MDDE 603: FOUNDATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: SYSTEM ...€¦ · MDDE 603 Assignment 1 1 MDDE 603:...

MDDE 603 Assignment 1 1

MDDE 603: FOUNDATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN:

SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND LEARNING THEORY

CHARITY FAKINLEDE

STUDENT ID: 2918004

ASSIGNMENT 1

Topic:

Applying Systems Theory to an Educational Setting


Table of Content

Page

Part I: Description of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

General Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

System Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

The Functions/Structure Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Part II: Checkland’s Approach to System Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Stage 1: The Problem Situation Unstructured. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Stage 2: Rich Pictures . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..13

Stage 3: Relevant Systems and their Root Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Stage 4: Conceptual Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Stage 5: Comparison of Conceptual Model with Rich Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Stage 6: Debate of Problem Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Stage 7: Implementation of Agreed Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24


Part I: Systems Analysis

Introduction

The social environment is made up of different human activity systems, open

and closed to various degrees. Today’s world of complexities, need dynamic social

systems that would create knowledge, organise information and use technology in

order to respond to an ever changing and turbulent social environment.

The educational system is an example of an open system, consisting of all

educational institutions of every kind and level. This system have other systems,

peer systems and subsystems with common concepts, principles and paradigms

which interconnect, interact and interrelate within a general environment – the supra-

system. Banathy (1995), states:

“The systems view is a way of looking at ourselves, at the environments we

live in, at the systems that surround us, and at those we are part of. It is a

holistic and expansionist way of viewing the world.”

General Environment

In the last ten years, due to financial constraints, the Nigerian educational

system has witnessed very little expansion of its facilities in order to accommodate

the ever growing population of qualified candidates seeking higher education in the

country (Ogili, 1996). UNESCO’s recommendation of 26% of the national budget for

the nation’s education sector has never been met by the federal government at any

point in time. National statistics put government’s subvention to the entire

educational system at a yearly rate of 2%.

Negative attitudes and misconceptions by ministry officials have also

contributed to the slow pace of expansion of the educational facilities and

infrastructure (UNESCO, 2001). The country’s seventy-two universities provide


180,000 spaces yearly for new intakes. In 1998, twenty-four percent of qualified

candidates obtained admission, falling to five percent in 2002 and rising to eight

percent in 2004 (Ipaye, 2007). According to government sources, 1.2 million qualified

candidates sat for the national admission examination, one in seven candidates is

expected to be offered an admission for the 2009/2010 session. This is a far cry from

meeting the higher education needs of the country.

Furthermore, the poor state of the nation’s economy has made it very difficult

for high school students to secure employment after graduation, thus, making it

necessary for many of them to acquire additional skills and better competencies to

give them the added advantage to compete successfully for the few available jobs.

As a response to the general environmental factors (socio-economic and

political), the specific needs of the educational system in particular, and the need to

fill this yawning gap, CompTek, a government approved educational advancement

centre, has provided computer vocational certificate courses to high school

graduates, for many years. It has helped in no small way, in the empowerment of

those who otherwise would have had to stay at home, waiting indefinitely for

admission into higher institutions or for non-existent jobs.

A few of us concerned individuals have decided to make our little contribution

to our society, by setting up institutions that will enhance the skills of young people

and prepare them for the stiff competition out there in the market place. In the past

fifteen years, this has been the environment we have been part of and operated in.

Vision

Providing the nation’s youth with the computer technology skills and

competencies; for online learning, the national job market and ultimately for global

competitiveness, through a highly rated computer literacy and education program.


System Description

The CompTek educational system offers admission to students who have

successfully completed high school education. The Computer Vocational Certificate

(CVC) is awarded to students who have successfully completed a minimum of six

courses in nine months of intensive, practical, hands-on computer training program.

The regular courses offered are:

Introduction to computers and the operating system

Quantitative methods

Computer programming in Basic

Word processing

Spreadsheets

Databases

Business communications

Desktop publishing

Internet and World Wide Web (www)

Graphics

The teaching and learning process of the educational system is built around

the transactional theory of learning; teacher-learner, learner-instructional materials

and learner-learner, and a commitment to the establishment of a vibrant

collaborative community of learners (Moore, 1989). It involves a face-to-face

classroom teaching method, hands-on computer practice and student group

activities and projects.

The system offers flexibility and accessibility to all students who want to

continue with learning, retraining and skills upgrade. It also offers opportunity for


those who may want to choose a study environment that is conducive and

compatible with their individual situations and life goals.

There are component elements within the CompTek educational system

which we have put in place to deliver a successful computer certificate program.

These interrelated and interconnected subsystems consist of students, student

support, courses and courseware production, computer laboratory services, Library

and administrative services. It is a fully integrated system where students are

instructed, supported by properly designed instructional materials and the efforts of a

vibrant collaborative community of learners. Over the years, the system has been

adjudged to have delivered high quality outcomes to our student population, have

met the expectations of the owners, other stakeholders and have continued to do so.

The primary stakeholders and owners of the system consist of five members

of the Board of Directors, who have invested significantly, financially and otherwise

in the organization. The Board is the highest decision-making body, which is

responsible for determining and approving company policies and strategies of

CompTek. It is headed by the Chairman with a one-term of two years, renewable for

a second and final term. The Managing Director is a member of the Board and he or

she is responsible for the day-to-day running of the organization. There are four

departments with heads of departments reporting to the Managing Director.

The next set of stakeholders is the students, a population of three hundred at

any point in time, who over the years have continued to trust and patronize the

system. Then, there is also a committed and dependable faculty and staff, consisting

of thirty members who are responsible for course design, teaching, mentoring,

supervision and administration.


Lastly, the other stakeholders of the institution are made up of suppliers,

external auditors, professional consultants, education inspectors, part-time workers

and others who interact from with the system from time to time.

With these subsystems firmly in place, the system has continued to produce

the expected quality system outcomes. Student success in national and international

examinations, students’ persistence and satisfaction, observable and verifiable on-

the-job performance of our graduating students, are some of the feedback

mechanisms that over the years have given credibility to the high ratings of the

system outcomes. These outcomes can best be viewed in terms of the qualitative

computer skills and competencies regularly injected into the supra-system, financial

returns on investment for its Directors, and income for both staff and clients.

What are the reasons for this success story? There is a regular internal

evaluation of all subsystems on an on-going basis. Regular visits to assess and

monitor teaching and learning processes, effectiveness of instructional materials and

system procedures in order to ensure the achievement of the desired outcomes are

also carried out by government ministry officials from time to time. An overall system

review is carried out every three years by the government’s supervising agencies.

It must be emphasized that to guarantee continuity, growth and quality

outcomes, assessment and monitoring have become critical elements and

procedures that cannot be overlooked in this integrated educational system (Saba,

2000).

System’s Analysis

The continuity and sustainability of any highly rated program, like the one

offered by CompTek educational system requires an efficient integration of all its

subsystems. A system’s analysis of functions, activities and vision within an


acceptable framework or model may become necessary from time to time, towards

the attainment of its goals. Banathy’s three-lens model is a fundamental approach to

soft system’s analysis that is also compatible with Checkland’s (1981) human activity

system (HAS). Walton (2004) states,

“Banathy‟s three-lenses are best considered types of views or

categories of focus . . . . The name of each lens and its associated

focus is given below:

System-Environment. What is the system of interest?

Functions/Structure Lens. What is the system about?

Process Lens. How does the system transform inputs to outputs?”

A system’s analysis of CompTek will be undertaken using Banathy’s second

lens - the functions/structure lens.

The Function/Structure Lens

It is must be mentioned that administrative expertise, structure and functions

are necessary requirements for the efficient and successful operation of an

organization such as CompTek. The system functions and activities (Table 1) are

carried out by (a) the faculty who is responsible for the preparation of the course

materials and the teaching of students; (b) the support services, the library and the

computer centre staff who provide teaching, learning and social support services to

students; and (c) the administrative staff who coordinate and are responsible for the

integration of all the component elements needed for an efficient operation of this

educational system.

The system’s functional structure (Figure 1) is a graphical representation of

the functional hierarchical structure of the organization.


Table 1: System Functions and Activities

S/No Functions Major Activities

A Coordinating academic program

Designing courses, instructional materials, teaching, assessing and producing and publishing courseware

B Supporting Student’s teaching and learning

Taking students through orientation, providing social and emotional support for students

C Providing Computing and Library Services

Providing access to hands-on computer activities, instructional materials, academic papers and articles.

D Enrolling students, Accounting and staffing

Enrolling students, accounting for financial transactions, staffing, promotions and staff welfare

E Directing, Coordinating, Implementing

Coordinating day to day activities of the organization, implementing policies, strategies and building a company culture.

F Making decision and mobilizing resources

Deciding on company policies, strategies and mobilizing finance and other resources for the organization.

Supervising Agency

Standards, Resources

Students

___________________________________________________________________ Figure 1: System‟s functional structure

F – Making decisions on policies,

Strategies, and mobilizing

resources

E – Directing,

Coordinating,

implementing

C – Providing

Computing and

Library Services

D –Enrolling

Students, Financial

accounting and

staffing

B – Supporting

student’s teaching

and learning

A – Coordinating academic

program. Designing courses,

Teaching, Assessment and

producing courseware

Publishing


Finally, no matter how well organized or well operated a system is, it would,

inadvertently, at one point or the other face new challenges such as technology

challenges, organizational management challenges and other subsystem

challenges. With such challenges come the practical realities produced by these

problems that owners and stakeholders within the organization would have to

resolve. In order to find lasting solutions to these challenges, it may become

necessary to carry out an overall systems analysis, a process that could change the

functions, structure and to a large extent, the future of the organizational system.


Part II: Checkland’s Approach to System Analysis

Introduction:

Individuals have different understanding and perspectives of situations; they

look at the world through personal world view windows that define and determine

reality of what is and what ought to be. Soft systems approach to finding solutions to

organizational “problems” assume that problems are not independent of human

beings, they are actually human constructs influenced by perceptions of individuals

within a system. Naughton (1984) states:

The reason for its ubiquity is simply that soft systems analysts realized long

ago that insight into problem settings come from an appreciation of the

Weltanschauung-driven perceptions of the people involved in the situation (p.

11).

It is generally acceptable to soft systems protagonists that “problems” are

personal or social constructs, therefore can only be resolved also through ideas that

are rationally constructed. Problems do not exist in isolation, but are interconnected

at various levels of interactivity. In Ackoff, (1974) words:

“We have also come to realize that no problem ever exists in complete

isolation. Every problem interacts with another and is, therefore, part of a set

of interrelated problems, a system of problems . . . Furthermore, solutions to

most problems produce other problems . . . English does not contain a

suitable word for „systems of problems‟. Therefore, I have had to coin one. I

choose to call such a system a „mess‟.”

Checkland’s (1981) approach to soft systems analysis is an investigation

process that begins with an identification of the problem situation, the problem

owners and actors. The seven iterative stages of Checkland’s approach consist of:


1. The problem situation

2. The situation analyzed

3. Relevant Systems and Root Definitions

4. Conceptual Model

5. Comparison of stage 4 and 2

6. Debate on feasible and desirable changes

7. Implementation.

Stage 1: Problem situation unstructured

CompTek students are protesting their dissatisfaction with the non distribution

of instructional materials and textbooks for their courses, two weeks into a new term.

The seriousness of the issue necessitated the call by the Managing Director for an

investigation into the issues, the validity of the complaints by the students, the cause

of the delay in distribution of course materials and prevention of such situation in the

future.

The analyst who is the problem-solver has made several visits to the

company, to negotiate access, terms of reference and embark on a general

familiarization tour of the institution. After due consultation, the Managing Director as

the client has provided the analyst with a small office and the necessary working

tools to equip him for the job and also has requested the cooperation of all staff,

heads of departments and customers who have been identified as the problem-

owners in the situation.

Stage 2: The Situation Analyzed

Having done an initial exploratory study of the problem situation, and also

carried out many follow up interviews, several times with all the actors, it has

become clear that different people – students, staff, faculty, managers and the


publisher, have perceived the issues differently; and it is now time to pull together a

picture of the unbiased, factual, objective and subjective information gathered over

the past few weeks from the problem situation.

Rich Picture 1:

1. The students did not receive their instructional materials and textbooks two

weeks into the new term, no explanation was given to them and they are

very upset by the prevailing situation of having to study without textbooks.

2. The publisher failed to deliver on the agreed delivery date, because the

programs department did not get the manuscripts to him on the agreed

date, and no payment was made by the accounts department.

3. The program department is short-staffed, over-worked and could not meet

up with deadlines. The staff shortages are due to down-sizing policy of the

Board of Directors.

4. The program department accused administration of sloppiness with

contract agreements of external course designers leading to delays in the

preparation of manuscripts, and also did not make the necessary

copyrights and intellectual property rights agreements with authors.

5. The administrative/accounts department says it had difficulties with

meeting the financial obligations of the course designers and the publisher,

because some students defaulted in their financial obligations/fees

complaining about the loss of jobs or family incomes due to the global

economic down-turn.

6. The organization also lost some of its funds in the failed Banks and could

not secure a loan facility from any financial institutions because of the

global economic melt down.


Rich Picture 2:

Stage 3: Relevant Systems and their Root Definitions

The pictorial representation of the rich picture in stage two has described fully

the true problem situation, everybody blaming every other person; no one is taking

responsibility for the system break-down. A rigorous reflection has provided an

emerging insight into the system problems and has thrown up pertinent concerns

which have defined the two Issue-based and one Task-based Relevant Systems.

1. The issue of financial constraints;

2. The issue of manpower shortages;

3. The task of coordination and communication gaps between departments.

The first Relevant System is the inability to mobilize enough financial

resources for the effective running of the organization and to meet its cash flow

requirements. The second Relevant System is the need to review the human

Analyst

Global economic

down-turn

Students

Managing Director

No textbooks!

No course materials!!

No funds

Banks: its your fault.

Students: its your fault Publishers failed to deliver To Admin: you are sloppy, Its your fault; To MD: under staffing & down sizing

Bank

s

Admin

Programs

Publishers

Why were there no

students’ textbooks?

No manuscripts

No payments

Inquiry


resources requirements of the organization, review the down-sizing policies and staff

development strategies. The third Relevant System is the need to perform the task of

proper coordination, bridge the communication gaps that exist within the system,

ensure proper monitoring, control and free flow of information between all

departments.

These suggested relevant systems are the processes needed to improve the

problem situation. There is the need to provide a platform for the commencement of

debates and negotiations necessary towards consensus and the successful

achievement of the system goals. The Relevant Systems which emerged from the

Rich Picture of the organization are: Issue-based (two) and Task-based (one) from

the problem situation. The next stage will be describing in greater details the

system’s Root Definition.

The Root Definition:

A system to teach high school graduates computer technology skills for the

job market, global competitiveness and life-long learning capabilities by deploying

financial, infrastructural, human and administrative resources.

The basic structure of the Root Definition is:

A system to teach high school graduates

computer skills and competencies

By deploying resources

Financial

Infrastructure

Human

Administrative


The CATWOE criterion is providing a second line of assessment and criticism

of the Root Definition.

C – Customers High school graduates

A – Actors the whole organization – departments and staff

T – Transformation teaching, hands-on computer practice, group Projects

W – Weltanschauung providing quality computer training for high school

graduates.

O – Owner the Managing Director on behalf of the Board of

Directors.

E – Environment Education Ministry, Banks, publisher, professional

clients and suppliers.

Stage 4: Conceptual Model

The conceptual model stage is further describing what the system is and what

it does. By creating a graphical model of the human activities and logical processes,

the model is trying to outline logical sequences of the relevant system.

Front-Line Activities:

A Know - required education standards of the government.

B Obtain - operating license from government

C Mobilize - financial resources

D Provide - required physical infrastructure

E Recruit - faculty and staff

F Design - courses and course materials

G Enroll - students

H Teach - students

I Coordinate - the above activities


Graphical Conceptual Model 1:

I - Coordinate all activities

F - Design

Courses &course

materials

B - Obtain

operating

license

E - Recruit

faculty and staff

D - Provide

physical

infrastructure

G - Enroll

Students

A - Know

Govt standards &

requirements

C - Mobilize

financial

resources

H - Teach

Students


The graphical conception model 2 further identifies, describes and explains in

greater details the sub-activities of the front-line processes of the educational

system.

Graphical Conceptual Model 2:

Coordinate All

Activities

Design

Design courses

Write text

Edit text

Send to publisher

Receive textbooks

Obtain

Apply for license

Obtain approval

Pay for license fees

Recruit

Advertise

Short list

Interview

Appoint

Train

Provide

Purchase building

Purchase

computers

Purchase office

equipments

Enroll

Advertise

Screen

Admit

Register

Know

Visit govt depart

Submit proposal

Initiate discussions

Collect requirements

Mobilize

Visit the Bank

Apply for credit

Obtain funding

Obtain investor’s funds

Teach

Tutoring

Computer

practice

Assignments

Student Projects

Evaluate

Graduate students


Stage 5: Comparison of Conceptual Model with Rich Picture

The fifth stage of the Checkland’s methodology provides an opportunity for

comparing, highlighting and presenting similarities and differences between the

problem situation in the real-world and the abstract highly developed relevant

system. The purpose of this comparison is to develop an acceptable agenda for

stakeholders’ meaningful debate of the different perspectives and perceptions of the

issues identified through the system analysis process.

There are obvious similarities between the issues raised by the relevant

systems and the real-world situation: there are no problems with physical

infrastructure; there was the need to mobilize adequate funds; the need to review

staffing policies; the need for preparation and supply of course materials before

deadlines; the need for effective coordination of all activities; and the need for

efficient flow of information (communication) throughout the institution.

The table below is a summary of the comparison between the real-world

(problem situation) and the relevant system conceptual model.

Table 1: Agenda Issues

Conceptual

Model

Activity

Description

Present

in Real-

World?

Remarks Agenda

Item?

A Know required education standards of the government

NO

The activity was done before

commencement but needs to be

evaluated from time to time

YES

B Obtain operating license from government

NO

Obtained before the

commencement of activities

NO

C Provide required physical infrastructure

NO

This activity was done and the

physical infrastructure is in place

NO

D Mobilize financial resources

YES

Financial crunch, more funds

need to be injected into the

system

YES

E Recruit faculty and staff

YES

Staff shortage, down-sizing

policy needs a review

YES


Conceptual

Model

Activity

Description

Present

in Real-

World?

Remarks Agenda

Item?

A Know required education standards of the government

NO

The activity was done before

commencement but needs to be

evaluated from time to time

YES

B Obtain operating license from government

NO

Obtained before the

commencement of activities

NO

F Design course materials for publishing

YES

Done by experts in conjunction

with faculty but need review of

time-line and scheduling.

YES

G Enroll students

NO

No obvious problems with

admission and student

enrolments.

NO

H Teach students

YES

Delays, course materials and

textbooks should reach students

before courses commence.

YES

I Coordinate the above activities

YES

A possible failure of system coordination, monitoring and control.

YES

Stages sixth and seventh could not in practical terms be carried out in this

exercise; however, there is a discussion of the procedure to be undertaken in the

following paragraphs.

Stage 6: Problem situation debate by the people involved.

Stage six deals with debates, negotiations of perspectives of all stakeholders.

The issues raised by the system analysis will need to be addressed by the major

stakeholders: the client which in this case is Managing Director of CompTek on

behalf of the Board of Directors; the problem owners – faculty and staff (who are

relevant to the functioning of the system) and the problem solver – the analyst.

The analyst in full consultation with Managing Director will convene the first

meeting of the Board of Directors and the instrument for the discussions is the

Agenda prepared by the analyst which has already been highlighted in stage 5. The

meeting will agree on the areas that need changes and adjustments in the problem

situation. However, if the meeting fails to reach any consensus on the issues raised


by the model, the analysts may need to come up with an alternative conceptual

model of the relevant system in the shortest possible time.

The second meeting will be convened for all the other actors; faculty and staff

to discuss the decisions of the Board. Generally, the success of these meetings will

depend on the consensus reached by stakeholders based on the desirability and

feasibility of the actions and adjustments that must be carried out in the problem

situation.

Stage 7: Implementation of Agreed Changes

The stakeholders having negotiated and consented to the conceptual model

of the relevant system, the final stage would be that of implementation of agreed

changes.

The result of the soft systems analysis of the CompTek shows there are no

serious structural problems which may need structural changes, the problem

situation revealed by the rich picture relevant system analysis shows there are

issues of finance, staffing, communication and the task of coordination. The

management will have to take more responsibility for the efficient running of the

organization through proper coordination, monitoring and control.

Lastly, the mobilization of funds, staff recruitment and retention are

management and policy issues that should be implemented as soon as possible by

the highest decision-making body - the Board of Directors. A successful

implementation of these changes will go a long way to ensuring the survival and

indeed the success, viability and sustainability of CompTek in the long run.

Conclusion

The first part of the article addressed CompTek as an educational system,

describing its main features, components, operational processes and feedback


mechanisms and using the Banathy’s second lens to view and analyze CompTek

systems.

The second part of the article covered the selection and description of a

problem situation in CompTek Training Center. The Checkland’s soft system

analysis approach was undertaken, following meticulously the seven stages of

system analysis, which involved the depiction of the problem situation, Rich pictures,

Relevant Systems and their Root Definitions. Also included was the validated by the

CATWOE checklist, formulation of the Conceptual Model, comparison of Conceptual

Model and the Rich Picture. Finally, a discussion of the sixth and seventh stages,

which covered the debates, negotiations, decision-making and implementation

processes.


References

Ackoff, R. L. (1974). Redesigning the Future. John Wiley. Banathy, B. (1995). Developing a systems view of education. Eagle woods Cliffs, NJ:

Educational Technology Publications, June, (pp. 53-57). Checkland, P. (1981). Systems Thinking, Systems Practice, Wiley, New York. Ipaye, Babatunde (2007). Organisation of Dual Mode Distance Education Institutions in Nigeria: suggested models and contextual issues. Unpublished Workshop

paper.

Moore, M. (1989). Three Types of Transaction. In M. G. Moore, & G. C. Clark (Eds.), Readings in Principles of Distance Education (pp. 100-105). University Park, PA: The Pensyvania State University

Naughton, J. (1984). ). Soft Systems Analysis: An Introduction Guide. The Open

University Technology, pp. 11. Ogili, E.E. (1996). Factors Militating Against the Development of Distance Education in Nigeria. Journal of Nigeria Research in Social Sciences and Education. 1(1) 4-10. Saba, F. (2000). Research in Distance Education: A Status Report. Review of

Research in Open and Distance Learning 1(1). Retrieved November 29, 2002 from: http://www.irrodl.org/content/v1.1/farhad.pdf

UNESCO (2001). The Development and Future of Distance Education in 9 High- Population Countries. Paris.

Walton, D.C. (2004). Modelling organizational systems: Banathy’s three lenses

Revisited. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 17(4), 265-284.

http://www.irrodl.org/content/v1.1/farhad.pdf

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