuraSrlv

RegionePuglia,ECLI:EU:C:2011:502,ECR2011,I-06561.

CJEU1July2014,nr.C–573/12AlandsVindkraftABvEnergimyndigheten,ECLI:EU:C:2014:2037.

GwH9juli2013,nr.98/2013.

RvS24juni2014,nr.227.836.

RvS8juli2014,nr.228.020.

RvS8juli2014nr.228.021.

RvS7oktober2014,nr.228.666.

RvS7oktober2014,nr.228.667.

6.3.LegalDoctrineADRIAN, J. M.,Modularization in theWind Turbine Industry: Discontinuity in the Governance of

ValueChainsanditsSpatialImplications,Zürich,LITVerslag,2017,296p.

AHMAD,M.,OperationandControlofRenewableEnergySystems,WileyOnlineLibrary,2017,384

p.

AKBARI, N., IRAWAN, C. A., JONES, D. F. and MENACHOF, D. “A multi – criteria port suitability

assessmentfordevelopmentsintheoffshorewindindustry”,RenewableEnergy2017,118–133.

ALTO, P., “The new International Energy Charter: Instrumental of incremental progress in

governance?”,EnergyResearchandSocialScience2016,92-96.

101

ANDERSEN,P.D.,CLAUSEN,N.-E.,CRONIN,T.andPIIRAINEN,K.A.,“TheNorthSeaOffshoreWind

Service Industry:Status,PerspectivesandaJointActionPlan”,RenewableandSustainableEnergy

Reviews2018,2672–2683.

ANDERSSON, K., BRYNOLF, S., LINDGREN, J. F. andWILEWSKA-BIEN,M. (eds.), Shipping and the

Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation, Berlin, Springer,

2016,426p.

ANDREONE,G.(ed.),TheFutureoftheLawoftheSea:BridgingGapsbetweenNational,Individual

andCommonInterests,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2017,269p.

BAGHERPOOR,T.andXUEMIN,L.“StructuralOptimizationDesignof2MWCompositeWindTurbine

Blade”,EnergyProcedia2017,1226-1233.

BANKES,N.andTREVISANUT,S. (eds.),Energy fromtheSea:An International LawPerspectiveon

OceanEnergy,Leiden,Brill,2015,181p.

BARNES,R.,“EnergySovereigntyinMarineSpaces”,IJMCL2014,573–599.

BERESFORD,A.E.,BUCHANAN,G.M., SANDERSON,F. J., JEFFERSON,R.andDONALD,P. F., “The

Contributions of the EU Nature Directives to the CBD and Other Multilateral Environmental

Agreements”,ConservationLetters2016,479-488.

BHATTACHARYA, S., ARANY, L., NIKITAS, G. and NIKITAS, N., “Soil-Structure Interactions (SSI) for

OffshoreWindTurbines”,IETEngineering&TechnologyReference2018,1-23.

BIGERNA, S., BOLLINO, C. A. andMICHELI, S., The Sustainability of Renewable Energy in Europe,

Springer,2015,137p.

BOP, 165 MW nieuwe capaciteit windenergie op zee operationeel, 2017,

http://www.belgianoffshoreplatform.be/nl/news/165-mw-nieuwe-capaciteit-windenergie-op-zee-

operationeel/.

BRABANT, R., DEGRAER, S. and RUMES, B., “Windmolenparken in het Belgische deel van de

Noordzee:deecologischeeffectenonderdeloep”,Natuur.focus2014,4-10.

BRUCE,S.,“InternationalEnergyLaw”,MPEPIL2014,nrs.1-61.

BRUNDTLANDCOMMISSION,Reportof theWorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment:

OurCommonFuture,1972,http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf.

BUCK, B. H., KRAUSE, G. and ROSENTHAL, H., “Extensive open ocean aquaculture development

102

withinwind farms in Germany: the prospect of offshore co-management and legal constraints”,

OceanandCoastalManagement2004,95–122.

BUNGENBERG, M. and HOBE, S. (eds.), Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, London,

Springer,2015,221p.

BUSCH,M.,KANNEN,A.,GARTHE,S.andJESSOPP,M.,“Consequencesofacumulativeperspective

onmarineenvironmentalimpacts:offshorewindfarmingandseabirdsatNorthSeascaleincontext

oftheEUMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,OceanandCoastalManagement2013,213–224.

CALEWAERT, J. -B. andMAES, F. (eds.), Science and SustainableManagement of the North Sea:

Belgiancasestudies,Gent,AcademiaPress,2007,328p.

CASTRO-SANTOS,L.andDIAZ-CASAS,V.(eds.),FloatingOffshoreWindFarms,Switzerland,Springer,

2016,193p.

CHANDRASEKARAN,S.,DynamicAnalysisandDesignofOffshoreStructures,Springer,2015,287p.

CHAOUACHI,A.,COVRIG,C.F.andARDELEAN,M.,“Multi-criteriaselectionofoffshorewindfarms:

CasestudyfortheBalticStates”,EnergyPolicy2017,179–192.

CHELLINGSWORTH,T.andVANHERCK,D.,“DeNoordzeeendeontwikkelingvaneenoffshoregrid”,

JaarboekEnergierecht2014,101-136.

CHIRCOP,A. and L’ESPERANCE,P., “Functional InteractionsandMaritimeRegulation:TheMutual

Accommodation of Offshore Wind Farms and International Navigation and Shipping”, Ocean

Yearbook2016,439-487.

CLIQUET,A.andMAES,F.(eds.),Rechtdoorzee:hedendaagsinternationaalzee-enmaritiemrecht:

liberamicorumEddySomers,Antwerpen,Maklu,2015,470p.

COASE,H.R.,“TheproblemofSocialCost”,JournalofLawandEconomics1960,1-44.

CONAWAY, J., “Be aggressivewithwind energy: blow away the decommissioning fears”,Oil and

Gas,NaturalResources,andEnergyJournal2017,621-649.

CRAIK, N., The International Law of Environmental Impact Assessment: Process, Substance and

Integration,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,2008,358p.

CRUZ, J. andATCHESON,M. (eds.),FloatingOffshoreWind Energy: theNextGeneration ofWind

Energy,Springer,2016,341p.

103

DE BACKER, P., Langetermijnvisie Noordzee 2050, 38 p,

http://thinktanknorthsea.be/downloads?permalink=visie2050_nl.

DEGRAER, S., BRABANT, R. and RUMES, B. (ed.),Offshore wind farms in the Belgian part of the

North Sea: Heading for an understanding of environmental impacts, Brussels, Royal Belgian

InstituteofNaturalSciences,2012,155p.

DEGREEF, C. andGELDHOF,W., “Offshore energy and the Belgian legal framework: All at sea?”,

TRNI2015,56–72.

DEKETELAERE, K. en DELVAUX, B. (eds.), Jaarboek Energierecht 2016,Mortsel, Intersentia, 2017,

280p.

DELCASTILLO-LABORDE,L.,“EquitableUtilizationofSharedResources”,MPEPIL2008,37-56.

DOUVERE, F., Marine Spatial Planning: concepts, current practice and linkages to other

managementapproaches,PhDthesisGhentUniversity,2010,125p.

DRANKIER, P., “EmbeddingMaritime Spatial Planning in National Legal Frameworks”, Journal of

EnvironmentalPolicyandPlanning2012,7–27.

DROSTE-FRANKE,B.,PAAL,B.P.,REHTANZ,C.,SAUER,D.U.,SCHNEIDER,J.-P.,SCHREURS,M.,and

ZIESEMER, T., Balancing Renewable Electricity: Energy Storage, Demand Side Management, and

NetworkExtensionfromanInterdisciplinaryPerspective,Berlin,Springer,2012,256p.

DUVIC-PAOLI, L.-A., The Prevention Principle in International Environmental Law, Cambridge,

CambridgeUniversityPress,2018,450p.

DUX,T.,SpeciallyProtectedMarineAreasintheExclusiveEconomicZone(EEZ):TheRegimeforthe

ProtectionofSpecificAreasoftheEEZforEnvironmentalReasonsunderInternationalLaw,Münster,

LITVerslag,2011,552p.

ECORYS,BlueGrowth– Scenarios andDrivers for SustainableGrowth from theOceans, Seas and

Coasts, 2012,

https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/sites/maritimeaffairs/files/docs/publications/blue_growth_th

ird_interim_report_en.pdf.

ELIA,Pressrelease:Eliasettoinvestinan‘electricityplug’intheNorthSea,13April2017.

ELIA,Pressrelease:EliaawardssubmarinecableinstallationcontractfortheModularOffshoreGrid

(MOG)toDEMEGroup,16August2017.

104

ELIA,Press release: Elia completes allmain construction contracts forModular Offshore Grid, 13

March2018.

ENERGY CHARTER SECRETARIAT, The Energy Charter Treaty and Related Documents: A Legal

FrameworkforInternationalEnergyCooperation,2004,http://www.ena.lt/pdfai/Treaty.pdf.

EUROPEAN ENVIRONMENT AGENCY, Europe’s onshore and offshore wind energy potential: An

assessment of environmental and economic constraints, 2009,

https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/europes-onshore-and-offshore-wind-energy-potential.

EWEA,TheEconomics ofWindEnergy: a report by the EuropeanWindEnergyAssociation, 2009,

www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/publications/reports/Economics_of_Wind_Energy.pdf.

EWEA, Report: Wind in our Sails: The coming of Europe’s offshore wind energy industry, 2011,

http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/publications/reports/23420_Offsho

re_report_web.pdf.

EWEA, EWEA position on the Commission proposal for a Directive establishing a framework for

maritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management, 2013,

http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/publications/position-papers/130218-MSPDirective-

Briefing.pdf.

FAN,Y.,MU,A.andMA,T., “Studyon theapplicationofenergystoragesystem inoffshorewind

turbinewithhydraulictransmission”,EnergyConversionandManagement2016,338-346.

FOX, A. D., DESHOLM, M., KAHLERT, J., KJAER CHRISTENSEN, T. and KRAG PETERSEN, I.,

“InformationneedstosupportenvironmentalimpactassessmentoftheeffectsofEuropeanmarine

offshorewindfarmsonbirds”,Ibis2006,129-144.

FRENCH,V.,CHU,N.-C.,SANTORO,F.,SOUSAPINTO,I.,BORGES,D.andMcDONOUGH,N.,Review

ofOceanLiteracyinEuropeanMaritimePolicy.EUSeaChangeProject,X,2015,41p.

FURNIERE,A.,“Eliaannouncesambitiousoffshoreenergyscheme”,FLANDERSTODAY,4November

2013, http://www.flanderstoday.eu/innovation/energy-manager-elia-plans-ambitious-offshore-

grid.

GALEA, F., “A Legal Regime for the Exploration and Exploitation ofOffshore Renewable Energy”,

IJMCL2011,101–129.

GGSD FORUM, Issue Paper: Marine Spatial Planning: Assessing net benefits and improving

105

effectiveness, 2017,

https://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/GGSD_2017_Issue%20Paper_Marine%20Spatial%20Planning.p

df.

GONZALEZ-RODRIGUEZ, A. G., “Review of offshore wind farm cost components”, Energy for

SustainableDevelopment2017,10-19.

GORIUP,P.D.(ed.),ManagementofMarineProtectedAreas:ANetworkPerspective,Wiley,2017,

312p.

HARRISON, J., Saving the Oceans Through Law: The International Legal Framework for the

ProtectionoftheMarineEnvironment,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,2017,352p.

HASSAN,D.,KUOKKANEN,T.andSOININEN,N.(eds.),TransboundaryMarineSpatialPlanningand

InternationalLaw,NewYork,Routledge,2015,231p.

HAU,E.,WindTurbines:Fundamentals,Technologies,Application,Economics,Springer,2006,783p.

HAU,E.,WindTurbines:Fundamentals,Technologies,Application,Economics,Springer,2013,879p.

HOLDEN, E., LINNERUD, K. and BANISTER, D. “Sustainable development: Our Common Future

revisited”,GlobalEnvironmentalChange2014,130-139.

HOMMES,S.,MAES,F.,VANHULLE,A.,GOLDSBOROUGH,D.,PASTOORS,M.,SØRENSEN,T.K.and

STELZENMÜLLER, V., “MASPNOSE: Preparatory Action onMaritime Spatial Planning in the North

Sea:reportoncross-borderMaritimeSpatialPlanningintwocasestudies”,X,2012,84p.

JIA, J.Modern Earthquake Engineering: Offshore and Land-based Structures, Germany, Springer,

2017,848p.

JNCC, Seabird Displacement Impacts from Offshore Wind Farms: report of the MROG, 2015,

http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/568_web.pdf.

JOHNSON, K. E. and THOMAS, N., “Wind farm control: addressing the aerodynamic interaction

amongwindturbines”,Proceedingsofthe2009AmericanControlConference2009,2104-2109.

JOHNSON,K.,DALTON,D.,andMASTERS,I.(eds.),BuildingIndustriesatSea:‘BlueGrowth’andthe

NewMaritimeEconomy,Denmark,RiverPublishers,2018,472p.

JOINTRESEARCHCENTREINSTITUTEFORENERGYANDTRANSPORT,Theregulatoryframeworkfor

windenergy inEUMember States.Part1of the Studyon the social andeconomic valueofwind

energy – WindValueEU, 2015,

106

http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC93792/d1_regulatory_framework_wi

nd_energy_in_ms_march_2015%20(2).pdf.

KAISER, M. J. and SNYDER, B. F., Offshore Wind Energy Cost Modelling: Installation and

Decommissioning,London,Springer,2012,236p.

KERSTEN, C. M., “Rethinking Transboundary Environmental Impact Assessment”, Yale Journal of

InternationalLaw2009,173-206.

KOCH,H.-J., KÖNIG,D., SANDEN, J. andVERHEYEN, R. (eds.),Climate Change and Environmental

HazardsRelatedtoShipping:AnInternationalLegalFramework,Leiden,Brill,2012,276p.

KOIVUROVA,T.,Introductiontointernationalenvironmentallaw,NewYork,Routledge,2014,213p.

KONSTANTELOS, I., PUDJIANTO, D., STRBAC, G., DE DECKER, J., JOSEPH, P., FLAMENT, A.,

KREUTZKAMP,P.,GENOESE,F.,REHFELDT,L.,WALLASCH,A.-K.,GERDES,G.,JAFAR,M.,YANG,Y.,

TIDEMAND, N., JANSEN, J., NIEUWENHOUT, F., VAN DER WELLE, A. and VEUM, K., “Integrated

North Sea grids: The costs, the benefits and their distribution between countries”,Energy Policy

2017,28-41.

KÖPPEL, J. (ed.), Wind Energy and Wildlife Interactions: Presentations from the CWW2015

Conference,Springer,2017,289p.

KOUNDOURI, P. (ed.), The Ocean of Tomorrow: Investment Assessment of Multi-use Offshore

Platforms:MethodologyandApplications,Springer,2017,143p.

KRZEMINSKA, J., “Are Support Schemes for Renewable Energies Compatible with Competition

Objectives? An Assessment of National and Community Rules”, Yearbook of European

EnvironmentalLaw2007,125-158.

LEHR, J.H., KEELEY, J. andKINGERY, T. B., (eds.),Alternative Energyand ShaleGas Encyclopedia,

Canada,Wiley,2016,878p.

LETCHER, T.M.,WindEnergyEngineering:AHandbook forOnshoreandOffshoreWindTurbines,

AcademicPress,2017,622p.

LONG, R., “Harnessing Offshore Wind Energy: Legal Challenges and Policy Conundrums in the

EuropeanUnion”,IJMCL2014,690–715.

LUDEWIG, E., On the Effect of Offshore Wind Farms on the Atmosphere and Ocean Dynamics,

SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland,2015,162p.

107

MAES,F.andSEYS,J.“Ruimtelijkeplanningopzee:waarBelgiëgoedinis”,DeGroteRede2014,15

–21.

MAES, F. “Ruimtelijke planning op zee in België: van plan naar proces en een nieuw plan”,

TijdschriftvoorMilieurecht2016,415–439.

MAGUIRE, R., LEWIS, B. and SAMPFORD, C. (eds.), ShiftingGlobal Powers and International Law:

Challengesandopportunities,London,Routledge,2013,260p.

MANN,J.andTEILMANN,J.,“Environmentalimpactofwindenergy”,Environ.Res.Lett.2013,1-3.

MÄNTYSAARI, P., EUElectricityTrade Law:The Legal Toolsof ElectricityProducers in the Internal

ElectricityMarket,Springer,2015,97p.

MARKUS,T.,SCHALKE,S.andMAIER,N.,“Legal Implementationof IntegratedOceanPolicies:The

EU’sMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective”,IJMCL2011,59-90.

MUJEEB–AHMED,M.P.,SEO,J.K.andPAIK,J.K.,“Probabilisticapproachforcollisionriskanalysis

ofpoweredvesselwithoffshoreplatforms”,OceanEngineering2018,206–221.

MÜLLER,H.K.andROGGENKAMP,M.M.,“RegulatingOffshoreEnergySourcesintheNorthSea–

ReinventingtheWheeloraNeedforMoreCoordination?”,IJMCL2014,716–737.

MÜLLER,H.K.,ALegalFramework foraTransnationalOffshoreGrid in theNorthSea,PhDthesis

LawUniversityofGroningen,2015,409p.

MUNIR,M.,“HistoryandEvolutionofthePolluterPaysPrinciple:HowanEconomicIdeaBecamea

LegalPrinciple?”,SocialScienceResearchNetwork2013,25p.

MUSIAL,W., andRAM, B., Large-ScaleOffshoreWind Power in theUnited States: Assessment of

OpportunitiesandBarriers,Colorado,NREL,2010,221p.

NG,C. andRAN, L. (eds.),OffshoreWind Farms: Technologies,DesignandOperation,Woodhead

Publishing,2016,654p.

NORDQUIST,M.H.,MOORE,J.N.,CHIRCOP,A.,andLONG,R.(eds.),TheRegulationofContinental

ShelfDevelopment:RethinkingInternationalStandards,Leiden,Brill,2013,374p.

OECD, OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Sweden, 2014, https://read.oecd-

ilibrary.org/environment/oecd-environmental-performance-reviews-sweden-

2014_9789264213715-en#page1.

108

ÖLCER,A. I., KITADA,M.,DALAKLIS,D. andBALLINI, F. (eds.),Trends andChallenges inMaritime

EnergyManagement,Springer,2018,509p.

OSPARCOMMISSION,AssessmentoftheEnvironmentalImpactofOffshoreWindFarms,2008.

OSPARCOMMISSION,OSPARGuidance on Environmental Considerations forOffshoreWind Farm

Development,2008.

OSPAR COMMISSION, Quality Status Report 2010. Chapter 10: Protection and Conservation of

Biodiversity and Ecosystems, 2010,

https://qsr2010.ospar.org/en/media/chapter_pdf/QSR_Ch10_EN.pdf.

OSPARCOMMISSION,TheNorth-EastAtlanticEnvironmentStrategy:StrategyfortheProtectionof

the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic 2010–2020, 2010,

https://www.ospar.org/site/assets/files/1200/ospar_strategy.pdf.

OSTACHOWICZ, W., McGUGAN, M., SCHRÖDER HINRICHS, J.-U. and LUCZAK, M. (eds.),MARE-

WINT:NewMaterialsandReliabilityinOffshoreWindTurbineTechnology,Springer,2016,432p.

PAPASTAVRIDIS,E.D.andTRAPP,K.N.(eds.),Crimesatsea/HagueAcademyofInternationalLaw,

Leiden,Brill,2014,733p.

PAUWELS, L. and MERTENS, P., “Regering zet in op groene Noordzeestroom: dubbel zoveel

windmolens op zee”, VRTNWS 20 April 2018, https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2018/04/20/groen-

licht-voor-groene-noordzeestroom--dubbel-zoveel-windmolens/.

PEETERS,M. and SCHOMERUS, T. (eds.),Renewable Energy Law in the EU: Legal Perspectives on

Bottom-upApproaches,Cheltenham,EdwardElgarPublishing,2014,352p.

PERVEEN,R.,KISHOR,N.andMOHANTY,S.R.,“Off-shorewindfarmdevelopment:Presentstatus

andchallenges”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews2014,780-792.

PESCH,S.T., “CoastalState Jurisdictionaround Installations:SafetyZones in theLawof theSea”,

IJMCL2015,512–532.

PETRUZZI, R. and SPIES, K. (eds.),Tax Policy Challenges in the 21st Century,Wien, Linde Verslag,

2014,752p.

PIGOU,A.C.,EconomicsofWelfare,NewYork,AMSPress,1978,837p.

PILLAI, A. C., CHICK, J., JOHANNING, L. and KHORASANCHI, M., “Offshore wind farm layout

optimizationusingparticleswarmoptimization”,JournalofOceanEngineeringandMarineEnergy

109

2018,73-88.

PLATJOUW, F. M., “Marine Spatial Planning in the North Sea – Are National Policies and Legal

StructuresCompatibleEnough?TheCaseofNorwayandtheNetherlands”,IJMCL2018,34–78.

POUDINEH,R.,BROWN,C.andFOLEY,B.,EconomicsofOffshoreWindPower:ChallengesandPolicy

Considerations,Springer,2017,166p.

QIN, C., SAUNDERS, G. and LOTH, E., “Offshore wind energy storage concept for cost-of-rated-

powersavings”,AppliedEnergy2017,148-157.

QIU,W.andJONES,P.J.S.,“TheemergingpolicylandscapeformarinespatialplanninginEurope”,

MarinePolicy2013,182-190.

REBLED LLUCH, J., Power transmission systems for offshore wind farms: technical-economic

analysis,bachelorthesisUPCommens,2015,121p.

REDGWELL, C., “Mind the Gap in the GAIRS: The Role of Other Instruments in LOSC Regime

ImplementationintheOffshoreEnergySector”,IJMCL2014,600–621.

REICHERT,C.“DeterminationoftheOuterContinentalShelfLimitsandtheRoleoftheCommission

ontheLimitsoftheContinentalShelf”,IJMCL2009,387-399.

RODDIS, P.,“Eco-innovation to reduce biodiversity impacts of wind energy: Key examples and

driversintheUK”,EnvironmentalInnovationandSocietalTransitionsX,X.

RODRIGUES,S.,RESTREPO,C.,KATSOURIS,G.,TEIXEIRAPINTO,R.,SOLEIMANZADEH,M.,BOSMAN,

P.andBAUER,P.,“AMulti-ObjectiveOptimizationFrameworkforOffshoreWindFarmLayoutsand

ElectricInfrastructures”,Energies2016,216-258.

RODRÍGUEZ-RODRÍGUEZ,D.,MALAK,D.A.,SOUKISSIAN,T.andSÁNCHEZ-ESPINOSA,A.“Achieving

BlueGrowththroughmaritimespatialplanning:Offshorewindenergyoptimizationandbiodiversity

conservationinSpain”,MarinePolicy2016,8-14.

ROGGENKAMP, M. M. and HAMMER, U. (eds.), European Energy Law Report I, Antwerpen,

Intersentia,2004,380p.

ROGGENKAMP,M.M.,BARRERA-HERNÁNDEZ,L.,ZILLMAN,D.N.andDELGUAYO,I.(eds.),Energy

NetworksandtheLaw:InnovativeSolutionsinChangingMarkets,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,

2012,476p.

ROTHWELL,D.R.,OUDEELFERINK,A.G.,SCOTT,K.andSTEPHENS,T.(eds.),TheOxfordHandbook

110

ofTheLawoftheSea,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,2015,1072p.

SALOMON, M. and MARKUS, T. (eds.), Handbook on Marine Environment Protection: Science,

ImpactsandSustainableManagement,SpringerInternationalPublishing,2018,1024p.

SARKER, B. R. and FAIZ, T. I., “Minimizing transportation and installation costs for turbines in

offshorewindfarms”,RenewableEnergy2017,667–679.

SCHOUKENS,H.(ed.),MOSKOFIDIS,N.andDEMULDER,J.,HandboekMilieueffectrapportagerecht,

DieKeure,Brugge,2016,573p.

SCOTT, K. N., “Tilting at Offshore Windmills: Regulating Wind Farm Development within the

RenewableEnergyZone”,JournalofEnvironmentalLaw2006,89-118.

SCOVAZZI,T.ANDTANI,I.,“OffshoreWindEnergyDevelopmentinInternationalLaw”,IJMCL2014,

244–258.

SERRANO GONZÁLEZ, J. and LACAL-ARÁNTEGUI, R.,“A review of regulatory framework for wind

energy inEuropeanUnion countries:Current stateandexpecteddevelopments”,Renewableand

SustainableEnergyReviews2016,588-602.

SERRANO GONZÁLEZ, J., BURGOS PAYÁN, M. and RIQUELME SANTOS, J., “Optimum design of

transmissions systems for offshorewind farms including decisionmaking under risk”,Renewable

Energy2013,115-127.

SNYDER, B. and KAISER, M. J., “Ecological and economic cost-benefit analysis of offshore wind

energy”,RenewableEnergy2009,1567–1578.

SOMA,K.,VANDENBURG,S.W.K.,HOEFNAGEL,E.W.J.,STUIVER,M.andVANDERHEIDE,C.M.,

“Socialinnovation–AfuturepathwayforBluegrowth?”,MarinePolicy2018,363-370.

SØRENSEN, J. D. and SØRENSEN, J. N. (eds.), Wind Energy Systems: Optimising design and

constructionforsafeandreliableoperation,WoodheadPublishing,2010,616p.

SPIROPOULOU,I.,KARAMANIS,D.andKEHAYIAS,G.,“Offshorewindfarmsdevelopmentinrelation

toenvironmentalprotectedareas”,SustainableCitiesandSocieties2014,305–312.

STENHANSEN,H.,“ObstaclesforWindEnergyDevelopmentduetoEUlegislation”,ResearchGate

2011,1-40.

STOCZKIEWICZ,M,“ThePolluterpaysprincipleandStateaidforenvironmentalprotection”,JEEPL

2009,171-196.

111

TALUS,A.,EUEnergyLawandPolicy:ACriticalAccount,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,2013,352

p.

TANAKA,Y.,TheInternationalLawoftheSea,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,2015,472p.

TARTARI,F.andNISHINO,T.,“Numericalstudyonthe limitofpowerextractionbyadensecross-

streamarrayofwindturbines”,EuropeanJournalofMechanics-B/Fluids2017,350-358.

TEGNERANKER,H.,EGELUNDOLSEN,B.andRØNNE,A.(eds.),LegalSystemsandWindEnergy:A

ComparativePerspective,AHAlphenaandenRijn,KluwerLawInternational,2008,357p.

TOPHAM, E. and McMILLAN, D., “Sustainable decommissioning of an offshore wind farm”,

RenewableEnergy2017,470–480.

TROUWBORST,A.,“ThePrecautionaryPrincipleandtheEcosystemApproachinInternationalLaw:

Differences,SimilaritiesandLinkages”,RECIEL2009,26-37.

TROUWBORST, A., “Prevention, Precaution, Logic and Law: The Relationship between the

Precautionary Principle and the Preventative Principle in International Law and Associated

Questions”,ErasmusLawReview2009,105-127.

UPWIND,Designlimitsandsolutionsforverylargewindturbines:a20MWturbineisfeasible,2011,

http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/upwind/21895_UpWind_Report_lo

w_web.pdf?utm_source=Wiser-Blog-Scaling+Turbines&utm_campaign=Wiser+Blog-

Scaling+Turbines&utm_medium=email.

VAISSIÈRE,A.-C.,LEVREL,H.,PIOCH,S.andCARLIER,A.,“Biodiversityoffsetsforoffshorewindfarm

projects:ThecurrentsituationinEurope”,MarinePolicy2014,172–183.

VAN BUSSEL, G. and SCHÖNTAG, C. “Operation and Maintenance Aspects of Large Offshore

Windfarms”,EWECCONFERENCE1997,272-275.

VANDENDRIESSCHE(ed.),F.,DEGREEF,C.,DERUYTTER,T.,GELDHOF,W.andVANDERSTRAETEN,

T.,EnergierechtinBelgiëenVlaanderen,Brussel,Larcier,2017,300p.

VANDEVOORDE,J.-L.,“Oostendevreestvoorsputterendeoffshoremotor”,Flows8mei2017.

VANHEUSDEN,B.enVANHOORICK,G.,Milieurechtinkortbestek,Mortsel,Intersentia,2011,304p.

VAN KUIK, G. and PEINKE, J. (eds.), Long-term Research Challenges inWind Energy - A Research

AgendabytheEuropeanAcademyofWindEnergy,Springer,2016,98p.

112

VANTATENHOVE,J.P.M.,“Transboundarymarinespatialplanning:areflexivemarinegovernance

experiment?”,JournalofEnvironmentalPolicyandPlanning2017,783-794.

VRANA, T. K. andMO,O., “OptimalOperationVoltage forMaximalPowerTransferCapabilityon

VeryLongHVACCables”,EnergyProcedia2016,399-408.

WANG,L.,TAN,A.C.C.,CHOLETTE,M.andGU,Y.“Comparisonof theeffectivenessofanalytical

wake models for wind farm with constant and variable hub heights”, Energy Conversion and

Management2016,189-202.

WANG, X. ZENG, X., LI, J., YANG, X. and WANG, H., “A review on recent advancements of

substructuresforoffshorewindturbines”,EnergyConversionandManagement2018,103-119.

WILLSTEED,E.A.,JUDE,S.,GILL,A.B.andBIRCHENOUGH,S.N.R.,“Obligationsandaspirations:A

critical evaluation of offshore wind farm cumulative impact assessments”, Renewable and

SustainableEnergyReviews2018,2332-2345.

WINDEUROPE,OffshoreWind Energy in the North Sea: industry recommendations for the North

Seas Energy Forum, 2017, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/policy/position-

papers/WindEurope-Offshore-wind-energy-in-the-north-sea.pdf.

WINDEUROPE, Offshore Wind in Europe: Key trends and statistics 2017, 2018,

https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/about-wind/statistics/WindEurope-Annual-

Offshore-Statistics-2017.pdf.

WOOLLEY,O.,“EcologicalGovernanceforOffshoreWindEnergyinUnitedKingdomWaters:Hasan

Effective Legal Framework Been Established for Preventing Ecologically Harmful Development?”,

IJMCL2015,765–793.

X, Links between the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD 2008/56/EC) and the Nature

Directives(BirdsDirective2009/147/EEC(BD)andHabitatsDirective92/43/EEC(HD)):Interactions,

overlaps and potential areas for closer coordination, 2012,

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/marine/docs/FAQ%20final%202012-07-

27.pdf.

YOUNG, M., “Building the Blue Economy: The Role of Marine Spatial Planning in Facilitating

OffshoreRenewableEnergyDevelopment”,IJMCL2015,148–174.

ZERVAKI, A., “Introducing Maritime Spatial Planning legislation in the EU: Fishing in Troubled

113

Waters?”,MaritimeSafetyandSecurityLawJournal2015,95–114.

http://odnature.naturalsciences.be/downloads/mumm/windfarms/winmon_report_2017_final.pdf

.

http://odnature.naturalsciences.be/mumm/en/windfarms/.

http://www.offshorewindom.com.

http://www.all-energy.co.uk/__novadocuments/30386?v=635060424354330000.

https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol20/iss1/art64/.

Date post:	20-Jul-2020
Category:	Documents
Upload:	others
View:	2 times
Download:	0 times