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ASSIGNMENT-01

Name :Kanika Shekhawat

Registration No. :581125443

Learning Center :Gupta Computers

Learning Center Code : 0363

Course : MBA

Subject : Research Methodology

Semester : 3rd

Module No. :B1206

Date of Submission :04 October,2012

Marks Awarded :

Directorate of Distence Education

Sikkim Manipal University

II Floor, Syndicate House

Manipal- 576104

------------------------------ --------------------------- -----------------

Signature of Coordinator Signature of Centre Signature of Evaluator

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Master of Business Administration - Semester 3MB0050: Research Methodology

(4 credits)(Book ID: B1206)

ASSIGNMENT- Set 1

Q1. a) Distinguish between Double sampling and multiphase sampling.

b) What is replicated or interpenetrating.

Q2.What are the differences between observation and interviewing as

methods of data collection? Give two specific examples of situationswhere either observation or interviewing would be more.

Q3.How case study method is useful to Business Research?

Q4.Would case studies be considered as scientific research? Why or

why not?

Q5.What are the contents of research reports?

Q6.Write short notes on the following:

a)Medianb)Standard Deviation

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ANSWERS

ANS1-DOUBLE SAMPLING :A standard form of sample design for

industrial inspection purposes. In accordance with the characteristics

of a particular plan, two samples are drawn, n1 and n2, and the first

sample inspected. The batch can then be accepted or rejected upon

the results of this inspection or the second sample be inspected and

the decision made upon the combined result.

Context:

The term has also been used somewhat loosely for what is called multi-

phase sampling and the

two-stage version of multi-stage sampling. There is a further usagewhereby a first sample provides a preliminary estimate of designparameters which govern the size of the second sample to achieve a

desired overall result.

MULTI-PHASE SAMPLING: It is sometimes convenient and

economical to collect certain items of information from the whole of

the units of a sample and other items of usually more detailed

information from a sub-sample of the units constituting the original

sample. This may be termed two-phase sampling, e.g. if the collection

of information concerning variate, y, is relatively expensive, and there

exists some other variate, x, correlated with it, which is relatively

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cheap to investigate, it may be profitable to carry out sampling in two

phases.

At the first phase, x is investigated, and the information thus obtained

is used either (a) to stratify the population at the second phase, when

y is investigated, or (b) as supplementary information at the second

phase, a ratio or regression estimate being used.

Two-phase sampling is sometimes called "double sampling".

Context:

Further phases may be added if desired. It may be noted, however,

that multiphase sampling does not necessarily imply the use of any

relationships between variates x and y. The expression is not to be

confused with multi-stage sampling.

b. Replicated or interpenetrating sampling: Interpenetrating

Sampling: interpenetrating sampling (IPS), also known as

interpenetrating sub sampling and replicated sampling. IPS was

introduced in the pioneering contribution of P.C. Mahalanobis. It was

originally proposed in assessing the non sampling errors as the so-called

interviewer errors. IPS provides a quick, simple, and effective way of

estimating the variance of an estimator even in a complex survey. In

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fact, IPS is the foundation of modern re-sampling methods like

Jackknife, bootstrap, and replication methods. In IPS, three basic

principles of experimental designs, namely, randomization, replication,

and local control, are used. IPS is used extensively not only in

agriculture, but also in social sciences, demography, epidemiology,

public health, and many other fields.

ANS2-The most complete form of the sociological datum, after all, isthe form in which the participant observer gathers it: An observation

of some social event, the events which precede and follow it, andexplanations of its meaning by participants and spectators, before,during, and after its occurrence. Such a datum gives us moreinformation about the event under study than data gathered by anyother sociological method. Participant observation can thus provide uswith a yardstick against which to measure the completeness of datagathered in other ways, a model which can serve to let us know whatorders of information escape us when we use other methods.

By participant observation we mean that method in which the observerparticipates in the daily life of the people under study, either openly inthe role of researcher or covertly in some disguised role, observingthings that happen, listening to what is said, and questioning people,over some length of time. We want, in this paper, to compare theresults of intensive field work with what might be regarded as the

first step in the other direction along this continuum: the detailed andconversational interview (often referred to as the unstructured orundirected interview).3 In this kind of interview, the interviewerexplores many facets of his interviewee's concerns, treating subjectsas they come up in conversation, pursuing interesting leads, allowing his

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imagination and ingenuity full rein as he tries to develop newhypotheses and test them in the course of the interview.

In the course of our current participant observation among medical

students? we have thought a good deal about the kinds of things wewere discovering which might ordinarily be missed or misunderstood insuch an interview. W e have no intention of denigrating the interview oreven such less precise modes of data gathering as the questionnaire,for there can always be good reasons of practicality, economy, orresearch designfor their use. We simply wish to make explicit thedifference in the data gathered by one or the other method and tosuggest the differing uses to which they can legitimately be put.

In general, the shortcomings we attribute to the interview exist whenit is used as a source of information about events that have occurredelsewhere and are described to us by informants. Our criticisms arenot relevant when analysis is restricted to interpretation of theinterviewee's conductduring the interview, in which case theresearcher has in fact observed the behavior he is talking about.? Thedifferences we consider between the two methods involve twointeracting factors: the kinds of words and acts of the people understudy that the researcher has access to, and the kind of sensitivity toproblems and data produced in him.

Our comparison may prove useful by suggestive areas in whichinterviewing (the more widely used method at present and likely tocontinue so) can improve its accuracy by taking account of suggestions

made from the perspective of the participant observer. We begin byconsidering some concrete problems: learning the native language, orthe problem of the degree to which the interviewer really understandswhat is said to him; matters interviewees are unable or unwilling to talkabout; and getting information on matters people see through

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distorting lenses. We then consider some more general differencesbetween the two methods.

Observation as a method of data collection has certaincharacteristics.

1. It is both a physical and a mental activity: The observing eyecatches many things that are present. But attention is focused ondata that are pertinent to the given study.

2.Observation is selective: A researcher does not observeanything and everything, but selects the range of things to be

observed on the basis of the nature, scope and objectives of hisstudy. For example, suppose a researcher desires to study thecauses of city road accidents and also formulated a tentativehypothesis that accidents are caused by violation of traffic rulesand over speeding. When he observed the movements of thevehicles, the persons sitting in them, their hair style, etc. all suchthings which are not relevant to his study are ignored and onlyover speeding and traffic violation are keenly observed by him.

3.Observation is purposive and not casual: it is made for thespecific purpose of noting things relevant to the study. Itcaptures the natural social context in which persons behavioroccur. It grasps the significant events and occurrences thataffect social relations of the participants.

4. Observation should be exact and be based on standardized toolsof research and such as observation schedule, social metric scale

etc., and precision instruments, if any.

Observation has following advantages:

(1) The main virtue of observation is its directness: It makes it possibleto study behavoiur as it occurs. The researcher need not ask people

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about their behavour and interactions he can simply watch what theydo and say.

(2) Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena

as they occur in their natural settings. Other methods introduceelements or artificiality into the researchers situation for instance, ininterviews, the respondent may not behave in a natural way. There is nosuch artificiality into the researched situation for instance, ininterview; the respondent may not behave in a natural way. There is notsuch artificiality in observational studies, especially when the observedpersons are not aware of their being observed

(3) Observations is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to

articulate meaningfully, e.g. studies of children, tribal, animals, birdsetc.

(4) Obeservations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextualback ground of behavior. Furthermore verbal resorts can be validatedand compared with behavior through observation. The validity of whatmen of position and authority say can be verified by observing whatthey actually do.

Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasingeffect on their conduct than questioning.

Interview method

Interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. Itmay be defined as a two way systematic conversation between aninvestigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information

relevant to a specific study. It involves not only conversation, but alsolearning from the respondents gesture, facial expressions and pauses,

and his environment. Interviewing requires face to face contact orcontact over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done byusing a structured schedule or an unstructured guide.

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Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as asupplementary one in studies of persons. Interviewing is the only

suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or lesseducated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of datafrom factual demographic data to highly personal and intimateinformation relating to a persons opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs

past experience and future intentions. When qualitative information isrequired or probing is necessary to draw out fully, and theninterviewing is required. Where the area covered for the survey is acompact, or when a sufficient number of qualified interviewers are

available, personal interview is feasible.

Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. Peopleare usually more willing to talk than to write. Once report isestablished, even confidential information may be obtained. It permitsprobing into the context and reasons for answers to questions.

Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables theinvestigator to grasp the behavioural context of the data furnished bythe respondents.

There are several advantages to personal interviewing.

First the greatest value of this method is the depth and detail ofinformation that can be secured. When used with well conceivedschedules, an interview can obtain a great deal of information. It farexceeds mail survey in amount and quality of data that can be secured.Second, the interviewer can do more to improve the percentage ofresponses and the quality of information received than other method.

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He can note the conditions of the interview situation, and adoptappropriate approaches to overcome such problems as the respondentsunwillingness, incorrect understanding of questions, suspicion, etc.

Third, the interviewer can gather other supplemental information likeeconomic level, living conditions etc. through observation of therespondents environment.

Fourth, the interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual materialsand the like in order to improve the quality of interviewing.

Fifth, the accuracy and depdendability of the answers given by therespondent can be checked by observation and probing.

Last, interview is flexible and adaptable to individual situations. Evenmore, control can be exercised over the interview situation.

Demerits of interview method

Interviewing is not free limitations. Its greatest drawback is that it iscostly both in money and time. Second, the interview results are oftenadversely affected by interviewers mode of asking questions and

interactions, and incorrect recording and also by the respondents

faulty perception, faulty memory, inability to articulate etc.

Third, certain types of personal and financial information may berefused in face-to face interviews. Such information might be suppliedmore willingly on mail questionnaires, especially if they are to beunsigned.

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Fourth, interview poses the problem of recording information obtainedfrom the respondents. No full proof system is available. Note taking in

invariably distracting to both the respondent and the interviewer andaffects the thread of the conversation.

Last interview calls for highly interviewers. The availability of suchpersons is limited and the training of interviewers is often a long andcostly process.

Situation where observation is appropriate:

Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs.For example only observation can provide an insight into all the aspectsof the process of negotiation between union and managementrepresentatives.

Situation where interview method is appropriate: to study the Readinghabits of newspaper/magazines readers.

ANS3-While case study writing may seem easy at first glance,

developing an effective case study (also called a success story) is an

art. Like other marketing communication skills, learning how to write a

case study takes time. Whats more, writing case studies without

careful planning usually results in sub optimal results?

Savvy case study writers increase their chances of success by

following these ten proven techniques for writing an effective casestudy:

Involve the customer throughout the process. Involving the customerthroughout the case study development process helps ensure customer

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cooperation and approval, and results in an improved case study. Obtaincustomer permission beforewriting the document, solicitinput duringthe development, and secure approval afterdrafting thedocument.

Write all customer quotes for their review. Rather than askingthe customer to draft their quotes, writing them for their reviewusually results in more compelling material.

Case Study Writing Ideas

Establish a document template. A template serves as a roadmapfor the case study process, and ensures that the document looks,feels, and reads consistently. Visually, the template helps buildthe brand; procedurally, it simplifies the actual writing. Beforebeginning work, define 3-5 specific elements to include in everycase study, formalize those elements, and stick to them.

Start with a bang. Use action verbs and emphasize benefits inthe case study title and subtitle. Include a short (less than 20-

word) customer quote in larger text. Then, summarize the keypoints of the case study in 2-3 succinct bullet points. The goalshould be to tease the reader into wanting to read more.

Organize according to problem, solution, and benefits.Regardless of length, the time-tested, most effectiveorganization for a case study follows the problem-solution-benefits flow. First, describe the business and/or technical

problem or issue; next, describe the solution to this problem orresolution of this issue; finally, describe how the customerbenefited from the particular solution (more on this below). Thisnatural story-telling sequence resonates with readers.

Use the general-to-specific-to-general approach. In theproblem section, begin with a general discussion of the issue that

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faces the relevant industry. Then, describe the specific problemor issue that the customer faced. In the solution section, use theopposite sequence. First, describe how the solution solved thisspecific problem; then indicate how it can also help resolve thisissue more broadly within the industry. Beginning more generallydraws the reader into the story; offering a specific exampledemonstrates, in a concrete way, how the solution resolves acommonly faced issue; and concluding more generally allows thereader to understand how the solution can also address theirproblem.

Quantify benefits when possible. No single element in a case study is

more compelling than the ability to tie quantitative benefits to thesolution. For example, Using Solution X saved Customer Y over $ZZZ,ZZZ after just 6 months of implementation; or, Thanks to Solution X,

employees at Customer Y have realized a ZZ% increase in productivityas measured by standard performance indicators. Quantifying

benefits can be challenging, but not impossible. The key is to presentimaginative ideas to the customer for ways to quantify the benefits,and remain flexible during this discussion. If benefits cannot be

quantified, attempt to develop a range of qualitativebenefits; thelatter can be quite compelling to readers as well.

Use photos. Ask the customer if they can provide shots of personnel,ideally using the solution. The shots need not be professionally done; infact, homegrown digital photos sometimes lead to surprisingly goodresults and often appear more genuine. Photos further personalize thestory and help form a connection to readers.

Reward the customer. After receiving final customer approval andfinalizing the case study, provide a pdf, as well as printed copies, tothe customer. Another idea is to frame a copy of the completed casestudy and present it to the customer in appreciation for their effortsand cooperation.

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Writing a case study is not easy. Even with the best plan, a case studyis doomed to failure if the writer lacks the exceptional writing skills,technical savvy, and marketing experience that these documentsrequire. In many cases, a talented writer can mean the differencebetween an ineffective case study and one that provides the greatestbenefit. If a qualified internal writer is unavailable, consideroutsourcing the task to professionals who specialize in case studywriting.

ANS4- Case studies are a tool for discussing scientific integrity.

Although one of the most frequently used tools for encouraging

discussion, cases are only one of many possible tools. Many of the

principles discussed below for discussing case studies can be

generalized to other approaches to encouraging discussion about

research ethics. Cases are designed to confront readers with specific

real-life problems that do not lend themselves to easy answers. Case

discussion demands critical and analytical skills and, when implemented

in small groups, also fosters collaboration (Pimple, 2002). By providing a

focus for discussion, cases help trainees to define or refine their own

standards, to appreciate alternative approaches to identifying and

resolving ethical problems, and to develop skills for analyzing and

dealing with hard problems on their own. The effective use of case

studies is comprised of many factors, including: appropriate selection

of case(s) (topic, relevance, length, complexity) method of case

presentation (verbal, printed, before or during discussion) format for

case discussion (Email or Internet-based, small group, large group)leadership of case discussion (choice of discussion leader, roles and

responsibilities for discussion leader) outcomes for case discussion

(answers to specific questions, answers to general questions, written or

verbal summaries) Research methods don't seem so intimidating when

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you're familiar with the terminology. This is important whether you're

conducting evaluation or merely reading articles about other studies to

incorporate in your program. To help with understanding, here are some

basic definitions used. Variable: Characteristics by which people orthings can be described. Must have more than one level; in other words,

to be able to change over time for the same person/object, or from

person to person, or object to object. Some variables, called

attributes, cannot be manipulated by the researcher (e.g.,

socioeconomic status, IQ score, race, gender, etc.). Some variables can

be manipulated but are not in a particular study. This occurs when

subjects self-select the level of the independent variable, or the levelis naturally occurring (as with ex post facto research). Manipulation:

Random assignment of subjects to levels of the independent variable

(treatment groups). Independent variable: The treatment, factor, or

presumed cause that will produce a change in the dependent variable.

This is what the experimenter tries to manipulate. It is denoted as "X"

on the horizontal axis of a graph. Dependent variable: The presumed

effect or consequence resulting from changes in the independent

variable. This is the observation made and is denoted by "Y" on the

vertical axis of a graph. The score of "Y" depends on the score of "X."

Population: The complete set of subjects that can be studied: people,

objects, animals, plants, etc. Sample: A subset of subjects that can be

studied to make the research project more manageable. There are a

variety of ways samples can be taken. If a large enough random

samples are taken, the results can be statistically similar to taking a

census of an entire population--with reduced effort and cost.

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Case Study: A case study is conducted for similar purpose as the above

but is usually done with a smaller sample size for more in-depth study.

A case study often involves direct observation or interviews with single

subjects or single small social units such as a family, club, schoolclassroom, etc. This is typically considered qualitative research.

Purpose: Explain or Predict Type of Research to Use: Relational Study

In a relational study you start with a research hypothesis, that is, is

what you're trying to "prove." 4-H members attending 4-H summer

camp stay enrolled in 4-H longer. The greater the number of money

management classes attended, the greater the amount of annual

savings achieved.

Types of relational studies include correlation studies and ex post

facto studies. Co relational Study: A co relational study compares two

or more different characteristics from the same group of people and

explains how two characteristics vary together and how well one can be

predicted from knowledge of the other. A concurrent co relationalstudy draws a relationship between characteristics at the same point in

time. For example, a student's grade point average is related to his or

her class rank. A predictive co relational study could predict a later set

of data from an earlier set. For example, a student's grade point

average might predict the same student's grade point average during

senior year. A predictive co relational study could also use one

characteristic to predict what another characteristic will be at

another time. For example, a student's SAT score is designed to

predict college freshman grade point average. Ex Post Facto (After

the Fact) Study: An ex post facto study is used when experimental

research is not possible, such as when people have self-selected levels

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of an independent variable or when a treatment is naturally occurring

and the researcher could not "control" the degree of its use. The

researcher starts by specifying a dependent variable and then tries to

identify possible reasons for its occurrence as well as alternative(rival) explanations such confounding (intervening, contaminating, or

extraneous) variables are "controlled" using statistics. This type of

study is very common and useful when using human subjects in real-

world situations and the investigator comes in "after the fact." For

example, it might be observed that students from one town have

higher grades than students from a different town attending the same

high school. Would just "being from a certain town" explain thedifferences? In an ex post facto study, specific reasons for the

differences would be explored, such as differences in income,

ethnicity, parent support, etc. It is important to recognize that, in a

relational study, "cause and effect" cannot be claimed. All that can be

claimed is that that there is a relationship between the variables. For

that matter, variables that are completely unrelated could, in fact,

vary together due to nothing more than coincidence. That is why the

researcher needs to establish a plausible reason (research hypothesis)

for why there might be a relationship between two variables before

conducting a study. For instance, it might be found that all football

teams with blue uniforms won last week. There is no likely reason why

the uniform color had any relationship to the games' outcomes, and it

certainly was not the cause for victory. Similarly, you must be careful

about claiming that your Extension program was the "cause" of possible

results.

ANS5-The information in the first part of this section, JournalArticles, Books, Chapters in Books, Peer Reviewed Published

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Conference Proceedings, Non-peer Reviewed Published Conference

Proceedings is filtered and extracted to formulate the PreliminaryPublication Count for the Department of Education. This is a crucialstep in the subsidy calculation process and it is of the utmostimportance that this information must be as comprehensive accurate aspossible. All research publications, which appeared in 2004, must beincluded, even if they are "in press". There will be an opportunity earlyin February to submit volume and page numbers of papers, which haveappeared in the interim. Publications should be listed using the Harvardreferencing system, without using italics or bold. Journal names mustappear in full. Abbreviations will be returned to departments for

expansion. (Theses passed for higher degrees are subsidy earning butthis information is not included in the Preliminary Publication Count.)

The second part of this section, Published Conference Abstracts,Patents, Theses & Dissertations passed for Higher Degrees,

University Publications & Publications of a Popular Nature -

Unrefereed Journal Articles, Newspaper Articles, CD's, Online

Works, Extension and Development Work, Creative Work,

Consultancy and Other Activities based on Expertise Developed in

Research (gives departments the opportunity to demonstrate theextent and nature of their extension and development work),Motivation for the addition of a South African Journal to the list

of South African approved journals. The work included here is notsubsidy earning but nevertheless is an important aspect of scholarlyactivity at UCT.

JOURNAL ARTICLESThis category covers all articles in journals. Articles fall into 2categories - those for which the university earns subsidy and arepublished in 'approved' journals; and those for which the university

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does not get a subsidy. Please ensure that journal names appear in fulland points below are clearly stated when submitting.

1. Surnames & initials of authors 3. Title of article 5. Volume number 7.

Page numbers of article 2. Year 4. Journal name 6. Issue number

BOOKS

This section must include ALL books, scholarly peer-reviewed,textbooks, novels, coffee-table books, etc produced by UCTresearchers. It should also include edited Conference Proceedingsproduced in a book format where a UCT staff member or researcher is

the editor or part of the editorial panel. Details of year of publication,editor/s, publisher, place, total number of pages of books must beprovided.

1. Surnames & initials of authors 4. Target group/audience of book(only for subsidy-earning books 7. ISBN number (only for subsidy-earning books) 2. Year 5. If 2nd/3rd etc. edition, provide page numbersof new sections (only for subsidy-earning books) 8. Page numbers of

book 3. Title of Chapter 6. Evidence of peer review (statement frompublisher on peer review policy) (only for subsidy- earning books) 9.Place of publication and publisher

CHAPTERS IN BOOKS

This section should include bona fidechapters in books only and notconference papers published in Proceedings. Details of year of

publication. Editor/s, publisher, place, first to last page numbers of thechapter must be provided.

1. Surnames & initials of authors 4. Target group/audience of book(only for subsidy-earning books 7. ISBN number (only for subsidy-earning books) 2. Year 5. If 2nd/3rd etc. edition, provide page numbers

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of new sections (only for subsidy-earning books 8. Page numbers ofchapter 3. Title of Chapter 6. Evidence of peer review (statement frompublisher on peer review policy) (only for subsidy- earning books) 9.Place of publication and publisher

PEER REVIEWEDPUBLISHED CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

This should include all papers published in Conference Proceedings,which are substantial refereed publications, which will be the final andonly publications of that material. This does not include publishedabstracts. Peer-reviewed published conference proceedings count forsubsidy purposes and there must be evidence of the peer-review

procedure. Please note that unpublished conference proceedings arenot included.

1. Surnames & initials of authors 4. Title of conference 6. Pagenumbers 2. Year 5. Evidence of peer review 7. ISBN number 3. Title ofpaper 6. Place of conference

NON-PEER REVIEWED PUBLISHED

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGSThis section includes published proceedings that have not beensubmitted to a strict peer-review process, and as such, are notsubsidy-earning but are included in the annual research report.

PUBLISHED CONFERENCE ABSTRACTS

This section should include abstracts of papers published in the formalscientific literature only. However, authoritative works such as plenary,honorific and invited keynote addresses/papers given at conferencesmay also be included.

PATENTS

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These must be final registered patents, and not provisional patents.They do count for subsidy-earning purposes.

THESES AND DISSERTATIONS PASSED

FOR HIGHER DEGREES

This section should include all master's dissertations and doctoral theses passed in 2004. Please

note the technical distinction between them. A doctoral thesis is required to be a defense of

original research, whereas a master's dissertation could be original research or a review of others'work. Please provide full-page numbers.

UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS AND

WORKS OF A POPULAR NATUREThis section should include all non-peer-reviewed publications, UCTpublications, educational CD ROMS, etc that have a scholarly natureand are associated with the research enterprise. Newspaper articlesare included here.

NEWSPAPER ARTICLES

CD's

ONLINE WORKS

EXTENSION AND DEVELOPMENT WORK (UNPUBLISHED)

This section gives researchers the opportunity to report briefly ontheir unpublished extension and development work. It should include

only completed work, and not reports or drafts intended forpublication as formal papers at a later date. Each item should includesome indication of its recipient or ultimate location. What should beincluded must be documents; CD-ROMs, etc. should be listed.

CREATIVE WORKS, PERFORMANCES, EXHIBITIONS

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This section includes original musical, dramatic and other artisticworks, or new productions of existing works. Each item can include avery brief note about its significance. The "creation" of course notes,academic programme plans, technical devices etc. does not qualify.

CONSULTANCY AND OTHER ACTIVITIES BASED ON EXPERTISE

DEVELOPED IN RESEARCH

This section should include short descriptions of the nature of theactivity and the output. Please keep this brief. Please refer to the2001, 2002 or 2003 Research Reports as a guide.

ANS6-

a. Median

Median is the middlemost item of a given series. In individual series, wearrange the given data according to ascending or descending order andtake the middlemost item as the median. When two values occur in themiddle, we take the average of these two values as median. Sincemedian is the central value of an ordered distribution, there occur

equal number of values to the left and right of the median.Individual seriesMedian = (N+ 1 / 2)th item

b. Standard deviationStandard deviation is the most important measure of dispersion. Itsatisfies most of the properties of a good measure of dispersion. Itwas introduced by Karl Pearson in 1893. Standard deviation is definedas the mean of the squared deviations from the arithmetic mean.Standard deviation is denoted by the Greek letterMean deviation and standard deviation are calculated from deviation ofeach and every item. Standard deviation is different from meandeviation in two respects. First of all, algebraic signs are ignored incalculating mean deviation. Secondly, signs are taken into account in

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calculating standard deviation whereas, mean deviation can be foundfrom mean, median or mode. Whereas, standard deviation is found onlyfrom mean.Standard deviation can be computed in two methods1. Taking deviation from actual mean

2. Taking deviation from assumed mean.

-x)2 / N

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