54

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter gives the description of materials and methods used for

synthesizing light emitting nanomaterials. It also deals with the various techniques and

instruments used for characterization of the prepared light emitting nanomaterials.

1. MATERIALS

The synthesis of efficient nanophosphors requires host lattice, activators, fuels

and some fluxes. The various chemicals used for the synthesis of the nanophosphors

discussed in this thesis are listed below:

1) Aluminium nitrate nonahydrate [Al(NO3)3.9H2O]

2) Ammonium dihydrogen orthophosphate [NH4H2PO4]

3) Barium nitrate [Ba(NO3)2]

4) Calcium nitrate tetrahydrate [Ca(NO3)2.4H2O]

5) Citric acid [C6H8O7.H2O]

6) Europium(III) nitrate hexahydrate [Eu(NO3)3.6H2O]

7) Europium(III) nitrate pentahydrate [Eu(NO3)3.5H2O]

8) Gadolinium(III) nitrate hexahydrate [Gd(NO3)3.6H2O]

9) Lanthanum nitrate hexahydrate [La(NO3)3.6H2O]

10) L-tartaric acid [C4H6O6]

11) Magnesium nitrate hexahydrate [Mg(NO3)2.6H2O]

12) Orthoboric acid [H3BO3]

13) Potassium nitrate [KNO3]

14) Strontium nitrate [Sr(NO3)2]

15) Terbium(III) nitrate pentahydrate [Tb(NO3)3.5H2O]

16) Urea [H2NCONH2]

17) Yttrium nítrate tetrahydrate [Y(NO3)3.4H2O]

18) Zinc nítrate hydrate [Zn(NO3)2.xH2O]

Keeping in mind that even a small amount of impurity lowers the luminescent

intensity of the light emitting nanomaterials, all these chemicals used for the synthesis

of the nanophosphors were of high purity i.e. 99.98%. Other chemicals such as acids

and solvents used were also of reagent grade/analytical grade.

55

2. Methods for the synthesis of nanophosphors

Nanophosphors consist of a crystalline host materials or a matrix in which a

small amount of certain impurities called activators are incorporated. Sometimes a little

quantity of flux is also required for the synthesis of these luminescent materials.

Nanophosphors synthesis generally proceeds via two step reactions. In the first step,

activator ions are induced into the existing host materials taken for the synthesis and in

the second step, host materials synthesis and activator introduction takes place

simultaneously during the process of firing in the furnace. Activators are primarily

responsible for the luminescence in light emitting nanomaterials. The starting materials

for the synthesis of nanophosphors are blended in a ratio which may deviate

considerably from the stoichiometric composition of the phosphor. Very thorough

mixing of the raw materials before firing is extremely important for the successful

synthesis of the nanophosphors. Some of the best methods used for mixing of raw

materials are slurring, wet ball milling, dry ball milling, mortaring etc. The excess

components present in the raw materials other than the required amount as per final

product of the nanophosphors, either vaporizes during synthesis or is consumed to

create by-products. Sometimes these are removed by washing after the completion of

the reaction. The final product thus obtained is very close to the stoichiometric

composition of the nanophosphors [1]. Extensive trials on the preparation and

characterization of nanophosphors of different host materials doped with activators and

co-activators become unavoidable before any worthwhile result is obtained.

Synthesis techniques of nanophosphors are broadly divided into two categories:

physical methods and chemical methods. Physical methods include molecular beam

epitaxy, ionized cluster beam, liquid metal ion source, consolidation and gas

aggregation of monomers. Chemical methods include colloidal capping, cluster

formation, sol gel, electro-chemical, combustion etc. [2]. The author has employed

combustion method and sol gel process for the synthesis of nanomaterials mentioned in

the thesis. These are described briefly here:

A. Combustion method

Combustion synthesis is a novel technique that has received great attention in

the past few years. This method was discovered in Patil’s laboratory in India in 1988

[3]. It is also known as self-propagating high temperature synthesis. K.C. Patil

serendipitously synthesized fine particles of α-alumina and related oxide materials

56

using this method in his laboratory. Since the preparation of α-alumina foam by rapidly

heating a solution of aluminium nitrate and urea [4], quite a number of advanced

materials have been prepared by means of combustion synthesis [5]. For example, a

variety of useful oxides such as yttria [6-7], ceria [7-8], zirconia [7,9-10], zinc oxide

[11-12], iron oxide [13], thoria [14], aluminates [15-18], chromites [19-22], ferrites

[23-24], manganites [22,25], titanates [26-27] etc. have been obtained using this

technique.

This method involves a highly exothermic reaction which occurs with the

evolution of heat and light, when the mixture of fuel and oxidizer are ignited. The

common fuels employed for the combustion process are urea (CH4N2O),

carbohydrazide (CH6N4O), oxalyl dihydrazide (C2H6N4O2), glycine (C2H5NO2),

diformyl hydrazine (C2H4N2O2) etc. All these fuels contain nitrogen but differ in the

reducing power and amounts of gases these generate, which obviously affects the

characterization of the reaction products. The nitrate salts are favoured as oxidizer

because they serve as water-soluble low temperature nitrogen source for the synthesis.

Stoichiometric compositions of metal nitrates and fuels are calculated based

upon propellant chemistry. Thus, heat of combustion is maximum for O/F ratio 1 [4].

Based on the concepts used in propellant chemistry [4], the elements C, H, V, B or any

other metal are considered as reducing elements with valencies 4+, 1+, 5+, 3+ (or

valency of the metal ion in that compound), respectively and oxygen is an oxidizer

having the valency of 2-. The valency of nitrogen is taken as zero because of its

conversion to molecular nitrogen during combustion. Accordingly, the oxidizing (O)

and reducing (F) valencies for M(NO3)3 and urea can be calculated as follows:

M(NO3)3 Urea, CH4N2O

1M = 3+ C = 4+

9O = 18- 4H = 4+

3N = 0 O =2-

15- 2N = 0

6+

Where M = Y, Gd, La, Al, Tb, Ce.

The oxidizing and reducing valencies of metal nitrates and fuels used in the

combustion synthesis of oxide nanophosphors are summarized in table 2.2.1.

57

Table 2.2.1 Oxidizing and reducing valencies of metal nitrates and fuels

M(NO3)2 10-

M(NO3)3 15-

M(NO3)4 20-

NH4NO3 2-

Urea, CH4N2O 6+

Glycine, C2H5NO2 9+

Carbohydrazide (CH), CH6N4O2 8+

Oxalyl dihydrazide (ODH), C2H6N4O2 10+

3-Methyl Pyrazole 5-One (3MP5O), C4H6N2O 20+

Diformyl hydrazine (DFH), C2H4N2O2 8+

NH4VO3 3+

Hence, for any combustion synthesis, the mixture of metal nitrates (as an

oxidizer) and a proper organic fuel are dissolved in a minimum amount of water in a

pyrex vessel and introduced into a muffle furnace maintained at temperature of ~500°C

as shown in Fig.2.2.1. Hot plate can also be used for the process.

Fig. 2.2.1 Muffle Furnace

The combustion reactions are carried out at low temperature initially below the phase

transition of the target product. The solution boils, foams and ignites to burn with flame

58

or sometimes only smouldering is noticed, to yield voluminous foamy powder in 3-5

minutes occupying the whole volume of the reaction container as shown in Fig. 2.2.2.

Fig. 2.2.2 Showing formation of voluminous combustion product.

The chemical energy released during this exothermic process rapidly heat the system to

high temperatures (1600°C) without any external heat source, such a high temperature

leads to formation and crystallization of nanophosphors.

A key feature of this technique is that the heat required to drive the synthesis is

provided for the main part by an exothermal reaction occurring among the reagents,

thus greatly reducing the amount of heat that has to be supplied by an external source.

Actually, metal nitrates can also be decomposed by simple calcination into metal

oxides, upon heating to or above their decomposition temperature; afterwards these

oxides can further react together giving new substances. But, in this case, a constant

external heat supply is necessary to maintain the system at the high temperature

required for accomplishing the appropriate reaction. On the contrary, the combination

of nitrates with a sacrificial fuel causes the ignition of this mixture of precursors at a

rather low temperature as well as advance of an exothermal reaction that provides itself

the heat necessary for the synthesis. In this way the system is not forced to stay at high

temperature for a long period of time, thus preventing particles sintering.

In addition, as the reagents are mixed in an aqueous solution, this method

enables a good chemical homogeneity of the system, which leads to a nearly

59

instantaneous reaction. Thus, combustion synthesis provides an interesting alternative

to other elaborate techniques because it offers several attractive advantages such as

simplicity of experimental set-up, surprisingly short time between the preparation of

reactants and the availability of the final product, economic due to energy saving.

If on one hand the combustion synthesis is an efficient, quick and straight

forward method for the preparation of oxide materials, on the other hand the

mechanism of the process in terms of reactions involved is quite complex. Besides, it

has been shown that the properties of the resulting oxide powders (crystalline or

amorphous structure, crystallite size, purity, surface area, particle clustering and

agglomeration, etc.) strongly depend on the processing parameters adopted [28].

Most of the previous investigations reported in the literature dealt with the

properties of final products and were aimed at evaluating the influence exerted by the

composition of the reactant mixture on both phase composition and microstructure of

the oxides obtained. For example, product characteristics were observed to depend on

the kind of sacrificial fuel used [15-17] as well as on the adoption as precursors of

acetates instead of nitrates [16]; these characteristics were also found to change with

both the nitrates/fuel ratio and the concentration of precursors in the water solution

[6,8,19].

Despite these extensive investigations, the mechanism of the combustion

synthesis is still not well understood, probably owing to the short synthesis times and

the great number of parameters that influence the process. At any rate its knowledge

entails great importance in order to control the characteristics of the final products.

Three main possible mechanisms, which differ in kind and succession of chemical

reactions involved in this complex process, were expounded in the literature. Kingsley

et al. [4] suggested that during the first step of combustion synthesis the thermal

decomposition of urea and aluminium nitrate occur simultaneously. Urea decomposes

initially to biuret and ammonia and, at higher temperatures, to cyanic acid (HCNO)

trimer, while aluminium nitrate decomposes to amorphous alumina and nitrogen oxide.

According to these authors, afterwards, final gas phase reactions between combustible

species (like ammonia and cyanic acid) and oxides of nitrogen occur, causing the

appearance of a flame. Li et al [15] and Chandramouli et al [14] also supported this

theory. On the contrary, Segadaes et al. [11,18,26] suggested that the overall

combustion reaction could be dismembered into partial reactions of thermodynamic

60

significance, among which a combustion reaction between the fuel and the oxygen

produced in the decomposition of the nitrates supplied the heat needed for the synthesis

reaction. Suresh et al [13] suggested that a direct reaction between a metal nitrate and a

sacrificial fuel occurs during combustion synthesis. This last reaction results in the

complete fuel consumption and, being exothermal and autocatalytic once ignited, goes

to completion without taking any heat from external sources.

Some attempts of investigating, in an indirect way, the progress of combustion

synthesis reactions by using calorimetric and thermal-gravimetric techniques are

reported in the literature[14,17,23,27] while experimental results about the gases

developed during the advancement of the process are not yet available. Actually, the

combination of calorimetry and thermal-gravimetry with the simultaneous analysis of

gaseous reaction products is a powerful tool, suitable for better understanding the

mechanism of combustion synthesis.

The combustion synthesis technique proves to be a simple, efficient, quick and

straight forward route to synthesize nanophosphors. This method provides high purity,

high crystallinity and high homogeneity even at low firing temperature, thus this route

proves to be better than the conventional method. Hence in the present study author has

adopted combustion synthesis for the preparation of some nanophosphors.

B. Sol-Gel Method

The sol-gel process is a wet chemical technique widely used in the fields of

materials science and ceramic engineering. The sol-gel technology was developed

during the past 40 years as an alternative for the preparation of glasses and ceramics at

considerably lower temperatures. The initial systems represent a solution where

different polymerization and polycondensation processes lead to the gradual formation

of the solid phase network. The sol formed is at first subjected to a series of operations:

gelling, drying, pressing and casting, which results in various structural and phase

transformations. This allows formation of powders, fibers, coatings, bulk monolithic

products etc. from the same initial composition.

According to Sakka [29] who is one of the pioneers in this new trend of

technological development, the sol-gel technology is a typical nanotechnology because

all gel products may contain nanoparticles or are nanocomposites. In this sense it plays

a principle role in the development of modern nanotechnology for the preparation of

61

new materials. Sol-gel research grew to be so important that in the beginning of 80’s

reasonably good number of the papers were published and in 1990’s more than 35,000

papers were published worldwide on the process [30-32]. The successful development

of modern nanophosphors technology associated with the synthesis of nanomaterials is,

to a large extent, due to the application of different variants of submicron powders.

Based on the data concerning the development of sol-gel technologies, in

summary one can say that a very important moment is the choice of appropriate

precursors. Most often these are alkoxides, soluble metal salts, polymers, colloids,

which depending on their nature, may be combined with suitable solvents and the

aggregation processes stimulating solid phase formation can be controlled. Fig. 2.2.3

shows schematically the most used variant of the sol-gel process.

Fig. 2.2.3 Different routes of the sol-gel processing

A general method proposed by Kachichana [33], according to which a chemical

process starting from the solutions and leading to a solid phase without precipitate is a

sol-gel process even if the system does not represents an infinite solid network.

One of the methods involves the combination of chemical reactions which turns a

homogeneous solution of reactants into an infinite molecular weight polymer. This

polymer is a three dimensional interconnected pores. The polymer is isotropic,

homogeneous and uniform and it replicates its mold exactly and miniaturizes all

62

features without distortion. Thus the polymer net works provide nanostructure and

nanophase porosity.

The non-hydrolytic sol-gel method (without participation of water) is also

promising, especially with respect to transition metal oxides. This concerns mainly

reactions associated to chloride hydrolysis with metal alkoxides [34, 35]. The process

has been available to synthesized oxide of the silicon [36-40], titanium [38-41],

aluminum [39-42], aluminosilicates and silicon-titanium [43-47]. Matrix oxide is an

important host for rare earths ions due to large application fields such as phosphors,

solid –state lasers, non-linear optic and others [48.49].

Another method widely used during the last decade is the Pechini method [50,

51,52]. This method is based on esterification processes between chelate complexes of

metal ions (soluble metal salts , nitrates, acetates, etc. combined with a chelate agent ,

citric acid or EDTA) and ethylene glycol. The resin obtained in this way is transformed,

after thermal treatment, into a nanosized powder in which the particles are distributed

within very narrow limits (monodispersity) and the reactivity is enhanced. The above

examples from various scientific regions also confirm that the sol-gel methods are

among the main routes of obtaining hybrid and nanostructured materials.

Sol-gel process has also been adopted in the thesis to synthesize nanomaterials

involving chelating agents (citric acid and L-tartaric acid), which is easier to process,

energy saving and cost effective compared to with those of the traditional sol-gel

methods [53, 54]. There are carboxylate (-COOH) and hydroxyl (-OH) functional

groups existing in the molecular structure of chelating agents which can act as

bidentate ligands and establish polynuclear complex with metals [55-58]. Thus these

ligands may offer the opportunity for different kinds of ions coming in close proximity

and the molecular level mixing leading to high degree of homogeneity with small

particle size and high surface area for example, it was demonstrated that the tartaric

acid in synthesizing BiFeO3 resided in the formation of hetrometallic polynuclear

complexes in the solution, where reacting metal atoms came in close proximity [55].

The nanoparticles were synthesized according to the flow chart presented in Fig.

2.2.4. The high purity starting materials were weighed according to the nominal

composition of the required host lattice and dissolved in minimum amount of diluted

HNO3 to get a transparent solution. Chelating ligand in different ratios with respect to

the total metal ions of the host lattice was then slowly added to the solution. Different

molar ratios of metal ions to organic acids (1:1, 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4) were taken to

63

investigate the effect of these acids content on particle size, surface area and

photoluminescence properties of the prepared nanoparticles. However, no observable

changes were indicated on the size of the particle and surface area with different

amount of organic acids.

The highest emission intensity was observed when the ratio of metal ion to

organic acid was 1:2. It may be due to the reason that high chelating acid concentration

brought about a higher carbon impurity left in the samples which is not favorable for

luminescence while the lower acid amount accelerated the rate of hydrolysis which

yielded in the formation of inhomogeneous nanoparticles. Zhou et al have observed

similar behaviour of the carbon contents on the luminescent of YAG prepared by sol-

gel process using citric acid [59]. The observed results indicated that the suitable molar

ratio of metal ion to tartaric acid is 1:2 in order to have good emission intensity of the

nanoparticles.

Fig. 2.2.4 Flow chart for the synthesis of light emitting nanoparticles.

The mixture was heated under constant stirring at 80oC for 2 hrs, which made the

mixture denser forming the ‘sol’. Then, the sol was heated at 120oC until a gel was

formed and dried subsequently to get a grey fluffy powder. Conditions of formation of

gel strongly depend on the nature of the chelating ligand employed. In case of tartaric

64

acid precipitates immediately appeared; while solutions of citric acid remained

transparent for many hours. This differences in behaviour remained after the

gelification process. Tartaric gels were fluffy grey and poorly viscous, while citric acid

gel samples were whitish and more viscous, chelating agent geometry may be argued to

account for their different behavior. In case of tartaric acid double chelating “claw”

geometry may initiate 1D or 2D polymeric structure formation [60, 61] which is likely

to quickly develop up to the formation of stable nucleus leading to the observed

precipitation phenomenon. In case of citric acid, due to the lack of double opposite

chelating “claw” the precipitation process could not occur.

The dried gel was collected and subjected to the further heat treatment at various

temperatures ranging from 500-1200oC for 3 hrs. The synthesized materials obtained

through sol-gel process have been characterized by photoluminescence (PL) spectra,

scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy

dispersive X- ray analysis (EDAX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques.

The sol-gel approach is a cost effective and low-temperature technique that

allows for the fine control of the product’s chemical composition. Even small quantities

of dopants, such as rare earth elements, can be introduced in the sol and end up

uniformly dispersed in the final product. Sol-gel derived materials have diverse

application in optics, electronics, energy, space, sensors, medicine, reactive materials

and separation technology. This route is faster than solid state reaction and leads to

mixing at molecular level of the constituents as well as formation of a better chemically

homogenized product.

3. INSTRUMENTATION

In material characterization, basically the synthesized materials are

characterized by variety of techniques to assure that the appropriate materials with

suitable properties are synthesized. A brief discussion of some of the techniques and

instruments utilized for the characterization of nanophosphors is given below:

A) LUMINESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY

i) Principle

The photoluminescent spectrum is obtained by plotting the relationship between

the wavelength and the intensity of emitted light from a sample excited by an

appropriate excitation source of constant energy. The source of excitation can be UV

65

and visible light such as tungsten lamp, discharge lamp, xenon discharge lamp, mercury

discharge lamp, laser [62-63], excimer lamp [64], electron beam excitation etc. The

spectrum is obtained using a monochromator equipped with an appropriate light

detector. In an excitation spectrum, the relationship is obtained by observing changes in

the emitted light intensity at a set wavelength while varying the excitation energy.

When the excitation source is light, single-frequency light produced by a

monochromator impinges on the sample and the emitted light intensity is recorded as

the excitation wavelength is varied.

In a spectrum, intensity of light at a particular wavelength is expressed along the

ordinate and the wavelength along the abscissa. The units of the ordinate are either

irradiance E (W.m-2

) or number of photons Ep (photons.m-2

). The units of the abscissa

are expressed in terms of wavelength (nm) or wave number v (cm-1

).

Using these units, the spectrum irradiance is expressed as

2 1( ) ( . . )dE

E W m nmd

(1)

or

2 1 1( ) ( . .( )dE

E v W m cmdv

(2)

and the spectral photon irradiance is expressed as

2 1( ) ( . . )p

p

dEE photons m nm

d

(3)

or

2 1 1( ) ( )p

p

dEE v photons m cm

dv

(4)

Depending upon the type of the experiment, the units are selected. For quantum

efficiency, photon irradiance is employed whereas for energy efficiency, irradiance is

employed. The luminosity of a phosphor is expressed in terms of irradiance, which is

obtained by integrating the spectral data, E(), multiplied by the relative photopic

spectral luminous efficiency, V(), divided by the light equivalence value, [65-66] Km

= 673 lm.Watt-1

i.e.

2

0

( ) ( ) , .mL K V E d lm m

(5)

66

ii) CIE colorimetric system

In the study of color perception, one of the first mathematically defined color

spaces was the CIE colorimetric system [67] established by the CIE in 1931. This is the

most important concept used these days. The CIE chromaticity diagram is shown in

Fig. 2.3.1. This system consists of the RGB and the XYZ colorimetric systems. The

XYZ system, which will also be explained below, was laid down as an extension of the

RGB system for practical applications.

Fig. 2.3.1 CIE Chromaticity Diagram

The RGB system was derived from results of psychophysical experiments. In

the experiments, the observers viewed a circular field with an angular diameter of 2°.

The circular field consisted of two identical half circles adjacently located on the right

and left. The color of the two identical half circles adjacently located on the right and

left. The color of the two half circles was independently variable. One of the two half

circles was used as the reference field and another was used as the test field. Colors of

the reference field were called the reference colors and those of the test field of the

same intensity at various wavelengths over the entire visible range. The test colors, on

the other hand, were composed with a mixture of the three primary colors, red (700

nm), green (546.1 nm), and blue (453.8 nm). The numbers in parentheses show the

wavelengths of the respective primary colors. By varying the mixing ratio of the three

67

primary colors, the observers varied the colors of the test field. In this way, the color of

the test field was made to match that of the adjacent reference field. During the

observations, it was found that in some wavelength ranges mixtures of three primary

colors could not match the reference colors. In these wavelength ranges, matches were

established if an amount of one of the three primary colors was added to the

monochromatic reference colors.

This implies that matches can be established by the subtracting one of the

primary colors form the mixtures. In other words, there are some wavelength ranges

where the stimulus of the primary colors is negative. In this way, the mixture ratio of

the primary colors to match all the spectral colors over the entire visible range was

obtained. It was assumed, when a match was established, that the reciprocals of the

energy ratio of each primary color of the test field corresponded to the relative strength

of the stimuli of the respective primary colors at the wavelength of the reference with

which the color was matched. Based on the above assumption, three spectral

distribution curves of the relative strength of the stimulus for each of the three primary

colors (red, green and blue) over the entire visible range were obtained. The curves are

called the spectral tristimulus values or the color matching coefficients. They are r(),

g(), and b(), respectively. in the parenthesis is the wavelength.

As, the sum of the three tristimulus values at each wavelength is always 100%,

the mixture ratio of the three primary colors can be obtained by any two of the three

tristimulus values. The RGB color metric system is based on this and all colors are

indicated on the r() and g() coordinates.

To overcome difficulties associated with the negative stimulus of the primary

colors, based on the above mentioned color matching experiments, three imaginary

reference color stimuli [X], [Y], and [Z] were introduced. By employing the imaginary

reference color stimuli, the original tristimulus values were converted mathematically

into positive values and all colors could be composed by mixing (not subtracting) these

three stimuli. This is the basis of the XYZ colorimetric system. Y has been chosen to

correspond with the lightness stimulus. Based on the similar idea with that of the RGB

colorimetric system, all colors are indicated by these coordinates.

Test light source colors are specified below. The tristimulus value (X, Y and Z)

for a test light source, which has a spectral energy distribution P (), are calculated with

the following formulae:

68

780

380

( ) ( )X K P x d (6)

( ) ( )Y KP y d (7)

780

380

( ) ( )Z K P z d (8)

Where 1

( ) ( )K

P Y d

and ( )x , ( )y , and ( )z are the spectral stimulus values for 2°. These quantities are

written as 10 ( )x , 10 ( )y , 10 ( )z for 10.

The chromaticity coordinates of the color of the light sources x and y are

calculated with the following formulae.

Xx

X Y Z

(9)

Yy

X Y Z

(10)

The colors of light sources on the XYZ colorimetric system are specified with Y

calculated with Eq. 7 and x and y calculated with Eq. 9 and 10 respectively.

Specification of the nonluminous object colors

The tristimulus values [68] (X, Y, and Z) of the object for which the spectral

reflectance (or spectral transmittance) is ( ) and ( ) are given by

780

380

1( ) ( ) ( )X P x d

K (11)

780

380

1( ) ( ) ( )Y P y d

K (12)

780

380

1( ) ( ) ( )Z P z d

K (13)

Where

780

380

( ) ( )K P y d

( )P is the spectral power distribution of the light source which illuminates the

object, and ( )x , ( )y , and ( )z are the CIE spectral trichromatic stimuli for fields of

69

2° or 10°. The chromaticity co-ordinates of the color of the objects can then be

calculated, as with the light sources, using Eq. 9 and 10.

CIE co-ordinates are powerful concept because they facilitate representing an

entire luminescent spectrum by two numbers and the simplicity of the visual method

for obtaining the color gamut of phosphors is quite attractive. The main drawback of

CIE co-ordinate system is that it involves complexity in calculation but the

spectrophotometer used by us automatically calculated the CIE co-ordinates.

iii) Procedure

Photoluminescence (PL) spectra were taken in solid powder form of the

nanophosphors. For photoluminescence measurements, 0.05 g powder samples were

pressed into pellets (10mm diameter and 1mm thickness), then exposed to a ultraviolet

rays of suitable wavelength using xenon arch lamp. All measurements were carried out

at room temperature. The emission color was analyzed and confirmed with the help of

Commission de I Eclairage (CIE) chromaticity coordinate diagram.

iv) Instrument

Photoluminescence spectra were recorded with Hitachi Flourescence

Spectrophotometer F-7000 (Fig. 2.3.2) and Konica Minolta’s portable

spectroradiometer CS-1000 (Fig.2.3.3). The emission color co-ordinates were analyzed

by Minolta spectroradiometer. Even PL experiments were performed in backscattering

geometry used for exciting a He–Cd laser (325 nm) Q1 with an optical power of 30

mW. The emitted light was analyzed by HR-4000 Ocean Optics USB spectrometer

optimized for the UV–vis range.

Fig.2.3.2 Hitachi Flourescence Spectrophotometer F-7000

70

Fig.2.3.3 Minolta Spectroradiometer CS-1000

B) X-RAY DIFFRACTION STUDIES

In 1895, German Physicist W.C. Roentgen discovered invisible rays which are

known as X-rays. These rays affect photographic film similar to that of light but more

penetrating than light. It was in 1912, when German Physicist Van Laue established the

wave like nature of X-rays. In the same year two English physicists W.H. Bragg and his

son W.L. Bragg successfully analysed the same experiment and derived the conditions

for diffraction from a 3d-periodic arrangement of atoms.

X-rays are electromagnetic radiation of very much shorter wavelength

compared to that of light. The X-rays used in diffraction have wavelengths in the range

of 0.5-2.5 Ǻ and thus lie in between gamma and ultraviolet rays. X-rays carry energy

and the rate of flow of this energy through unit area perpendicular to the direction of

motion of the wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave and

known as intensity (I) of the radiation.

X-rays are produced when an electrically charged particle (e.g. electrons) of

sufficient kinetic energy is rapidly decelerated. When electrons moving at high speeds

are directed to a metal target, a very small percentage of their kinetic energy is

converted into X-rays. Most of the kinetic energy of the electrons striking the target is

converted to heat, less than 1% being transformed into X-rays. The X-rays emitted by

the target consist of a continuous range of wavelengths and is called the white or

continuous radiation. The minimum wavelength in the continuous spectrum is inversely

proportional to the applied voltage which accelerates the electrons towards the target.

The intensity is zero upto a certain wavelength, called the short wavelength limit

71

(SWL). It increases rapidly to a maximum and then decreases with no sharp limit on the

long wavelength side. The continuous spectrum gets generated due to the emission of

energy as a result of declaration of electrons heating the target. Electrons which are

stopped in a single impact give rise to maximum energy. The corresponding

wavelength, [69] known as short wavelength limit, is given by Eq. 14.

SWL = 12.40x 103/V (14)

If an electron is not completely stopped in one encounter, it undergoes a

glancing impact which only partially decreases its velocity, then only a fraction of its

energy is emitted as radiation; the corresponding X-ray has a wavelength longer than

SWL. The totality of these wavelengths, ranging upward from SWL constitutes the

continuous spectrum. The total X-ray energy emitted per second, i.e. intensity is given

by Eq. 15.

I continuous spectrum = Ai Z V

m (15)

Where A is proportionality constant, m is a constant of about 2, i is the current

and Z is the atomic number of the target [70]. The material of the target affects the

intensity but not the wavelength distribution of the continuous spectrum.

When the applied voltage is sufficiently high, in addition to the white radiation,

a characteristic radiation of a specific wavelength and high intensity is also emitted by

the target. However, these are narrow and their wavelengths are characteristics of the

target metal. These radiations fall into several sets, K, L, M, etc in the order of

increasing wavelength. Ordinarily K lines are useful in X-ray diffraction because longer

wavelengths lines are being easily absorbed. Several lines are possible in the K set i.e.

K1, K2, and K1. Among these K1 is preferred for X-ray diffraction.

i) Basic Principles of Diffraction

X-ray diffraction can be explained in simple terms by the reflection of an X-ray

beam from a stock of parallel equidistant atomic planes. The diffracted beam is thus

composed of a large number of scattered rays mutually reinforcing each other.

Diffraction essentially is a scattering phenomenon. When X-ray interacts with atom, it

72

gives rise to scattering in all directions; in some of these directions the scattered beams

will be completely in phase and so reinforce each other to form diffracted beams.

Fig. 2.3.4 Diffraction of X-rays by a crystal

Fig. 2.3.4 shows a set of parallel planes in a crystal. A beam of X-rays of

wavelength is directed towards the crystal at an angle to the atomic planes. The

atomic planes are considered to be semi-transparent. i.e. they allow a part of the X-rays

to pass through and reflect the other part. Considering rays 1, Ia in the incident beam,

they strike the atom at K and P in the first plane of atoms and are scattered in all

directions. However, only I and Ia out of all scattered rays are completely in phase and

so capable of reinforcing one another. Rays 1 and 2 are scattered by atoms K and L,

and the path difference for rays is given in Eq. 16.

ML+LN = d sin + d sin = 2 d sin (16)

The two scattered rays will be completely in phase if this path difference is

equal to an integral multiple of wavelengths, i.e.

n=2d sin (17)

Eq. 17 is known as Bragg Law and is known as the Bragg angle [71,72] where

maximum intensity occurs and n is the order of diffraction. At other angles, there is

little or no diffracted intensity because of destructive interference.

Sin = n/2d≤1

≤2d for n=1

73

Thus, first order Bragg reflection can occur only for wavelengths ≤2d. Since

the lattice spacing d is of the order of angstroms, X-rays (wavelength in Ǻ) are well

suitable for diffraction studies. This means that spacing d can be easily evaluated from

measurements of first order Bragg angle using Bragg’s law with n=1. If the regular

arrangement of atoms in a crystal is considered, stacks of parallel lattice planes are

found with different characteristic spacings. Therefore, each crystallographic phase

shows a characteristic set of d-spacings which yields a diffraction pattern with

intensities at the corresponding Bragg angle [73].

The average crystalline size in phosphors powders can be estimated using the

Scherrer equation based on diffraction peak broadening. This scherrer equation (Eq. 18)

has been drawn from Bragg’s Law.

Scherrer equation,

D=

(18)

Where,

D is the average crystallite size

is the x-ray wavelength

is the diffraction angle.

is the full width at half maximum(FWHM) in radian.

Sample identification can be easy by comparing the experimental diffraction

pattern to that in the JCPDS files. Sample preparation is relatively simple; powders can

be pressed into a disc, film, or smeared onto a substrate and the experiment does not

require vacuum. The particle size and its crystalline behavior were analysed by

observing the peak broadening and noise in diffraction pattern.

ii) Instrument

Rigaku D/Max 2000-Ultima plus (Fig. 2.3.5), Rigaku Mini Flex’ ii and Rigaku

Ultima IV diffractometers were used to analyse XRD pattern of the various

nanophosphors.

74

Fig. 2.3.5 Rigaku D/Max 2000-Ultima plus Diffractometer

C) ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY ANALYSIS

Energy dispersive X-ray analysis is an experiment that determines the amount

in weight percent of various elements present in a compound. By EDAX technique a

quantitative analysis can be made of elements with atomic number of 6 (carbon) or

greater. This type of analysis is useful for organic as well as inorganic compounds.

Combining the EDAX spectrum with the SEM allows the identification, at micro

structural level, of compositional gradients at grain boundaries, second phases,

impurities, inclusions, and small amounts of material. In the scanning mode, the

SEM/EDS unit can be used to produce maps of element location, concentration, and

distribution.

i) Principle

One of the instruments most commonly used in conjunction with the SEM is the

Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometer (EDS). The X-ray spectrometer converts a X-

ray photon into an electrical pulse with specific characteristics of amplitude and width.

A multi-channel analyzer measures the pulse and increments a corresponding "energy

slot" in a monitor display. The location of the slot is proportional to the energy of the

X-ray photon entering the detector. The display is a histogram of the X-ray energy

received by the detector, with individual "peaks," the heights of which are proportional

to the amount of a particular element in the specimen being analyzed. The locations of

the peaks are directly related to the particular X-ray "fingerprint" of the elements

present. Consequently, the presence of a peak, its height, and several other factors,

75

allows the analyst to identify elements within a sample, and with the use of appropriate

standards and software, a quantitative analysis can be made of elements with atomic

number of 6 (carbon) or greater.

ii) Instrument

The energy dispersive X-ray analyses were performed by JEOL-JSM- 6300

scanning electron microscope.

D) SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

Scanning electron microscopy also known as SEM, can generate impressive

physical and structural details. The scanning electron microscope is based on scanning

a finely focused electron beam across the surfaces of a specimen. The latter reflects the

beam into two directions X and Y. These reflection signals are collected, and their

intensities are displayed on a cathode-ray-tube screen by brightness modulation. As

already indicated, the method allows specimen magnifications to more than 100,000

while maintaining a large depth of focus. The ease of sample scanning of a SEM over

large distances is quite appealing, in that a large sample scanning-viewing area is first

surveyed at generally low magnifications to seek out particular areas of interest,

followed by high magnification of those specific areas for subsequent detailed

investigations. Hence, specific surfaces irregularities, for example, known to be present

or noted at low magnifications can be identified and further investigated at significantly

higher magnifications. Such studies can highlight unexpected geometrical

configurations, unique shapes of particulates, or the degree of deficiency. The SEM is

also extensively employed for the generation of dimensional and spatial relationship

details of structure elements.

i) Fundamental electron-material interactions

SEM tools rely on the generation of electrons accelerated through an electric

field to acquire sufficient kinetic energy. These energized electrons are then directed

onto the material to be investigated. The electron interaction with the material results in

a number of different energy dissipation modes. The particular type of released energy

depends on the energized electron interaction with the various orbital electrons of the

material. If the ejected orbital electron is weakly bound, it emerges with only a few eVs

of energy. These are termed secondary electrons. Secondary electrons generated

sufficiently deep within the material are reabsorbed by that material before they can

76

reach the surface, whereas those generated near the surface can escape and therefore are

detectable. Secondary electrons created at topographic peak areas in a material will

have a greater chance to escape than those generated in topographic troughs.

Furthermore, since the greatest density of secondary electrons is created by the primary

beam of energized electrons before they spread into the material to undergo other

possible energy signals. The ability to capture both the topographic sensitivity and the

spatial resolution forms the basis for high-resolution microscopy of the material

surfaces as measured by a SEM tool. As long as a material surface exhibits some

degree of surface irregularities, it generates a SEM micrographic image.

The ultimate spatial resolution of a SEM image is proportional to the tool’s

ability to generate an electron current density. The development of the field mission

gun Crewe in 1968 greatly advanced the resolution of a SEM. The gun creates

extremely high electron current densities by forcibly emitting electrons from a needle-

pointed metal tip under an intense electric field and ultra-high-vacuum conditions.

ii) SEM Analysis

SEM photo microscopy tends to be the preferred means to obtain any initial

high-resolution data of a particular sample. It is quite useful for the most dimensional

and structural shape information, including feature-to feature comparisons to evaluate

consistencies or abnormalities.

iii) Instrument

The morphology of the nanocrystals was studied by using different scanning

electron microscopes (SEM) such as JEOL -JSM-6300 scanning electron microscope

operating at 10 kV and Philips XL 30 instrument. The Philips XL30,scanning electron

microscope is shown in Fig. 2.3.6.

Fig. 2.3.6 The Philips XL30, fully computer-controlled scanning electron

microscope

77

E) TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

TEM is a microscopy technique where by a beam of electrons is transmitted

through an ultra thin specimen, interacting with the specimen as it passes through. An

image is formed from the interaction of the electrons transmitted through the specimen;

the image is magnified and focused onto an imaging device, such as a CCD camera.

TEMs are capable of imaging at a significantly higher resolution than light

microscopes, owing to the small de Broglie wavelength of electrons. This enables the

instrument to be able to examine fine detail-even as small as a single column of atoms,

which is tens of thousands times smaller than the smallest resolvable object in a light

microscope. TEM forms a major analysis method in a range of scientific fields, in both

physical and biological sciences.

ii) Working principle

TEM works like a slide projector. A projector shines a beam of light which

transmits through the slide. The patterns painted on the slide only allow certain parts of

the light beam to pass through. Thus the transmitted beam replicates the patterns on the

slide, forming an enlarged image of the slide when falling on the screen.

TEMs work the same way except that they shine a beam of electrons (like the

light in a slide projector) through the specimen (like the slide). However, in TEM, the

transmission of electron beam is highly dependent on the properties of material being

examined. Such properties include density, composition, etc. For example, porous

material will allow more electrons to pass through while dense material will allow less.

As a result, a specimen with a non-uniform density can be examined by this technique.

Whatever part is transmitted is projected onto a phosphor screen for the user to see.

For preparation of samples for TEM analysis, the nanophosphors were

dispersed well in an appropriate solvent. Then with the help of a micro tipped dropper

the fine particles were applied on thin glass film and allowed to stand for some time to

allow the solvent to evaporate. After drying the specimen was transferred in the

microscope column for imaging at different magnification and the electron diffraction

patterns were recorded.

78

iii) Instrument

JEOL JEM-2100F instrument as shown in Fig.2.3.7 was used for TEM analysis

of the synthesized inorganic nanophosphors.

Fig. 2.3.7 JEOL JEM-2100F Transmission Electron Microscopy

79

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