Date post: | 09-Feb-2017 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | mayowa-johnson-abioye |
View: | 1,589 times |
Download: | 395 times |
KWARA STATE UNIVERSITY, MALETE, NIGERIAREPORT ON STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME
(SIWES)
UNDERTAKEN AT
NIGERIAN INSTITUTE FOR OCEANOGRAPHY AND MARINE RESEARCH
VICTORIA ISLAND/BADORE-AJAH, LAGOS STATE.
SUBMITTED TO
THE SIWES COORDINATOR
MICROBIOLOGY UNIT
DEPARTMENT OF BIOSCIENCE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
COLLEGE OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE
BY
ABIOYE MAYOWA JOHNSON
14D/57MB/446
COURSE CODE: MCB 310
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF
SCIENCE DEGREE (B.SC) IN MICROBIOLOGY
AUGUST, 2016.
DEDICATION
14D/57MB/446
I dedicate this Industrial report to ALMIGHTY GOD for his grace and mercy upon my life and also how he has been helping so far.
14D/57MB/446
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTMy Profound gratitude goes to God for his guidance and protection on me for having successfully
completed this Program, it has been God for me and it will continue to be God.
Also, I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my Supervisor for his gentle, precise, constructive
criticism and assistance given to me during my industrial training. My gratitude goes to all
microbiology research officers at Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research and my
Lecturers at Kwara State University, Malete.
These acknowledgments will not be completed without my utmost gratitude my Elder sisters. I will not
leave out my other Industrial Training colleagues for their support, cooperation and companionship
during the training period.
14D/57MB/446
REPORT OVERVIEW
The Scheme of industrial training exposes students to industry based skills necessary for a smooth
transition from the classroom to the world of work. It affords students of tertiary institutions the
opportunity of being familiarized and exposed to the needed experience in handling machinery and
equipment which are usually not available in the educational institutions. In Nigerian Institute for
Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR) where I underwent my industrial training was
established in November 1975 by the Research Institutes’ Establishment Order 1975. The headquarters
of the Institute is located at the Bar Beach, Victoria Island Lagos, contiguous to the Atlantic Ocean
now EKO Atlantic mega city. The main research departments in the Institute are; i. Fisheries
Resources ii. Marine Geology/ Geophysics/Biology iii. Biological Oceanography iv. Physical and
Chemical Oceanography v. Aquaculture vi. Biotechnology vii. Fish Technology/Product
Development. NIOMR is charged with the responsibilities to conduct Research into the resources and
physical characteristics of the Nigerian territorial waters and the high seas. I acquired special
knowledge from Fish Technology in Food safety and evaluation of the nutritional value for a fishery
product e.g. subjecting a sample to microbial count Analysis of fish and testing for water pollution i.e.
toxicity test using algae. And also in biological oceanography, we focus on the environment and there
ecosystem with bioluminescence organism particularly Vibrio fischeri as a sample organism used. In
Marine biology, research goes into how microalgae can be used as a bio-indicator for water quality,
indicator in oil and gas exploration and also in bio-monitoring. In Biotechnology and Central
Laboratory extraction of DNA from fish sample and mechanism of PCR occurred and special exposure
on the use of Gas Chromatography to analyse crude oil and its products, water, waste water e.t.c.
14D/57MB/446
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGECHAPTER ONE Dedication iAcknowledgment iiReport Overview iii1.0 Introduction 11.1 Background of Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) 11.2 Objectives of SIWES 21.3 Bodies Involved In the Management of SIWES 3
CHAPTER TWO2.0 Background of Establishment 42.1 Outstations 52.2 Facilities and Resources 62.3 Staff Strength 72.4 Organizational Structure of the Establishment 82.5 Department/Units/Functions and Specific Place Posted 92.5.1 Fishery Recourses Department 92.5.2 Fish Technology Department 92.5.3 Aquaculture Department 112.5.4 Physical And Chemical Oceanography Department 122.5.5 Biological Oceanography 122.5.6 Marine Geology/Geophysics Department 132.5.7 Biotechnology 132.5.8 Central Laboratory 14
CHAPTER THREE3.0 Nature of Work, Activities, Skills and Experience Gained During SIWES Duration 153.1 Fish Technology Department 153.1.1 Chemistry Unit 153.1.2 Microbiology Unit 173.1.3 Value Addition 21
3.1.4 Packaging and Labeling Of Fish and Fishery Products 223.1.5 Microalgae Unit 233.2 Biological Oceanography 243.2.1 Environmental Microbiology Unit 243.3 Marine Biology Unit 253.3.1 Benthos 253.3.2 Groups of Benthic Algae 273.4 Biotechnology Department 283.4.1 Genomics Unit 283.4.2 Proteomics Unit 313.4.3 Nutrition 323.5 Central Laboratory 33
CHAPTER FIVE4.0 Laboratory Equipment 344.1 Others Equipment: 37
CHAPTER FIVE
14D/57MB/446
5.1 Experience Gained 385.2 Problems Encountered 385.3 Recommendations 385.4 Conclusion. 38
14D/57MB/446
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE
SCHEME (SIWES) SIWES was established in 1973 by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) as one of her programs.
It was designed to give Nigerian students studying occupationally-related courses in higher institutions
the experience that would supplement their theoretical learning in order to solve the problem of lack of
adequate practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of tertiary
institutions.
The Scheme exposes students to industry based skills necessary for a smooth transition from
the classroom to the world of work. It affords students of tertiary institutions the opportunity of being
familiarized and exposed to the needed experience in handling machinery and equipment which are
usually not available in the educational institutions.
Participation in SIWES has become a necessary pre-condition for the award of Diploma and
Degree certificates in specific disciplines in most institutions of higher learning in the country, in
accordance with the education policy of government.
Usually there are three modules: The first module is for two months and this is taken by all
200- level Engineering and Food Technology students in University. This module of industrial
Training is designed to expose the students to engineering and technology operations at the shop floor
level. The second module is for three months. This is for the 300-level students of Engineering, Food
Technology, Geography, Biochemistry, Nursing, Pharmacy, Geology, Physics, and Library Science.
The third module is however for six months and it is taken by 400-level students of Engineering, Food
Technology, Botany, Microbiology, Industrial Chemistry, Computer Science, Zoology, Agriculture
and Physiotherapy. SIWES is operated by the ITF, the coordinating agencies (NUC, NCCE, NBTE),
employers of labor and the institutions concerned (universities and polytechnics).Funded by the
Federal Government of Nigeria.
Beneficiaries-Undergraduates students of the following: Agriculture, Engineering, Technology,
Environmental, Science, Education, Medical Science and Pure and Applied Sciences.
Duration - Four months for polytechnics and Colleges of Education, and six months for the
Universities.
A SURVEY OF THE INSTITUTIONS PARTICIPATING IN SIWES
Universities 59
14D/57MB/446
Polytechnics 85
Colleges of Education 62
Total 206
The number of students that participated in SIWES from Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of
Education at the end of the 2007 fiscal year was 194, 890.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF SIWESSIWES is a program organized for students of higher institutions to acquire practical knowledge of
their various discipline in a real standard establishment different from the kind of experience or
knowledge gained within the four walls of the classroom or school laboratory.
The Industrial Training Funds policy Document No. 1 of 1973 which established SIWES outlined the
objectives of the scheme. The objectives are to:
1. Provide an avenue for students in higher institutions of learning to acquire industrial skills and
experiences during their course of study.
2. Prepare students for industrial work situations that they are likely to meet after graduation.
3. Expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery that
may not be available in their institutions.
4. Make the transition from school to the world of work easier and enhance students’ contacts for
later job placements.
5. Provide students with the opportunities to apply their educational knowledge in real work
situations, thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice.
6. Enlist and strengthen employers’ involvement in the entire educational process and prepare
students for employment in Industry and Commerce (Information and Guideline for SIWES,
2002).
1.3 BODIES INVOLVED IN THE MANAGEMENT OF SIWES
The bodies involved are: The Federal Government, Industrial Training Fund (ITF). Other supervising
agents are: National University Commission (NUC), National Board for Technical Education (NBTE)
and National Council for Colleges of Education (NCE)
The functions of these agencies above include among others to:
Ensure adequate funding of the scheme;
Establish SIWES and accredit SIWWES unit in the approved institutions;
14D/57MB/446
Formulate policies and guideline for participating bodies and institutions as well as appointing
SIWES coordinators and supporting staff;
Supervise students at their places of attachment and sign their lob-book and IT forms;
Vet and process student’s log-book and forward same to ITF Area office;
Ensure payment of allowances for the students and supervisors.
Therefore the success or otherwise of the SIWES depends on the efficiency of the Ministries, ITF,
Institutions, Employers of labour and the general public involved in articulation and management of
the program. Thus the evaluation of SIWES in tertiary institutions in meeting up with the needs for the
establishment of the program is necessary.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 BACKGROUND OF ESTABLISHMENT
NIGERIAN INSTITUTE FOR OCEANOGRAPHY AND MARINE RESEARCH [NIOMR]No 3, Wilmot Point Road, Bar-Beach, Victoria Island, Lagos State. Nigeria.
Tel No: +234-1-2617530, 7642276 , 08132162127,08181009444
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.niomr.gov.ng
14D/57MB/446
The Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR) was established in November
1975 by the Research Institutes’ Establishment Order 1975. The headquarters of the Institute is located
at the Bar Beach, Victoria Island Lagos, contiguous to the Atlantic Ocean. The main research
departments in the Institute are;
i. Fisheries Resources
ii. Marine Geology/Geophysics/Biology
iii. Biological Oceanography
iv. Physical and Chemical Oceanography
v. Aquaculture
vi. Biotechnology
vii. Fish Technology/Product Development
There are also four Services departments namely;
(i) Finance and Supply
(ii) Administration
(iii) Technical Services
(iv)Information and Documentation.
The Institute’s headquarters building in Victoria Island is a one storey block housing the Finance and
Supply, Administration Department, Marine Geology and Geophysics Department as well as the
Economic & Statistics section of the Fisheries Resources Department.
NIOMR headquarters complex also includes the Fishing Technology building “Whitehouse”, Library
and the Engineering and Maintenance department.
VISION
To become a World class Centre of Excellence in Marine Science
MISSION STATEMENT
Aspiration as a national Fisheries and Oceanography Centre of excellence using dedicated, world-class
scientists to collect, analyze and provide scientific data and information for the development of
scientific products necessary for the sustainability utilization and management of Nigeria’s aquatic
marine resources, coastal and ocean environment for the benefit of our national global community at
large.
GOAL
To key into the national development goals of food security, poverty reduction, marine environment
cleanliness and sustainability.
14D/57MB/446
MANDATE
NIOMR is charged with the responsibilities to conduct Research into the resources and physical
characteristics of the Nigerian territorial waters and the high seas. Specifics of the mandate include:
Genetic improvement of marine and brackish water living resources in Nigeria bracket and
marina waters,
Studies of abundance, distribution and biology of aquatic resources in Nigeria brackish and
marine waters,
Establishment of the physical and chemical characteristics of Nigeria territorial waters,
Structure, Geomorphology and Topography of the sea bed, and deposits on or under the sea
bed.
Climate change studies
Determination of the effects of pollution of Nigerian Coastal waters and its prevention, and
Extension Research and Liaison services in areas of her mandate,
She also has a non-research function to provide vocational training in Fisheries,
Oceanography and Aquaculture.
2.1 OUTSTATIONSAs the scope and magnitude of the institutes’ activities broadened, it became necessary to establish
outstations to cater for the growing demands of the institutes’ services. This is essentially to cover all
the eight coastal states; i.e. Lagos, Ondo, Ogun, Delta, River, Cross River, Bayelsa, Akwa Ibom
especially in the south-south agro-ecological zone of Nigeria. Therefore, three outstations were
established:
1. BUGUMA OUTSTATION
It was established for research and training in brackish water aquaculture.
Fig 1
2. ALLU OUTSTATION:
The African Regional Aquaculture Centre (ARAC), Aluu, Port Harcourt, River State was
established to provide training in Aquaculture Technology up to post-graduate level. The
Centre is affiliated to the River State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt for
14D/57MB/446
the award of post-graduate Diploma and Masters of Technology degree in Aquaculture.
Fig 2
3. APELE OUTSTATION:
This is situated in Delta state to address both brackish and fresh water fishery issues.
4. BADORE OUTSTATION:
Badore fish farm is used as a demonstration and experimental farm. It has a number of earthen
ponds whose primary source of water is the Lagos Lagoon. Currently, a Fish Disease
Laboratory Centre, fish feed and fish meal production-facilities are being established at the
Badore Station.
2.2 FACILITIES AND RESOURCES
The institute has a boat for Research work in the Lagos Lagoon. It is a 7.5m fibre glass boat with
dismountable canopy. Finally, Navimor International and WISLA Shipyard deliver to Nigerian
Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR) the multipurpose/combination research
vessel R.V. Bayagbona in 2014. The vessel was built at WISLA Shipyard, under the supervisions of
Bureau Veritas. The vessel is specially designed for conducting both fishery and oceanographic
research operations in tropical waters. She is equipped with modern echo sounding and sampling
equipment, as well as with on-board fully equipped research laboratories. The hull is all welded
damage proof, steel structure. It is designed and built according to Bureau Veritas | *
HULL.MACH notation
Fishery and Oceanography Research Vessel R.V. Bayagbona
Fig 3
2.3 STAFF STRENGTH
The Institute has staff strength of 339 comprising; 117 research officers and supporting staff including;
156 administrative personnel, 63 research technologists and 3 casual workers.
14D/57MB/446
14D/57MB/446
2.4 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE ESTABLISHMENT Table 1
14D/57MB/446
14D/57MB/446
2.5 DEPARTMENT/UNITS/FUNCTIONS AND SPECIFIC PLACE POSTEDNIOMR is charged with responsibilities to conduct research into the resources and physical
characteristics of the Nigerian territorial waters and the high seas beyond. In Nigerian Institute for
Oceanography and Marine Research, where I underwent my SIWES program, I was posted to the
following department:
Fish Technology (General Microbiology Unit),
Biological Oceanography (Environmental Microbiology Unit),
Marine Biology (Microbiology of water),
Biotechnology (Genomics, Proteomics and Nutrition)
Central Laboratory
DEPARTMENTAL ACTIVITIES
2.5.2 FISHERY RECOURSES DEPARTMENT
This department is made up of four section/units. They are;
A Fishing gear and craft
B Marine biology
C Economy and statistic
D Extension, research liaison services
Fig 4
FUNCTIONS/ACTIVITIES
The Fishing Gear and Craft section is mandated to develop improved fishing gears and crafts to
enhance their production efficiency and effectiveness and fabricate eco-system friendly fishing gear
types and fisheries implements.
Marine Biology Section/Unit is mandated to carry out research into abundance, distribution, and other
characteristics of species of fish and other marine forms of life and management measured for their
rational exploitation and conservation.
14D/57MB/446
Statistics and Economics section is mandated to collect fish production and social-economic data from
the industrial, artisanal and aquaculture sectors.
Extension, Research and Liaison Services section/units is mandated to disseminate validated
research results to identified End-users of all the research findings
SPECIFIC PLACE POSTED
(a) MARINE BIOLOGY (MICROBIOLOGY OF WATER),
Provision of the scientific basis for the sea fisheries decree of 1971;
Abundance in commercial quantities.
Identification of key species of demersal resources (0-50m)
Identification of deeper water (0-300m) resources;
Documentation of various aspects of the biology of identified resources; and,
Successful use of electrophoretic techniques as confirmatory taxonomic tools
2.5.2 FISH TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
The department is made up of sections/units. They are; Microbiology unit (Food safety and quality
control) and Chemistry unit. It also contains sub-sections which are Packaging Lab and Workshop.
The department is mandated to research into effective ways for improved post-harvest handling;
preservation, utilization and storage using profitable technological processes.
Packaging Laboratory: This unit is mandated to development of technology for post-harvest use e.g
fabrication of new improved smoking kiln, seaming and canning technology. It has humidity analyzer,
weighing balance, laminator, and moisture analyzer e.t.c
Workshop: Is committed to develop environmentally friendly packaging material for fishery product
e.g. double layers celloplane package, foil polyethene packaging, carton packaging etc.
Pilot plant: It composed of cool room, processing room, canning process room, cold room, pressure
room, precooked machine, and sterilizer.
SPECIFIC PLACE POSTED
a) MICROBIOLOGY UNIT
Functions
To evaluate the nutritional value for a fishery product e.g. subjecting a sample to microbial
count Analysis of fish
To determine the shelf life and consumer acceptability of package fishery products.
Preparation of agar medium
14D/57MB/446
Inoculation
Interpretation of your result using the following; Colony counter, incubator, autoclave, pressure
cooker, refrigerator.
Research into the safety process of food
b) CHEMISTRY UNIT
Functions
To evaluate the nutritional value for a fishery product e.g subjecting a sample to proximate
analysis
Moisture analysis
Fish processing
Physical control of microbial load fish canning
Chemical control of microbial load bioprocessing and fermented fish
Control of O2 reduction potential (vacuum packaging)
2.5.9 AQUACULTURE DEPARTMENT
This department is mandated to research into the development of Aquaculture including improvement
of transportation devices for juveniles to reduce mortality. Genetic improvement of catfish through
acquisition of germ plasm of promising strains from different ecological zones in Nigeria;
Development of mass production techniques for the fingerlings of clarias gariepinus and the hybrid of
clarias sp. and heterobranchus sp.; Successful culture of the commercially important oyster,
crassotrea gasar; Development of fish feed for the fish farm industry; Enterprise combination of fish
with vegetables/livestock; Development of pond construction techniques in different ecological zones
for profitable farming
Currently the department has five sections;
1. Fish breeding
2. Fish culture systems
3. Fish diseases and health
4. Aquaculture engineering
5. Microalgae unit
14D/57MB/446
Fig 5
SPECIFIC PLACE POSTED
(a) MICROALGAE UNIT
Functions
Microalgae are a renewable source of feed, fuel and nutrition. It is used for feed fish. The following
are the functions and steps in microalgae unit;
Sourcing for species of organism
Identification and isolation
Purification
Pure Culture from mixed culture
Maintenance of culture
Harvesting and collection
2.5.10 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT
It is mandated to study the physical and chemical characteristics of the Nigerian territorial water and
marine pollution research, monitoring and evaluation. The department has four sections; physical
oceanography, chemical oceanography, instrumentation and Microbiological contaminants.
2.5.6 BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY
It is mandated to study interaction between living resources and the physical and chemical
characteristics of coastal and inshore of brackish and marine ecosystem. The department has two
section namely environmental factor and physiological mechanism, productivity and biodiversity.
14D/57MB/446
SPECIFIC PLACE POSTED
ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY UNIT
Functions
Study microorganism and the physical and chemical conditions influencing them.
Determine the microbial load of component of ecosystems.
Preparation of agar medium
Inoculation
Interpretation of your result using the following; Colony counter, incubator, membrane filter.
Research into the ecology of microorganisms in nitrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle, carbon and
sulphur cycle.
Environmental factor and physiological mechanism, productivity and biodiversity.
2.5.7 MARINE GEOLOGY/GEOPHYSICS DEPARTMENT
It is mandated to conduct research into the topography and geological features of the sea bed and
territorial waters of Nigerian and the high seas beyond. The department has five sections namely;
Geophysics, Sedimentology, Micropaleontology, Climate change and Geochemistry.
2.5.8 BIOTECHNOLOGY
This department is made up of three sections. They are Genomics, Proteomics, and Nutrition. It is
mandated to research into the genetics, genomics and traits of aquatics organisms. It also conducts
research to understand the genetic variation of fisheries resources and development of improved fish
strains. Research and training in Fish biotechnology
SPECIFIC PLACE POSTED
(a) GENOMICS UNITS
Functions
It focuses on the area within genetics that concerns the sequencing analysis of an organism’s
genome.
It also determines complete DNA sequences and perform genetic mapping to help understand
disease.
It includes effort to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and final scale genetic
mapping of fish.
Extraction of DNA of fish for further analysis
14D/57MB/446
(b) PROTEOMICS
Functions
It involved in large scale study of protein in fish, particularly their structures and functions.
It determines the protein requirement for a particular species of fish protein that are formed by linkage
of individual amino acid through peptide bond.
Involved in the dietary protein require in catabolizing as a source of energy for fish growth.
(c) NUTRITION
Functions Study the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in
relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes
food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism and excretion.
It support aquaculture unit to improve production
2.5.9 CENTRAL LABORATORY
Functions
Water and waste water analysis for Nutrient, phosphate, nitrate, Nitrite, Silicate, e.t.c) as well
as physic-chemical parameters i.e pH, Salinity, conductivity, dissolved oxygen e.t.c
Heavy metal analysis in food, soil, water e.t.c
Determination of ply aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) PCBs and other volatile substance.
Determination of amino acid and fatty acid profile in the fish and other food products.
Microbiological and biotechnological analysis of food and animals samples.
14D/57MB/446
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 NATURE OF WORK, ACTIVITIES, SKILLS AND EXPERIENCE
GAINED DURING SIWES DURATIONThe work done of the various departments in which I was posted to during industrial training are
highlighted below and experience gain summarized in various department.
3.1 FISH TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
3.1.1 CHEMISTRY UNIT
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
Preparation of sample for proximate analysis:
The fresh fish samples were allowed to thawed in case the sample were stored in a refrigerator,
descaled if it’s a scaling fish, deskinned, degutted and filleted, finely minced until the pasting form is
achieved. The same processes applicable to dry sample, finely minced until the samples are in
powdering form. To create large surface area and homogenize for chemical analyses. Duplicate or
Triplicate determinations were carried out on each chemical analysis.
The content of total protein was estimated using the Kjeldahl method. Total lipid was extracted with
chloroform-methanol mixture using the modified Bligh and Dyer method, and sohxlet method
extracted with petroleum spirit . The pre-weighed samples were oven
dried at 100oC to measure the moisture content. The samples were
subjected to 550Vot under a muffle furnace to measure the ash content.
PROXIMATE COMPOSITION
Proximate composition of fish involves the determination of moisture,
lipid, protein and ash content. Carbohydrate is calculated by difference.
Fig 6
FISH PROCESSING
INTRODUCTION:
• Fish is a highly perishable food which needs proper handling and preservation if it is to have a
long shelf life and retain a desirable quality and nutritional value. The central concern of fish
processing is to prevent fish from deteriorating.
14D/57MB/446
FISH PRESERVATION
Preservation techniques are needed to prevent fish spoilage and lengthen shelf life. They are
designed to inhibit the activity of spoilage bacteria and the metabolic changes that result in the loss
of fish quality.
• Spoilage bacteria are the specific bacteria that produce the unpleasant odours and flavours
associated with spoiled fish.
• To flourish, bacteria need the right temperature, sufficient water and oxygen, and surroundings
that are not too acidic. Preservation techniques work by interrupting one or more of these
needs. Preservation techniques can be classified as follows.
CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE:
REFRIGERATING AND FREEZING
• If the temperature is decreased, the metabolic activity in the fish from microbial or autolytic
processes can be reduced or stopped. This is achieved by refrigeration where the temperature is
dropped to about 0 °C, or freezing where the temperature is dropped below -18°C.
Ice preserves fish and extends the shelf life by lowering the temperature
CONTROL OF WATER ACTIVITY:
DRYING, SALTING AND SMOKING
• Available water is necessary for the microbial and enzymatic reactions involved in spoilage.
• Traditionally, techniques such as drying, salting and smoking have been used for thousands of
years. These techniques can be very simple, for example, by using solar drying.
Smoking fish
Fig 7
14D/57MB/446
PHYSICAL CONTROL OF MICROBIAL LOADS:
FISH CANNING
• Canned fish are fish which have been processed, sealed in an airtight container such as a sealed
tin can, and subjected to heat. Canning is a method of preserving food, and provides a typical
shelf life ranging from one to five years.
• Other preservation techniques include:
• Chemical control of microbial loads (Bio-preservation and fermented fish).
• Control of the oxygen reduction potential (Vacuum packaging).
• Combined techniques (Salting/drying, Salting/smoking, Drying/smoking etc.).
Microbial load can be physically controlled
by canning and sterilizing with heat
Fig 9
3.1.2 MICROBIOLOGY UNIT
The objectives of microbiology unit in Fish technology are value addition, safety creation i.e microbial
safety of food for human consumption.
MICROBIAL ANALYSIS
Probiotics: are microorganisms that believed to provide health benefits when consumed. It is an
injected microorganisms associated with benefits for humans and animals.
FOOD SPOILAGE
Spoilage is the process in which food deteriorates to the point in which it is not edible to humans or its
quality of edibility becomes reduced. Various external forces are responsible for the spoilage of food.
Food that is capable of spoiling is referred to as perishable food.
Signs
Signs of food spoilage may include an appearance different from the food in its fresh form, such as a
change in colour, a change in texture, an unpleasant odour, or an undesirable taste. The item may
14D/57MB/446
become softer than normal. If mould occurs, it is often visible externally on the item. "Food
poisoning", and more properly as "foodborne illness".
A number of methods of prevention can be used that can totally prevent, delay, or otherwise reduce
food spoilage.
Refrigeration can increase the shelf life of certain foods and beverages, though with most
items, it does not indefinitely expand it.
Canning of food can preserve food for a particularly long period of time, whether canned at
home or commercially
Lactic acid fermentation also preserves food and prevents spoilage.
Food intoxication: it is the toxin of organism in food. Mycotoxins are toxin from fungi e.g Aflatoxin
produces by fungus Aspergillus.
HAZARD: is a biological, chemical or physical agent in food or condition of food with a potential to
cause an adverse effect. They are biological hazard, chemical hazard etc. HCCP means hazard
analysis critical control point, this is a plan to identify and analyse hazard.
HCCP principles
1. Hazard identification: isolate the entire significant hazards that are likely to occur with each
step of processing and preventing measures.
2. Identification of critical control point.
3. Establish critical limit.
4. Monitor the critical control points.
5. Establish corrective actions.
6. Verification and document periodically and revalidate.
7. Record keeping.
DETERMINING THE MICROBIAL LOAD OF FISH
The fish sample will be pounded to smooth particle and weighed to a specific measurement, then
poured into sterile test tubes of different label and next is the serial dilution.
Serial dilution: is a stepwise dilution of a substance in solution. Usually the dilution faction at each
step is constant resulting in a geometric progression of the concentration in a logarithm fashion.
14D/57MB/446
Steps are:
There is determination of the proper dilution liquid (peptone water or distilled water)
Then several test tubes was prepared with 9ml of dilution liquid. These tubes serve as a dilution
block, and addition is the undiluted sample to the first tubes and then serially diluting into the
following tubes.
Draw 1ml of fish sample which can be from baker with syringe or pipette and transfer it to the
test tube labelled 1:10 containing 9ml of the dilution liquid i.e distilled water and mix
thoroughly. There is now 1ml of the undiluted solution in 9ml of the dilution solution
becoming factor of 10.
Perform the second dilution by taking 1ml of solution from first tube into second tube making
1:100.
Extend this procedure to perform longer serial dilution up to 10 test tubes.
Following the serial dilution, plating occurs. There are different types of plating.
They are:
Pour plating: in pour plating, dilution solution is poured before the agar.
Spread plating: the agar is poured first and allowed to solidified, then dilution samples weill
be added and spread.
Streaking method: the agar is poured first and the sample is streak in different pattern.
ORGANISM ASSOCIATED WITH SMOKED, CANNED AND FRESH FISH
Organism associated with fresh water fish
Bacillus subtilis
Staphilococcus aureus
Salmonella typhi
Shigella spp
Staphilococcus epidermidis
Organism associated with smoked fish
Staphilococcus aureus
Bacillus subtilis
Organism associated with canned fish
Clostridium botulinium
Listeria
14D/57MB/446
GRAM STAINING
Materials Required:
Clean glass slides, Inoculating loop, Bunsen burner, Bibulous paper, Microscope, Lens paper and
lens cleaner, Immersion oil, Distilled water, 18 to 24 hour cultures of organisms.
Reagents:
1. Primary Stain - Crystal Violet
2. Mordant - Grams Iodine
3. Decolourizer - Ethyl Alcohol
4. Secondary Stain - Safranin
Procedure:
Part 1: Preparation of the glass microscopic slide
Grease or oil free slides are essential for the preparation of microbial smears. Grease or oil from the
fingers on the slides is removed by washing the slides with soap and water. Wipe the slides with spirit
or alcohol. After cleaning, dry the slides and place them on laboratory towels until ready for use.
Part 2: Labelling of the slides
Drawing a circle on the underside of the slide using a glassware-marking pen may be helpful to clearly
designate the area in which you will prepare the smear. You may also label the slide with the initials of
the name of the organism on the edge of the slide. Care should be taken that the label should not be in
contact with the staining reagents.
Part 3: Preparation of the smear
Bacterial suspensions in broth: With a sterile cooled loop, place a loopful of the broth culture on the
slide. Spread by means of circular motion of the inoculating loop to about one centimetre in diameter.
Excessive spreading may result in disruption of cellular arrangement. A satisfactory smear will allow
examination of the typical cellular arrangement and isolated cells.
Bacterial plate cultures: With a sterile cooled loop, place a drop of sterile water or saline solution on
the slide. Sterilize and cool the loop again and pick up a very small sample of a bacterial colony and
gently stir into the drop of water/saline on the slide to create an emulsion.
Swab Samples: Roll the swab over the cleaned surface of a glass slide.
14D/57MB/446
Part 4: Heat Fixing
Heat fixing kills the bacteria in the smear, firmly adheres the smear to the slide, and allows the sample
to more readily take up stains. Allow the smear to air dry. After the smear has air-dried, hold the slide
at one end and pass the entire slide through the flame of a Bunsen burner two to three times with the
smear-side up. Now the smear is ready to be stained.
Part 5: Gram Stain Procedure
1. Place slide with heat fixed smear on staining tray.
2. Gently flood smear with crystal violet and let stand for 1 minute.
3. Tilt the slide slightly and gently rinse with tap water or distilled water using a wash bottle.
4. Gently flood the smear with Gram’s iodine and let stand for 1 minute.
5. Tilt the slide slightly and gently rinse with tap water or distilled water using a wash bottle. The
smear will appear as a purple circle on the slide.
6. Decolorize using 95% ethyl alcohol or acetone. Tilt the slide slightly and apply the alcohol drop by
drop for 5 to 10 seconds until the alcohol runs almost clear.
7. Immediately rinse with water.
8. Gently flood with safranin to counter-stain and let stand for 45 seconds.
9. Tilt the slide slightly and gently rinse with tap water or distilled water using a wash bottle.
10. Blot dries the slide with bibulous paper.
11. View the smear using a light-microscope under oil-immersion.
IDENTIFICATION OF ORGANISM
Organisms can be identified by various means; they are macroscopic, microscopic and other means of
identification.
Microscopy: this is the use of microscope to identify the bacteria colony.
Macroscopic characterization: these are that features of a colony which can be seen by naked eye.
The most typical features are: The size of the colony, the property of the edge of the colony and the
inner structure, the colour of the colonies (sometimes pigmentation occur)
3.1.3 VALUE ADDITION
• In general value addition means “any additional activity that in one way or the other change the
nature of a product thus adding to its value at the time of sale.”
• In addition to preservation, fish can be industrially processed into a wide array of products to
increase their economic value.
14D/57MB/446
Some value added fishery products are:
Fish cakes, Fish fingers, Fish crackers, Fish fillets, Fishmeal and fish oil
A Fish cake served on salad Fried fish fingers
Fried fish crackers (Fig 10) Packed and iced filleted catfish
Fishmeal and fish oil
Fig 11
14D/57MB/446
3.1.4 PACKAGING AND LABELLING OF FISH AND FISHERY PRODUCTS
Packaging is a means of ensuring the safe delivery of a product to the ultimate consumer in sound
condition at minimum overall cost. There are three basic functions carried out by all packaging
material:
a) Containment, enabling a specified quantified quantity of foodstuff to be handled conveniently as a
single unit.
b) Protection of a foodstuff against the various hazards of distribution such as climatic influence,
mechanical forces, contamination and pilferage.
c) Information about the product or its destination or ownership, and when linked with advertising,
this must convey to the consumer a favorable company and product image.
3.1.5 MICROALGAE UNIT
Microalgae are phytoplankton with size ranging from 1-100um. They are useful as a food source for
commercial rearing of several of marine and fresh water animals. It is used in environmental pollution,
monitoring and toxicity tests. Growth media which are used are Guilliad’s F and Conwy media) F-
media is used for brown algae while conwy media is used for green algae.
ALGAE, GROWTH INHIBITION TEST
Toxicity test of recipient water using Skeletonema as the test
organism
It is under bioassay, it is also known as safety assessment test. It is a test conducted to know the degree
to which substances can damage a loving or non-living organism.
In NIOMR, we conducted toxicity testing to observe the effect of effluent (produce/waste from
companies’ e.g Oil Company in Niger Delta) on the organism at a different tropic level. Starting at the
microalgae level.
PROCEDURE
Medias are prepared and sterilized according to how many times the experiment is to be carried out;
triplicate or duplicate including control.
Different % of the material (either effluent or water soluble a fraction of diesel, spent oil, engine oil,
petroleum e.t.c is added to the media.
A particular density of the microorganism to be tested is added to the media and kept to be observed
every 24hours in the present of a light source.
14D/57MB/446
NB: every 24hours the organisms are viewed under the microscope to observer the effect which the
toxic material has on the microorganisms every 24hours for 3days.
HOW THE DENSITY OF THE MICROALGAE DETERMINED
The microalgae are placed on a Hemacytometer and counted. They could be counted in two ways;
1. The microalgae in A, B, C and D are counted and added together and divided by 4 to get an
average. The result is multiplied by 10, 000 and divided by the ml to get the density to be
added to each medium.
2. The organism in E is counted and multiplied by 10, 000 and divided by the ml.
NB: This method is used especially when the microalgae are very dense.
The test is carried out for 48-72hrs. After the test is counted via microscope to know the growth rate
after 24hrs the test organism is view under the microscope to count the growth of the organism and it
is recorded accordingly using particle counting chamber.
Algae are used in toxicity assessment of sewage treatment plant effluents discharging into freshwater
streams and rivers. The test using the marine algae have been widely used and alongside invertebrate
toxicity. In summary, the test involves exposing laboratory cultured algae to the test material for 72hrs.
the test is usually undertaken on a range of concentration of a test material e.g 100, 50, 25, 12.5 and
6.3% effluent. At the end of the exposure period, algae cell yield is determined.
The algae growth test may be used to access the toxicity of (a) chemicals (b) Effluent (c) Leachates
and ground water (d) Sediments.
EXPERIENCE GAINED
In this department, I learnt about the analysis of fish samples using new techniques, and most
especially on the nutritional information of fish e.g protein, lipid, fat and oil. Food safety and
evaluation of the nutritional value for a fishery product e.g subjecting a sample to microbial count
Analysis of fish and testing for water pollution i.e toxicity test using algae.
3.2 BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY
3.2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY UNIT
14D/57MB/446
In biological oceanography we research on how organisms affect and are affected by the physics,
chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system. Biological oceanography mostly focuses on the
microorganisms within the ocean; looking at how they are affected by their environment and
how that affects larger marine creatures and their ecosystem. Biological oceanography is similar
to marine biology, but is different because of the perspective used to study the ocean.
Biological oceanography takes a bottom up approach (in terms of the food web), while marine
biology studies the ocean from a top down perspective. Biological oceanography mainly focuses on
the ecosystem of the ocean with an emphasis on plankton: their diversity (morphology, nutritional
sources, motility, and metabolism); their productivity and how that plays a role in the global carbon
cycle; and their distribution (predation and life cycle). Biological oceanography also investigates the
role of microbes in food webs, and how humans impact the ecosystems in the oceans.
BIOLUMINESCENT BACTERIA
They are any light-producing bacteria, present mostly in sea water, marine sediments, and surface of
decomposing fish and in gut of marine animals. These bacteria may live free (example, Vibrio harveyi)
or in symbiosis (example, Vibrio fischeri) with animals such as the Hawaiian Bobtail squid or
terrestrial nematodes (example, Photorhabdus luminescens). The animals provide these bacteria a safe
home and sufficient nutrition and use the light organs for camouflage, preying for food and attracting
mates. The bacteria may deploy luminescence reaction for quorum sensing - ability to regulate gene
expression in response to bacterial cell density.
BIOELECTROMAGNETICS OF BIO-LUMINESCENCE
Bacterial bio-luminescence is caused by action of an enzyme called bacterial luciferase, encoded by
lux gene, which also expresses enzymes for substrates of the bioluminescence reaction, like fatty
aldehydes. It has been proposed that bio electromagnetics may be involved in biological processes
behind bio-luminescence, which may function as a pump. This pump may involve mm and sub-mm
wave coupling of bio-luminescence radiation for quorum sensing regulation. This proposal arises
from the observation that mm-wave radiation exposure has been reported to induce changes in
DNA conformation and possibly gene expression.
Field work
The sample are being collected from water body or the institute Jetty
14D/57MB/446
Laboratory work
The next is the serial dilution, plating and culture.
The solution is tested using illuminometer to determine the light level and also spectrophotometer is
also use to check for the light intensity of the organism.
EXPERIENCE GAINED
Here in biological oceanography, we focus on the environment and there ecosystem and I learnt
specifically on bioluminescence organism particularly Vibrio fischeri, subjecting it to various
conditions like temperature to get it pure culture using illuminometer as an instrument and membrane
filter.
3.3 MARINE BIOLOGY UNIT
Research occurs in the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine bodies of water.
Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and
others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on
taxonomy.
The organisms studied range from microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton to huge cetaceans
(whales) 30 meters (98 feet) in length.
3.3.1 BENTHOS
It is the community of organisms that live on, in, or near the sea bed, also known as the benthic zone.
This community lives in or near marine sedimentary environments, from tidal pools along the
foreshore, out to the continental shelf, and then down to the abyssal depths. Many organisms adapted
to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upper parts of the water column.
Benthos is also used in freshwater biology to refer to organisms at the bottom of freshwater bodies of
water, such as lakes, rivers, and streams.
Macrobenthos
Macro benthos comprises the larger, more visible, benthic organisms that are greater than 1 mm in
size. Some examples are polychaete worms, bivalves, echinoderms, sea anemones, corals, sponges, sea
squirts, turbellarians and larger crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters and cumaceans. They are easily
visible to the naked eye with the lower range of body size at 0.5 mm but usually larger than 3 mm. In
14D/57MB/446
the coastal water ecosystem, they include several species of organisms from different taxa including
Porifera, Annelids, Coelenterates, Mollusks, Crustaceans, Arthropods etc.
Meiobenthos
Meiobenthos comprises tiny benthic organisms that are less than 1 mm but greater than 0.1 mm
in size. Some examples are nematodes, foraminiferans, water bears, gastrotriches and smaller
crustaceans such as copepods and ostracodes.
Microbenthos: Microbenthos comprises microscopic benthic organisms that are less than 0.1 mm in
size. Some Examples are bacteria, diatoms, ciliates, amoeba, and flagellates.
Zoobenthos Zoobenthos comprises the animals belonging to the benthos.
Phytobenthos Phytobenthos comprises the plants belonging to the benthos, mainly benthic diatoms
and macroalgae (seaweed).
Endobenthos Endobenthos lives buried, or burrowing in the sediment, often in the oxygenated top
layer, e.g., a sea pen or a sand dollar.
Epibenthos Epibenthos lives on top of the sediments, e.g., like a sea cucumber or a sea snail crawling
about.
Hyperbenthos: Hyperbenthos lives just above the sediment, e.g., a rock cod.
BENTHIC ALGAE
Benthic algae usually cover hard bottoms from the seashore down to 20 to 40 m depth, depending on
the clarity of the ocean. Below that level, insufficient sunlight hampers their growth.
IMPORTANCE OF BENTHIC ALGAE
Benthic algae are a source of food, energy and cover for many organisms. Dead algae also drift to the
open ocean and are a source of food for detritus and filter feeders in ecosystems further away
3.3.2 GROUPS OF BENTHIC ALGAE
Benthic algae are generally split into three main groups, green algae (Chlorophyta), brown algae
(Phaeophyta) and red algae (Rhodophyta), named after the different coloration caused by different
pigments in these groups.
A bio-indicator is any biological species (an "indicator species") or group of species whose function,
population, or status can reveal the qualitative status of the environment. For example, copepods and
14D/57MB/446
other small water crustaceans that are present in many water bodies can be monitored for changes
(biochemical, physiological, or behavioural) that may indicate a problem within their ecosystem. Bio-
indicators can tell us about the cumulative effects of different pollutants in the ecosystem and about
how long a problem may have been present, which physical and chemical testing cannot.
A biological monitor, or biomonitor, can be defined as an organism that provides quantitative
information on the quality of the environment around it. Therefore, a good bio-monitor will indicate
the presence of the pollutant and also attempt to provide additional information about the amount and
intensity of the exposure.
A bio indicator is an organism or biological response that reveals the presence of the pollutants by
the occurrence of typical symptoms or measurable responses, and is therefore more qualitative.
These organisms (or communities of organisms) deliver information on alterations in the environment
or the quantity of environmental pollutants by changing in one of the following ways:
physiologically, chemically or behaviorally.
The information can be deduced through the study of:
Their content of certain elements or compounds, their morphological or cellular structure, metabolic-
biochemical processes, behavior, or population structure(s).
Microorganisms can be used as indicators of aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem health. Found in large
quantities, microorganisms are easier to sample than other organisms. Some microorganisms will
produce new proteins, called stress proteins, when exposed to contaminants such as cadmium and
benzene. These stress proteins can be used as an early warning system to detect changes in levels
of pollution.
Microbial Prospecting for oil and gas (MPOG) is often used to identify prospective areas for oil and
gas occurrences. In many cases oil and gas is known to seep toward the surface as a hydrocarbon
reservoir will usually leak or have leaked towards the surface through buoyancy forces overcoming
sealing pressures. These hydrocarbons can alter the chemical and microbial occurrences found in the
near surface soils or can be picked up directly. Techniques used for MPOG include DNA analysis,
simple bug counts after culturing a soil sample in a hydrocarbon based medium or by looking at the
consumption of hydrocarbon gases in a culture cell.
Microalgae have gained attention in the recent years due to several reasons because of their
14D/57MB/446
greater sensitivity to pollutants than many other organisms. In addition they occur abundantly in
Animal indicators and toxins, Microbial indicators and chemical pollutants, Microbial indicators in oil
and gas exploration, Microalgae as bio-indicators for water quality nature.
EXPERIENCE GAINED
In this unit, I learnt on how I can use microalgae as a bio-indicator for water quality, as indicator in
oil and gas exploration and also in bio-monitoring.
3.4 BIOTECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Biotechnology could be defined as the exploitation of biological processes for industrial and other
purpose especially genetic manipulation of antibiotic, hormones etc. simply, technology based on
biology is the use of biological process, organisms or systems to manufacture products intended to
improve the quality of human life. It could be classified into;
Traditional biotechnology: biotechnology techniques that have been in use since time i.e no formal
education was needed e.g cross breeding, fermentation (wine making).
Modern biotechnology: formerly (taught selective breeding).
3.4.1 GENOMICS UNIT
Genomics is a discipline in genetics that applies recombinant DNA, DNA sequencing methods, and
bioinformatics to sequence, assemble, and analyze the function and structure of genomes (the complete
set of DNA within a single cell of an organism). Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in
discovery-based research to understand even the most complex biological systems such as the brain.
The field includes efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic
mapping. It is an area within genetics that concerns the sequencing and analysis of an organism's
genome. The genome is the entire DNA content that is present within one cell of an organism. Experts
in genomics strive to determine complete DNA sequences and perform genetic mapping to help
understand disease.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth,
development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and
RNA are nucleic acids; alongside proteins and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), they are one
of the three major types of macromolecule that are essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA
14D/57MB/446
molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. The two
DNA strands are known as polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogen-containing nucleobase—either cytosine (C),
guanine (G), adenine (A), or thymine (T)—as well as a sugar called deoxyribose and a phosphate
group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one
nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar phosphate backbone. The
nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together (according to base
pairing rules (A with T, and C with G)) with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA.
DNA EXTRACTION/ISOLATION
DNA isolation is a process of purification of DNA from sample using a combination of physical and
chemical methods. The first isolation of DNA was done in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher. Currently it is
a routine procedure in molecular biology or forensic analyses.
Basic procedure
They are three basic and two optional steps in a DNA extraction:
Processes of DNA extraction are;
1. Phenol-chloro-form iso amyl-alcohol
2. Salting out method
3. Kit method; ZR Insect/tissue DNA kit
Steps in phenol-chloro-form isoamyl alcohol
Cut about 1cm/g of fish fin into an eppendorf tube.
Add 6.0ml/600µl of cell lysis buter to the fresh fin tissue
Add 7µl of proteinase K (10milligram per microkiter) and 7microliter of RNase.
Mix gently several times
Incubate (digest) at 550C overnight (12hours)
Spin tubes for 5seconds (centrifuge) at 500g to collect mixture at the bottom of the tube.
Collect the supernatant into a new eppendorf tube
Add 500µl of phenol-chloroform
Centrifuge at 12, 000rpm for 10minutes
Carefully transfer the upper phase to a new eppendorf tubes and add 1ml of 100% absolute cold
ethanol and invert gently until DNA precipitate forms.
Place on it or in refrigerator until DNA precipitate form like (20-30m).
14D/57MB/446
Centrifuge at 12,000rpm for 10m and discard the supernatant and add 1ml of 70% ethanol. This
ethanol removes excess salt which may interfere with Polymerase chain reaction.
Centrifuge at 12,000rpm for 10m and discard supernatant and air-dry.
Suspend the pellet in 50µl TE buffer.
SALTING METHOD
Cut about 1cm/g of fresh fish tissue into eppendorf tube and add 600µl of lysis buffer.
Add 7µl of proteinase K (10milligram per µl) and 7µl of RNase mix gently.
Incubate at 550C overnight in a water bath
Add 600µl of 5 molar sodium chloride solution to the sample
Mix well and centrifuge at 12, 000rpm for 10mg/µl
Transfer supernatant to well labeled eppendorf tube
Add 700µl of absolute cold ethanol and incubate sample at -200C for about 2hours
Centrifuge at 12,000rpm for 10minutes discard supernatant
Add 700µl of 70% ethanol to the pellet and mix well
Centrifuge at 12,000rpm for 10minutes discard supernatant air-dry the pellet
Re-suspend the pellet in 50µl TE buffer.
KIT METHOD
For the kit method, the practical will follow the user manual.
SET UP THE PCR REACTION
Molecular Tools/Techniques
PCR: Polymerase chain reaction is a method of generating many copies (amplification of species
DNA sequence) a gene is a short sequence e.g insulin gene. It is an artificial way of synthesizing DNA
using a thermocycler (PCR machine).
COMPONENT OF PCR
Thermocycler
DNA template can be genomic DNA or cDNA
DNA polymerase it replicate DNA
Primer
14D/57MB/446
Nucleoside triphosphate: dNTP which include dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP.
Salt i.e Mg2+
Buffer
Steps in PCR Process
Denaturation: separation of the two strands of DNA by heating at
high temperature
Annealing: the reaction is cooled . primer anneal bring together to the
complementary regions of the DNA template and polymerase
associates with short double stranded region.
Extension: the DNA polymerase extends the primer by adding
dNTPs .thus synthesizing a strand complementary to the template.
PCR Machine
Fig 12
3.4.2 PROTEOMICS UNIT
In this unit, all focus is on protein. The protein requirement of fish is analyzed and techniques to
supplement the available feeds were analyzed. Applications of proteomics have been provided in the
field of aquaculture, such as the search for antigenic proteins, detection of differentially regulated
proteins and the characterization of biologically active proteins, primarily to investigate the
physiology, development biology and the impact of contaminants in aquatic organisms
In this unit, research occurred on how to determine the protein requirement for a particular species of
fish. Proteins are form by linkage of individual amino acid through peptide bond. 200 amino acid
occur in nature only 20 amino acids are common, of this are 10 essential amino acid. e.g. Arginine,
tyrosine, tryptophan, histamine, methionine, isoleucine, glycine, leucine, valine, phenylalanine.
PROTEIN REQUIREMENT
Protein requirements are generally higher in smaller fish and decrease in bigger fish. Protein
requirement varies in raring environment. E.g water composition, water quality, genetic composition,
feeding rate of the fish.
FUNCTION OF PROTEIN
It is used for fish growth
It repair worn-out tissue
14D/57MB/446
Dietary protein catabolize as a source of energy and may serve as substrate of tissue and
carbohydrate, glycoprotein.
Formation of hormone in animals and enzymes and wide variety f other biological important
such as antibody and hemoglobin.
PROTEIN SOURCE
They are animal and plant source. Animal source are fish meal, cat fish, fish bone etc
Plant source are oil seed meal, soya beans, cotton seed, peanut etc
3.4.3 NUTRITION
In fish nutrition, it support aquaculture unit to improve production. Good nutrition keeps balance diet.
Diet can be divided into two. They are Prepare diet/artificial diet and Natural feed
Prepare diet is a complete ingredient like protein, lipid, carbohydrate etc while incomplete ingredient
support the natural feed of fish. Natural feed are available for feed in natural habitat.
EXPERIENCE GAINED
I learnt how to extract DNA from fish sample and mechanism of PCR. I also know more about protein
in fish, particularly their structures and functions and it determining its requirement for a particular
species of fish protein, interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in relation to
maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism.
14D/57MB/446
3.5 CENTRAL LABORATORY
In NIOMR’s central laboratory, below are the laboratory services that take place.
NIOMR Laboratory are able to offer premium services of international standard to commercial,
industrial and government organization such as;
1. Agricultural industries
2. Oil and gas industries
3. Food industries
4. Tertiary institutions
5. Private companies/individuals
6. Environmental related companies and agencies.
THE BELOW EQUIPMENTS ARE AUTOMATED FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS
SAMPLES
Atomic absorption spectrophotometer
Gas Chromatograph
High performance liquid chromatography
Ultraviolet/visible spectrophotometer e.t.c
ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is an analytical method that is based on the absorption of UV-
visible radiation by free atoms in the gaseous state. The food sample to be analyzed is normally ashed
and then dissolved in an aqueous solution. This solution is placed in the instrument where it is heated
to vaporize and atomize the minerals. A beam of radiation is passed through the atomized sample, and
the absorption of radiation is measured at specific wavelengths corresponding to the mineral of
interest. Information about the type and concentration of minerals present is obtained by measuring the
location and intensity of the peaks in the absorption spectra
EXPERIENCE GAINED
I learnt about the Information about the type and concentration of minerals present by measuring the
location and intensity of the peaks in the absorption spectra. I also learnt on the use of GC to analyse
crude oil and its products, water, waste water e.t.c.
14D/57MB/446
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS
THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE
The microscope employs a hollow, extremely intense cone of light concentrated on the specimen. The
field of view of the objective lens lies in the hollow, dark portion of the cone and picks up only
scattered light from the object. The clear portions of the specimen appear as a dark background, and
the minute objects under study glow brightly against the dark field. This form of illumination is useful
for transparent, unstained biological material and for minute objects that cannot be seen in normal
illumination under the microscope. It is used for cytogenic and microbiological work.
AUTOCLAVE
The autoclave is effective equipment used for steam sterilization at pressures above the atmospheric
pressure. Thus, it is possible to steam at higher temperature then the boiling point, which a lot of
microorganisms cannot withstand. Autoclaving is the most effective method for sterilizing culture
media. When sterilizing culture media with autoclave, we do so at 1.05Kg per square centimeter for 15
minutes to eliminate contaminations.
REFRIGERATOR
This is used to preserve samples, reagents etc, which are used for daily analysis and cannot be
exhausted at once. The refrigerator helps provide optimum environment for materials to be preserved.
INCUBATOR
The incubator is mainly used to incubate culture media as microbes have different optimum
temperatures for growth and reproduction. The temperature of an incubator can be set to the preferred
temperatures.
WATER BATH
This is required to incubate bottle of culture media, liquids in flasks or other large Containers, and
when incubating samples in the test tube racks.
WEIGHING BALANCE
This is a delicate instrument used for weighing essential, reagent, stains and culture media that requires
adequate weighing.
14D/57MB/446
STRAIGHT WIRE
It is made up of a thick metallic lower part and a straight thin upper metallic part usually made up of
platinum. This straight wire is used for stab culture and for picking discrete colonies. Usually sterilized
before, during and after usage. This is achieved by flaming on Bunsen burner red hot and allowed to
cool a bit before use.
WIRE LOOP
Made up of a thick metallic lower part and a straight thin upper metallic part curved into a small circle
usually made up of platinum. Wire loop is used generally for inoculating samples and picking colonies
sterilized by flaming red hot before, during and after use. It is always better to use the sides of the loop
rather than the apex during inoculation.
MYCOLOGY NEEDLE
It is made up of a thick metallic lower part and a short straight thin upper metallic part usually made up
of platinum. Used for needle mount preparations of fungi and fungi inoculation. It is usually sterilized
by flaming.
GLASS SLIDES
Used for preparation of slides for microscopy. Sterilization is by flooding with alcohol and flaming
off excess alcohol.
COVER SLIPS
This is use for covering wet smears of preparations. It is sterilized by flooding with alcohol and
flaming off excess alcohol.
PETRI DISH
Used for the preparation of culture media. It is usually bought sterilized. The disposable type cannot
used a second time while the glass ware type can be reused be usually sterilized by autoclaving.
FORCEPS
A pair of forceps is a metallic object used for handing hot object or contaminated materials. It is
sterilized by flaming red hot.
14D/57MB/446
COLONY COUNTER
It is a Microbiology laboratory equipment used to count colonies of bacteria or other microorganisms,
growing on agar, usually in a petri dish.
HEMOCYTOMETER
It is a device used to count cell under a microscope. It is used to count microalgae cells. It consists of a
thick glass microscope slide with a rectangular indentation that creates a chamber. This chamber is
engraved with laser-etched grid of perpendicular lines. The device is carefully crafted so that the depth
of the chamber is also known. It is therefore possible to count the number of cells or particles in a
specific volume of fluid, and thereby calculated the concentration of cells in the fluid overall.
MEMBRANE FILTER
It is a micro-porous plastic film with specific pore size ratings. Also known as screen, sieve or micro
porous filters, membrane retain particles or microorganism larger than their pore size primarily by
surface capture.
REFRACTOMETER
In marine aquarium keeping, a refractometer is used to measure the salinity and specific gravity of the
water.
MAGNETIC STIRRER/SHAKER
It is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic field to cause a stir bar (also called flea)
immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it. The rotating field may be created either by a
rotating magnet or a set of stationary electromagnets, placed beneath the vessel with liquid.
THE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
It is technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of pieces of DNA
across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA
sequence.
CENTRIFUGE
A centrifuge is a pieces of equipment that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis (spins it in a
circle), applying a potential strong force perpendicular to the axis of spin (outward). It is used for
isolating and separating suspensions and immiscible liquids.
14D/57MB/446
ATOMIC ABSORTION SPECTROPHOTOMETER (PG990)
For analysis of heavy metals in food, water, soil etc. such metals include: - Lead, copper, iron,
chromium, Zinc, Vanadium, Arsenic, Barium, Nickel, Cadmium and mercuty.
ILLUMINOMETER
It is an instrument that is used to measure the intensity of illumination
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY (Agilent 7890)
It is used for determination of fatty acid profile, organo-chlorine pesticides, poly-cyclic hydrocarbon
and PCBs etc in water, waste water and food.
ULTRAVIOLET/VISIBLE SPECTROPHOTOMETER
It is used for the analysis of nutrients in water soil and biological products
HIGH PERFORMING LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (LC 220 & LC 210)
It is used for the analysis of Antibiotics, vitamins, amino-acids e.t.c in drugs and agricultural products.
4.1 OTHERS EQUIPMENTS:
Other Laboratory equipment include sterilized slide, needle, syringe, ethanol, sterilized bottle, agar
(MacConkey or Chocolate), Gram positive, Gram negative sensitivity kit , cotton wool, EDTA, oil
immersion, sterilized slides, swab sticks, spirit, lancets, pipette, hot plate (dryer), centrifuge, hand
gloves, microhaematocrit centrifuge, microhaematocrit reader, anaerobic jar, test tubes, bottles, water
bath, weighing balance, pipette, beakers, bio safety cabinet.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY
5.1 EXPERIENCE GAINED
I learnt almost all the practical aspects involved in Environmental microbiology, Molecular
biology and genetic, Microbiology of sewage and water and also microbiology in general.
14D/57MB/446
I learnt to work as a team.
5.2 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
In most cases, safety rules are not taken into consideration and the necessary safety gadgets and
equipment are not usually in place.
It is suggested that some form of allowance should be given to the students by the employers as
a form of encouragement and to assist in their cost of living, basically feeding, transportation
and accommodation especially in areas far from the students’ neighborhood.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
1. I propose that more time should be given to the students of microbiology for SIWES activities
2. I recommend that government should provide placements for students undergoing SIWES in
the several fields of Nigerian Economy.
3. I recommend that more preference should be given to the power sector so as to provide
adequate light to various research institutes and laboratories in the country.
4. The Industrial Liaison office and Students’ Departmental Supervisor(s) should endeavour to
regularly visit students on site to solve some relevant problems and for adequate evaluation.
5. The University’s Departments-in-charge of student Industrial Training programme can
acquaint themselves to various company and establishment of Student Industrial Work
Experience Scheme. This will contribute to the success of the program as students could be
offered placement from school instead of them seeking for months before finding a suitable
organization.
5.4 CONCLUSION.
In conclusion this program has enabled students to gain a lot and many can now practice the applied
aspects of their various disciplines and other related areas on their own. The program has really being
educating. This serve as eye opener for students in every field of their endeavor.
REFERENCESIndustrial Training Fund, Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008) Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme [online] available from <http://odich.com/itfnig/siwes.php> [29th July, 2016]
Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine research (2016) NIOMR in brief [online] available from <http://www.niomr.gov.ng/Document/niomr%20in%20brief.docx> [29th July, 2016]
14D/57MB/446
Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine research (2016) NIOMR ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE [online] available from <www. niomr .gov.ng/Document/ Org anogram.pdf > [29th July, 2016]
Agricultural research council of Nigeria (2016) key achievement of Nigerian institute fro oceanography and marine research [online] available from <http://www.arcnigeria.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=58:nigerian-institute-for-oceanograpy-a-marine-research-lagos&catid=44:nig-institute-for-oceanography-a-marine-research&Itemid=62> [13th August, 2016] NIOMR pamphlet
14D/57MB/446