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Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized

RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS

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(List continues on the inside back cover)

WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 343

Freshwater Biodiversity in AsiaWith Special Reference to Fish

Maurice KottelatTony Witten

The World BankWashington, D.C.

Copyright © 1996The International Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of AmericaFirst printing September 1996

Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development communitywith the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordancewith the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility forerrors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available.

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of theauthor(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, orto members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does notguarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoeverfor any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown onany map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of anyterritory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.

The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of itshould be sent to the Office of the Publisher at the address shown in the copyright notice above. TheWorld Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, whenthe reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to copy portions forclassroom use is granted through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., Suite 910, 222 Rosewood Drive,Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, U.S.A.

The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications, whichcontains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, andcountries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Distribution Unit, Office ofthe Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications,The World Bank, 66, avenue d'lena, 75116 Paris, France.

Maurice Kottelat is an independent consultant and taxonomist. Tony Whitten is Biodiversity Specialist in the AsiaTechnical Department of the World Bank.

ISBN 0-8213-3808-0ISSN: 0253-7494

Cover photo: The largest freshwater fish in Asia is the giant Mekong catfish Pangasionodon gigas. It reportedly mi-grates along the Mekong between Tonle Sap in Cambodia to upper Laos.Credit: F. D'Aubenton

Contents

Foreword viiAcknowledgments viiiAbstract Lx

1. Concerns I

Background 1

Biodiversity I

Mainstreaming Biodiversity 1

Attention to Freshwater Biodiversity 1

Human Capacity 3

Policy Context 4

2. Human significance offreshwater biodiversity 7

Economic Value of the Resources _ 7

Local Knowledge and Management of Resources 8

3. Biodiversity aspects 10

Ecosystem Diversity 10

Species Diversity in Freshwater Organisms 14

Genetic Diversity 17

Megadiversity Countries and Hot Spots 17

4. Threats and the mitigation of impacts 22

Threats and Effects 22

Mitigation 27

Environmental Assessments and Monitoring 29

Partnerships 30

5. Legal instruments 31

National Jurisdiction 31

Nationally Protected Species_ 31

6. National reviews 34

Afghanistan 34

Bangladesh 34

Bhutan 34

Brunei Darussalam 34

iii

Burma 35

Cambodia 35

China 35

India 36

Indonesia 37

Japan 38

Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea 38

Lao P. D. R. 38

Malaysia 39

Maldives 39

Mongolia 39

Nepal 40

Pakistan 40

Papua New Guinea 40

Philippines 40

Singapore 41

Sri Lanka 42

Taiwan 42

Thailand 42

Vietnam 43

7. Selected programs and activities 44

Darwin Initiative in the Himalayas 44

Gangetic River Dolphin Watch Program 44

Wetlands International Asia-Pacific 44

South East Asian Aquatic Biodiversity Program 44

Biodiversity in Mainland South East Asia 44

Fishbase 45

8. Recommendations 46

Project Design _46

Environmental Assessment, Mitigation and Monitoring 46

Policies and Strategies 47

Knowledge Development 47

Capacity Building 47

iv

Economic Assessment 47

Indicators 47

Priorities for Surveys and Identification Material 47

Literature cited 49

Appendixes 56

Appendix A. Fish species exclusively known from caves in South and East Asia 56

Appendix B. Considerations for Aquatic Biodiversity Studies in Environmental Assessment_ 57

v

Foreword

Many development projects impact freshwater The operational implications of this paper arebiodiversity through flow regulation, pollution, considerable given the frequency with whichsiltation, eutrophication, and changes in the freshwater ecosystems are affected by develop-vegetation cover, and many of Asia's poorest ment projects. Paying attention to the biologicalpeople depend on freshwater biodiversity for their health of freshwater ecosystems can bring eco-protein needs. Biodiversity initiatives have hith- nomic and health benefits to riparian people, anderto tended to focus on terrestrial systems or, allow those ecosystems to maximize their benefi-when aquatic systems are targeted, on coral reefs cial functions such as the improvement of wateror wetlands (which have not necessarily engaged quality. We hope this report will also make a sin-the requirements of freshwater biodiversity). gular contribution to the meetings prior to and

during the Fourth Conference of the Parties to theRecent ASTEN reviews of major environmental Biodiversity Convention on Biological Diversityassessments have found that if and when impacts in November 1997 at which a major topic of dis-on freshwater biodiversity are investigated, the cussion will be the status and trends of the biodi-quality of the available information is sometimes versity of inland water ecosystems and the identi-below what is required for informed decision fication of options for conservation and sustain-making, and there are few effective mitigation or able use.management provisions incorporated into projectdesigns. This is in part due to acute human re- While we are sure this paper will be useful, wesource shortages, the lack of importance given to are equally sure that the development of concernsthe work, and the lack of dialogue between spe- relating to freshwater biodiversity would benefitcialists. The World Bank's Water Resources from outside comments and dialogue. Please ad-Management policy paper recognizes that in order dress those to the Chief, Environment and Naturalto assist governments in developing strategies and Resources Division, Asia Technical Department,cost-effective mechanisms for ecologically sus- The World Bank, 1818 H St NW, Washingtontainable management, and the protection and res- DC, 20433, USA.toration of water-dependent ecosystems, morerigorous attention should be given to maintainingbiodiversity and protecting ecosystems in the de-sign and implementation of water projects. As a Harold Messengerfirst step, ASTEN has commissioned this report. Director

Asia Technical Department

vii

Acknowledgments

This document was prepared using Trust Funds provided by the Swedish and Norwegian Governments,whose support has been greatly appreciated.

Thanks are extended to the following for their help in preparing this document: M. Isabel Braga, WarrenBrockelman, Christopher Cook, Indraneil Das, Wim Giesen, Mark Hill, Kevin Jeanes, Barbry Keller, KenMacKay, Glenn Morgan, Peter Ng, Roger Pullin, Marcel Silvius, Jane Whitten, Ron Zweig.

viii

Abstract

* Asia is home to some 3500 species of fish, * The countries of Asia differ in their nationalhundreds of other organisms which spend capacity and expertise in freshwater biodiver-their entire lives in water, and to many types sity and the related fields of ecology and tax-of freshwater habitats. Many of these are of onomy, and in the quantity and quality ofconsiderable economic value and are an im- relevant and available information. The ap-portant source of food for many poor people. propriate remedial strategy is therefore differ-

ent for each country.* This freshwater biodiversity can be adversely

affected by projects related to dams, flood * Straightforward and relatively inexpensivecontrol, water supply, mining, fisheries man- steps to ameliorate a currently serious situa-agement, introduction of exotic species, irri- tion are:gation, bridges, industrial effluent, domestic * encouraging awareness of and atten-waste, waterway modification for navigation tion to freshwater biodiversity issues;and other purposes, and forest clearance; * acknowledging that in order to make

appropriate environmental manage-} Current international agreements and World ment decisions it is important to col-

Bank policies support actions to consider and lect good and current data;conserve freshwater biodiversity, which has * executing studies to understand thereceived far less attention than biodiversity in whole economic values of freshwaterterrestrial and marine ecosystems. Certain biodiversity;freshwater habitats are 'critical' in the sense * preparing field guides and manuals,of the World Bank's OP 4.04 on Natural * nurturing partnerships between engi-Habitats; neers and biodiversity specialists to

achieve better project designs and* Freshwater biodiversity concerns are not al- more effective mitigation measures;

ways wholly addressed by attention to fisher- andies management or wetland conservation. * encouraging the release of scientific

data collected by project proponentsas part of environmental assessments.

ix

Concerns

Background as the ecosystems and ecological processes towhich they belong, and is thus usually considered

The purpose of this report is to give attention at ecosystem, species, and genetic levels. Eco-to Asian' freshwater biodiversity. It was compiled system diversity is concerned with the variety ofwith limited resources over a limited period and habitats and species communities, as well as theso it has not been able to explore the entire sub- ecological processes within ecosystems. Speciesject. Instead it is intended as a document to initiate diversity refers to the variety of living organisms,discussions and as a basis for future publications and genetic diversity refers to the total geneticand activities on more technical aspects and information contained in the genes of an individ-training. The constraints have forced a concentra- ual species. 'Freshwater biodiversity', in thetion on certain species and issues; for example, context of this report, concerns the species andsmall algae and invertebrate animals are the most habitats to be found primarily within inland wa-abundant aquatic organisms, but fish are chosen ters.as the focal or 'flagship' group of species in thereport because: Mainstreaming Biodiversity

* they are conspicuous, At the 1995 Conference of the Parties to the- they are easily identified, Biodiversity Convention, the World Bank- they are economically valuable, launched a significant document entitled Main-• they are nutritionally important for many poor streaming Biodiversity in Development. In its

communities, foreword it states: The challenge now is for the* they are relatively well studied, Bank to help its developing country partners to* they are disappearing as a result of human- mainstream biodiversity conservation in environ-

induced impacts, mentally sustainable development ... Investment* they are good indicators of water quality and operations in traditional sectors such as agricul-

ecosystem well-being, and ture, forestry, energy, tourism, and urban and* they are species-rich - out of the approxi- infrastructure development should gradually be-

mately 25,000 known fish species over 40% come more 'biodiversityfriendly'.or 10,000 are known exclusively from fresh-waters (which constitute just 0.008% of the Attention to Freshwater Biodiversityworld's water) and an additional 500 speciesneed freshwater at some stage of their lives While threats to charismatic terrestrial organ-(Nelson, 1994: 4-5). isms such as mammals, birds and orchids, or to

disappearing habitats such as rain forests, haveBiodiversity attracted much attention, the same cannot be said

of the many freshwater habitats that are underBiodiversity refers to the abundance and the very serious threat, or of the very large number of

variety within and among fauna and flora, as well aquatic organisms within them that face imminentextinction (Beverton, 1992; Moyle and Leidy,

- Asia is taken to include all countries between Afghanistan 1992; Wilcove and Bean, 1994; Abramowitz,and Papua New Guinea, and between Mongolia and 1995; Naimann et al., 1995a,b). The Bank's ac-Indonesia. tivities reflect this bias, yet freshwater biodiver-

2 Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia

sity is affected by far more, and a far broader the wetland conservation lobby is beginning notrange of, projects than the more 'popular' eco- just to declare a broad definition but to be moresystems. The effects of development on freshwa- actively concerned with a wider range of fresh-ter biodiversity have been extreme, for in no other water species and habitats as well as their respec-comparable set of habitats have complete faunal tive functions. For example, the recent (Marchcommunities been wiped out so quickly by ill- 1996) Brisbane Conference of the Parties to theadvised management. For example, an estimated Convention on Wetlands agreed to include nota-200 to 400 species of fish disappeared from Lake ble fishes, fisheries, and karst areas in the criteriaVictoria after the introduction of a single exotic for designating wetlands of international impor-fish species (Coulter et al., 1986; Barel, 1986). tance (see below). However, the state of concernSome 297 (40%) of the roughly 750 freshwater and knowledge of freshwater biodiversity stillfishes and 213 (72%) of the 297 native mussels lags far behind that of'traditional' wetlands, ham-known from Canada and the USA are extinct, en- pering informed decision making.dangered or threatened (fish data modified from Even in wide-ranging reviews of biodiversity,Deacon et al., 1979; Williams et al., 1989; Miller freshwater biodiversity is often largely ignored.et al., 1989; mussel data from Williams et al., For example, except for a few brief lines in the1992). This undoubtedly reflects the situation fish chapter, there is no mention of freshwaterelsewhere in the world. biodiversity in the World Conservation Monitor-

Freshwater biodiversity is a component of ing Centre's Global Biodiversity (Groombridge,wetlands' in the sense of the Ramsar Convention2 1992). The value of fish in the pet trade' is not

in which 'wetlands' is defined broadly as "areas even mentioned, whereas there are five pages onof marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural the parrot trade and six lines on reptile trade. Thisor artificial, permanent or temporary, with water is not representative of the respective values ofthat is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, these trades. Gross retail value of the trade inincluding areas of marine water, the depth of neotropical parrots between 1982 to 1986 reachedwhich at low tide does not exceed six meters". an estimated total of US$1.6 billionHowever, the popular understanding of wetlands (Groombridge, 1992), while the estimated annualappears to be of land-related ecosystems such as retail value of aquarium fishes is US$3 billionmarshes, peatlands, estuaries, floodplains, (Bassleer, 1994). Freshwater biodiversity is alsoswamps, and lakes (e.g. Dugan, 1993). Such wet- scarcely mentioned in UJNEP's massive Globallands are often of ornithological interest but typi- Biodiversity Assessment (Heywood, 1995).cally have low oxygen concentrations and are in- The conservation of 'flagship' species andhabited by hardy aquatic organisms which tend to habitats has been promoted in the hope that ithave broad distributions. Other freshwater habi- would benefit less attractive species, and in manytats, such as ubiquitous rivers and streams, are of cases this has been achieved. In the case of wet-limited ornithological value, and have therefore lands the flagship group has generally been water-attracted relatively little concern. Very few rapids fowl. This is logical because:or foothill streams are protected for their intrinsicbiodiversity value, although they may be included * they are conspicuous elements of many wet-as part of larger protected areas. Even where lands,wetlands have major conservation value for * they are readily identified,freshwater biodiversity, ornithological interests * they are censused and studied,have tended to dominate (see Scott, 1989). Today

2 - The official title is "The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 3 - Popular aquarium fishes originating in Asia includeof International Importance, Especially as Waterfowl featherbacks, tiger barbs, flying foxes, silver sharks, red-Habitat" but the whole title is rarely used and is seen as tailed sharks, scissortails, harlequins, and other rasboras,restricting the broad mandate to integrate the conservation of clown loaches, kuhli loaches, glass catfish, halfbeaks,wetland biodiversity with sustainable development and the Sulawesi rainbows, Irian rainbows, scats, bumble bee gobies,health and well-being of people. pearl and other gouramies, fighting fish, and spiny eels.

Concerns 3

* they are long-distance migrants, dependent on these 32, 13 are actively concerned with freshwa-wetlands in a number of countries in the ter biodiversity:course of their annual cycle of movements,and thus demonstrate the need for interna- * one works on amphibians,tional collaboration in conservation efforts, * two on fish,

* they are of economic importance as game * two on decapod crustaceans (crabs andspecies, and shrimps),

* they are near the top of most wetland food * two on insects,chains and thus highly susceptible to wetland * one on midges,contamination and disturbance (Scott, 1989). * three on molluscs,

* one on copepod crustaceans (zooplankton),If freshwater biodiversity is to become a * one on parasitic worms.

noted concern then flagship species and habitatsneed to be identified and promoted - candidates It is clear that the weight of interest is, notfor the former could be the giant Mekong catfish, surprisingly, on organisms important as food andthe Chinese sturgeon, the Asian bonytongue, other on vectors of pathogens. Of these 13 primaryattractive aquarium fishes, and freshwater por- freshwater taxonomists, only three are of intema-poises. Candidates for flagship habitats could be tional stature (as gauged by publications in inter-biologically-rich rapids and peat swamps. national, peer-reviewed journals and membership

Despite common perceptions, freshwater bio- of editorial boards). The problem is exacerbateddiversity is an important issue with tremendous because II of the 32 conducting primary researcheconomic, social, and environmental impacts. It and five of the 13 who actually work with fresh-impinges on human welfare in terms of food, nu- water organisms will be retiring in the next fivetrition, other resources, purification of water, rec- years.reation, and control of infectious organisms, and Academic training alone does not create ex-cannot be dealt with adequately as a subsection of pert taxonomists; this expertise relies heavily onfisheries management. In general, however, practice. Experience shows that it is almost im-freshwater biodiversity is often given no more possible to recognize real skill in conductingthan a few lines in environmental assessments of taxonomic research before students begin practi-development projects, or disappears under a cal work. Indeed, the only efficient way to find'fisheries' heading, whereas it should be a com- promising students is to test them and invest inpletely distinct concern. those truly showing the capacity and interest. A

recurrent problem is that some researchers areHuman Capacity reluctant to leave their office in order to conduct

field work because the social norm is that fieldProgress in freshwater biodiversity is hampered activities which involve getting wet and handlingby inadequate human capacity, especially where it dead animals do not befit individuals with a highrelates to organisms and their identification. For academic degree. This can be extremely prejudi-example, there are about 80 zoologists in South- cial to the quality of research because opportuni-east Asia occupying official positions, who have ties are missed to gain intimate knowledge oftraining in taxonomy and are active at least occa- aquatic organisms, their habitats, behavior etc.sionally in that field (Table 1)4. Thirty two of Opportunities are also missed when donors andthem conduct primary (i.e. original and innova- in-country institutions do not insist that findingstive) research, while the remainder are engaged in are published in peer-reviewed journals. In addi-activities such as identification, translation of for- tion, students trained abroad frequently work oneign works, and compilation of local lists. Of organisms of the host country rather than those

indigenous to their home country for sound rea-

4 - Similar data for botanists and for the rest of Asia could sons of cost and speed. Unfortunately, theirnot be assembled.


Table 1. Approximate numbers of taxonomists in Southeast Asia. Only taxonomists trained, activeand with a full-time position are included. Figures in parentheses represent the number offreshwater biodiversity specialists.

Total No. conducting No. due to retire in next five years No. conducting primary researchprimary research and due to retire in next five years

Brunei 3 -Burma ? ICambodia - -Indonesia 16 6 (2) 7 2LaosMalaysia 20 10 (3) 6 4 (2)Philippines 15 4 (1) 4 1Singapore 8 6 (4) 3 2 (2)Thailand 10 6 (3) 4 2 (1)Vietnam ? 7 - ? 2Total 80 32 (13) 26 11(5)

experience may not then be relevant to their local 18.39 (g) To adopt an integrated approach tosetting and the store of knowledge of indigenous environmentally sustainable management of waterbiodiversity will not have increased. resources, including the protection of aquatic eco-

systems andfreshwater living resources;18.39 (h) To put in place strategies for the en-

Policy Context vironmentally sound management of freshwaters

and related coastal ecosystems, including consid-Descriptions and quotes from a number of key eration of fisheries, aquaculture, animal grazing,

documents are presented below in order to dem- agricultural activities and biodiversity.onstrate that freshwater biodiversity is already on Activities:the international policy agenda. All states could.... implement thefollowing activi-

ties:

Agenda 21. The Convention on Biological 18.40 (e) Protection of aquatic ecosystemsDiversity, laid before the UN Conference on En- (i) Rehabilitation of polluted and degraded water

bodies to restore aquatic habitats and ecosystems:vironment and Development in Rio de Janeiro In (ii) Rehabilitation programmes for agricultural1992, has been signed and ratified by most Asian lands and for other users, taking into accountcountries. Although freshwater ecosystems are not equivalent action for the protection and use ofmentioned specifically, Parties to the Convention groundwater resources important for agriculturalare required to develop national biological diver- productivity andfor the biodiversity in the tropics;sity strategies, plans or policies. One of the most (iii) Conservation and protection of wetlandssignificant outcomes of the Rio Conference is (owing to their ecological and habitat importanceAgenda 21, an action plan for the 1990s and 21st for many species), taking into account social andcentury which elaborates strategies and integrated economicfactors;program measures to halt and reverse the effects (iv) Control of noxious aquatic species that mayof the environmental degradation and to promote destroy some other water species;ofthenvironmentally sound and sustaioable delote () Protection of freshwater living resources:environmentally sound and sustainable develop- (i) Control and monitoring of water quality to al-ment in all countries. Chapter 18 deals with lowfor the sustainable development of inlandfish-'Freshwater' and includes the following relevant eries;sections: (ii) Protection of ecosystems from pollution and

degradation for the development offreshwater aq-Protection of water resources, water quality uaculture projects;and aquatic ecosystemsObjectives: ... Water for sustainable food production and rural

development

Concerns 5

18.76 (h) Inland fisheries: (c) Develop and expand national scientific and(i) Develop the sustainable management offisher- technological databases, processing data in uni-ies as part of national water resources planning; fledformats and systems,(iii) Prevent or mitigate modifiation of aquatic Ransar Convention. The Ramsar Conventionenvironments by other users or rehabilitate envi- on Wetlands of International Importance was theronments subjected to such modification on behalf first of the modem global inter-governmentalof the sustainable use and conservation of biologi- treaties on conservation and wise use of naturalcal diversity of living aquatic resources; resources. Concern about declining populations of

In summary, Chapter 18 is a positive document for waterfowl (mainly ducks) was the initial impetusthe conservation of freshwater biodiversity, al- for the Convention, and other concerns were onlythough much of the language indicates that fresh- implicitly indicated, i.e. in the General Criteria 2:water biodiversity is a resource to be harvested. A wetland should be considered internationally

Chapter 35, which deals with 'Science', is also important if:relevant: (a) it supports an appreciable assemblage of rare,

vulnerable or endangered species or subspecies ofStrengthening the scientific basis for sustain- plant or animal, or an appreciable number of in-able development dividuals of any one or more of these species;Activities or (b) it is of special value for maintaining the35.7. Countries ... should: genetic and ecological diversity of a region be-(a) Prepare an inventory of their natural and so- cause of the quality and peculiarities of its floracial science data holdings relevant to the promo- andfauna;tion ofsustainable development; or (c) it is of special value as the habitat of

plants or animals at a critical stage of the biologi-Enhancing scientific understanding cal cycle;Activities or it is of special value for one or more endemic35.12. (e) Develop the capacity for predicting the plant or animal or communities.responses of terrestrial, freshwater, coastal andmarine ecosystems and biodiversity to short- and At the March 1996 Conference of the Parties tolong-term perturbations of the environment, and the Ramsar Convention a new five-year strategicdevelop further restoration ecology; plan was adopted which sets a clear course for the69 Study the role of biodiversity and the loss of future, stressing the need to integrate the conser-species in the functioning of ecosystems and the vation of wetland biodiversity and sustainable de-global life-support system; velopment. With regard to freshwater biodiversity(g) Initiate a global observing system of parame- a new Objective is included which recognizes theters neededfor the rational management of coastal need to designate wetlands of international im-and mountain zones and significantly expand portance among types still under-represented in itsfreshwater quantity/quality monitoring systems, list. To support this, an additional 'Special Criteriaparticularly in developing countries 4' for designating such wetlands based on fish was

adopted:Building up scientific capacity and capability A wetland should be considered internationallyObjectives: important if:35.21. (d) Improving access to relevant informa- (a) it supports a significant proportion of in-tion for scientists and decision makers, with the digenous fish subspecies. species or families, lifeaim of improving public awareness and participa- history stages, species interactions and/or valuestion in decision making. and thereby contributes to global biological diver-Activities: sity,35.22. (b) Strengthen the scientific infrastructure or (b) it is an important source offood for fishes,in schools, universities and research institutions a spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path(particularly those in developing countries) by the on which fish stocks, either within the wetland orprovision of... access to current scientifc litera- elsewhere, dependture ..


World Bank Policies. A number of policy and sites that maintain conditions vital for thedocuments have been issued in recent years which viability of those protected areas; or sites iden-implicitly support attention to freshwater biodi- tifed on supplementary lists prepared by theversity and its conservation. Bank or an authoritative source determined by

the Regional Environment Division. Such sitesmay include ... areas with known high suitabil-

Operational Policy (OP) 4.04. September 1995 iyfor biodiversity conservation; and sites thatNatural Habitats: are critical for rare, vulnerable, migratory, or

* Para. 1. The Bank ... supports the protection, endangered species.maintenance, and rehabilitation of natural Operational Policy (OP) 4.07. July 1993. Waterhabitats and theirfunctions in its economic and Resources Managementsector work project financing, and policy dia- * Para. 2(d). The Bank will assist borrowers in:logue. The Bank supports, and expects borrow- Restoring andpreserving aquatic ecosystems.ers to apply, a precautionary approach to natu-ral resource management to ensure opportuni- Operational Directive (OD) 4.00 - Annex B. Aprilties for environmentally sustainable develop- 1989. Environmental policy for dam and reservoirment. projects

. Para. 8 .. an environmental reconnaissancei Para.4. The Bank does not support projects that, by independent, recognized experts or firms -in the Bank 's opinion, involve the sign ifcant selected by the borrower and approved by theconversion or degradation of critical natural s is essential.

hahitats. ~~~~~~~~~~Bank - Is essential.habitats.

* Annex A, para 1. Natural habitats are land and * Annex B 1. para. 10. Hydroelectric and other de-waterme A,areaswhere 1. Natural ecstems'e bolo- avelopments should preferably be concentratedwater areas where (i) the ecosystems' biologi- on the same rivers if hydrological risks andcal communities are formed largely by native other circumstances permit, in order to preserveplant and animal species, and (ii) human activ- elsewhere a representative sample of rivers inity has not essentially modifned the area's pri- the natural state. This should be consideredmary ecological functions. ato h rd-fs

part of the trade-offs.

Annex A, para. 2. Critical natural habitats areexisting protected areas and areas officiallyproposed by governments as protected areas.

2Human significance offreshwater biodiversity

Economic Value of the Resources locally. Children catch frogs, tadpoles, snails,mussels, beetles, bugs, etc. in small streams and

Human communities depend on freshwater under stones, and almost everything is eaten. Thisbiodiversity for a variety of resources. The vari- is probably the main source of animal protein forous habitats provide a wide range of resources as many of the poorest populations, but it has beenwell as services such as transport, supply of clean completely ignored in official statistical reports.water, and energy. Among the organisms, most For example, the official fisheries statistics forattention has focused on fish as food because of Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam report atheir overwhelming economic importance, but total of 360,000 tons for the fisheries catch andfood fish are not the only freshwater resources aquaculture production in the lower Mekong Ba-and fish are used also for fertilizer, medicine (e.g. sin. These figures, however, underestimate com-see Vincent, 1995), the pet trade, and they are an mercial production and often do not include theintegral part of a dynamic food chain. subsistence fisheries (Mekong River Commission,

There does not seem to have been an eco- 1992). The underestimation may be considerablenomic analysis of freshwater biodiversity value. as household consumption studies in N.E. Thai-The few available data are mostly fisheries statis- land suggest actual consumption of 32,200 tons,tics, but these are of very limited value for three 5.5 times the reported capture and culturereasons. First, most statistics do not discriminate (Prapertchob, 1989). This estimate plus recentbetween aquaculture and capture fisheries. For data emerging from projects undertaken by theexample, in FAO fisheries statistics, aquaculture Mekong River Commission suggests that the totalor reservoir production accounts for the entire fisheries catch and aquaculture production may beproductivity of inland fisheries of Sri Lanka. as high as I million tons (J. Jensen, pers. comm.).Capture fisheries exist in the country, but are not Indicative of the dependence of lower incometaken into consideration. Second, national statis- groups on fish, is the fact that the fisheries con-tics for many countries are unreliable. In district cept of 'trash fish' does not exist among poor hu-fisheries administrations, it is not uncommon to man populations; there being a use for almostsee weekly or monthly statistics for villages in every fish. Observations on the fish communitieswhich fisheries officers are rarely, if ever, seen. and their exploitation in Danau Sentarum WildlifeStatistics may also be falsified where taxes are Reserve, Indonesia, indicates that of 180 speciescollected, and there is a vested interest in under- known from that area, only one species is not usedreporting catches. (pers. obs.). There are specific methods for fish-

The third and most salient shortcoming of ing a variety of species, and even species reputedfisheries statistics is that they represent only to be poisonous are eaten after the poisonous or-catches sold in markets and completely overlook gans are removed. Species too small for process-subsistence fisheries, which represent a much ing are fed to large fish kept in cages (a singlelarger biomass. Commercial fisheries are usually fisherman could catch up to 50,000 fish 4-10 cmexclusively represented in official statistics, but long per day), along with waste parts of largethese are not necessarily the crucial resource for fishes.the majority of the population, especially the im- In terms of nutrition, a change of food speciespoverished. Almost everywhere along rivers peo- can be very significant. Data from Bangladeshple catch fish; large fish are brought to the market show that small capture fish are usually eatenor sold to middlemen, and small fish are eaten whole by subsistence fisherfolk and provide a rich


source of vitamins and mineral nutrients. Larger, plants in Peninsular Malaysia, 61 have a socio-pond-cultured fishes cannot be eaten whole and economic value: 15 as human food, 5 as livestockprovide less than one-half the calcium and iron food, 30 as medicine, 3 as fertilizers, 11 for otherand only 2% of the vitamin content of the smaller uses (aquarium trade, ornaments, magic, dyes,and more widely available fishes (Hill and baskets, mats, strings) (Nather Khan, 1990). Ac-Hanchett, 1995: 37). Also, in some areas of Asia, tually, the number of species collected for thethe larger and commercially more valuable exotic aquarium trade is grossly underestimated. Thespecies marketed and consumed primarily in ur- populations of several species in demand for theban centers, have replaced the smaller indigenous aquarium trade have been seriously depleted, es-species normally sold and consumed in rural ar- pecially in Sri Lanka and Malaysia (pers. obs.).eas. The resource thus becomes more valuable,the former common property is privatized and is Local Knowledge and Management ofclaimed by wealthy land owners (K. MacKay, Resourcespers. comm.). Fisheries planners must thereforeconsider socio-cultural effects, such as the loss of Local knowledge of fish diversity is generallyfood diversity and associated traditional knowl- good in communities which depend on fishingedge as well as possible reduction in food and life activities. Fishermen in Danau Sentarum, Indone-quality. sia recognize most fish species, have specific ver-

Besides being used as food, some species are nacular names for them and know of specific usescollected for the aquarium fish trade. The main or recipes for them (pers. obs.). They have prob-species in this trade in Indonesia is the clown lems, however, with the identification of some ofloach Botia macracanthus. This is possibly the the smaller fishes and occasionally claim that theymost important wild-caught pet fish of the world, had never previously seen some of the speciesin terms of biomass, with an estimated 10,000,000 caught in small-meshed nets. In fact, they areexported per year5 (pers. data). Field surveys in probably simply not noticed among hauls of smallDanau Sentarum indicate that some 2,400,000 are 'trash' fish which are bulk processed to feed cul-caught annually; until 1995 provincial statistics tured fishes. Even so, local knowledge is oftenreport only about 50,000 to 300,000 individuals. biased towards those larger or most valuable spe-(Aglionby, 1995). Obviously, the economic vi- cies or towards the species collected by their usualability of this massive pet trade depends upon the gear. For example, after a major pollution event instability of biodiversity and the integrity of the the Mun River, Thailand, fishermen stated thatecosystem. some of the dead fish washed up were of species

There are few studies of the trade in freshwa- they had never seen before (Roberts, 1993b: 130).ter turtles, but the limited available information The local knowledge of fish biology is some-indicates significant value. In Vietnam: some what less accurate. Fishermen tend to know at240,000 animals (240,000 kg) are traded annually, which time of the year or day a given species canrepresenting a value of US$2.4 million (Centre for be caught, what its stomach contents are likely toNatural Resources Management and Environ- be, whether the gonads are ripe, and even whenmental Studies, 1994). In Bangladesh the legal the young fish appear, but this knowledge istrade in turtles and their eggs was worth nearly fragmentary, and there is a tendency to extrapo-US$1 million in the late 1980s (Das 1990), and it late generalities from a few specific observations.is higher in many S.E. Asian countries where the Their data are also strongly biased; fishermenend point is often the food and medicine markets tend to use different fishing gear at different sea-of China. sons, and catch fish with different gear in differ-

Aquatic plants also have many economic ent habitats, so that the data are not comprehen-uses. For example, out of 237 species of aquatic sive and must be interpreted carefully.

Local communities may traditionally manage

5 - Cardinal tetras are exported in larger numbers from Brazil aquatic resources, especially when they relybut these fish are much smaller. heavily upon them, and the resource is limiting

Human Significance of Freshwater Biodiversity 9

(Roberts 1993a,b; Roberts and Warren, 1994; Ali, interesting because they represent traditional1996). Traditional management often comes in the management systems which have made the tran-form of periodic fishing bans (usually the spawn- sition to being the bases of modem regulations:ing season of some important fish species) and/or there are closed and open seasons, sanctuaries,in some areas, the return of broodstock, or the allocated fishing lots, and a wide range of licensedtotal or seasonal ban of certain fishing gear, and is gear, all backed up by a fisheries act. There areusually decided by the local community. Where inspection units belonging to both the Departmentthe human population is not too high these man- of Fisheries and the provincial fisheries offices.agement regimes have often been sufficient to They have patrol boats, usually armed, and at-maintain a sustainable fisheries. The emergence tempts are made to enforce the regulations. Inof overfishing may be related to a change in life- 1994 the DoF collected over US$100,000 in in-style, such as the move from subsistence fishing land fishing fees, and US$128,000 in confiscatedto a market economy. goods and fines. In one province alone in 1994 the

In parts of Cambodia there are active fisheries inspection unit charged over 200 fishermen withresource management systems dating back to at illegal fishing (K. MacKay, pers. comm.).least the early 19th century which are particularly

3Biodiversity aspects

Ecosystem Diversity undersampled in most countries. The fauna ofrapids is known to have a very high rate of ende-

Freshwater habitats inhabited by different mism, but it is one of the least well-known habi-freshwater animal and plant communities can be tats and hundreds of species probably still awaitclassified in different ways, and the classification discovery.below is based simply on their gross geomor- These habitats are threatened by deforestationphological features. The general types of organ- which increases the temperature and the sedimentisms found in each habitat will be similar among load, dam construction which eradicates high gra-the different areas of Asia but the faunal assem- dient sectors within the reservoir and alters theblages will be distinct. flow pattern downriver, or channelization which

reduces the heterogeneitv of the river bed, andSprings, hill streams, headwaters, rapids. thus the number of available ecological niches.

These habitats are characterized by high gradient,often high altitude, usually high dissolved oxygen Freshwater swampforests and small streamsand low temperature (these characters may be less in lowlands andfoothills. Freshwater-swamp for-applicable to lowland rapids), and rocky substrate. ests grow where changes in water level are lim-High shear stress occurs over and around the ited6, where there is at least some water present atstones and boulders. There are few if any macro- all times of year, and where the water is mineral-phytes (rooted aquatic plants). Many of the fish rich freshwater of roughly neutral pH. Inundationsand invertebrates living in these streams have ad- may originate from rain or from river wateraptations such as suckers, flattened depressed backing up in response to high tides. The majorbodies, and laterally expanded fins to resist being physical differences between these forests andswept away by the current. Often the water is peatswamp forest are the lack of deep peat and theclear, and due to the high light penetration, there source of water being riverine as well as from theis abundant algal growth on the rocks, constituting rain (Corner, 1978). They harbor similar fresh-an important food resource for fishes and inverte- water biodiversity to the small streams in thebrates which themselves form the prey of other lowlands and foot hills of Asia which were origi-species. The chaotic nature of these habitats re- nally under forest cover. These streams becomesults in a mosaic of microhabitats, and the sam- very shallow in the dry season and usually run inpling of a few hundred meters may yield more a succession of pools and riffles, with a consider-species than any other freshwater habitats. These able amount of wooden debris (logs, branches,communities are usually very specialized and leaf litter). The water is usually clear and cool.their movements along the river may be very lim- There is very little light penetration because of theited. Extensive stretches of other habitats with low trees above and thus very little underwater plantgradient, lower oxygen concentration, higher tem- growth; the majority of the aquatic fauna relies onperatures, sand or mud bottom, high turbiditv, and exogenous material, either vegetable debris orabsence of rocks and algae to graze are barriers to

dispersal. As a result, the distribution of many 6 _ It should be noted that Danau Sentarum and Tonle Sap arespecies is limited to a set of rapids, a few head- strictly riverine or riparian lakes rather than swamp forests,waters, or a single tributary in a large river basin. since the range in water level is much greater - up to 16 m -

For obvious reasons, sampling of these habi- and water is completely missing from the marginal forests fortats can be difficult and dangerous, and they are several months. These fringing forests are thus a very hostile

habitat for freshwater biodiversity during the 6-9 dry months.

Biodiversity Aspects 11

animals (mainly worms and insects), or on other especially in coastal areas. Large rivers are usu-aquatic animals as food sources. In the wet sea- ally the most productive part of a basin.son, such streams flood the riparian forests, and The communities of large rivers are threat-most fish spawn at that time of the year in the ened by deforestation which results in increasedflooded forest where food is abundant for both temperature and siltation and degradation of nurs-adults and fry. Large fishes enter the small ery grounds for fry during floods, pollution (moststreams from the large rivers for the same reasons. urban communities are located on large rivers),Due to the heterogeneous structure of these habi- overfishing and flood control. Flow modificationtats, they offer abundant and diverse shelters, food (channelization, diversion) and flood control haveand spawning grounds and can accommodate a a significant impact as they reduce or adverselygreat variety of species, many of them small and affect the spawning grounds and the possibility ofeasily overlooked. lateral migrations. Threats may have cumulative

These communities are threatened by defor- effects: the reduced run-off resulting from reser-estation, which increases the water turbidity and voir construction may no longer be enough totemperature, reduces shelter and food resources, flush concentrated urban, agricultural and indus-and modifies the spawning grounds. They are also trial pollution, leading to extensive anoxic zones.adversely affected by water diversion for agricul-ture, pollution, and overfishing (especially with Estuaries. Estuaries are complex ecosystemspoisons). This type of habitat has been completely due to the variation in the interactions of salinedestroyed in many areas. For example it is now and freshwater habitats according to daily, tidalmissing in Java which is probably one of the main and yearly cycles. They are a transit area for allreasons why half of the species reported from the the nutrients carried by the rivers and are an im-island up to the middle of this century have not portant feeding and spawning ground for manybeen caught in recent surveys (Kottelat, 1 995a). marine fishes and invertebrates. They are also a

transit area for all the pollution in a river basin asLarge rivers, riverine lakes andflood plains. well as for fishes on their migrations between the

These important fisheries habitats are character- sea and freshwaters. This is one of the main pointsized by very low gradient, low oxygen concentra- of concern in the present context. Overfishing intion, higher temperature, high turbidity and high estuaries and the clearing of mangrove forests (annutrient load, muddy bottom and cyclical floods. important nursery ground) are other major threatsFloods are crucial events for many riverine fish- to these communities.eries for during them fish invade the flooded landwhere food is abundant for the adults and the fry; Lakes. Unlike the ephemeral riverine lakesmost fish spawn during floods or immediately discussed above, ancient lakes are often of tec-before or after (Taki, 1978). The numerous small tonic or volcanic origin, and are geographicallylakes (e.g. oxbow lakes) found in the floodplains isolated. Lakes in limestone areas may also be-are also included in this category. Some function long to this category although their evolution mayas buffers, filling with water during high waters be much faster.and releasing it in the dry season. These are very Several lakes host particular fish communitiesephemeral episodes in the life of a large river but with species specialized to occupy the pelagicthey are crucial to maintaining the biodiversity. habitat (Table 2). 'Species flocks' are a particularTheir fish fauna is usually the same as in the main feature of some ancient lakes. A species flock isriver (although relative densities of the different an assemblage of very closely-related speciesspecies may differ). occurring within a restricted geographic area;

Large rivers usually host rich species assem- usually members of a species flock occupy nichesblages, but do not exhibit much variation between (food resources, habitats) that related speciesneighboring basins, as movement from one basin outside of the flock would never utilize, but whichto another is occasionally possible during floods, would be utilized by other groups of animals. The

most famous flocks are probably the several


Table 2. Asian lakes with exceptional freshwater biodiversity interest.

Country Biodiversity features ReferencesLakes in Yunnan China large numbers of endemic fishes and in- Li, 1982; Chu and Chen, 1989, 1990; Yang,

vertebrates 1991 Kottelat and Chu, 1988Malili Lakes Sulawesi, 2 endemic fish genera. 26 endemic fish Kottelat, 1990b-c, 1991(Matano, Towuti, Indonesia species (including 15 of the 17 knownWawantoa) species of Telmatherinidae), in addition to

I snake, 3 crabs, about 10 shrimps, sonie60 molluscs, I macrophyte, possiblysponges and water mites

Lake Poso Sulawesi, I endemic fish genus. 7 endemic fish spe- Kottelat, 1990aIndonesia cies, numerous endemic invertebrates

Lake Lindu Sulawesi, I endemic fish species Kottelat, 1990a; Whitten et al., 1987b, cIndonesia

Lake Tondano Sulawesi, I endemic fish genus Collette, 1995Indonesia

Lake Sentani Irian Jaya, 2 endemic fish species Allen. 1991Indonesia

Lake Biwa Japan 3 endemic fish species, as well as endemic Kira. 1995: 18snails, molluscs, and plankton

Lake Inle Burma 9 endemic species and 3 endemic genera Annandale. 1918 and pers. obs.of fishes

Lake Rara Nepal 3 endemic fish species Terashima. 1984Lake Kutubu Papua New II endemic fish species Allen. 1991: Allen and Hoese, 1986

GuineaLake Lanao Mindanao, 2 endemic fish genera, 18 endemic fish Komfeld and Carpenter, 1984

Philippines species

hundred species of cichlid fishes in African rift ous effects (Eccles, 1985). Most of these intro-lakes (Malawi, Tanganyka, Victoria) which oc- ductions have had damaging effects on the nativecupy all habitat types, display many types of re- communities, sometimes bringing to extinctionproductive behavior and exploit all manner of entire 'species flocks'. The introduction of thefood resources (Echelle and Kornfield, 1984). Nile perch Lates niloticus to 'improve' Lake Vic-

The major threats to lake communities are toria resulted in the extinction of an estimated 200introductions of exotic species, pollution, eu- to 400 fish species in less than 30 years (the fatetrophication, and changes in water level. Lake of other freshwater organisms in the lake does notcommunities, especially the complex and diverse seem to have evcr been documented) (Coulter etones, tend to be sensitive to changes. Fisheries al., 1986; Barel, 1986). In Asia, the cyprinid spe-biologists have often regarded lakes as having cies flock of Lake Lanao (Philippines) is appar-many vacant ecological niches, sometimes not ently also extinct (see the relevant country sec-realizing that several species may occupy the tion).same niche or that a single species may occupy a The only more-or-less pristine species flocksnumber of niches dependent on the season, time left in Asia are to be found in the Malili lakes,of day or life stage or sex of the individual; in ad- Sulawesi. These lakes actually host two paralleldition, niches which exist in one lake do not nec- flocks. The fauna of Lake Matano has many ofessarily exist in another. As a result it has been a the same families and genera as the other lakes,common practice to 'improve' lake communities but most species are unique to the lake. The onlywith the introduction of exotic species. Few of other documented case of parallel species flocksthese introductions resulted in the expected in- in the world is in two crater lakes in Camerooncreased productivity; in many instances rehabili- (Stiassny et al., 1992). See the relevant countrytation of the existing fishery could have been just section for further discussion of the Malili lakes.as cost-effective and less likely to have deleteri-


Data on abiotic, biotic and socio-economical are also easily overlooked or difficult to sample.factors of 64 Asian lakes and wetlands have been Many species are found only in the peat soils, andcompiled by Kira (1995). persist there even when the streams themselves

are dry. They include several species of smallMarshes and swamps. Marshes and swamps worm-like fishes (Kottelat and Lim, 1994) and

have a high productivity because of intense light catfishes (Ng and Lim, 1993) known in no otherwhich results in rapid plant development and, as habitat. Such very specialized organisms havesuch, can support diverse invertebrate communi- very localized distributions and are confined toties. These habitats are characterized by high tem- specific drainages. As a result, peat swamp faunaperatures and low oxygen concentrations. Most exhibit an unusually high degree of endemism.fish present in these habitats belong to families Peat swamps are very sensitive to deforesta-which have developed ways of breathing atmos- tion which is usually followed by fire. Peatpheric air as the dissolved oxygen is not sufficient swamp forest seems unable to regrow on burned(e.g. gouramies, walking catfishes). They are usu- peat, so restoration does not occur. Peat swampsally very hardy fishes and most have very broad have been extensively converted into rice, oildistributions. Many wetland conservation activi- palm and pineapple plantations, and today onlyties have focused on these habitats because they 10-20% of the original peat swamps of Peninsularare important for waterbird migrations. They are, Malaysia still remain (Ng, 1994a). The extanthowever, of limited value as far as fish biodiver- swamps are not free of human interference.sity is concerned. Large areas of coastal peat swamps and man-

groves have been turned into ponds for prawnPeat swamps, black water streams, black culture in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia.

water lakes. Peat swamp forests are a specialized These prawns are cultivated almost exclusivelyhabitat type of Southeast Asia. They were origi- for export and this type of aquaculture is not sus-nally very extensive along the sea-shores immedi- tainable; the ponds can only be used for about fiveately behind the mangrove forests. In some areas years before pollution, accumulation of faecalof Sumatra and Borneo, the peat layer may reach matters and blooms of toxic algae take their toll.thicknesses of up to 20 meters. Water is retained Adjacent land and water supplies are also pollutedby the spongy structure of the peat, and is highly by soil and water conditioners, pesticides, fertiliz-acidic with a pH of 3.5-6.0 (Whitten et al. 1987a; ers, antibiotics and disinfectants which are oftenNg et al., 1992, 1994). It is tea-colored when seen used heavily (see Wilks, 1995 for discussion ofagainst transmitted light, or black when seen in ecological and social impacts). In most cases, thereflected light, hence the common name of 'black land cannot be used for other agricultural pur-waters'. The water has low calcium concentra- poses for many years.tions and low oxygen levels. In natural conditionspeat swamps are part of forest formations with a Caves and aquifers. Organisms inhabitingrelative low tree diversity. Lakes may form on the subterranean habitats are often overlooked. Thesesummit of peat domes or along streams or rivers include not only animals living in caves, but alsoflowing through extensive areas of peat swamps. those living in aquifers (some species are, for ex-

Until recently many biologists considered ample, known only from artesian wells). Theseblack waters to be low in biodiversity and pro- organisms are often characterized by reduced orductivity (e.g., Johnson, 1968). In fact, peat absent eyes, pigmentation, and sensory organs.swamps have simply been poorly studied. Ongo- The fauna of only a few Asian cave systems hasing studies now show that in peninsular Malaysia, been investigated, but several caves have been10% of the fish species are found only in peat found to harbor unique faunas, both aquatic andswamps (Ng, 1994a). Unpublished data indicate terrestrial. Most cave aquatic organisms are re-that this figure is even higher in Borneo. Most of stricted to a single cave or a single cave system.these species are small and have been overlooked The vertebrates and macroinvertebrates (such asby fisheries biologists. They occupy niches which crabs and shrimps) have usually been reported,


and, contrary to the situation in many surface wa- Species Diversity in Freshwater Organismster habitats, much attention has also been paid tosmaller invertebrates. Very little is known of the As explained in the first chapter, fish are goodfauna of aquifers in Asia, although it is known group to focus on in a discussion of freshwaterthat they are inhabited by invertebrates and fishes. biodiversity, but they are clearly not the onlyFor example, the catfish Horaglanis krishnai is group which are dependent on freshwater eco-known only from aquifers in Kerala, India. systems.

Most cave environments must be consideredto be under threat. Threats include surface water Mammals. A wide variety of mammals arepollution, surface waste disposal, water tapping dependent on freshwater ecosystems. These rangefor human, agricultural or industrial use, lime- from the freshwater dolphins which live whollystone mining for cement factories, and tourism. within the water column, to otters, fishing cats andFor example, a reservoir built in Funing County, other fish-eating mammals. Many of these ani-Yunnan, China, submerged cave systems in which mals clearly also depend on there being otherblind fishes were seen by geologists. suitable surrounding habitat for their survival.

Juberthie et al. (1994) is the first volume of an There are three species of obligate freshwaterongoing encyclopaedia of subterranean biology. dolphins in the area: the baiji or Yangtze RiverThe volumes dealing with vertebrates and cave dolphin Lipotes vexillifer, the susu or Gangeshabitats in Asia should appear in late 1996. River dolphin Platanista gangetica and the bhulan

or Indus River dolphin Platanista minor. All threeArtflcial freshwater habitats. Artificial have distribution ranges restricted to a single river

freshwater habitats in the form of man-made lakes basin, have very small global populations and areand reservoirs have often replaced ecologically under serious threat (e.g. Smith et al., in press).diverse and species-rich natural rivers. Artificial The baiji is close to extinction with an estimatedhabitats have a uniform underwater landscape, 300 individuals left in 1986, and the number stilland often suffer from various forms of pollution. declining and now considered to be below 100The most obvious types of these habitats in Asia (Reeves and Leatherwood, 1994).are reservoirs, paddy fields, and canals and There are also two recognized species of fac-streams in agriculture and plantation areas. Most ultative river dolphins in area: the finless porpoisenew reservoirs go through a phase of being anoxic Neophocaena phocaenoides and the Irrawaddyand toxic as a result of the decomposition of dolphin Orcaella brevirostris. They are widelyflooded terrestrial vegetation, and only very few, distributed along Asian coasts and are known togenerally air-breathing, species tend to survive. enter rivers, but their systematics are not clear.Artificial habitats are generally depauperate and For example, the finless porpoise of the Yangtzethe fish fauna is often at least partly exotic with seems morphologically distinct from those in Chi-many species stocked artificially. nese coastal marine waters (Zhou, quoted in

Reservoirs may be beneficial for the native Leatherwood and Reeves, 1994), indicating thatfauna in arid areas. Dams and effective forest they are possibly distinct species. There are cur-conservation practice in the Chalakkudy River rently no data to show that marine individuals arebasin, Kerala, India, have contributed signifi- able to enter freshwaters or that freshwater onescantly to providing a continuous flow of water in can enter the seas. Other cetacean species occa-the river, even during periods of drought. Most of sionally move up rivers, but only for relativelythe other west-flowing rivers of Kerala and almost short periods.all their headwater reaches tend to dry up duringthe dry season, particularly in areas heavily Birds. Birds, such as waterfowl, have at-planted with tea. The Chalakkudy River is inhab- tracted more attention that any other animal livingited by a diverse aquatic community while other on or near freshwaters (e.g. Scott, 1989) and it isbasins have a much lower diversity (Pethiyagoda thanks to this that so many wetlands have re-and Kottelat, 1994). ceived protection. Bird field guides are usually


among the first tools available for animal identifi- Fishes. Fishes are the best known group ofcation in a country, and this has created an interest exclusively aquatic animals. Approximatelyin the group. Wetlands may be important as a 25,000 fish species are recognized by scientists ofsource of food, nest sites, shelter, or all of these. which about 10,000 are found in freshwatersSome birds live year round in tropical wetland (Nelson, 1994: 3-5). Specialists estimate thathabitats, while others are migratory. However, as some 5000 species still await discovery, most ofwas stated at the start of this report their abun- them in freshwaters. No detailed account has yetdance and diversity at any particular site does not been published of Asian freshwater fishes. Un-necessarily correlate with the abundance or diver- published data indicate that some 4500 species aresity of organisms living within the water itself, already reported from Eurasia (Europe and Asiaand some freshwater habitats are rarely visited by combined), at least 3500 of them in the area cov-birds. ered here. The numbers of freshwater species in

each Asian country are shown in the country sec-Reptiles. There are eight species of crocodili- tions. The distributions of some species of fresh-

ans and 60 species of aquatic turtles in Asia (I. water fish are very restricted, leading to small andDas, pers. comm.). They have been the focus of vulnerable populations. For example a fightingattention by conservation groups and agencies and fish Betia simplex is known from a single group ofso are not addressed in great detail here. Both spring pools and their outlet in a karstic area ingroups have a significant market value, the croco- peninsular Thailand.diles for their skins (and marginally their meat) It is important to realize thatwhile our knowl-and the turtles for their meat, eggs, and as pets. edge of fish in general is better than for otherThe turtles of South Asia are described in Das groups, many fish species are known only from a(1994), who also provides a key to the species handful of works on descriptive morphology andfound in insular Southeast Asia (Das, 1995). The taxonomy. Many species have been collected onlyconservation of freshwater turtles is dealt with in once by scientists, and this is the source of all (ifPritchard and Rhodin (1994). any) data we have on their ecology and habitat

There are 24 species of true water snakes in requirements. Detailed information on distribu-Asia which are permanent inhabitants of fresh- tion, habitat, feeding habits, population size andwater lakes or rivers (e.g. the endemic Enhvdris reproduction is available for just a handful of spe-matannensis in the Malili lakes). Except for cies. These data are based on adults, and informa-names, descriptions, and raw distribution data, tion is available on fish larvae only for some ofthere is little information available on them. the species used in aquaculture or occasionally

kept in aquaria in Europe, North America and Ja-Amphibians. There are nearly 1000 amphib- pan. In many areas, experts have been simply un-

ian species in Asia, most of which rely on fresh- able to identify fish larvae even at the family levelwater at some stage of their larval development. (Japan is a noteworthy exception). There exist noThe type of water body needed by the various data on larval ecology despite the crucial impor-species is diverse, ranging from fast-moving hill tance of this period in the life and development ofstreams to swamps, mud pools, water-filled leaf fishes; larval ecology is often completely differentaxis, pitcher plants, etc. (Inger, 1966; lnger and from adult ecology. An effective management ofStuebing, 1992). Some adult amphibians may fish resources requires such information.spend all their life near or in the water, especially Fish migrations are well known throughoutsalamanders and discoglossid frogs. Frogs seem Asia (e.g. Chevey and le Poulain, 1940; Blacheto be particularly susceptible to pollution and are and Goosens, 1954; D'Aubenton and Blanc, 1965;viewed as excellent indicators of environmental Fily and D'Aubenton, 1965; Roberts, 1993a,b,health. Some of the larger species are under se- 1995). There are short, medium and long distancevere pressure in some countries for food, both for migrations wholly within freshwater, there aredomestic and export markets. primarily freshwater species which breed in ma-

rine habitats, and primarily marine species which


breed in freshwater habitats, and there are sepa- the crustacean diversity is higher (e.g. easternrate feeding, spawning and dispersal migrations. Kalimantan, Philippines). It is likely that the ab-The most famous fish migration in Asia is proba- sence of several species or groups of fishes allowsbly that of the 3-m long giant Mekong catfish crustaceans to occupy ecological niches whichPangasianodon gigas which reportedly migrates they cannot normally occupy when a diverse fishalong the Mekong between Tonle Sap in Cambo- community is present.dia to Upper Laos (e.g. Pholprasit, 1994). TheChinese seerfish Scomberomorus sinensis mi- Molluscs. Molluscs (snails and mussels) aregrates between Tonle Sap, Cambodia, and the another significant group of aquatic animals.South China Sea. Information on this facet of their There are monographic treatments of them avail-ecology is clearly vital to the management of able only for a few countries or islands (e.g.these species (Hill, 1995). In floodplains, mass Thailand: Brandt, 1974; Java: van Bentham Jut-lateral migrations are usually associated with ting 1953, 1956). Some groups have attracted at-feeding and spawning (Taki, 1978). Sicydiine tention because they are intermediate hosts to sev-goby larvae are also known to be migratory, and eral parasites, especially schistosomiasis (e.g.they used to be the basis of specific fisheries in Davis, 1980; Davis and Greer, 1980). There isJava and Luzon, and perhaps elsewhere. reason to believe that many species have become

threatened with extinction, or become extinct, inCrustaceans. Freshwater crustaceans are eco- recent decades as a result of declines in water

nomically important because they are consumed quality, changes in land use, and the introductionover their whole range, and have therefore at- of exotic species.tracted some attention from biologists and para-sitologists (Ng, 1988: 15). There are two main Other invertebrates. No attempt has beengroups of freshwater crustaceans in Asia for made to summarize data on other groups ofwhich reasonably good data are available: prawns aquatic invertebrates. Some are permanent fresh-and crabs. The number of species in each Asian water organisms while others inhabit freshwatercountry are shown in the country sections. These only during part of their life cycle (e.g. as larvae).numbers were deduced with the help of Dr. Peter Most groups are still very poorly known (for ex-Ng, National University of Singapore, who has ample, it is almost impossible to identify fresh-studied these animals extensively in Southeast water sponges), while others have attracted muchAsia. attention, such as several groups of parasitic

While most of the known migrations concern worms, especially human parasites. Dragonfliesfishes, species of the commercially-important and damselflies have also attracted much attentionshrimp Macrobrachium breed in estuarine areas, from scientists and collectors, but this has focusedand juveniles migrate upstream for several hun- on adults; it is still impossible to identify mostdred kilometers. larvae, despite their important role in benthic

Most freshwater crustaceans are restricted to communities.freshwater; this is especially true for freshwater A review of systematics, ecology and distri-crabs, many of which have very restricted geo- bution of tropical zooplankton has been publishedgraphic distributions. Many species are known by Dussart et al. (1984). This includes referencesfrom a single stream or group of streams, often to most then-recent works. They pointed to nota-associated with a single hill or range; some are ble gaps in Burma, Laos and Cambodia. Theyknown from a single waterfall. About 80% are conclude (p. 85) that "in Asia afairly comprehen-endemic to a single drainage. The presence of true sive knowledge of syslematics and distributions isfreshwater crayfishes in New Guinea is notewor- available at least in half the countries of thethy because they are absent in the rest of South area". An examination of some of the cited lit-and Southeast Asia. erature indicates that most of the data has been

Unpublished data indicate that where fresh- obtained at very few localities, and it seems thatwater fish communities are naturally depauperate,


'fairly comprehensive" is probably somewhat 1989), but in most instances they are limited toover optimistic. lists of chromosome numbers, and rarely cover

intraspecific variability (e.g. Li et al., 1986). Per-Macrophytes. Information on the submerged haps the only noteworthy study in this context is

macrophytes of S.E. Asia tends to be scattered in the research on mitochondrial DNA of the S.E.a number of smaller publications, but some family Asian catfish Hemibagrus nemurus (Dodson etreviews and identification keys are included in the al., 1995).ongoing series Flora Malesiana (e.g. van Steenis1949a,b; Backer 1951; van Oostroom, 1953; den Megadiversity Countries and Hot SpotsHartog, 1957a,b; de Wilde, 1962; Bruggen, 1971;van der Plas, 1971; Taylor, 1977). Some groups A primary method of identifying the most im-have attracted more attention because they are portant areas for conservation has been determin-popular as aquarium plants (e.g. Araceae of the ing 'megadiversity' countries and hot spots. Me-genera Cryptocoryne and Lagenandra). Refer- gadiversity countries are the few countries whichences specific to individual countries are given in possess the largest fraction of the world's species,Chapter 6. while hot spots are regions with high concentra-

tions of endemic species experiencing unusuallyGenetic Diversity rapid rates of habitat modifications or loss

(Myers. 1988, 1990). Twelve megadiversityGenetic diversity is the total genetic informa- countries have been recognized (McNeely et al.,

tion contained in the genes of a population. It de- 1990): Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil,scribes the variation within that population, and is Zaire, Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia, Indo-thought to reflect the ability of the population to nesia and Australia. This listing was based on ter-adapt to change, although there are some well- restrial vertebrates, butterflies and higher plants,documented cases of thriving populations with and did not take any aquatic organisms into ac-very limited genetic diversity. However, it is gen- count. The ten countries with the richest freshwa-erally believed that populations with greater ge- ter fish fauna world-wide are listed in Table 3. Itnetic diversity are more likely to be able to adapt can be seen that five of these are in Asia, and fourto changes in their environment and to be good are not generally recognized as megadiversitysubjects for selective breeding. countries. Such analyses are confused, however,

Very little has been published on the genetic by the effect that country size has on species to-diversity of Asian freshwater organisms. Interest tals. To demonstrate this, Tables 4 and 5 showhas mainly focused on fish, and then on just a few Asian countries ranked first by the known numberspecies which are of known commercial value, of freshwater fish species, and second by theirsuch as tilapias (not native to Asia) and carps. species-to-area ratio. This shows major changes inCurrent projects on freshwater genetic biodiver- positions.sity in Asia are also focused on these fishes, de- The list of the richest countries in termsspite being exotic to most of the areas where the of the number of freshwater crabs and shrimpsprojects are conducted, and although they are mirrors that for fish (Table 6), with the Philip-known to be damaging to native faunas. pines and Thailand being the highest of those in

There are chromosome data for many species terms of species-to-area ratio.of fishes in Japan, Korea and China (e.g. Yu et al.,


Table 3. The top ten countries in terms of Table 5. Asian countries and other geographi-numbers of freshwater fish species. Only spe- cal units ranked by their freshwater fish spe-cies actually recorded are included. cies-to-area ratio.

Number Sources A Bof species No. fish Land area A/B x 1000

Brazil 3,000 S. 0. Kullander, pers. species (km2 )comm. Singapore 45 618 72.9

Indonesia 1,300 Kottelat, unpubl. Brunei 55 5,765 9.9Venezuela 1,250 S. 0. Kullander. pers. Taiwan 95 36,179 2.6

comm. Malaysia penin. 300 131,235 2.3China 1,010 Kottelat, unpubl. Bangladesh 260 144,054 1.8Peru 855 Chang and Ortega, 1995 Vietnam 450 329,566 1.4Tanzania 800 Eccles, 1992: Kottelat, Sri lanka 90 65,610 1.4

unpubl. Thailand 690 513,517 1.3USA 790 Page and Burr, 1991 Cambodia 215 181,035 1.2India 750 Kottelat. unpubl. Philippines 330 299,404 1.1Thailand 690 Kotelat, unpubl. Laos 262 236,798 1.1Malaysia 600 Kottelat. unpubl. Java 130 132,570 1.0

Nepal 129 147,181 0.9Borneo 440 535,830 0.8Indonesia 1,300 1,944,000 0.7

Table 4. Asian countries and other geographi- Korean penin- 90 99,143 0.7cal units ranked by their total of freshwater sulafish species. Sumatra 300 475,300 0.6

Burma 300 676,581 0.4Sulawesi 70 186.140 0.4

A B India 750 3,387,593 0.2No. fish Land area A/B x 1000 Png 329 462,000 0.2species (km2 ) Pakistan 159 803,941 0.2

Indonesia 1,300 1,944,000 0.7 Irianjava 80 414,800 0.2China 1,010 9,560,948 0.1 China 1,010 9,560,948 0.1India 750 3,387,593 0.2 Mongolia 56 1,565,000 0.0Thailand 690 513,517 1.3Vietnam 450 329,566 1.4Borneo 440 535,830 0.8Philippines 330 299,404 1.1Png 329 462,000 0.2Sumatra 300 475,300 0.6Malaysia penin. 300 131,235 2.3Burma 300 676,581 0.4 Table 6. The top ten Asian countries in termsLaos 262 236,798 1.1 of the numbers of crab and shrimp species.Bangladesh 260 144,054 1.8Cambodia 215 181,035 1.2 crabs shrimpsPakistan 159 803.941 0.2 No. species recorded in No. species recorded inJava 130 132,570 1.0 literature literatureNepal 129 147,181 0.9 China 120 50Taiwan 95 36,179 2.6 Indonesia 90 70Sri lanka 90 65,610 1.4 India 60 100Korean penin- 90 99.143 0.7 Malaysia 88 55sula Thailand 63 50Irianjaya 80 414.800 0.2 Philippines 41 40Sulawesi 70 186,140 0.4 Vietnam 12 30Mongolia 56 1,565,000 0.0 Burma 20 ?Brunei 55 5,765 9.9 Cambodia 6 15Singapore 45 618 72.9 Laos 7 10


IBRD 28212

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150

. .

320

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relatio to thekeygI dtrmin o~antintThe Wadistibuio ths ftersra ons' iti oupiigta

SEPTEMBER 1996

Figure 1. The total number of fish species known from the major river basins of Asia.

Political units do not, of course, bear much patterns in freshwater organisms differing fromrelation to the key determinant in the distribution those of terrestrial ones', it is not surprising thatof freshwater biodiversity, i.e. river basins many of the terrestrial hot spots, such as oceanic(Figure 1). Thus the Mekong, Ganges, Kapuas islands, do not contain significant elements of(Kalimantan), and Yangtze basins are the richest aquatic communities while important regions arein fish species, with the Kapuas the richest in entirely missing from existing hot spot distribu-terms of species to length ratio Lists of biodi- tion maps (e.g. Lake Inle in Burma, Malili lakesversity hot spots of the world have been com- in Sulawesi).piled (Bibby et al., 1992; Groombridge, 1992;Dinerstein and Wikramanayake, 1993), butagain these are based on higher plants, terrestrial 7 - Terrestrial organisms have two-dimensionalvertebrates and butterflies and ignore aquatic distributions whereas aquatic ones have one-dimensionalcommunities. With speciation and distribution distributions, i.e. upstream and downstream. In that respect

the term 'hot rod' might be more appropriate than hot spot.


IBRD 28211

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SEPrEMBER 1996

Figure 2. The distribution of 'hot spots' for freshwater biodiversity in Asia, based mainly on fishes.

Figure 2 shows the distribution of Asian cies in the Mekong basin in Vietnam, Cambodia,aquatic 'hot spots' based mainly on freshwater Laos, Thailand and Burma is 298 (Kottelat, 1989).fishes'. The Mekong basin is arguably the most This list was based on the scientific literature,important hot spot because of its size and the po- confirmed by scientists and supported by vouchertential and imminent threats to its integrity. The material. Allowing for species discovered since,only published estimate of the number of fish spe- the list may now be around 400 and could be ex-

pected to reach 500 if the basin were surveyed8.- This map is compiled from personal experience in the thoroughly. This is rather less than the unsubstan-field, as well as on the literature, and corresponds to a good tiated figures of 1000, 1200 or 1500 fish species'educated guess'. Time and technical limitations did not circulated by some agencies and experts.allow for the more precise procedures used in the production Since much conservation planning is nowof terrestrial hot spot maps. The technical limitations aremnainly a lack of ground surveys over huge areas, the based on hot spot analyses (e.g. Johnson, 1996), ittaxonomic uncertainty of a larger number of taxa, and also is worth indicating that existing national systemsthe larger number of aquatic vertebrate species than of protected areas across Asia have some positiveterrestrial ones, making surveying more difficult


benefits for certain elements of freshwater biodi- on the border between Rajastan and Madyaversity. For example, forested protected areas of- Pradesh in India set up to conserve the endan-ten include species-rich streams, and floodplains gered gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) as well as atmay be important as seasonal spawning grounds. least eleven species of freshwater turtles and theThere are, however, very few areas which protect Ganges dolphin. Both of these focus on largethe freshwater biodiversity of larger rivers. Ex- 'flagship' species with presumed benefits forceptions include the Chinese Alligator Reserve on other species. Riverine reserves present a chal-the lower Yangtze River, and the 400 km long lenge for protected area managers, not least be-National Chambhal (Gharial) Wildlife Sanctuary cause the tend to be 'lengths' rather than areas.

4

Thireats and the mitigation of impacts

Threats and Effects Pollution. The major source of aquatic pollu-tion in freshwater systems is domestic and indus-

The threats faced by freshwater biodiversity trial organic wastes, although toxic metals are alsoin Asia are manifold and pervasive. There are a concern in some areas. Paper pulp mills andcumulative and synergistic effects. and tolerance food-processing plants are the main industriesto one factor may be lowered bv a stress resulting causing organic pollution (see Roberts, 1993b:from the presence of another factor. A major 115, for a description of a molasses spill in Thai-problem in managing freshwater ecosystems in land killing fish over 420 km of river). Organicthe region is the lack of knowledge of how the matter is broken down naturally by bacteria in thevarious human-induced changes affect aquatic water, and this decomposition requires oxygen.life. Ecologists find it hard to define biodiversity When a large amount of organic matter is brokenprecisely in a functional sense or to define the down, it consumes a large amount of oxygen, andlinkages between biodiversity and long-term sta- the oxygen concentration in the water falls. If itbility of ecosystems. What is known and beyond falls too low, fish and other aquatic organismsdoubt, however, is that environmental degradation will die. Only a few species are able to survive byresults in the following biological changes: breathing atmospheric air or using the oxygen-

rich surface layer. Organic pollution is often ac-* the number of native species, and those in companied by algal blooms which feed on the

specialized taxa or guilds. declines, organic material. Large amounts of decomposing* the percentage of exotic or introduced species algae then exacerbate the problem..

or stocks increases, Inorganic pollutants (including heavy metals,* the number of generally intolerant or sensitive bleaches and dyes) may accumulate in the flesh of

species declines, fish and adversely affect their survival or repro-* the percentage of the assemblage comprising ductive biology, as well as contaminate their

generally tolerant or insensitive species in- predators higher up the food chain including largecreases, carnivorous fishes. birds of prey and humans. Ag-

* the percentage of trophic and habitat special- ricultural pesticides are increasingly found inists declines, freshwaters, and this especially true for areas

* the percentage of trophic and habitat general- where irrigated rice culture predominates.ists increases, Any one pollutant may be sublethal, but may

* the incidence of disease and anomalies in- stress the fish and other organisms so that they arecreases, less resistant to diseases and the affects of other

* the percentage of large, mature or older indi- pollutants' (Menasveta, 1985; Roberts, 1993b:viduals increases, 108). The toxicology of fishes in temperate re-

* reproduction of generally sensitive species gions is quite well known, but this is not the casedecreases, for fishes from tropical freshwaters. Different

* spatial or temporal fluctuations are more pro-

nounced (Margalef, 1963). 9 - Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome has swept through Asia.

affecting mainly carps, and it is suspected that that wasThe most serious result of the losses of biodiver- associated with pesticide concentrations, low pH and other

sity is that it reduces our future options for sus- poor environmental conditions. Although the costs to culture

tainable biological resource management. stocks have been calculated. the cost to capture fisheries andto biodiversitv have not.

Threats and Mitigation of Impacts 23

species of fish differ greatly in their sensitivity to Reservoir construction may result in the de-chemicals. Besides death, injury, and increased struction of rapids and associated aquatic commu-sensitivity to pathogens, pollution may also in- nities in the reservoir itself as well as downriver.duce sex changes (Bortone and Davis, 1994). Nature conservation areas are often established

around reservoirs to prevent siltation in the basinIncreased sediment load Increased sediment and to increase the life of a reservoir. This may

load caused by deforestation, agriculture, mining, benefit land animals, but has few benefits forand road construction, is one of the most serious aquatic species, that part of biodiversity most se-threats to freshwater biodiversity in less devel- verelv imported by reservoir creation. A sharpoped countries. Its economic impacts have been declines in fish biodiversity in two reservoirs inquantified, and it is well recognized that silting-up Thailand is reported by Sontirat (1991).causes increased flooding, water-logging and In the first years after completion of a reser-navigation problems, (e.g. Meijerink et al., 1988). voir some fish species may actually become verNHowever, the impacts on biodiversity and fish abundant, but the local fishermen may be unpre-productivity have been largely ignored, although pared for this and not be equipped to navigate andthey are well documented in more developed fish on a lake for species they are not accustomedcountries. to catching. Outsiders rather than locals may have

Increased sediment loads negatively affects more experience with such conditions and eclipsefishes by damaging their gill epithelium, resulting the local fisherfolk, reducing their food supplyin injuries and death. Silt deposition also modifies (see Roberts, 1993b: 115). The prospect of profit-the river bed transforming heterogeneous stony able economic activity may also attract outsiderssubstrate into homogeneous sandy substrates and to the reservoir area, thereby increasing the fish-leading to the extinction of many species living in ing pressures and other impacts (pollution, defor-or on the former substrate. Freshly laid eggs are estation. siltation, etc.).covered and deprived of oxygen and nurserygrounds for juveniles destroyed. The resulting Introduced species. An introduced species iswater turbidity reduces light penetration and plant any species intentionally or accidentally trans-survival, thus lowering primary productivity. ported and released by man into an environment

outside its natural range. Some authors or agen-Flow alteration and water diversion. The cy- cies distinguish between species transported

clic rise and fall of Asian rivers and lakes are of within a country, and those transported acrosssingular importance because inundated flood international boundaries. This is based on the ideaplains are the main or exclusive spawning and that the impacts of introductions within a countrvnursery grounds for many fish species. This cycle are less significant, and therefore would not ne-also signals and stimulates the breeding and cessitate the same precautions as those acrossmovements of many freshwater species, and any borders. In a biodiversity context, and with largechanges in timing and flow rates due to im- countries to consider, this distinction make littlepoundment will have adverse effects on them. A sense.period of zero flow during or following dam con- For example. the introduction of a fish speciesstruction will clearly be devastating to the aquatic within the island of Borneo from Malaysia tocommunities downstream. However the deleteri- Indonesia ,with similar faunas would be moreous effects of flow regulation and water diversion significant than an introduction from Sumatra tomay be more subtle. Other negative impacts of Irian Jaya, both of which are in Indonesia butflow regulation measures and water diversion in- possess completely different faunas. Two specificclude habitat destruction and modification, altera- examples from China are also illustrative. Thetion of flood regimes, creation of sterile habitats artificial stocking of grass carp in Donghu Lake,and barriers to migration. Canals, by connecting Wuhan, caused the virtual disappearance ofdifferent river basins, may allow the entry of in- submerged macrophytes and dramatic blooms ofvading exotic species and pathogens. planktonic algae. These conditions favored silver


carp and bighead carp, also native to China but nipulation, or by accidental release of its prey by anot to the lake. Fish yields trebled but comprised fish-eating bird or mammal.only the few stocked species: most of the 60 fish Introductions have been conducted haphaz-species native to the lake all but disappeared. In ardly in order to strengthen depleted populationsaddition, the number of benthic invertebrate or to improve the genetic quality of a population.species fell from 113 to 26, and zooplankton Here the assumption is made that the introducedspecies fell from 203 to 171. Each summer there stock belongs to a species already present in theare problems with algal blooms which target area. With the generally poor quality ofdeleteriously affect the quality and supply of available taxonomic data, this is often no moredrinking water and the living conditions of than an assumption. No data are available forlakeside residents (Chen 1989). A similar Asia, but experience in North America andsituation has occurred in Lake Honghu, Hubei, Europe (Kottelat, ms.) show that stocks assumedwhere 70 native species of fish were lost as a to be conspecific, later turned out to represent dif-result of fisheries programs (Chen and Cui, 1993). ferent species, and that these introductions haveIn biogeographic terms, only introductions within resulted in the extinction of native species or theriver basins are likely to be less significant. creation of a hybrid stock, an outcome which is

Animals and plants obviously do not respect little different from extinction.political boundaries and the biodiversity in a Examples of the effects of introduced speciescountry with strict prohibitions or controls on in- are shown in Table 7. Many of these introductionstroductions may be placed at risk by introductions were made in the 1970s before there was wide-in a neighboring country which later make their spread concern for biodiversity and conservationway across the border. Introductions of fishes in issues. Even so, there is a single documented caseIrian Jaya threaten the local endemic aquatic of a fishery agency effectively monitoring the in-fauna, as well as that of neighboring Papua New troductions of fish using a pre-introduction as-Guinea. Fishes introduced in the Mekong basin in sessment (Coates, 1995). Various agencies haveChina are now appearing in Thailand proposed clear guidelines and codes of practice(Vidthayanon and Kottelat, 1995). (De Silva, 1989: 153; Coates, 1995), which are

Fisheries departments are charged with in- strongly supported by international agencies. FAOcreasing fisheries productivity and many of the is in the final stages of producing comprehensivenew candidate species for introduction are exotic guidelines for this purpose (D. Coates, pers.and destined for forms of aquaculture. During comm.). It is noteworthy that there has never beentrials they may be kept in ponds without particular a serious attempt at assessing the impacts of ti-care or sometimes even released into a reservoir, lapia Oreochromis nilotica. The species has beenwith the argument that if the test is successful, a introduced in at least 68 countries and is generallyfull environmental assessment will be conducted believed to have had no negative impacts. Theafterwards for a large scale program. Experience truth is that there has simply never been any criti-shows that all cultivated aquatic organisms even- cal monitoring. Under conditions prevailing intually escape (Courtenay and Williams, 1992: 52); fisheries agencies, impacts on freshwater biodi-fish can escape through the normal outlets of the versity are unlikely to be noted.ponds, during floods, as a result of careless ma-


Table 7. Some introduced species known to have had deleterious effects on indigenous biodiversityor humans.

Introduced species Country Effects ReferenceIpomaeafistulosa India competitor against native species Cook, 1987introduced aquarium Thailand competitors against native species Piyakamchana, in De Silva, 1989:plants E21

snail-contaminated Hong Kong Introduction of the human pathogen Schistosoma mansoni Meier-Brook, 1975, cited by Deaquarium plants imported Silva, 1989: 4from South Americagolden snail (apparently Philippines, major pest on rice seedlings and other crops. Displaced Acosta and Pullin, 1991several species of the Indonesia native snails, bringing some to local extinction. At thegenus Pomacea) time of introduction it was already known to be a pest in

other countries.snail Ampullaria gigas Thailand damage rice stems in paddies Piyakamchana, in De Silva. 1989:

121shrimp Macrobrachium China. Lake outcompeted the native shrimp Caridina gregornana which Kottelat and Chu, 1988nipponense Dianchi, Yun- is now very rare or extinct: an endemic loach Yunnanilus

nan nigromaculatus, which feeds on the smaller native shrimpis now very endangered or extinct

penaeid shrimps Philippines may have introduced diseases to local species Juliano et al., in De Silva. 1989: 83American crayfish Pro- Thailand damage rice stems in paddies, Piyakamchana. in De Silva, 1989:cambarus clarkii 121American bullfrog Rana Thailand may be harmful to local amphibian species Piyakamchana, in De Silva, 1989:catesbiana 121carp Cyprinus carpio India species of the native genus Schizoihorax have disappeared Jhingran and Sehgal, 1978, cited

from waters to which the carp had been introduced by Welcomme, 1988: 20Chinese carps Thailand responsible for the spread of fish diseases Piyakamchana, in De Silva, 1989:

121Pseudorasbora parva Lake Lugu, introduced in mistaken belief they were young grass carp; Chen and Ciu, 1993

Sichuan they fed on the eggs of the three endemic fish speciescausing their virtual or actual extinction

gambusia Gambusia hol- Worldwide introduced for mosquito control but have had rare to non- Courtenay and Meffe, 1989;brooki and guppy Poecilia existent effects on mosquitoes, and negative to perhaps Arthington and Lloyd, 1989reticulata neutral impacts on native fishesgoby Glossogobius giuris Philippines extinction of 17 endemic cyprinid species and 3 genera of De Silva. 1989: 146

lake Lanaograss carp many places introduction of the parasitic cestode Bothriocephalus De Silva, 1989: 4

opsarichthydisNile tilapia Oreochromis at least 68 unrecorded, suspected outcompetition of native species. Pullin. in pressnilIoticus countriesrainbow trout Sri Lanka threatening aquatic organisms. especially the endemic K. De Silva, 1982; P. De Silva andOncorhynchus m0kiss shrimp Cardinia singhalensis K. De Silva, 1988; Pethiyagoda,

1991: 170European perch Perca Lake Bositen, Disappearance of endemic fish Asipiorhynchus laticeps Chen and Ciu, 1993fluviatilis Xinjiang,

Chinatilapia Oreochromis mos- Indonesia. endemic molluscs are extinct and the endemic fish Whitten et al., 1987; pers. datasambicus Lake Lindu, .Yenopoecdus sarasinorum is virtually extinct

Sulawesitilapia Oreochromis mos- many countries outcompeted local species Piyakamchana, in De Silva. 1989:sam bicus 121tilapia Oreochromis mos- Philippines extinction of local endemic fish Mistichthys luconensissambicustilapia species Sri Lanka endemic and commercially important fish Labeoporcellus Pethiyagoda. 1994: 195

has become virtually extinct. Freshwater turtles Lissemyspunctata and Melanochelys triuga have been greatlyreduced as a result of the tilapia gill net fishery.

unknown fishes and their Indonesia. the endemic fish Adrianichthys krunvi and Wteberogobius Kottelat. 1990aparasites Lake Poso, amadi are extinct and X poptae and Oryzias orihognathus

Sulawesi are very seriously threatened. W amadi was the base of asubsistence fishery which collapsed


For example, the introduction of tilapia spe- these activities and conduct an eradication of allcies into Sri Lanka has usually been presented as exotics introduced in these ponds. Any introduc-a success story. From the environmental point of tion of piscivorous fishes should be prohibited.view it is certainly not, and from a scientific point The threats posed by introduced species toof view much of the reports and recommendations freshwater biodiversity are clearly immense, in-are flawed by lack of data and superficial state- sidious and ever-increasing. In the long term, in-ments. Oreochromis mossambicus has been pro- troduced species may prove to be more damagingposed to fill what fishery managers perceive as a to freshwater biodiversity than habitat degradation,vacant' ecological niche, the open waters of arti- and reduction because most successful invasionsficial reservoirs. Actually, four species and hy- are irreversible. Prevention of further biologicalbrids have apparently been introduced invasions is therefore a most urgent priority(Pethiyagoda, 1991); 0. mossambicus is not a la- (Clout, 1995).custrine but a riverine species (Trewavas, 1983:311) and administrators do not realize that the Habitat loss. If a habitat is severely degradedclassification of niches is anyway artificial and or destroyed, then much of the associated biodi-that most species are capable of utilizing different versity will be lost. Habitat loss is one of the mostniches in different habitats. Reports that tilapias important factors in loss of biodiversity in the re-remained restricted to reservoirs are not supported gion, and localized species are especially affected.by field observations (pers. obs. and Pethiyagoda, Land reclamation and the draining of wetlands has1994: 194). While it has been said that indigenous a profound impact on freshwater biodiversity.fishes, especially cyprinids, benefited from the Some 80% of western Malaysia peatswamp for-presence of tilapias because of increased eu- ests have already been drained, burned and con-trophication (Fernando, 1991: 27), there is no data verted into rice, oil palm or pineapple plantations.to show which species really benefited. To refer This has threatened many rich, diverse, and geo-to 'cyprinids' and then to generalize conclusions to graphically restricted aquatic communities (Ng,all native fish is a flawed approach. Actually, the 1994a).endemic fish Labeo porcellus is virtually extinct, Habitat loss is also an issue when rivers arealthough until the 1970s it was sufficiently abun- channelized or impounded, when riparian fringesdant to warrant a fishery (Pethiyagoda, 1994: of vegetation are lost or altered, when silt smoth-195). The freshwater turtles Lissemys punctata ers a bed of larger particles, etc.and Melanochelys tryuga have almost disap-peared from reservoirs in which they were previ- Overfishing. Overfishing in oceanic waters isously abundant, as a result of the gill net fishery now recognized as extremely widespread and the(Pethiyagoda, 1994: 195). causative factors, especially the economic factors,

Although introductions of exotic species by are quite well documented (for a recent summaryindividuals are forbidden in most countries, they see Fairlie et al., 1995). Overfishing also occurs indo occur, witness the numerous cases of feral many freshwaters but in Asia it has not been thepopulations of aquarium fishes (Kottelat et al., subject of detailed studies or analyses. For a use-1993) wlhose impact has not yet been assessed in ful analysis of overfishing, data on the productiv-Asia. Introductions for sport fishing, however, are ity and identity of the stocks is essential. For mostpotentially much more dangerous. In many coun- countries, neither is generally available, and theretries, 'fishing ponds' are becoming increasingly is an urgent need to gather these basic data.widespread. Large native or exotic fishes are re- In some cases, however, overfishing is veryleased in ponds where anglers pay to catch them. easily identified; in many places streams are sim-Many large top predators have been released in ply empty. The stream morphology may be nor-such ponds, are breeding and will threaten entire mal, the riparian vegetation may be intact, there isaquatic communities if they escape. A recent case no sign of pollution, the water is clear, but thereis the introduction of the large cichlid Cichla sp. are no fish, no tadpoles, and almost no insects.in Malaysia. Ideally, governments should control Investigation usually reveals that the stream is


regularly poisoned, sometimes as frequently as east Asia, Wallago catfish in southeast Asia, andonce a week. Under such abuse, most life forms the bonytongue Scleropagesformosus in Borneo.rapidly disappear. Fish poisoning is a traditionalway of fishing for some groups of people, who Pet trade. The aquarium fish trade has beengather and process plants to obtain the poison. accused of driving species to extinction becauseThe modem trend is towards using pesticides as of very selective overfishing, but there is nopoison since they are more efficient and easier to documented evidence for this. Some speciesobtain, but they are also more damaging to aquatic which have been the subject of an important tradeand human life. have decreased significantly and have disappeared

Overfishing is often related to a change in in part of their original range, but this has alwayslifestyle. Some groups of people have developed been related to other causes (e.g. Botiaregulatory strategies which seem to avoid over- sidthimunki in Thailand). Some species have dis-fishing, but communities with excess resources or appeared also in areas where they had never beenwhich have not experienced resource scarcity collected for the aquarium trade (e.g. the 'silver(such as areas of the Mekong Basin) may not have shark' Balantiocheilos melanopterus in the Ka-developed management measures. Where re- puas basin, west Bomeo). On the other hand,sources are limited, problems may occur where some species may be temporarily saved from ex-different communities (including ethnic groups, or tinction because of the trade; for example, it is notcommercial enterprises) exploiting the same re- clear whether the 'red-tailed shark' Epalzeorhyn-source come into contact. For example, in West chos bicolor (commonly called Labeo bicolor)Kalimantan, Indonesia, both the Melayu fisherfolk still exists in the wild, but tens of thousands ofalong the main river and the Iban in more hilly specimens are exported annually from Thailand,areas, perceive the other community's activity as all now captive bred.threatening to their own. The Iban may feel thatthe Melayu, using sophisticated nets on the main Mitigationriver, will block the migration of fish upriver,while the Melayu are concerned about the abuse Mitigation is theoretically possible againstof poisons upstream affecting their own fishing most negative impacts of development projectssuccess (W. Giesen, pers. comm.). In other cases which influence freshwater biodiversity'°. Despitecommunities see their fish resources being ex- this, there appears to have been little work in Asiaploited without restraint by outside interests, and on designing mitigation measures to compensatethey see no benefit in preserving stocks. Poison for the losses to freshwater biodiversity as a resultabuse is apparently associated with the growing of development project impacts. A commoninteractions between human communities. Previ- course is to promote aquaculture development, butously fish had to be eaten or processed the same this addresses loss of protein quantity rather thanday they were caught, but communication with loss of biodiversity; in many cases, aquaculturemiddlemen creates a market for surplus fish actually exacerbates biodiversity losses. Otherwhich can be stored in freezers or sent ovemight mitigation measures have been instituted for largeto a city market. dams, but have usually been limited to sugges-

There are, as yet, no published data to indicate tions for minimum flows below dams to allow thethat overfishing is responsible for the extinction of survival of some fishes and fisheries. There isany fish species in Asia (which does not mean that enormous scope for fruitful collaboration betweenit is not the case). But overfishing, usually com- engineers and biodiversity specialists to designbined with other threats, is responsible for the innovative features for infrastructure and otherdrastic reduction of entire communities, especially projects so that losses to biodiversity can bein densely-populated areas, and of some species

of particular economic interest. Examples would IO - The noteworthy exception is the introduction of exoticinclude species of Tor carp in all south and south- species. These are virtually impossible to eradicate once

established.


minimized. At the very least, 'standard' mitigation collected before filling and transplanted to themeasures should include maintaining shoreline new rapid site. There appears to be no precedentvegetation, maintaining bottom heterogeneity and for this but artificial rapids have been created inpreserving samples of intact habitats. In this con- North America on spillways of power plants intext, point 10 of the World Bank Operational Di- order to compensate for the loss of river stretchesrective (OD) 4.00 - (Annex B) of April 1989 is used by sport kayakers. If rapids can be con-important; it requires that a representative sample structed for sport, there should be no technical orof rivers be preserved in their natural state. ethical obstacles to constructing them for main-

taining biodiversity.Fish ladders. At some Asian dam sites, fish It has been said that some rapids were pre-

ladders (a succession of concrete tanks) have been served at the construction of Pak Mun dam inconstructed to allow the passage of migratory fish Thailand, but this refers only to a maintenance ofspecies, more or less following models used in the landscape for tourists. During the tourist sea-temperate countries where they are designed pri- son (3 months each year). the water level of themarnly for sport and food fishes such as salmon reservoir is lowered during the daytime so thatand trout. Transposed to Asian rivers with fish tourists can see the rapids upstream of the dam.communities which include a large number of Obviously, this will have no benefit for the rapids-migrating or moving species, very few of them inhabiting fishes which will have been eliminatedable to jump, these systems appear to have com- by heavy siltation, stagnant or slow moving wa-pletely failed to allow fish, dolphins, shrimps, etc. ters. and low levels of dissolved oxygen (Roberts,to pursue their normal movements. Most of the 1993a: 124).migrating fishes are bottom dwellers and are un- Rapids can also he maintained downstream ofable to pass these ladders. Some might adjust their dams. Their usefuliess depends on permanentrequirements and breed in the habitats to which water flow in the river bed during and after con-they are newly confined, but many just die. struction, and the native fishes not being threat-

Clearly, there is an urgent need to investigate ened by pollution, explosives or abusive fishingthe feasibility of effective fish ladders, fish lifts or during construction. If rapids are damaged duringswimways adapted to the needs of indigenous construction, depending on the sites, they mightaquatic communities. Reeves and Leatherwood be restocked by fishes from other submerged(1994) comment that a prototype swimway for rapids at the time of filling. The minimum flowriver dolphins exists, which, on paper at least. can left by most dams is often insutfficient to maintainbe designed and built at a reasonable cost (in the real rapids, especially if the exposed river bed iscontext of megaprojects). However, for many very wide. The flow must then be restricted to aspecies there is currently insufficient knowledge narrower river bed, to reproduce more closelyof their biological requirements to enable ade- natural rapid conditions. Depending on the cir-quate measures to be taken. An additional prob- cumstances, such rapids should be kept distinctlem is that fish may have difficulty finding the from spillways which could flush the rapids in theentrance of the ladders, lifts or swimways; electric case of flash floods If they cannot be separated,'fences' have been suggested to direct fishes to- hydrological devices should be designed to bringwards them. It must be borne in mind that if fish the fish back to the 'normal' river bed when themigrate in one direction, they or their offspring water recedes in order to avoid massive kills inmust return the other way, and not through a tur- isolated, drying pools.bine or over a spillway. Well-designed fish laddersystems could contribute greatly towards mitigat- Creation/restoration of spawning grounds.ing species loss at dam sites. Many fish species form large, more or less loose,

Creation of rapids. Mitigation measures for schools which congregate at spawning groundsimportant habitats lost by the creation of a river during the appropriate season. For some species,barrier might include the creation of new rapids these spawning grounds are very sharply definedsituated upriver of the reservoir, stocked by fish (e.g. a sand bar or stretch of boulders). Once these


are flooded, silt quickly accumulates, covering and captive breeding include (but are not re-these places and making spawning impossible. A stricted to) many of the native species of Lakepossible mitigation measure could be the creation Poso, Indonesia (see Table 2), those of Lake La-(or restoration) of spawning grounds beyond the nao, Philippines, some of the endemic species ofreach of the reservoir. Clearly the ecological re- Lake Dianchi and other Yunnan lakes, China, thequirements of the species involved need to be re- species of Labeo endemic to Sri Lanka, and soonsearched or at least inferred or extrapolated from many rapids-inhabiting fishes from the Mekongother better-known species. New spawning and other large rivers.grounds have been successfully created where the Any species recovery program must first ad-modification of water levels in temperate lakes dress the reasons for the initial decline or loss ofhas exposed the original spawning grounds, and the species concerned. Appropriate action maythere are efforts to do this for the Chinese stur- include the removal of introduced species and thegeon under a collaborative project between the restoration of habitat. It may also be necessary toChinese Institute for Aquaculture Production and address issues of pollution, sedimentation andthe US Department of the Interior (Y.J. Zhu, water flow regimes. It currently seems impossible1995). to restore certain habitats, such as peat swamps

and caves. If habitat restoration is not possible,Prevention of unintended movements. Within captive breeding programs should be considered,

irrigation and hydropower schemes, canals are but they are no substitute for naturally maintainedsometimes constructed wvilch connect different biodiversitv.river basins with different faunas. It is importantto prevent invading species from passing from Environmental Assessments andone river basin into another. Their impact would Monitoringbe the same as for deliberately introduced species(see above); these invaders or their parasites and Practical considerations for aquatic biodiver-diseases can seriously impact the freshwater bio- sity studies in environmental assessments are de-diversity of the drainages they enter. Such inva- tailed in Annex B. Careful studies prior to thesions could possibly be prevented either electric completion of a project are important becausebarriers or 'hot locks' of warm water - ca. 40 de- they allow useful and effective monitoring to pro-grees C - strategically placed in the canal system ceed. Such work should not be restricted to thelinking to natural waterways (McCauley and Fry, project site, but should also include areas or rivers1986); warm water would be lethal to fish and which will remain untouched and can be used as aother freshwater organisms trying to cross the control. This applies to all types of projects, in-lock. cluding introductions of exotic species. Unfortu-

nately, with respect to freshwater biodiversity, theSpecies recovery. There are a few on-going general quality of the studies currently conducted

attempts to aid the recovery of aquatic species is very low, and this hampers discussions andwhich have experienced serious population deple- wise decision making.tion. They aim mostly at preserving single char- Noss (1990) identifies five categories of spe-ismatic species like dolphins or crocodiles. Where cies which warrant intensive monitoring:fish are involved, attention is focused on a fewspecies of interest to fisheries, fish of large size * ecological indicators - species that signal the(notably the Chinese sturgeon), or those of inter- effects of perturbations on a number of otherest to the aquarium trade. There does not appear species with similar habitat requirements;to be a recovery program for any aquatic inverte- * keystone species upon which the diversity ofbrate within the region. Examples of current inter- a large part of the community depends;est are given in the country sections. Non- . umbrella species with large area requirementscommercial species, whose survival presently which, if given sufficient protected habitatseems unlikely without some recovery program


area, will bring many other species under Partnershipsprotection;

* flagship or popular, charismatic species which At present there is insufficient nurturing of

serve as symbols and rallying points for major the partnerships necessary between engineers and

conservation initiatives; and biodiversitv specialists to achieve environmentally

* vulnerable species which are rare, genetically sustainable development. There is perhaps too

impoverished, of low fecundity, dependent much wringing of hands at the biological damage

upon patchy or unpredictable resources, ex- inflicted by development projects, too much re-

tremely variable in population density, or sentment of mitigation being tantamount to clear-

subject to pest control programs. ing up after engineers' mistakes, and too littlemutual exploration of measures and designs that

To these a sixth category could be added would benefit the concerns of both groups. This is

(Hill, 1995a): a challenge that must be met (Schulze. 1996).

* nutritionally important species.

5

Legal instruments

National Jurisdiction cerned but the situation is considerably worse forfish and invertebrates.

In many Asian countries the conservation offreshwater biodiversity suffers from being placed Nationally Protected Speciesunder both a conservation agency (often within aforestry department) and a fisheries agency. The Many countries have established lists of na-interests of conservation and fisheries agencies tionally-protected species. Very few list freshwa-are often in conflict, and communication between ter organisms, especially invertebrates. While tilethem may be minimal. In the wider context of reason for listing large mammals and birds is usu-swamps, floodplains and estuaries many sectors ally clear, this is not the case for freshwater or-play a role, and the lack of cross-sectoral coordi- ganisms. Where fish are listed, species are oftennation in planning and development has been and misnamed on legal documents: and where expertscontinues to be one of the strongest forces for are not available in the country to assist in thesewetland destruction in Asia. matters, it seems unlikely that enforcement staff

The fisheries and forestry agencies promul- could do better. This general confusion leads to agate very different kinds of laws. Conservation situation in which protected status is sometimeslaws usually list protected species whose capture granted to species which do not exist in the coun-or trade is prohibited, while fisheries laws usually try, which are misidentified, which cannot bedeal with fishing seasons, fishing gear, minimum identified, or which are not threatened. At thesize, quotas, etc.. The latter may also ban the same time, species recognized internationally ascatch or export of some species and control or ban seriously threatened species are ignored or over-the introduction of exotics. Conservation agen- looked. These problems clearly point to an inade-cies, in theory, are interested in numbers of spe- quacy of baseline data and/or incompetent analy-cies. whereas fisheries agencies are more con- ses. This leads, at best, to useless conservationcerned with the weight of the fish catch landed. laws, and at worst, to regulations that do moreFisheries agencies often ignore threats to pro- harm than good.tected species listed by national conservation Three examples to illustrate the problems areagencies and intemational treaties like CITES. For given below.example, in Papua New Guinea the Fisheries De-partment will issue permits to collect aquarium Cambodia. The Fiat-Law on Fishery Manage-fishes, but the agency in charge of conservation ment and Administration No. 33 KRO.CHOR ofwill not issue export permits for the same fish. 19 March 1987 forbids the catch, sale and trans-

In many developing countries, implementa- portation of three species of fish: Pangasianodontion of nature conservation laws is now generally gigas, "probatusjullieni"(presumably Probarbusrecognized as a significant problem. The prob- jullieni) and "grossochilus latius". While thelems include a lack of staff, lack of training and identity of the first two is clear, the meaning ofawareness, low motivation associated with low the third is not. It appears to be a misspelling ofsalaries and susceptibility to bribes, lack of com- Crossocheilus latius, but this fish is not known tomunity involvement, as well as the inability to occur in Cambodia. It is known only from Indiaidentify organisms due to lack of proper identifi- (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991: 416), and has nevercation tools and information. The problems are been reported from Cambodia in scientific litera-well publicized when large vertebrates are con- ture but it sometimes appears in fisheries reports.


It is not possible to determine which species was Kottelat et al. (1993) under the same name;originally intended and how it has been given that preliminary results of on-going research indi-name. Crocodiles are also listed as protected. cate that this fish is misidentified and is eitherWhile the Wildlife Protection Office of the De- an unnamed cave endemic or a cave popula-partment of Forestry is responsible for protection tion of P. binotatus, a species widely distrib-of wildlife, the Department of Fisheries is respon- uted in hill streams of Bali, Java and easternsible for the protection of aquatic wildlife, in- Sumatra; its listing is justified; the status ofcluding otters, frogs, crocodiles, fish, and dol- the material originally described as P. mi-phins. crops is not cleared yet; it might be the valid

name for a slender fish from lakes of centralIndonesia. Of the six officially protected spe- Java which also seems under threat;

cies of freshwater fishes only the identity of * Notopterus sp. is the Javanese population ofScleropages formosus is indisputable (the Asian the commercially important featherback orbonytongue from Sumatra and Borneo, also belida called N. chitala by Weber and deknown erroneously as arowana), this is not the Beaufort (1913). Roberts (1992) revised thecase with the remaining five: family and concluded that the Indonesian

material should be recognized as Chitalae Scleropages leichardti is a species endemic to lopis. Indonesian belidas actually represent at

Australia (Merrick and Schmida, 1984: 72; least two species; unfortunately, no specimenAllen 1989: 29); the species occurring in Irian of the Javanese population has yet been foundJaya is S. jardinii (Allen, 1991: 37); they have either in the field or in museum holdings tobeen considered as a single species at some decide its identity (unpubl. data). Verbal ac-time, but clearly are distinct; the stated Eng- counts by informants who observed it aboutlish vernacular name 'Dawson River salmon' 30 years ago while still common in Java sug-is never encountered in the literature; avail- gest that it might be a distinct species.able data do not allow a decision on whetherlisting of this species is justified; In addition the Trade Department decreed that

- Pristis sp. is a sawfish from Lake Sentani. It large (>15 cm) individuals of an otherwise un-is apparently P. microdon, a species distrib- protected species, the clown loach Botia macra-uted in freshwaters and upper estuaries of canthus, should not be exported in order to safe-South and Southeast Asia and northern Aus- guard the breeding stocks for continued capturetralia (Last and Stevens, 1994: 364); the status for the aquarium trade. Despite the volume of theof this species is of concern in its whole dis- trade in this species (see above), the stocks showtribution and a protection status is apparently no signs of depletion and it is unclear how thisjustified; regulation can affect the stocks. Fishermen

* Homaloptera gymnogaster is a loach known catching a larger individual would eat it or sell itfrom a single specimen from lake Maninjau, as food fish instead of as an aquarium fish, but areSumatra, described in 1853; additional mate- unlikely to release it. The only justification forrial has not been reported in the scientific lit- this regulation is perhaps to ban the export oferature since; the original locality data are du- mature individuals which could be used abroad tobious as members of the genus Homaloptera establish a breeding stock which would competeare from hill streams and not from lakes; with the national trade. However, the fish is al-Kottelat et al. (1993: 52) consider that this ready reportedly being bred in Thailand.species has been described again under 3 dif-ferent names; the species is widely distributed Thailand. Four freshwater fishes (Oreoglanisin hill streams of Sumatra (pers. obs.) and the siamensis, Datnioides microlepis, Botialisting is not justified; sidthimunki, and Scleropages formosus) and two

* Puntius microps is probably the cave fish re- freshwater crabs are officially protected. Neitherported by Weber and de Beaufort (1916) and the migratory giant Mekong catfish Pangasiano-

Legal Instruments 33

don gigas nor Probarbus jullieni, both listed onthe Appendices of CITES and Migratory SpeciesConvention, are protected.

6

National reviews

Afghanistan species and includes keys, descriptions, and linedrawings of all species, many of which are quite

Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: none rudimentary (Rahman, 1989). See India, belowknown for general comments on the quality of informa-Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded) tion.

Amphibians: 6Crocodilians: 0Turtles: I The freshwater plants of Bangladesh are de-Fish: 84 (?50% of estimated total) scribed by Khan and Halim Mahbuba (1987). TheCrabs: 6 (10% of estimated total) floodplains are discussed by Khan (1994).

Technical and human capacity:Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-cies:- BhutanLocal skill to identify freshwater fish: -

Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: noneA checklist of Afghanistan fishes was com- known

piled by Goad (1981). 84 species are recorded Freshwater biodiversitv (species recorded):

from the country; 67 are known from a single Amphibians: 24Crocodilians: ?river basin. No country-wide survey has ever been Turtles: ???conducted, and virtually all the fish samples ob- Fish: not knowntained to date have been chance collections by Crabs: 3 (10-20% of estimated total)non-specialists. Our knowledge of this fauna is Technical and human capacity:

Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-very fragmentary and many additional species cies: -should be expected. Considering the topography Local skill to identify freshwater fish:of the country, it seems likely that many speciescould have very restricted distribution ranges. There is apparently no specific publication on

the fishes of Bhutan. There are a few scaneredBangladesh references in publications on Indian fishes.

Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: many of Brunei Darussalamthe flood plains; hillstreams on the Bangladesh-Burma borderFreshwater biodiversity (species recorded): Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: none

Amphibians: 19 knownCrocodilians: 2 Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded):Turtles: 18 Amphibians 76Fish: 260 (90% of estimated total) Crocodilians: I (possibly 3)Crabs: 5 (70-80% of estimated) Turtles: 4

Technical and human capacity: Fish: 55 (30% of estimated total)Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- Crabs: not known

cies:~~~~~~~~~~~~~Cas no+nwcies: + Technical and human capacitv:All species with adequate illustrations: -Teniaadhuncpci: Availabilitv of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-Material in local language: - cies.Material in English: + All species with good illustrations: +

Local skill to identify freshwater fish: + Maeria in loa luage:s-Material In local language: -Material in English: +

There is a single recent synopsis on the Local skill to identify freshwater fishi: -freshwater fishes of Bangladesh, which lists 260

National Reviews 35

There is little published information on the Technical and human capacity:

freshwater fishes of Brunei. Eden (1984) reported Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-

22 species of aquarium fish, and Choy and Chin cies: -22 species ofaquarium fsh, andChyandChinLocal skill to identifv freshwater fish: -(1994) list 44 species from the Belalong- A check list of 215 fish species then knownTemburong basin. A checklist by Kottelat and from Cambodia, including a review of the litera-Lim (in press) records 55 species. ture and a key to the cyprinid (carp-like) species

is available (Kottelat, 1985). This was based onBurma material obtained in the early 1960s and preserved

in Museum national d'Histoire naturelle in Paris,Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Lake most of which had never been reported. The Me-lndawngy (#3): Lake Inle (#5) with 9 endemic fish speciesand 3 endemic genera (Annandale. 1918. and pers. obs.) kong River Commission, FAO and DANIDA areFreshwater biodiversity (species recorded): publishing an identification guide to the commer-

Amphibians: 75 cial freshwater fishes (Rainboth, in press). TheCrocodilians: draft which has been circulated includes only 124Turtles: ??? seisFish: 300 (50% of estimated total) species.Crabs: 20(10% of estimated total) All the published information on freshwater

Technical and human capacity: crabs dates back to the early 1920s, except for aAvailability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- description of a new species (Ng, 1995).cies: -Local skill to identify freshwater fish: - China

Traditionally, monographs on Indian fishesFreshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Wuhan

have included Burma although no data after 1940 lakes (#96), Dongting lake (#100), Yunnan lakes (##136.

are available (e.g. Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). A 137,138.143)

checklist of Burmese fishes has been compiled by Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded):

HIla Win (1987), listing 250 freshwater species; Amphibians: 190

this list is probably of little use as it is too con- Crocodilians: 2

fused, many names appear several times, the no- Fish: 1010 (80% of estimated total)

menclature is outdated, and several of the listed Crabs: 200

species are not known to occur in Burma. Shrimps: 50 (50% of estimated total)

Using other published data (Talwar and Jhin- Technical and human capacitv:

gran, 1991; Kottelat, 1989) and unpublished Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fishsources, there appearobesome300fishspecies species: + (but partial. provincial)sources, there appear to be some 300 fish species All species with good illustrations: +already recorded from Burma freshwaters. Our Material in local language: +

knowledge of them is verv superficial and frag- Material in English: -

mentary. Local skill to identify freshwater fish: +

Cambodia There are two recent synopses of Chinesefreshwater fish species. Chen and Zheng (1987)

Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Tonle listed about 800 species and S.Q. Zhu (1995) coy-Sap (#2) ", and the rapids between Khone Falls and Sambor. ers 1010. A total of 212 species from that totalFreshwater biodiversity (species recorded): were first recorded from the country between

Amphibians: 28 1982 and 1992; 156 are new species and 56 newCrocodilians: I records. Zhu's (1995) book is a set of keys to gen-

Fish: 215 (60% of estimated total) era and species, indexes, and line drawings of allCrabs: 6 (<10% of estimated total) but 10 species. The absence of descriptive ac-Shrimps: 15 (75% of estimated total) counts is a drawback to this book.

In addition to national synopses, there are1I - These numbers refer to the Directorv of Asian Wetlands monographs dealing with the fauna of various(Scott, 1989) which provides useful background information.


provinces, basins or islands: Hainan island (Pearl admitted that it cannot survive without in-River Fisheries Research Institute et al., 1986), tervention. However, its rank as a National Treas-Yunnan (Chu and Chen, 1989, 1990), Sichuan ure has not halted the decline in its population. It(Ding, 1994), Fujian (Chu, 1984, 1985), Qinling is now proposed that the few remaining be cap-range (Chen et al., 1987), Qinghai and Xizang tured and preserved in a semi-natural reserve.[Tibet] (Wu and Wu, 1992), Chang Jiang This operation is not without risk. For example, 7[Yangtze] River (Fisheries Research Institute of of 12 Yangtze finless porpoises NeophocaenaGuangxi, 1976), Zhujiang [Pearl] River (Zheng, phocaenoides in a reserve were killed during1989), Guangdong (Pan et al., 1990), Guangxi capture operations by untrained staff(Fisheries Research Institute of Guangxi, 1981) (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1994).and Heilongjiang (Nikolski, 1960). Information A description of the freshwater plants ofon the lakes in Yunnan province is given in Li China is presented by Yan (1983).(1982); Chu and Chen (1989. 1990); Yang (1991);and Kottelat and Chu (1988). India

All of these works are in Chinese, although afew include limited English abstracts ; they are Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Streamsnot easily available and, as such, the dissemina- in Kerala and northeast India (Assam, Manipur, Nagaland.tion of the knowledge abroad is very limited. Meghalava. Himachal Pradesh, Mizaram. Tripura): major

floodplainsAlso, the language barrier makes it difficult to Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded):obtain broader evaluations of the quality of the Amphibians: 206work. In general, most of the work is of reason- Crocodilians: 3able quality. It suffers, however, from a lack of Turtles: 18

Fish: 748 (90% of estimated total)critical approach, and from neglect of the work of Crabs: 60 (60% of estimated total)foreign authors. Shrimps: 100 (70% of estimated total)

About 90 species of fish are believed to be Technical and human capacity:endangered and one, the carp Cyprinus yilongen- Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-sis from Yunnan, has been confirmed as extinct as All species with good illustrations: -Lake Yilong was drained dry for 20 days in 1981 Material in local language: -(Chen and Cui, 1993). Material in English: +

A recovery program has been initiated for the Local skill to identify freshwater fish: +sturgeons Acipenser dabryanus, A sinensis, andPsephurus gladius (Changjiang Aquatic Re- The latest handbook on Indian fishes is bysources Survey Group, 1988). The Institute of Talwar and Jhingran (1991). They record 930Chinese Sturgeons within the Gezhouba dam species from India and 'adjacent countries'Corporation (whose major dam blocked the pas- (Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Burma andsage of migrant species) has released 11 million Sri Lanka). In a handbook with a similar cover-fry into the Yangtze river over the last 11 years, age, Jayaram (1981) recognized 742 species. Theand the Yangtze River Fisheries Research Insti- inclusion of 'adjacent countries' is an establishedtute with the US Fish and Wildlife Service are Indian ichthyological tradition although almost nostudying the management and creation/restoration new material from these countries has been avail-of spawning grounds (Kynard et al., 1995). able to Indian authors since 1940. An estimate of

An important flagship freshwater species is the fish fauna of India itself has never been pub-the Yangtze river dolphin or baiji Lipotes vexil- lished. The count, based on Talwar and Jhingran,lifer which, like other freshwater cetaceans, faces after the deletion of introduced species and cor-threats from dam construction, accidental kills rections of salient errors and omissions, is of 748from fishing gear, collisions with vessels, and dy- species. Some state or regional accounts are alsonamite used for construction and illegal fishing. In available. These essentially consist of distillationsChina, the baiji has been declared a National of the text and illustrations of earlier works. In-Treasure (as has the giant panda), and it is now deed, there seem to be a number of problems with

National Reviews 37

existing publications on freshwater biodiversity. shrimp species: Berbak Reserve (#8), Tanjung Puting Na-

Many Indian publications on fish taxonomy suffer tional Park (#74) and probably other yet unsurveyed areas of

from a lack of criticism approach and lack of ex- Bomeo (##71. 75, 77, 78).Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded):posure to the outside world. In many cases the Amphibians: 270fieldwork is conducted by associates, not by the Crocodilians: 3

researcher who writes the actual paper. As a re- Turtles: 15 (9 excluding Irian Jaya)

suit, despite the many publications, the knowledge Fish: 1300 (70% of estimated total)suit, despite the many publications, the knowledge Crabs: 90 (45% of estimated total)

of Indian fish fauna remains unsatisfactory. Con- Shrimps: 70 (60% of estimated total)

trary to many other Asian countries, the problem Technical and human capacity:here is not the lack of data, but rather an abun- Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-

dance of uncritical compilations and users, re- cies:+i

sulting in inconsistency (see examples in Pethiy- Material in local language: +

agoda and Kottelat, 1994 and Kottelat, 1990d). Material in English: +

Meanwhile, some excellent fieldwork remains Local skill to identifv freshwater fish: +

largely unpublished, the results of which, togetherwith careful examination of well-preserved mate- The marine and freshwater fish fauna of In-rial show that the diversity of the Indian fish fauna donesia (as well as eastern Malaysia, Brunei andis underestimated and that many widespread spe- Papua New Guinea) is dealt with in the classic 11-cies actually are a composite assemblage of strik- volume monograph by Weber and de Beaufortingly distinct species. Reexamination of material (1911-1962). The two volumes dealing with thecollected in the last century also indicates that main groups of freshwater fishes appeared inseveral species have been overlooked which may 1913 and 1916 and are outdated. Kottelat et al.now be extinct. (1993) provide diagnoses and illustrations (in

De Silva (1989: 150) lists instances of decline English and Indonesian) for the 962 species fromand disappearance of indigenous species as possi- inland waters of western Indonesia and Sulawesible consequences of introduced fish species, al- (also including eastern Malaysia and Brunei); 293though he asserts that the carp (p.142) has not species were not included in Weber and deendangered any of the Indian native fish. In fact, Beaufort and 251 were included under a differentspecies of the native genus Schizothorax have dis- identification. Irian Jaya is covered by Allenappeared from waters to which the carp had been (1991) (see Papua New Guinea), and there is vir-introduced (Jhingran and Sehgal, 1978, cited by tually no available data on the freshwater fishes ofWelcomme, 1988: 20). A symposium volume on the Moluccas and Lesser Sundas area, except forIndian threatened fishes (Dehadrai et al., 1994) recently obtained (and still unpublished) dataincludes accounts on many states and fish groups, from Halmahera island.although some papers are not as strong as others. The knowledge of the Indonesian fish faunaThere is a strong bias towards large fish must still be regarded as rudimentary. For the area(especially mahseer Tor species popular with an- covered by Kottelat et al. (1993), the list of addi-glers) and very little attention is given to smaller tions and new discoveries since the book wasspecies. written includes 75 species for which information

A relevant and useful publication on the wet- has already been published and some 100 forland flora of the subcontinent is available (Cook, which information is available but not yet pub-1996). lished. This represents an increase of 18% in only

four years. These 'additional' species were ob-

Indonesia tained with little effort, and it is estimated that atleast 400-600 additional species remain to be dis-

Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Malili covered.lakes in Sulawesi (#98); Lake Lindu (#89); Lake Poso (#87); One of the most important freshwater biodi-Lake Sentani in Irian Jaya (#129). The following peat versity sites in Asia is the Malili lakes of Sulawesiswamps each have their own set of endemic fish, crab or yet they are afforded protection only as Tourist


Parks which allows, inter alia, the introduction of Local skill to identify freshwater fish: +

exotic species. The unique biogeographic positionof Sulawesi results in a large portion of its fauna Masuda et al. (1984) compiled diagnoses inand flora being endemic to the island (Whitten et English and Japanese and illustrations of the 3200al., 1987b, c). This also applies to its freshwater fish species then known from the Japanese archi-fauna. More than half of the 60 Sulawesi fresh- pelago. Nakabo et al. (1993) compiled diagnoseswater fishes (including 15 of the 17 known spe- and identification keys in Japanese. Okiyama etcies of Telmatherinidae), I snake, 3 crabs, about al. (1988) compiled information on larval stages10 shrimps, some 60 molluscs, I macrophyte and in Japanese. Some 150 species of freshwaterpossibly sponges and water mites are endemic to fishes are listed in Masuda et al. (1984); judgingthis group of five lakes (Kottelat, 1990b-c, 1991, from the data in Nakabo et al., and allowing forand unpubl.; P. Bouchet, pers. comm.). differences in the concept of what a species is, it

The Asian bonytongue Scleropages formosus seems clear that the actual figure is higher.is now bred under artificial conditions in West The aquatic plants are discussed by KadonoKalimantan and, in theory, a proportion of the (1994).young have to be returned to the Kapuas river torestore a much exploited population. It is not Democratic People's Republic of Korea,known if the a comprehensive monitoring plan is Republic of Koreain operation to determine the efficacy of this ap-proach. Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: None

Useful publications on macrophytes include known

an annotated checklist to Indonesian freshwater Amphibians: 13

herbs (Giesen, 1991) and descriptions of the Crocodilians:0

freshwater plants of Papua New Guinea (Leach Turtles: 2

and Osborne, 1985). Family revisions of sub- Fish:90(?%ofestimatedtotal)mercred macrophytes in Flora Malesiana are Crabs: 0g p i Shrimps: 5 (90-100% of estimated total))listed earlier. Information on the macrophytes is Technical and human capacity:

available for Sur.iatra (Whitten et al., 1987a), Su- Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-

lawesi (Whitten et al. 1987b), and Java and Bali cies: +(Whitten et al., 1996). All species with good illustrations: -

Material in local language: +Two monographs on the freshwater molluscs Material in English: -

of Java are available (van Bentham Jutting, 1953, Local skill to identify freshwater fish: +

1956).Apparently no data on DPRK's freshwater

Japan fishes have been published in the last 50 years.Jeon (1980) recorded 90 species of freshwater

Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Lake fishes from RK, provided identification keys andBiwa (# 16) (Kira, 1995) discussed their zoogeography. There is apparentlyFreshwater biodiversitv (species recorded):

Freshwate biodiversity (species recorded): neither monographic treatment nor field guide toAmphibians: 52Crocodilians: 0 the fishes of the country.Turtles: 4Fish: 150 (95% of estimated total) Lao P. D. R.Crabs: 6 (60% of estimated total)Shrimps: 25 (80% of estimated total) Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Kh6ne

Technical and human capacity: FresAvailability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- Freshwater biodiversitv (species recorded):cies: +Frswtrboiest(seisrcdd)

All species with good illustrations: + Amphibians: 37Material in local language: + Turtles: ?Material in English: + Fish: 262 (50% of estimated total)

Crabs: 7 (15% of estimated total)

National Reviews 39

Shrimps: 10 (15% of estimated total) literature, but is inaccurate. Many of these speciesTechnical and human capacity: are common but are rarely collected because of

Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- their small size or unpleasant habitats (e.g.cies: -Local skill to identify freshwater fish: - swamps).

According to a list of all fish species knownThe publications on Laotian fishes comprises from inland waters of mainland Southeast Asia

Taki's (1974) synopsis, a few scattered papers in (Kottelat, 1989) there are 264 freshwater fishesscientific journals, and some grey literature. These known from the whole Malay Peninsulavery limited data have been obtained mainly from (Peninsular Malaysia + southern Thailand). Thisthe Mekong mainstream and a very few of the list has been updated by Lim et al. (1993) whomajor tributaries. The rest of the country is still recorded about 260 freshwater fishes for Penin-virtually unknown from the ichthyological point sular Malaysia only. Unpublished data show thatof view. Taki records 203 species from Laos; the figure is now around 300 species.most of them are illustrated and diagnosed. Data Kottelat and Lim (in press) list 249 fish spe-on the Mekong fauna in Thailand indicates that cies from inland waters of Sarawak. Inger andthis figure is too low, and a recent survey in two Chin (1962) report and describe 129 species fromriver basins increased it to about 280 (Kottelat, in Sabah; in an up-dated edition, Chin (1990) addedprep.). In additional areas with similar topography II species. These two states are covered by Kot-in Thailand and Yunnan suggest that probably 100 telat et al. (1993).to 200 species with restricted distribution should Ng (1988) revised and illustrated the 40 spe-be expected in the unexplored rapids and hill cies of freshwater crabs known from peninsularstreams. Malaysia; 8 new species have been described

since. Ng (pers. comm.) estimates that some 30-Malaysia 40 species are known from Sarawak and Sabah,

including several cave species. An estimated 25Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: The species of freshwater shrimps are known fromfollowing peat swamps each have their own set of endemic Peninsular Malaysia and 30 from Sarawak andfish, crab or shrimp species: North Selangor swamp forest Sabah.(#9), Southeast Pahang swamp forest (#I), Sedili Kecilswamp forest (#5), Third Division and Sibu swamp forest(#30, 31). MaldivesFreshwater biodiversity (species recorded):

Amphibians: 158 The Maldives are a group of low-lying coralCrocodilians:Turtles: ? atolls. Freshwater occurs in aquifers and no nativeFish: 600 (85% of estimated total) freshwater fish has ever been recorded.Crabs: 88 (65% of estimated total)Shrimps: 55 (55% of estimated total) Mongolia

Technical and human capacitv:Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-cies: - Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: noneLocal skill to identifv freshwater fish: t known

Freshwater biodiversit,v (species recorded):

There is currently a single book on the fresh- AmpCibians: 0

water fishes of western Malaysia, by Mohsin and Turtles:?

Ambak (1983). Unfortunately it is quite superfi- Fish: 56(90% of estimated total)cial, many species are not included, nomenclature Crabs: 0

is out of date, and information on habitats and Technicalandhumancapacit,:Availability of recent monograph of freshwater t'ish spe-

conservation are often misleading. The authors cies: +

recorded 382 species of which they describe the All species with good illustrations: +

121 they collected. Their list of 118 rare or extinct Material in local language: -

species has been cited frequently in conservation Material in English: -


Local skill to identify freshwater fish: not known Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-cies: +

The only monographic treatment of the fishes All species with good illustrations: -of Mongoli is byShatunvskii (983)t proMaterial in local language: +

of Mongolia IS by Shatunovskii (1983). It pro- Material in English: -

vides keys, descriptions (in Russian) and illustra- Local skill to identify freshwater fish: +

tions of 56 species. This figure is possibly under-estimated as it seems that several species of Ore- Mirza (1990) illustrates and describes (inoleuciscus might be confused under a single Urdu) 159 fish species known from Pakistanname. Additional information can be found in freshwaters. In 1975 he discussed theirTravers (1989). The figure of 75 known fish spe- zoogeography. Some of the estuarine fishes arecies in Finch (1996) may include subspecies and diagnosed and illustrated by Bianchi (1985).exotic species.

Papua New GuineaNepal

Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: LakeFreshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Lake Kutubu (#22) with 11 endemic fishesRara (#3) with rich invertebrate fauna and species of Schizot- Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded):horax (Terashima, 1984) Amphibians: 183Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): Crocodilians: 2 (93)

Amphibians: 36 Turtles: 7Crocodilians: 2 Fish (including frian Jaya): 329 (70% of estimated total)Turtles: 11 Crabs: 25 (20-30% of estimated total)Fish: 129 (80% of estimated total) Technical and human capacity:Crabs: 20-30 (20-30% of estimated total) Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-

Technical and human capacity: cies: +Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- All species with good illustrations: +cies: + Material in local language: -

All species with good illustrations: - Material in English: +Material in local language: - Local skill to identify freshwater fish: not knownMaterial in English: +

Local skill to identify freshwater fish: + Allen (1991) describes and illustrates 329

species then known to occur in inland waters ofJ. Shrestha (1981) provided keys, descriptions Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian province

and illustrations of the 120 fish species reported of Irian Jaya.from Nepal; later she recorded 129 species Holthuis (1979, 1982) discussed the crusta-(Shrestha, 1994). T.K. Shrestha (1990) discussed ceans of the whole island. New Guinea is of spe-fish and fisheries in Nepal. Beside general com- cial interest for its presence of real freshwaterments, there is no concrete information on con- crayfish (Holthuis, 1986). Cave shrimps have alsoservation of aquatic organisms. There is also a been recorded.general discussion on fishing regulations in othercountries, but no data on local regulations. Philippines

Pakistan Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Lake

Lanao (#59)Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: none Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded):known Amphibians: 63Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): Crocodilians: I

Amphibians: 17 Turtles: 3Crocodilians: 2 Fish: 330 (80% of estimated total)Turtles: 5 Crabs: 41 (60% of estimated total) - all endemicFish: 159 (90% of estimated total) Shrimps: 40 (60% of estimated total)Crabs: 10 (15% of estimated total) Technical and human capacity:

Technical and human capacity:

National Reviews 41

Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- Singaporecies: -Local skill to identifv freshwater fish: -

There re vey few ource of reent dta on Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: noneThere are very few sources of recent data on know'nthe freshwater fishes of the Philippines. Herre Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded):

(1953) published a then extensive bibliography to Amphibians: 24

the fishes of the Philippine archipelago, including Crocodilians: I

freshwater species. The latest general and Turtles: 6Fish: 45 (100% of estimated total)

authoritative account on the freshwater fishes is Crabs: 6 (100% of estimated total)

by Herre (1924a-b). Herre recorded 36 'true' Shrimps: 11 (90% of estimated total)

freshwater fishes. A few species have been added Technical and human capacitv:

since to a total of about 45, almost all of them en- Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-

demic to the Philippines (especially on Palawan cies: +All species with good illustrations: +and Mindanao). To these should be added 38 Material in local language: +

freshwater species (mostly endemic) of otherwise Material in English: +

marine families and 234 species occurring in Local skill to identify freshwater fish: +

freshwaters but returning to the sea to spawnwhich Herre listed in 1959. The recorded fresh- The knowledge of the freshwater biodiversitywater fish fauna thus totals about 330. of Singapore is outstanding: there is detailed or

The limitations resulting from the lack of very detailed information on the taxonomy, ecol-ground surveys is obvious. A survey of inland ogy, distribution, and conservation status of mostwaters of the island of Leyte yielded some 120 groups. Of course the small size and the wealth of

species (Kottelat, unpubl.) including five endemic the country have facilitated surveys, but a keyspecies, three of them presently known from the factor has also been the presence in local institu-single ca. 5 km long Lagu creek (Watson and tions of a succession of scientists with an interestKottelat, 1994, 1995). This stream appears to be a in freshwater diversity.veritable 'hot spot' of fish biodiversity, but it is Synopses of the Singaporean freshwaterquestionable whether this pattern is real or a result fishes include Alfred (1966), Munro (1990) andof Leyte being better collected than the adjacent Lim and Ng (1990). The last of these is a field

islands (Samar, Cebu, Bohol, etc.), and of that guide with color illustrations of all species, whichprecise stream being very well collected as it is is inexpensive and available locally; similaradjacent to a campus where ecology is taught. guides also exist for amphibians and reptiles (Lim

Lake Lanao on Mindanao Island is notewor- and Lim, 1992) and freshwater life (Ng, 1991a).thy for its species flocks of some Puntius species Freshwater crustaceans are discussed in Ng (1988,which have been the subject of numerous studies 1990, 1994b), planktonic copepod crustaceans by(see Kornfield and Carpenter, 1984, for a recent Fernando and Ponyi (1981), and rotifers by Fer-summary). Eighteen Lake Lanao Puntius species nando and Zankai (1981).are believed to be derived from a single P. bino- Some 45 native freshwater fish species aretatus-like ancestor; P. binotatus is widespread all now recognized from Singapore. Lim and Ngover Southeast Asia where it displays only rela- (1990) list 22 feral species and this list is probablytivelv limited variability in appearance and habi- not exhaustive, considering the importance of thetat. An assessment by an ichthyologist with field aquarium fish trade in Singapore and related risksexperience of the status of the flock and the of escapes. Ng (1994b) lists six freshwater crabscauses of its possible extinction should be a high (three of them endemic to the island) and 11priority as soon as security permits. freshwater prawns.

General discussions on aquatic conservationin Singapore can be found in Ng (1991b) and Ngand Lim (1992) which include freshwater biodi-versity. The effect of introduced aquatic organ-


isms on the native biodiversity is discussed by Ng discovered (about 10 since 1985) and that manyet al. (1993). Endangered species are listed in the species identified as being the same as IndianSingapore Red Data Book (Ng and Wee, 1994) fishes by earlier authors actually are distinct, oftenand Ng (1995a). The Singapore Red Data Book is unnamed species.apparently unique in Asia, if not in the world, in For years, only seven freshwater crabs hadthat a dive:sity of marine and freshwater aquatic been recognized from Sri Lanka. Recent field-organisms are considered, and that invertebrates work has demonstrated this figure to be a veryare dealt with thoroughly. crude underestimate. The revision of a single ge-

The detailed field data available for Singapore nus, then assumed to be represented by a singleillustrate that some species have very specialized species, shows that it in fact includes at least 10and restricted distributions. Ng and Wee (1994: species (Ng, 1995b) and on-going research will179) report a still unnamed shrimp known on Sin- show this trend to be valid for other genera too.gapore from a very short stretch (a few meters) ofa fast-flowing forest stream. In the Malay Penin- Taiwansula, this species is also known from a few iso-lated populations. Singapore also illustrates the Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversitv interest: none

fact that even streams in easily accessible areas knownare still insufficiently surveyed as several species Freshwater biodiversitv (species recorded):

Amphibians: 26have been described only in recent years. Others Crocodilians:

have long been confused with similar looking l'urtles: ???species from other areas. Finally, old museum Fish: 95(100% of estimated total)material includes specimens not identifiable with Crabs: 35 (80% of estimated total)

Shrimps: 15 (80-90% of estimated total)any known extant species which likely represent Technical and human capacitv:

undescribed, extinct species (Ng and Kottelat, Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-

1994: 605). cies: +All species with good illustrations: +

Sri Lanka Material in local language: +Material in English: -

Local skill to identify freshwater fish: +Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: noneknown Shen (1994) published color illustrations and

Amphibians: 39 diagnoses of all fishes of Taiwan. Tzeng (1986,Crocodilians: 1 1990) published two books describing and illus-Turtles: 2 trating in color all 95 fish species from Taiwan'sFish: 90 (95% of estimated total) freshwaters and indicating their conservationCrabs: 21 (50% of estimated total) status. All this material is in Chinese.

Technical and human capacitv:Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- Some 35 species of freshwater crabs arecies: + known from Taiwan, 25 of which were described

All species with good illustrations: + in 1994 (Shy et al., 1994).Material in local language: -Material in English: +

Local skill to identify freshwater fish: + (outside official Thalandinstitutions)

Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversitv interest: Pa Phru

The freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka are de- (#35) peat swamps has its own endemic fish. and crusta-scribed and illustrated in color by Pethiyagoda ceans; Mae Klong (#23)Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded):(1991); he recorded 88 native species and 21 ex- Amphibians: 107

otic ones. Although the fish fauna of the island Crocodilians: I

has commonly been considered well known, on- Turtles: 12Fish: 690 (90 % of estimated total)

going work shows that new species are still being Crabs: 63 (50% of estimated total)

National Reviews 43

Shrimps: 50 (70%/< of estimated total) Technical and human capacity:Technical and human capacity: Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe-

Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish species: +cies: - All species with good illustrations: -Local skill to identify freshwater fish: + Material in local language: +

Material in English: -

The last exhaustive treatment of the freshwater Local skill to identify freshwater fish: +

fishes of Thailand is by Smith (1945) who re-

corded some 450 species. Since then, the country Identification guides to the freshwater fishes

has witnessed more ichthyological activity than of northern and southern Vietnam have been pub-

any neighboring country by local and foreign lished by Yen (1978), Yen et al. (1992) and

ichthyologists, but no recent monographic treat- Truong (1993). They include descriptions in Viet-

ment of the fish fauna has been published. Kotte- namese, keys and illustrations to some 450 spe-

lat (1989) compiled a list of the then known species. These books suffer from the isolation in

cies from the Indochinese peninsula and updated which Vietnamese scientists have worked for

the nomenclature; allowing for changes which many years Theilr nomenclature is outdated and

have occurred since, some 690 species are now often irreconcilable with that of adjacent coun-

recorded from Thailand and adjacent areas. tries, the quality of illustration is quite poor, the

The freshwater crabs of Thailand are listed by authors were not aware of recent work by foreign

Naiyanetr (1980) and updated in Ng and Naiy- authors and it is doubtful whether some species

anetr (1993) who recognize 63 species. Brandt could be reliably identified. The earlier work by

(1974) listed and illustrated 314 species and sub- Chevey and Lemasson (1937) for the Red River

species of freshwater molluscs, basin is missing the more recently discoveredspecies, but is still useful.

Vietnam

Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: noneknownFreshwater biodiversity (species recorded):

Amphibians: 80Crocodilians: 2Turtles: 16Fish: 450 (80% of estimated total)Crabs: 12 (<10% of estimated total)Shrimps: 30 (20% of estimated total)

7Selected programs and activities

Darwin Initiative in the Himalayas with a broad range of activities with relevance tofreshwater biodiversity conservation. These in-

This project is being undertaken by the UK clude assessments (including ichthyological sur-Institute for Hydrology and the University of veys) for conservation and sustainable manage-Wales. It is investigating the consequences of ment of many wetland areas, and the promotion ofriver catchment management on freshwater biodi- development of integrated (multi-sectoral) na-versity in the Indian and Nepalese Himalayas. The tional and regional wetland action plans whichstudy covers the spatial distribution patterns of include specific actions related to freshwater bio-aquatic biodiversity, stream water chemistry and diversity. WI-AP is also implementing a range offluvial sediments in river catchments of the Hi- training and information/awareness activitiesmalayas, with the aim of assessing and using these which incorporate freshwater biodiversity conser-parameters as indicators of environmental change vation aspects. One of the aims of WI-AP is tocaused by anthropogenic impacts such as inten- support a greater recognition of the importance ofsive agriculture and deforestation. freshwater biodiversity as part of the promotion of

wise use and conservation of wetlands.Gangetic River Dolphin Watch Program

South East Asian Aquatic BiodiversityWWF India has entered into a partnership Program

with the Global Rivers Environmental EducationNetwork (GREEN) and they have a proposal un- The Laboratory of Ecology and Systematicsder preparation for a Gangetic River Dolphin of the National University of Singapore has an on-Watch Program along the Ganges in Nepal, India going research program on Aquatic Biodiversitvand Bangladesh with India project being imple- in South East Asia. The program includes basicmented by WWF-India. At three or four locations and applied research on aquatic biodiversity andalong the Ganges, a program will be implemented ecology, documentation of aquatic biodiversity,involving water quality testing, water use surveys development of databases, elaboration of identifi-in the river basin, and population status survey of cation tools, environmental impact assessmentthe Gangetic river dolphin Platanista gangetica studies using freshwater systems, setting up andand threats to these. An awareness campaign will utilizing gene banks, a study of the genetic diver-be undertaken involving NGOs, schools and sity of food catfishes, advice on aquaculture spe-community groups. Emphasis is on the catchment cies, publication of field guides and handbooks (inapproach. both printed and electronic formats), and interna-

tional collaboration with individuals and institu-Wetlands International Asia-Pacific tions. Immediate targets of the program include

handbooks on the freshwater crabs of Borneo andThe mission of Wetlands International is to the Philippines, a field guide to S.E. Asian fishes,

sustain and restore wetlands, their resources and and a field guide to Malayan aquatic insects.biodiversity for future generations through re-search, information exchange and conservation Biodiversity in Mainland South East Asiaactivities. Since 1987 Wetlands International -Asia Pacific (WI-AP) (formerly Asian Wetlands The Swedish Natural History Museum is de-Bureau) has been implementing a large program veloping the above project (known as MASEA)

Selected Programs and Activities 45

which aims to develop systematic disciplines at Aquatic Resources Management and is availablelocal MASEA biodiversity centers, to promote on CD-ROM. It includes data on fish taxonomy,biosystematic databases, and to stimulate and par- distribution, biology, reproduction, larval stages,ticipate in the organization of a network of biodi- etc. and includes photographs and distributionversity research institutions in S.E. Asia. The maps. The database is still being developed andichthyological component proposes to assist in present coverage is variable depending on geo-inventories of the fauna and to support intema- graphical areas etc. The present coverage of Asiantional cooperation on fish biodiversity. freshwaters is still rudimentary.

Fishbase

Fishbase is a computerized database devel-oped by the International Center for Living

8

Recommendations

Project Design Environmental Assessment, Mitigation andMonitoring

1) Wherever inland waters are to be altered inthe course of a project. freshwater biodiversity 6) Freshwater biodiversity components in envi-needs to be addressed as early as possible, using ronmental assessments should be:appropriate expertise and methods, in order to besure of complying with Operational Policy 4.04 * conducted by experts with demonstrated ex-on Natural Habitats. perience (that is, experience in their field, not

experience in writing EAs);2) Rapids, peat swamps, and caves should be * addressed independently of fisheries andconsidered for inclusion in the list of 'critical wetlands,natural habitats' (sensu OP 4.04). * placed in a proper geographic context (river

basins) and related projects or impacts of dif-3) Fundamental field work conducted by teams ferent projects should be investigated to-led by competent scientists needs to be supported, gether;perhaps as part of project preparation seen in the * propose innovative and realistic mitigationcontext of training and capacity building. Ur- measures, and where no proven solutions ex-gently-needed information can be as basic as reli- ist, projects should be taken as an opportunityable lists of species, but also includes species' to test new and promising possibilities.distributions, empirical data on food, reproductionand migrations. The results should be made avail- 7) An intemational meeting should be convenedable intemationally and without delay in the form to bring together engineers and biodiversity spe-of refereed publications. Results should include cialists to explore meaningful mitigation measuresthe preparation of field guides and other identifi- to counter biodiversitv loss resulting from infra-cation tools. structure and other development projects, and out

of that to produce a handbook of relevant case4) Efforts should be made to seek positive miti- studies and best practice.gation options and to forge partnerships betweenengineers, economists and biodiversity specialists. 8) EAs should be designed to obtain sound data

on which to base practicable monitoring of the5) When considering introductions of freshwater impacts of the project on biodiversity. Thesespecies, the alternative of improvement without should include the search for undisturbed sites orintroduction, should first be considered. Tests rivers which will not be affected by the project (orshould be conducted with the native fauna to as- other on-going or planned projects) and which cancertain their suitability for use in aquaculture. If, be used as controls.after due consideration, it is decided that an exoticintroduction is warranted, then extensive pre- 9) Any proposed species recovery program mustproject surveys should be conducted and the ex- first address the reasons for the initial decline oristing codes of practice implemented (see Coates, loss of the species concerned. If habitat restora-1995). tion is not possible, captive breeding programs

should be considered, but they are no substitutefor naturally maintained biodiversity.

Recommendations 47

Policies and Strategies Economic Assessment

10) Freshwater biodiversity should be explicitly 16) The benefits of proper management of all lev-covered in National Environmental Action Plans, els of freshwater biodiversity and the cost of un-Biodiversity Action Plans, National Conservation favorable management should be quantified, andStrategies, National Wetland Action Plans, and valuation systems developed. It is recommendedCountry Assistance Strategies. that a World Bank Research Grant be sought for

this purpose.11) Protected area and fisheries legislation needsto be reviewed to deternine how the best interests 17) Devise protocols which would allow a rapidof freshwater biodiversity can be accommodated. assessment of water quality and biological health,

and could be used to compare one river with an-12) The management and conservation of fresh- other and as a basis for monitoring.water biodiversity should be wholly adopted aspart of water resources policy. Indicators

Knowledge Development 18) The use of freshwater organisms as indicatorsof environment and water quality has often been

13) Concern for freshwater biodiversity implies advocated, but very few steps have been taken inthat prior knowledge be available. The freshwa- that direction. A prior knowledge of the habitatsters of very few Asian countries has been sur- and biology of individual species is required inveyed in detail, and only for the most conspicuous order to select those suitable as indicators.animal groups. Clearly a major priority is large-scale collection of baseline data (species lists, Priorities for Surveys and Identificationdistribution maps, understanding of ecological Materialrequirements, reproduction and migration infor-mation). The information so gained needs to be As already stated, there is an urgent need for basicdisseminated and this can be developed well survey work and knowledge development in manythrough the production of local language field Asian countries.guides. Priorities are listed below.

Countries for which there is little or no reliable14) Additional support should be considered to data and thus where broad surveys are required:increase the breadth and depth of Fishbase, coor- Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Bhutan (and Afghani-dinated by ICLARM in Manila, and to the devel- stan and North Korea when politically feasible).opment and application of the Wetland Databaseof Wetlands International. Countries for which some data are available, but

their quality and the existing geographical gapsCapacity Building justify extensivefield work: Philippines, Nepal,

Vietnam.15) A major training program should be instigatedto build up indigenous capacity in freshwater bio- Countries for which some good and recent data asdiversity and wetland subjects. Efforts should fo- well as identification tools are already available,cus on young, motivated students, giving them a but where there are still huge geographical gapssolid background in locally-relevant biology from to be covered and extensive surveys are needed:the start. This is the only way that competent and Indonesia, Papua New Guineainnovative researchers will be trained.


Countries in which critical or sensitive habitats aquatic community correctly, their reports will beshould be surveyed: caves in China, peat swamps of little use and the adequacy and appropriatenessin Indonesia and Malaysia. of the decisions taken will always be in doubt.

Countries in which there is an abundance of lit- Countries with no comprehensive or accessibleerature, but in which the quality of knowledge is field guides, the compilation of which would re-poor and the threats to the freshwater communi- quire prior surveys: Burma, Laos, Cambodia,ties so severe, that competent and critical field Bhutan, Afghanistan.work is urgently needed: India

Countries with no comprehensive or accessibleIn most countries, there is a very urgent need field guides, the compilation of which could be

for basic literature and especially field guides. achieved quite rapidly through collaboration be-The proper identification of organisms is the key- tween local and foreign scientists. Thailand (thisstone of all biodiversity work. If surveyors and could form an important basis for guides for Laosresearchers are not able to identify the local and Cambodia).

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Appendixes

Appendix A. Fish species exclusively known from caves in South and East Asia

CHINA INDONESIAGibbibarbus cyphotergous (Guizhou) Bostrychus sp. (Sulawesi)Sinocyclocheilus anatirostris (Guangxi) Puntius sp. "microps" (Java)Sinocyclocheilus angularis (Guizhou)Sinocyclocheilus anophthalmus (Yunnan) MALAYSIASinocyclocheilus hyalinus (Yunnan) Sundoreonectes tiomanensis (Tioman Island)Sinocyclocheilus microphthalmus (Guangxi)Typhlobarbus nudiventris (Yunnan) PHILIPP[NESProtocobitis typhlops (Guangxi) Caecogobius cryptophthalmus (Samar)Oreonectes anophthalmus (Guangxi)Triplophysa gejiuensis (Yunnan) THAILANDTriplophysa xiangxiensis (Hunan) 'Puntius'speleops (Chaiyaphum)

Nemacheilus troglocataractus (Kanchanaburi)INDIA Schisturajarutanin (Kanchanaburi)Horaglanis krishnai (Kerala) Schistura oedipus (Mae Hong Son)Schistura sijuensis (Meghalaya) 'Homaloptera' thamicola (Mae Hong Son)

Pterocryptes sp. (Kanchanaburi)

Appendixes 57

Appendix B. Considerations for Aquatic Biodiversity Studies in Environmental Assessment(Based on: Kottelat et al. 1993. Freshwater Fishes of Western Indonesia and Sulawesi. Periplus, Jakarta)

Some pointers are given below for people often occurs to the detriment of a larger numberconducting environmental impact assessments or of others, resulting in an overall loss of diversity.writing environmental management plans for Species enhancement can very often be a tempo-aquatic biodiversity in the context of development rary phenomenon, as seen in the initial fishprojects. Many such reports do not do justice to 'bloom' and subsequent decline that is common inthe importance of the freshwater environment, new reservoirs.and it is hoped that these ideas may lead to some An initial prediction of potential impactsimprovements. (usually referred to as 'scoping') can greatly im-

prove the efficiency of subsequent data collectionPre-planning stage. Consider the nature of and management interpretation. However, the

the project and its likely impacts on an aquatic scoping exercise is dependent on:system. The project may have one or more of the * the existence of a reasonable species inven-following effects: tory for the aquatic system;* direct destruction of habitat such as filling in * an understanding of the habitat requirements

of wetlands, removal of sand/gravel substrate, of important species and of whether thoseriver channeling; habitats exist in the area of impact; and

* direct alteration of flow regimes such as pro- * at least some knowledge of the impact similarvision of instream storage, diversion of water development/industrial projects have had onfor consumption purposes; comparable aquatic systems elsewhere.

- direct changes to the physical and chemicalcharacteristics of the water such as discharge Where such information does not exist, someof effluents, or change of water temperature initial baseline inventory must precede scoping,due to the discharge of cooling water from and the scoping exercise itself becomes increas-power plants; ingly uncertain. Scoping should be prudent and

* direct changes to the aquatic community by inclusive: it is better to eliminate issues from con-the addition/introduction of exotic species, sideration later on than discount important im-selective removal of some species, or en- pacts at the beginning.hancement of others;

* alteration of watershed characteristics such as Planning stage. Consider the nature of theloss of vegetation and resulting soil erosion, project and its likely impacts on a river or lake;loss of storage due to land use changes re- i.e. which problems are paramount - toxicity, orsulting in accentuated flood or low flows; temperature rise, or organic load, or increased

* alteration of riparian/littoral vegetation such sediment. This will help in the design of theas stream bank cleaning and timber harvest- fieldwork. Tributaries, swamps and ditches nearing. to the project site should also be noted and sur-

veyed because they may act as refuges or asImpacts are normally thought of as negative, breeding sites. The filling in of a swampy area

but some changes may actually benefit some spe- may have as much effect as an effluent discharge.cies. Water control structures, for example, maylessen both the destructiveness of scouring during Fieldwork stage. A single sampling of a lakefloods and the severity of low-flow conditions, or of a stretch of river is unlikely to give a verythereby possibly improving the productivity of good picture of the species present or their rela-some fish species. It must be kept in mind, how- tive abundance or life histories because of diurnalever, that the enhancement of one species very and seasonal movements, and of year to year


natural variations in abundance. The project pro- are measured impacts and do they warrant furtherponent should not be expected to compensate for management attention or cast doubt on projectthe shortcomings of government fisheries invento- acceptability?). Of these two functions, the firstries programs, but at least one full year of inten- should be the most 'scientific', however, in manysive sampling in the zone of potential impacts cases our knowledge of cause-effect relationshipsshould be regarded as the minimum requirement is so poor that impact quantification becomes de-for an impact assessment. pendent on the best technical judgment of the as-

The first step in the program is to undertake a sessment specialist. Impact significance is a muchsurvey and mapping (at an appropriate scale) of more a 'value judgment' and will be determinedthe major aquatic ecosystems or habitat types. within the context of government policy and po-This mapping should then be used to organize litical decision-making. Significant fisheries im-subsequent sampling of fish distribution and pact might be one which affects the ability of theabundance. Such sampling should be taken at fisheries sector to meet its objectives, whetherregular intervals (e.g. once per month) and in- such objectives are expressed in production tar-clude both night-time and day-time sampling. gets by a government fisheries management, orSampling on each occasion should continue until the desire of local fishermen to maintain theirrepeated efforts result in no extra species. Sam- livelihood. The responsibility of the environ-pling of fishermen's catches and market stalls can mental assessment planning specialists should beprovide some useful information if the location of to provide political decision makers with the bestthe catch can be verified, and that not too much possible technical information and scientificconfidence is placed in local names as a means of judgments to serve as a basis for their decisions.counting species, particularly the small, uneco- The prediction and quantification of impactsnomic species. Perhaps the most valuable infor- must take into consideration the complexity ofmation that can be gained from fishermen and inter-relationships in aquatic systems. Some im-fishing stalls is an indication of the current level portant considerations are:of fishing effort and catch, and thus a measure of * Riparian trees and other vegetation providethe social and economic significance of the re- shade, moderate the temperature, and reducesource that may be placed at risk by the develop- the amount of silt washed into the water. Theyment project. It must be kept in mind though, that also provide organic material such as leaves,current catch is not necessarily a reflection of the fruits and flowers and invertebrates which arepotential or capability of the fishery. It must be fed upon by fishes and other animals andremembered that there is no substitute for the sur- which 'drive' the energy flow in the water invey workers catching the fish themselves, or at an environment with very low primary pro-least accompanying fishermen, and that smaller ductivity. Thus the removal of vegetationmeshes than those used by fishermen must be along a water course can have profound ef-used in addition to standard nets, in order to catch fects on productivity.the important small species and the young of * Consider the requirements of the importantlarger species. species within an aquatic system throughout

their whole life cycle - breeding, spawning,Assessment stage. As previously explained, larval stages, migration, feeding, and shelter

the function of initial scoping is impact prediction from predators. An adverse impact on just one(i.e. what are the potential consequences of the requirement may negate the best-intentionedproject?). Environmental assessment should be efforts to protect the others.fully integrated into project feasibility planning so * Organic effluents with a high biological de-that the project is designed to avoid impact and mand reduce the oxygen concentrations in thecomply with environmental standards. The major water below the thresholds of many species.role of impact assessment is impact quantification Some fish will remain, even in polluted water,(what will be the magnitude of unmanageable im- but they will be the most tolerant, widespread,pacts?) and impact significance (how important and often the least desirable of the species that

Appendixes 59

inhabit an aquatic system. In other words, opment of a plan to manage impacts. Such a planbiodiversity will have been lost. should include a program of impact mitigation

* When considering major water diversions or and a monitoring program. Mitigation activitiesconcentrations of pollutants, impact assess- should include avoidance, modification or aban-ments must be based not just on the river donment of particularly damaging project compo-characteristics observed at the time, but on nents, treatment or re-use of waste materials and,predicted potential low flows (e.g. the I in 10 finally, site rehabilitation or restoration. For miti-years, I in 20 years, or even the I in 30 year gation to be fully effective, the impact assessmentlow flows. process must be integrated into project design and

* Consider the impacts of the whole project, not feasibility studies from the very beginning. Alljust in the area immediately adjacent to the unnecessary clearance of vegetation should beproject but on important downstream re- avoided. Replacement of trees along the riversources also. Will the project interact with banks and lake sides should be encouraged - evenexisting activities downstream to produce cu- if the project itself has not been directly responsi-mulative impacts which are significant? ble for their loss. Species planted should be na-

* What are the driving forces or critical limiting tive, not introduced. Consider recommendingcomponents of the system - detritus, marginal regulating ponds that could prevent effluent dis-or submerged vegetation, low flows - and charge during times of low flow. Consider thewhat will be the impact of the project on possibilities of utilizing or treating the effluent.these? Monitoring should serve two purposes; first,

to provide a measure of the effectiveness of theAfter the surveys are complete it should be possi- management program, and second, to provideble to draw out food webs and thus cause-and- early warning of unpredicted impacts. Projecteffect networks which will serve as a context for monitoring should be linked to the baselinediscussions of impact. aquatic inventories carried out early in the envi-

ronmental assessment process and have a soundManagement Stage. The final, and most im- statistical base.

portant, stage of impact assessments is the devel-

Distributors of CMA &E Po,5k Lo Commson. Swae SPA NatmtornCater SINGAPOE, ThAI ho a EdNanf'lidc*lWorld Bank PeHN 182e C PoeS2 .O.Box M25Est AtPu0A CH1807bnsy8. De FoSi Dori Jo TeU (1) 364-1826 50125 Fmimze N-M DaIo 6 Pawk Pie. Lid. Tat: (WI) 943 2673Publicafions Ben FaN (1) 34-8254 Tel: (5S) 645-415 Tel: (22) 57-33 41 Ka PFdtg Road *04-03 FaT (01) 943 3mprices and credit terms vary Tel: (56) 10-333-e2s7 Fax (66) 641-257 Fax (22) 68-1301 Golden Whb Butlingfrom country to country. Fax (56) 1041-735 HONG KONG, MACAO SJAapor 340316 TANZANAConsult your localdisHbutor COLOMBIAAsia 2000 LU4 JAMAICA PAKISMA Tel: (65) 741-6166 0-dcrd LAdetit PlumConsult your local distributor COLOMlBIASain & C&aab Deparssen tan Prne Putoha Ltd. MTAI Book Agwncy Fat (65) 742-9356 MW be Shobefore placing an order. Wonle Lbja. Soard Hame, aur 1101-02 206 Old Nope Rod 65, S hl m d: aM LaauCoroedM PO Bx 52B 9Apenedo Demo 34270 22.28 WyV m Street Cenra Ogaton 8 PO. Box No. 729 Den esS nTel: (1) 285-2798 Hog Kon1 Tel: eo-927-20s5 4hore 54000 SLOVAK REPUBLIC Tl: (51) 2920ALBAI Fax (1) 265-279 Tat: 852 2530-1409 Fax 8O-977-0243 Tat: (42)7393661 Sovan G.T.G. Ut Fax (51)4622A LIdUcL Fax 8522526-1107 Far (42) 7585M Kr4upma 4Pebt RFWq Sir. COTE DWOI E UPL tWtyJew.s *aS200.crn.hk JAPAN PO Box 152 THALPal. ., St 1,4. Cenet fEan at de Diuon EBoem BODk Sense Oxford Urn ty Peso s2 99 Breoan S Cwat Books DbubmTra iaes (CEODA) HUNGARY Hp 3-Cone, s Benwgam Tom Te: (7) 939472 3fl Sbe atATd: (42)27419-22172 04B.P #1 FondautmonlrMarhet ewayo-I 113 Shame Faisd Fax (7)839485 BanerkFax (42)27419 Ab4an04PtPoteu Econy Tys PO Box 13033 Tl: (2)235-5400Tol: 225-24-6510 Drson Ut 1719 Tel: (03)381648I1 Karnd-75350 SOUTH AFiCAl BOTSWANA Far (2)237-4121ARGENTINA Faxt 225-25-0567 HN1117 BudoaFt Fat (03) 3818-864 Ta: (21) 446307 For ws bssOkra dd L bm Ireriaciond TU: 361 204 2951 or UPL: htIpJA*wwekkoam.rW/-sv1-ebs Fat (21) 454-7640 Oxford Unsoaty Press TR A A TOBAGO, JAM,Ay. Cod'b 1877 CYPRUS 36 1204 2948 E-mai: %[email protected] Satwns Attica Sysarum Stfem LIN112D BuanosAxon Can~ for Ap Raearch Fax 36 1 204 2953 KENYA RO. Bo 1141 89 W4S ShotTM: (1)815-8156 CyrsflaAp at Boo SeDicm(EA.) Lid. PERUJ Cae TSron Sy s UFax (1)81583#4 6 DrpnesSb Eo INDIA 0snAHowue. f ManuamM o Shtr Edtieal Deaao SA Tat: (21)45-7286 Tridd Was hd.R0. Box 2006 751d Puudas Ltd PO. Box 45245 Apatede 3824 Fax (21)45-7265 Ta: 809-662-5654AUSMRAUA, FLU, PAPUA NEW GUINEA, Nicoaia 751 MoLst Road Nuvobi Usia 1 Fat: 369-662-%564SOLOMON ISLANDS, YAMJATU, AND Tel: (2)44-1730 Madmas -600002 Tat: (2)23641 Tal (14) 28638 For orabs onaIo:WESTERN SAMOA Fax: (2)46-2051 Tel: (44)852-3939 Fat (2)330272 Fat (14) 286628 irntonai Suacipborn Srca UGANbAD0L litormn Saniw Fax (44)852-\ 4 PD Boo41095 Guft Lid.648W Vlhbt Rotd CZECH REtinu KOREA, FEPUBLK OF PNLIPPBES Cag. MaB4v09i SBuikkgMUham 3132 Nabonal Inotnabon Cantr INDONESIA Dopn Tra&rg Co. Ld. Iarnaweals BBocksource Center Irc Johannesbuo 2024 P0 Box gmVXtria prm*ojn Konvta S Pi.Flt iraLinted PO. Box 34 Suoe 720, Cit4nd tO TeU: (11)880-1448 Pbt 1614Ji5jRd.TU: (61)392107777 CS- 113 57 Prgue 1 Jain BoaDbudurr20 Yoeide Condoeimn Tower2 Fat (11)0886248 KampokFax (61)392107788 Tat: (2)2422-9433 P.BoOx 181 SoOa N dat Costs, corner TatFat (41)264703URL hriJhA.dedmd.wn.au Fat (2)2422-1484 Jakarta 10320 Tat: (2) 785-1631/4 Vaers St. SPAIN

URL: httpJAWa wns.cJ Tel: (21)39D-4290 Far (2)7e4-0315 Makb, Me ManIa Mid-Prwra Lbs, SA UNTE 0K041AUSTRIA Fat (21)421-4289 Tel: (2)817-9876 Clastoo37 *ObNLt Ld.GWd nod Co. DENMARK MALAYSIA Fat (2)817-1741 28001 Madd PRO. Box 3Graben 31 Samktord t.jue r EMAN ULerniy ol MIaya Cospermse TU: (1) 431-3399 Atans Harsnealr GU34 2PGA-lO11 Wien RosamneeAI 11 Kokab PubisheMs BoDshop, Lawted POLAND Fat (1)575-3998 EnglanTel: (1) 51247-31-0 DK-1970 Fredrikoeg C PO. Box 19575-11 tPO. Boo 1127 Intrd erPDnal Publig Service hftpJavhw.to.aMprasa Tea: (1420)86848Fat (1) 512-47-31-29 Tt: (31-351942 Tehra Jolan Prtial Baru Ul. Piebsn 31U37 Fat (1420) 89O9Fax (31)357822 T: (21)258-3723 59700 Kuoa Luipur 00-577 Warzgwa Mund-Pra BantosaBANGLADESOH Fax 98(21) 258-3723 Tat: (3) 756-500 Tel: (2) 628-EON Cardade Cant 301 ZAMIIAMam Industisa Dseesint EGYPT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF Fax (3) 7554424 Fax: (2) 621-7255 o009 Baroona Utiveity BookhtopAsstance Snooty QMIDAS( Al Dhnam ODhtohen Agcy Kelb Sara Co. PLtihers Tat: (3)4-3D09 Groat Road psHous 5, Road 16 Al Galas She hsaled Esiamboti Ave., MEXICO PORTUGAL FaT (3) 487-76539 P.. Box 32379Dhainmonxi PWAma Calr GM Shte ONFOTEC Lvaria Ptraugl LusbDhaab 1209 Tol: (2) 578-60 Kusoth DOersmz No. 8 Apanedo POsl 22-860 Rua Do Commo 70-74 SRI LANKA, THE MALOIVES Tea: (1) 213221 ExL 482Tel: (2)326427 Fax (2)5786833 Tehron 14000 Teia 1200 Lace Lake NsHe BoorssoFat (2)811199 Tel. 8717819or 8716104 MexaO.F. Tel: (1)347-4982 P.O. Box244 ZIMBABWEThe M es Ea Otbowrser Fax 8862479 Te: (5)606-011 Fax (1)347-264 100, Sir CianUeWamA. Lorn Zata (Pie.)"dBELGIUkt 41, S1sd Sboot E-mal: [email protected] Fax (S) 624-2e22 Gardixar Mawatha Touat Rood, AramsrxeJoan Do LUos cars ROMANIA Coost2 P.O. Box STi25Av du Aoi 202 Tel. (2) 393-9732 RELAND NETHERLANDS Canpanm De LAtari Bucnms SA Tet: (1) 32105 South1tun1960wBeest Fax: (2)393-9732 Go-msrdA SVoes Agrery DeLeSiu.bikes 9r La. no 26, sess 3 Fat (1)432104 HamaeTeat (2) 538-5169 018 a Isodal P.. Box 202 Bodirata Tat: (4) 6216617Fax (2)5380041 FINLAND 4-5 Harcoa Road 7480 AE Hoabr Tel: (1) 613 8645 SWEDEN Fat (4)621670Akaamainan Kxpkaupa Dubin 2 Tat: (53)574-004 Fat (1) 3124000 Frime Custoi ServicaBRAZIL PO. Box 128 Tat: (1)461-3111 Fat (53)572-9256 Rogopign 12Prktwes Tecsin w Ito ain FIN-0001 HeNkid Fax (1)475-2670 RUSSAN FEDERATION S-10647 SflsbnLl. Tat: (0)12141 NEW ZEALAND dlf cVao Mir Tel: (8(N9090Ftm Pay Gwodle, 209 Fax (0)121-4441 ISRAEL ZESCO NZ Lt. 9t KolKe otPa FaT (8)(21 477701409 Sao Patso SP. URL htephLtooknotculotWaka/ Yozm Literabure Ld. Privalt4s Mat Bag 99914 tome 101831TU: (11)25944 P.O. Boxs 68 New Market Tat: (95) 9179749 Werneret-Wiisns ABFat (11)258-490 FRANCE TelA6I560 Auddarid Fax: (95)9179259 RG.Bcr.13D5URL Wyphwwuaabr Wald Bgnk Putkts Tat: (3) s285-397 Tat: (9) 524-8119 S-17125 Sola

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Tot. 2) 271219

RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS (continited)

No. 301 Mohan, editor, Bibliography of Publications: Tccirnical Department, Africa Region, July 2987 to April 1995

No. 302 Baldry, Calamari, and Yam6ogo, Environmental hnpact Assessment of Settlernent and Developtmenit in thieUpper Leraba Basin

No. 303 Heneveld and Craig, Scihools Counlt: World Bank Project Designs and the Quality of Primanry Education inSub-Saharan Africa

No. 304 Foley, Plhotovoltaic Applications in Rural Areas of tihe Developinig World

No. 305 Johnson, Educationi and Training of Accoutntantts in Sub-Saharanr Anglopihonre AfricaNo. 306 Muir and Saba, Improving State Enterprise Performance: 77ie Role of Intertinal anid lxternal IncentivesNo. 307 Narayan, li'ward Participatory Research

No. 308 Adamson and others, Energy Use, Air Pollution, and Environmental Policy in Krakow: Can Economic Incentives Really 1H'lp?No. 30(1 The World Bank/FOA/UNIDO/lndustry lertilizer Working Group, Worldl aid ReWiornal Supply annd IeD(nand RaIance s

for Nitrogci, lllosplate, antid Potasl, 1993/94-1999/2000No. 310 Elder and Cooley, editors, Sustainable Settlement and Development of the Onchocerciasis Conitrol

Progrnamme Area: Proceedings of a Ministerial Meeitig

No. 311 Webster, Riopelle and Chidzero, World Bank Lendingfor Small Enterprises 1989-2993

No. 312 Benoit, Project Finance at the World Bank: An Overview of Policies and Instruments

No. 313 Kapur, Airport linfrastructure: Tire Emerginrg Role of the Private SectorNo. 314 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Ramos, Surveillance of Agricultural Price and Trade Policies: A ilandbookfior

Ecuiador

No. 316 Schware and Kimberley lntfornratior Tecirriolo,\ and Natiioial Trade Facilitatio,r: Makirg tile Most of Global Trade

No. 317 Schware and Kimberley, Information Technology and National Trade Facilitation: Guide to Best PracticeNo. 318 Taylor, Boukambou, Dahniya, Ouayogode, Ayling, Abdi Noor, and Toure, Strengthening National Agricultiutir Researci

Systems in tire Huemid and Sub-iutnid Zones of West and Central Africa: A Framneworkfor ActionNo. 320 Srivastava, Lambert and Vietmeyer, Medicinal Plants: An Expanding Role in Developmenrt

No. 321 Srivastava, Smith, and Forrio, Biodiversity and Agriculiture: Implicationsfor Conservatior anrd Developmrent

No. 322 Peters, Tire Ecology and Management of Non-Timr ber Forest Resources

No. 323 Pannier, editor, Corporate Govertinaice of Puiblic Enterprises in Transitional Econonries

No. 324 Cabraal, Cosgrove-Davies, and Schaeffer, Best Practices for Pliotovoltaic Hotuseirold Electrification Prograrils

No. 325 Bacon, Besant-Jones, and Heidarian, Estimating Construiction Costs and Schiediules: Experience with Pozwer GeneratronProjects in Developing Con n tries

No. 326 Colletta, Balachander, Liang, Tire Coniditiont of Younig Cirildreir in Suib-Sairarant Africa: Tire Con vergenrce of Healti,Nutrition, and Early Education

No. 327 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Martin, Surveillance of Agricuiltural Price and Trade Policies: A HarrdbookforParagguay

No. 328 De Geyndt, Social Developmireirt and Absolute Poverty in Asia and Latinr America

No. 329 Mohan, editor, Bibliograplry of Puiblications: Technical Department, Africa Region, July 1987 to April 1996

No. 332 Pohi, Djankov, and Anderson, Restrructuring Large Irduistrial Firmrs in Centralatrd Eastern EutrWe:An Eirpirical AttalysisNo. 333 )ha, Ranson, and Bobadilla, Measuring tire Burden of Disease and tire Cost-Effectivenress of Hlealtir Inct-voletiorrs: A Case Stuidy

inl Guiinea

No. 334 Mosse and Sontheimer, Performance Moiit(oritrg Indicators Hanidbook

No. 335 Kirmani and Le Moigne, Fostering Riparian Cooperation in International River Basins: Tire World Bank at Its Best inDevelopment Diplomacy

No. 336 Francis, with Akinwumi, Ngwu, Nkom, Odihi, Olomajeye, Okunmadewa and Shehu, State, Comnrtitity, and LocalDevelopment in Nigeria

No. 338 Young, Measurinrg Ecotronnic Beniefitsfor Water Investments arid PoliciesNo. 339 Andrews and Rashid, Tire Financing of Pensiotns Systems in Central and Eastern Europe: Ati Overviewo of Mnajor Trends anid

tircir Determinants, 1990-1993

No. 340 Rutkowski, Chianges in thie Wage Structture during Ecoioronic Transition in Central and Eastern EuropeNo. 341 Goldstein, Preker, Adeyi, and Chellaraj, Trends in -lealth Status, Services, aind Finance: The Tranisition in Cert rat aird

Eastern Europe, Volume I

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