The Maya Culture AreaThe Maya Culture Area

Peasant Societies: Past and Peasant Societies: Past and PresentPresent

Overview of the Mayan Culture Overview of the Mayan Culture AreaArea

The Maya are best known for the The Maya are best known for the following:following:

A complex system of calendars A complex system of calendars (upper left)(upper left)

A numerical system based on 20A numerical system based on 20 Steep sided stone pyramids with Steep sided stone pyramids with

combs, such as this one at Tikal combs, such as this one at Tikal (lower left)(lower left)

Intricate weavingIntricate weaving Religion combining Christianity with Religion combining Christianity with

Maya world of the spirits. Maya world of the spirits. Primary focus will be on GuatemalaPrimary focus will be on Guatemala

Mayan Culture Area: Mexico and Mayan Culture Area: Mexico and GuatemalaGuatemala

The Maya Culture Area includes Chiapas (purple)The Maya Culture Area includes Chiapas (purple) The Yucatan Peninsula (Northeast on map)The Yucatan Peninsula (Northeast on map) Guatemala (gray shade, first in Central America) along Guatemala (gray shade, first in Central America) along

with Belize, Honduras and El Salvadorwith Belize, Honduras and El Salvador

Guatemala: By Way of Guatemala: By Way of IntroductionIntroduction

Imagine you check into a hotel roomImagine you check into a hotel room After two hours, two soldiers enter your room, search it After two hours, two soldiers enter your room, search it

for a few minutes, and leavefor a few minutes, and leave You go to the desk to find out what happened; the clerk You go to the desk to find out what happened; the clerk

hasn’t a clue what was going on—or won’t sayhasn’t a clue what was going on—or won’t say Imagine another scenario:Imagine another scenario: You receive a note: “Don’t worry about your funeral. It’s You receive a note: “Don’t worry about your funeral. It’s

all paid for down to the flowers.”all paid for down to the flowers.” The first: happened to my wife and me in 1969The first: happened to my wife and me in 1969 The second: a lawyer advocating for human rights in The second: a lawyer advocating for human rights in

1982. 1982. Welcome to Guatemala! Welcome to Guatemala!

Guatemala: The Land of Eternal Guatemala: The Land of Eternal SpringtimeSpringtime

It is a lovely country; It is a lovely country; mountainous, scenic lakes like mountainous, scenic lakes like Lake Atitlan with volcanos in the Lake Atitlan with volcanos in the backgroundbackground

There are nicely appointed hotels There are nicely appointed hotels with great scenery in Panajachelwith great scenery in Panajachel—the site of Sol Tax’s —the site of Sol Tax’s Penny Penny Capitalism Capitalism about the Indian about the Indian market theremarket there

(I don’t think this capitalist (I don’t think this capitalist model’s name is Penny—but model’s name is Penny—but who knows?)who knows?)

Guatemala: The Land of Eternal Guatemala: The Land of Eternal Markets and FiestasMarkets and Fiestas

And of course the community has And of course the community has markets, like this one in markets, like this one in ChichicastenangoChichicastenango

Whose decorative weavings can be Whose decorative weavings can be had by the highest (tourist) bidderhad by the highest (tourist) bidder

Not to mention fiestasNot to mention fiestas Where the Dance of the Conquest Where the Dance of the Conquest

(Baile de Conquista) mocks the (Baile de Conquista) mocks the conquerorconqueror

Pedro de Alvarado, who entered the Pedro de Alvarado, who entered the Plains of Xelaju in 1524 and Plains of Xelaju in 1524 and defeated the indigenous military defeated the indigenous military chieftain Tecun Uman there. chieftain Tecun Uman there.

Guatemala: Tourists and PeasantsGuatemala: Tourists and Peasants

Yes, I recommend Guatemala for a Yes, I recommend Guatemala for a visitvisit

If you’re a tourist, that is (The Maya If you’re a tourist, that is (The Maya Inn is Inn is greatgreat!)!)

However, if you are a peasant, However, if you are a peasant, present or former, then that can be present or former, then that can be another storyanother story

I don’t recommend the I don’t recommend the real real Maya Maya inninn

These women are not your These women are not your standard models, except for the standard models, except for the real Guatemalareal Guatemala

Guatemala: La Tierra del Terror Guatemala: La Tierra del Terror EternoEterno

Of course, Guatemala is a democracyOf course, Guatemala is a democracy You are free to protest these You are free to protest these

conditions if you are so inclined conditions if you are so inclined (above)(above)

Such as those protesting the passage Such as those protesting the passage of CAFTA; the sign calls President of CAFTA; the sign calls President Berger an assassinBerger an assassin

There is one drawback thoughThere is one drawback though You just might wind up deadYou just might wind up dead (Two were killed at that CAFTA (Two were killed at that CAFTA

protest, and ten wounded)protest, and ten wounded) As I said, welcome to GuatemalaAs I said, welcome to Guatemala

Guatemala and ChiapasGuatemala and Chiapas

Both Chiapas, Mexico, and Guatemala Both Chiapas, Mexico, and Guatemala have the following in common:have the following in common:

Mayan-speaking peasants populate the Mayan-speaking peasants populate the rural areasrural areas

Both were subjected to states—first the Both were subjected to states—first the Maya kingdoms, then Spanish overlords, Maya kingdoms, then Spanish overlords, and now independent statesand now independent states

Both form the backwaters of the national, Both form the backwaters of the national, and now globalized, economyand now globalized, economy

Mayan Culture Area: Pre-Mayan Culture Area: Pre-Columbian Sites Columbian Sites

Principal Mayan SitesPrincipal Mayan Sites Palenque: Political center; Palenque: Political center;

Pakal’s tomb, temple of the Pakal’s tomb, temple of the InscriptionsInscriptions

Copan: Site of 18 Rabbit, Copan: Site of 18 Rabbit, recorded history; major site recorded history; major site of Mayan Collapse, AD 900of Mayan Collapse, AD 900

Chichen Itza: site of Toltec Chichen Itza: site of Toltec conquest of Maya, AD 1000conquest of Maya, AD 1000

Tikal: Ceremonial and Tikal: Ceremonial and Mayan market center Mayan market center

TheocraciesTheocracies

Maya: Divine kingships may have been city Maya: Divine kingships may have been city statesstates

Kings symbolized by lilies and fish that were life-Kings symbolized by lilies and fish that were life-giving to raised fields. giving to raised fields.

The calendars were the sources of history—and The calendars were the sources of history—and predicting the futurepredicting the future

Writing recorded the events of Mayan history Writing recorded the events of Mayan history and society—from the elite standpointand society—from the elite standpoint

Mesoamerican WritingMesoamerican Writing

Main writing systems: Mayan, Main writing systems: Mayan, Aztec, Zapotec, MixtecAztec, Zapotec, Mixtec

Writing systems: Phonetic, Writing systems: Phonetic, Pictographic, Ideographic were all Pictographic, Ideographic were all presentpresent

Writing Media included: Writing Media included: Codices: Writing on skins or bark Codices: Writing on skins or bark

(such as the Dresden codex, upper (such as the Dresden codex, upper leftleft

Murals: of pictures similar to writingMurals: of pictures similar to writing Stone carvings on pyramids (such Stone carvings on pyramids (such

as the glyphs on the stairs of this as the glyphs on the stairs of this pyramid in Copan, lower left) pyramid in Copan, lower left)

Stelae: stone tabletsStelae: stone tablets

Mayan Writing System: Mayan Writing System: LogosyllabicLogosyllabic

An emblem glyph, represented by a knot in center, An emblem glyph, represented by a knot in center, representing hair knot in backrepresenting hair knot in back

Prefix has two symbols ku and ajaw, which together Prefix has two symbols ku and ajaw, which together mean “Supreme Lord”mean “Supreme Lord”

Mayan Numerical SystemMayan Numerical System

To decipher numerals, see next slideTo decipher numerals, see next slide

Commonalities of Meso-American Commonalities of Meso-American Peoples: Counting SystemsPeoples: Counting Systems

Counting SystemsCounting SystemsA Base 20 (vigesimal) counting systemA Base 20 (vigesimal) counting systemNumerical systems and placeholdingNumerical systems and placeholdingZero: a shellZero: a shellOne: a dotOne: a dotFive: a barFive: a barPlaces are verticalPlaces are vertical Illustration: see chart, preceding panelIllustration: see chart, preceding panel

Mayan Numerals Used in Long Mayan Numerals Used in Long Count CalendarCount Calendar

The Maya also used a long count calendar based on these The Maya also used a long count calendar based on these numerals.numerals.

See next page for deciphering this chart. See next page for deciphering this chart.

Calendrical Systems: Mayan Long Calendrical Systems: Mayan Long CountCount

Long Count: linear dating system of Maya historyLong Count: linear dating system of Maya history Units included the following:Units included the following: Kin: dayKin: day Uinals: 20 kinsUinals: 20 kins Tun: 18 uinals or 360 kinsTun: 18 uinals or 360 kins Katuns: 20 tuns or 360 uinals or 7200 kinsKatuns: 20 tuns or 360 uinals or 7200 kins Baktuns: 20 katuns or 400 tuns or 7200 uinals, or Baktuns: 20 katuns or 400 tuns or 7200 uinals, or

144,000 kins144,000 kins Use in dating of historical documents and glyphsUse in dating of historical documents and glyphs 3114 BC the most widely accepted base date, when 3114 BC the most widely accepted base date, when

calendar first begancalendar first began

Calendar Systems: Lunar Calendar Systems: Lunar Calendar Round (Tzolkin)Calendar Round (Tzolkin)

See explanation on diagram or in next panelSee explanation on diagram or in next panel

Calendrical Systems: Lunar Calendrical Systems: Lunar Calendar Calendar

Lunar calendar: 2 cogged (toothed) Lunar calendar: 2 cogged (toothed) “wheels”“wheels”

13 numbered days13 numbered days20 named days (animal, plant, or other 20 named days (animal, plant, or other

natural object)natural object)Used for divination—predicting the Used for divination—predicting the

future or revealing the unknownfuture or revealing the unknownThis was known as the TzolkinThis was known as the Tzolkin

Solar Calendar: The HaabSolar Calendar: The Haab

Left: The tzolkin or lunar calendarLeft: The tzolkin or lunar calendar Right: the haab, or solar calendarRight: the haab, or solar calendar Day (purple shade) shows four-part date (13 Ahau of lunar calendar Day (purple shade) shows four-part date (13 Ahau of lunar calendar

meshing with 18 cumku of the solar calendarmeshing with 18 cumku of the solar calendar Se next panel for explanationSe next panel for explanation

Calendrical Systems: Lunar Calendrical Systems: Lunar and Solar Calendarand Solar Calendar

The system also had a third calendar, the 365 “vague” or The system also had a third calendar, the 365 “vague” or solar year (the Haab)solar year (the Haab)

Divided into 18 months of 20 days eachDivided into 18 months of 20 days each Five intercalary days at end of year to bring number up Five intercalary days at end of year to bring number up

to 365 daysto 365 days The lunar and solar calendars “meshed” day by day with The lunar and solar calendars “meshed” day by day with

four elements each dayfour elements each day Example in diagram: 13 ahau (lunar) 18 cumku (solar) Example in diagram: 13 ahau (lunar) 18 cumku (solar) Solar and lunar calendars began with same number: 1 Solar and lunar calendars began with same number: 1

and Reed, every 52 yearsand Reed, every 52 years The 52The 52ndnd year was one of crisis year was one of crisis The world would undergo renewal—or destructionThe world would undergo renewal—or destruction

Calendars, Syncretism, and Calendars, Syncretism, and PeasantsPeasants

The Calendar system has persisted to The Calendar system has persisted to the presentthe present

Shamans use the calendar to make Shamans use the calendar to make their predictionstheir predictions

With the Spanish Conquest, the With the Spanish Conquest, the Mayan adopted the elements of both Mayan adopted the elements of both Christianity and Mayan beliefsChristianity and Mayan beliefs

The calendar is but oneThe calendar is but one

Origin of CornOrigin of Corn

Although squash was the first cultivated crop, corn became Although squash was the first cultivated crop, corn became the mainstay of the Mayan (and other Mesoamericans)the mainstay of the Mayan (and other Mesoamericans)

Left: Teosinte and Corn StalksLeft: Teosinte and Corn Stalks Right: Teosinte ear (left), Hybrid (center), and Maize ear Right: Teosinte ear (left), Hybrid (center), and Maize ear

(right)(right)

Maize and Deities among the MayaMaize and Deities among the Maya

Development of larger and more Development of larger and more varied corn (maize) occurred rapidly varied corn (maize) occurred rapidly (upper left) (upper left)

Intensification meant the need to Intensification meant the need to settle down and displaced nomadic settle down and displaced nomadic foragers.foragers.

It is hardly surprising that maize It is hardly surprising that maize became deified (as this carving of the became deified (as this carving of the god of maize represents, lower left)god of maize represents, lower left)

The corn god was one of several The corn god was one of several deities—and they took on names of deities—and they took on names of Catholic saints after conquest. Catholic saints after conquest.

The Cross: A Case of SyncretismThe Cross: A Case of Syncretism

The cross was one symbol the Maya The cross was one symbol the Maya readily adopted. readily adopted.

The Christian cross—sacrifice of The Christian cross—sacrifice of Jesus Christ to bear the burden of Jesus Christ to bear the burden of men’s sinsmen’s sins

To the Maya, the tree of life was the To the Maya, the tree of life was the ceiba tree (lower left)ceiba tree (lower left)

The trunk grows straight and the The trunk grows straight and the branches grows in four cardinal branches grows in four cardinal directionsdirections

The canopy is the home of bats The canopy is the home of bats (underworld creatures)(underworld creatures)

This is the navel of the worldThis is the navel of the world

Maya at the Eve of the Maya at the Eve of the ConquestConquest Sociopolitical OrganizationSociopolitical Organization Patrilineal ClansPatrilineal Clans Joint Land TenureJoint Land Tenure Warring Kingdoms: Quiche Warring Kingdoms: Quiche

dominateddominated Tributaries to various cycles of Tributaries to various cycles of

states, including Toltecstates, including Toltec Calendrical SystemCalendrical System Base 20 system of numbersBase 20 system of numbers Writing combining glyph typesWriting combining glyph types

The Spanish Conquest of the The Spanish Conquest of the MayaMaya

In 1523, Pedro de Alvarado, one of Cortez’s In 1523, Pedro de Alvarado, one of Cortez’s lieutenants entered southern Mexicolieutenants entered southern Mexico

Southern Mexico conquered in 1523Southern Mexico conquered in 1523 Conquest of Xelajú and Utatlán in 1524Conquest of Xelajú and Utatlán in 1524 Protracted wars: Yucatan campaign ended in Protracted wars: Yucatan campaign ended in

15461546 Lake Petén was not conquered until 1692Lake Petén was not conquered until 1692

Factors in the Mayan ConquestFactors in the Mayan Conquest

Surrender of one Mayan city state did not mean Surrender of one Mayan city state did not mean the conquest of allthe conquest of all

This meant they had to be subjugated one by This meant they had to be subjugated one by oneone

There was a disincentive: southeastern Mexico There was a disincentive: southeastern Mexico and Guatemala lacked gold or silver found and Guatemala lacked gold or silver found elsewhere in New Spain (Mexico)elsewhere in New Spain (Mexico)

Central America was not a priority in the Central America was not a priority in the Conquest or in colonizationConquest or in colonization

A Sequence of Post-Conquest A Sequence of Post-Conquest Cultures (La Farge)Cultures (La Farge)

Conquest Period: 1521-1600sConquest Period: 1521-1600sColonial Indian: 1600s-1724 (abolition of Colonial Indian: 1600s-1724 (abolition of

the enconmienda)the enconmienda)Transition Period: 1724-1821 Transition Period: 1724-1821

(consolidation of Indian communities)(consolidation of Indian communities)Recent Indian I: 1821-1880s Recent Indian I: 1821-1880s

(Conservative Era)(Conservative Era)Recent Indian II: 1880-PresentRecent Indian II: 1880-Present

Spanish Colonization: Town Spanish Colonization: Town GovernmentGovernment

Offices were staffed by Indians themselvesOffices were staffed by Indians themselves Enforced the quota system of laborEnforced the quota system of labor Assessed each household for tributeAssessed each household for tribute Administered the allocation of landAdministered the allocation of land Handled other daily affairsHandled other daily affairs Structure of Local Indian Government: Structure of Local Indian Government: CaciquesCaciques (chiefs) became the administrators (chiefs) became the administrators AlcaldesAlcaldes (mayors) and (mayors) and regidoresregidores (council) made the (council) made the

decisiondecision Mayores Mayores were thewere the police and messengerspolice and messengers

Spanish Colonization: Religious Spanish Colonization: Religious GovernanceGovernance

Priests directed the town’s churchPriests directed the town’s churchSacristans oversaw church’s daily Sacristans oversaw church’s daily

administrationadministrationCofradias or officers were assigned care Cofradias or officers were assigned care

of each saint and its celebrationof each saint and its celebrationAlter boys handled menial choresAlter boys handled menial choresSyncretism: Each saint “fronted” for Syncretism: Each saint “fronted” for

indigenous spiritindigenous spirit

Closed Corporate CommunitiesClosed Corporate Communities

Communities were both closed and Communities were both closed and corporatecorporate

CorporateCorporateEstate: communal landEstate: communal landBody of rights and obligationsBody of rights and obligationsRights: usufruct land rightsRights: usufruct land rightsObligations: community serviceObligations: community serviceFocus of service: civil-religious hierarchyFocus of service: civil-religious hierarchy

Communities as Corporate: Communities as Corporate: Civil-Religious HierarchyCivil-Religious Hierarchy

Civil and religious organizations became fused into a Civil and religious organizations became fused into a theocracytheocracy

Hierarchy of officesHierarchy of offices Lowest: messengers, policeLowest: messengers, police Middle level mayordomo of cofradias (religious Middle level mayordomo of cofradias (religious

brotherhoods or “committees”)brotherhoods or “committees”) Upper level: mayors, council, top cofrades Upper level: mayors, council, top cofrades Service in the civil-religious hierarchy was obligatoryService in the civil-religious hierarchy was obligatory Financial support of office came from the members Financial support of office came from the members

themselvesthemselves They had to provide yearlong service without payThey had to provide yearlong service without pay

Communities as Corporate: Communities as Corporate: Civil-Religious HierarchyCivil-Religious Hierarchy

Course of a Cargo Career:Course of a Cargo Career: Youths began as messengersYouths began as messengers Early to middle age: many became mayordomos, officials of Early to middle age: many became mayordomos, officials of

the cofradiathe cofradia Elders became senior officeholders: councillors. mayors, Elders became senior officeholders: councillors. mayors,

senior mayordomossenior mayordomos PrincipalesPrincipales or or pasadospasados (e.g. (e.g. moletikmoletik in Zinacantan) were in Zinacantan) were

honored elders who completed the cargo careerhonored elders who completed the cargo career Leveling mechanism of wealth from the costs of cargo led to Leveling mechanism of wealth from the costs of cargo led to

reduced stratificationreduced stratification Individual wealth was thus directed to good of the Individual wealth was thus directed to good of the

communitycommunity

Communities as Closed: Communities as Closed: Structural BarriersStructural Barriers

Community endogamy: individual could Community endogamy: individual could marry only within the communitymarry only within the community

Community “markers” included the Community “markers” included the following: following:

Distinctive dress style that identified one’s Distinctive dress style that identified one’s village (zigzag blouse design identifies this village (zigzag blouse design identifies this woman from Almolonga) woman from Almolonga)

Dialects that differed among villagesDialects that differed among villages Product specialization within a communityProduct specialization within a community Regional markets connected local Regional markets connected local

economies like his one in Chichi-economies like his one in Chichi-castenangocastenango

Semimonopoly of crafts would ensure Semimonopoly of crafts would ensure demand of each community’s productsdemand of each community’s products

Regional Economies of Colonial Regional Economies of Colonial Central AmericaCentral America

Hostile symbiosis existed between haciendas Hostile symbiosis existed between haciendas (landed estates) and closed corporate (landed estates) and closed corporate communities, which provided the reserve laborcommunities, which provided the reserve labor

Conservatives also fought liberalsConservatives also fought liberals Conservatives: economic strategy would Conservatives: economic strategy would

maintain national self-sufficiencymaintain national self-sufficiency Liberals: Wealth was possible only through Liberals: Wealth was possible only through

economic development and external commerceeconomic development and external commerce

Liberal Reformas: RootsLiberal Reformas: Roots

Economic StrategyEconomic Strategy Country needs to industrializeCountry needs to industrialize Key: Produce exportsKey: Produce exports Guatemala: lucrative export proved to Guatemala: lucrative export proved to

be coffeebe coffee Origins: Costa Rica had a booming Origins: Costa Rica had a booming

coffee economy by 1840scoffee economy by 1840s In 1860, coffee proved successfulIn 1860, coffee proved successful Justo Rufino Barrios assumed office in Justo Rufino Barrios assumed office in

1871 (above)1871 (above) Cantel: Site of a massacre of an entire Cantel: Site of a massacre of an entire

town council in 1884town council in 1884

Liberal Reformas: LandLiberal Reformas: Land Rationale for Land Reforms under the liberalRationale for Land Reforms under the liberal Coffee farms needed land “locked” in communal Coffee farms needed land “locked” in communal

landland Incentive lacking for Indians to plant the cropIncentive lacking for Indians to plant the crop Land ReformsLand Reforms Privatization: only land registered to private Privatization: only land registered to private

individuals was recognizedindividuals was recognized Result: land grabs were made of communal Result: land grabs were made of communal

propertyproperty Some communities vanished; others were Some communities vanished; others were

restructuredrestructured

Liberal Reforma: LaborLiberal Reforma: Labor

Coffee requires massive labor Coffee requires massive labor inputsinputs

Tending seedlings, weeding, and Tending seedlings, weeding, and Picking and processing beans Picking and processing beans

(left)(left) Labor Reforms:Labor Reforms: Restoration of labor quota systemRestoration of labor quota system Debt peonage was legalizedDebt peonage was legalized Fincas de mozos: worker-Fincas de mozos: worker-

producing farmsproducing farms Vagrancy laws (1930s)Vagrancy laws (1930s)

Liberal Reforma: Impact on Liberal Reforma: Impact on CommunitiesCommunities

Land became a commodityLand became a commodity Communal land mostly nonarableCommunal land mostly nonarable Communities became dependent on labor Communities became dependent on labor

marketsmarkets Corporate institutions erodedCorporate institutions eroded Politics dominated political part of the civil-Politics dominated political part of the civil-

religious hierarchyreligious hierarchy Religious movements entered communitiesReligious movements entered communities ““True” Catholicism displace folk beliefsTrue” Catholicism displace folk beliefs Protestantism entered the scene.Protestantism entered the scene.

Precursors of the Revolution Precursors of the Revolution The heavy handed of successive dictators maintained an The heavy handed of successive dictators maintained an

oligarchy of 20 families though the yearsoligarchy of 20 families though the years This period culminated in the Ubico regimeThis period culminated in the Ubico regime Peasants were subject to vagrancy lawsPeasants were subject to vagrancy laws Either they had to plant so many acres of land in cash Either they had to plant so many acres of land in cash

crops or larger amounts in corn and beanscrops or larger amounts in corn and beans Or they had to work 100 or 150 days as day laborersOr they had to work 100 or 150 days as day laborers Ubico provided liberal deals with the United Fruit Ubico provided liberal deals with the United Fruit

Company, constructing railways oriented toward the east Company, constructing railways oriented toward the east coast of Puerto Barrioscoast of Puerto Barrios

Road and telegraph networks strengthened his handRoad and telegraph networks strengthened his hand

The Policies of the RevolutionThe Policies of the Revolution

Social reforms introduced, reversed Social reforms introduced, reversed Labor legislationLabor legislation Land redistribution Land redistribution Civil war of attritionCivil war of attrition Guerrilla warfare involved Indian in 1980sGuerrilla warfare involved Indian in 1980s Communities bombed, mass emigrationCommunities bombed, mass emigration Peace Accords of 1996 ended warPeace Accords of 1996 ended war Guatemala has become part of global system of Guatemala has become part of global system of

production.production.

The Revolution of 1944The Revolution of 1944 In 1944, three young army officers In 1944, three young army officers

directed a coup under the regime directed a coup under the regime succeeding Gen Jorge Ubicosucceeding Gen Jorge Ubico

Juan Jose Arevalo was elected in 1945 Juan Jose Arevalo was elected in 1945 (upper left)(upper left)

Jacobo Arbenz was elected in 1951Jacobo Arbenz was elected in 1951 He accelerated the reforms begun by He accelerated the reforms begun by

ArevaloArevalo Here he announces the expropriation of Here he announces the expropriation of

United Fruit Company lands. (lower left)United Fruit Company lands. (lower left) The reforms were modeled after The reforms were modeled after

Roosevelt’s new dealRoosevelt’s new deal

The Policies of the RevolutionThe Policies of the Revolution

Social reforms introduced,Social reforms introduced, Labor legislation enacted in 1947Labor legislation enacted in 1947 Provided for a minimum wage, 8 hour day, and Provided for a minimum wage, 8 hour day, and

similar legislationsimilar legislation Land redistribution programs were introducedLand redistribution programs were introduced The high point came when President Arbenz The high point came when President Arbenz

ordered the expropriation of unused acreage of ordered the expropriation of unused acreage of United Fruit Company properties in 1952United Fruit Company properties in 1952

Guatemala: The Arbenz Guatemala: The Arbenz ReformsReforms

Jacobo Arbenz Guzman continued the reforms set by his Jacobo Arbenz Guzman continued the reforms set by his predecessorpredecessor

A major land reform was the expropriation of large A major land reform was the expropriation of large unused holdings of the United Fruit Company and its unused holdings of the United Fruit Company and its redistribution to the peasantsredistribution to the peasants

Much of the land had been rendered useless by Much of the land had been rendered useless by sikatoka, a disease that attacks banana plant sikatoka, a disease that attacks banana plant

As compensation, the government offered an amount As compensation, the government offered an amount based on the declared value of the land for taxes.based on the declared value of the land for taxes.

The company demanded compensation at the full market The company demanded compensation at the full market valuevalue

This set the stage for the overthrow, in 1954, of the This set the stage for the overthrow, in 1954, of the Arbenz administrationArbenz administration

The Counterrevolution of 1954The Counterrevolution of 1954 In 1952, President Arbenz In 1952, President Arbenz

expropriated land that had expropriated land that had been out of production been out of production because of Panama Disease, because of Panama Disease, that leaves the land useless that leaves the land useless for growing bananasfor growing bananas

In response, under pressure In response, under pressure from United Fruit Company, from United Fruit Company, the CIA sponsored a coup in the CIA sponsored a coup in Guatemala CityGuatemala City

All reforms were reversedAll reforms were reversed Left: typical Chiquita ad Left: typical Chiquita ad

juxtaposed with a banana juxtaposed with a banana workerworker

The Civil War of GuatemalaThe Civil War of Guatemala Began in 1960, shortly after the Began in 1960, shortly after the

counterrevolution of 1954counterrevolution of 1954 Guerrillas operated in the eastern Guerrillas operated in the eastern

zones of Guatemala to restore the zones of Guatemala to restore the reformist governmentreformist government

The rebellion was crushed in Zacapa in The rebellion was crushed in Zacapa in 19661966

Col. Carlos Arana, seen here with U.S. Col. Carlos Arana, seen here with U.S. military advisors, earned the name “The military advisors, earned the name “The Butcher of Zacapa”Butcher of Zacapa”

He became the president of Guatemala He became the president of Guatemala in 1970in 1970

Yet remaining factions continued the Yet remaining factions continued the warwar

Involvement of Indian Communities Involvement of Indian Communities

In 1978, a landowner in northern In 1978, a landowner in northern Guatemala was assassinated.Guatemala was assassinated.

This expanded the civil war into This expanded the civil war into western Guatemalawestern Guatemala

Entire villages were bombedEntire villages were bombed Indians would be herded into Indians would be herded into

schools or churches, which were schools or churches, which were then set afirethen set afire

Many Guatemalans left their Many Guatemalans left their communities to the border regions communities to the border regions of Mexico (upper left)of Mexico (upper left)

As these coffins show, many were As these coffins show, many were not so lucky (lower left)not so lucky (lower left)

DisappearancesDisappearances A terror technique of kidnapping A terror technique of kidnapping

and murder was created under and murder was created under Gen. Peralta in the 1960sGen. Peralta in the 1960s

Torture was commonplace, and Torture was commonplace, and outright murderoutright murder

These photos provide evidence of These photos provide evidence of these murders in Chontala, these murders in Chontala, GuatemalaGuatemala

A boy with hands tied and shot in A boy with hands tied and shot in the back of the neckthe back of the neck

A recovered skull, as if screamingA recovered skull, as if screaming—and perhaps was at the time of —and perhaps was at the time of the murderthe murder

Peace Accord of 1996Peace Accord of 1996 The war became an issue even among The war became an issue even among

corporations because of instabilitycorporations because of instability Finally, under President Arzu, the government Finally, under President Arzu, the government

negotiated with the five guerrilla groups negotiated with the five guerrilla groups organized under URNG organized under URNG

The guerrillas ceased operations under those The guerrillas ceased operations under those terms and the government halted death squad terms and the government halted death squad activityactivity

The refugees were able to come home. The refugees were able to come home. Guatemala remains an area of investment, most Guatemala remains an area of investment, most

recently of South Korean enterprisesrecently of South Korean enterprises

ConclusionConclusion

Guatemala is a classical Third World CountryGuatemala is a classical Third World Country It represents most countries of the Third WorldIt represents most countries of the Third World African states are much worse of than African states are much worse of than

GuatemalaGuatemala Role of anthropologists: pronouncements of Role of anthropologists: pronouncements of

ethics, but little else.ethics, but little else. With stories like these throughout Latin America, With stories like these throughout Latin America,

it is unsurprising that Venezuela, Bolivia, it is unsurprising that Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Nicaragua are taking matters into Ecuador, and Nicaragua are taking matters into their own hands. their own hands.