Measuring and Managing CO2 Emissions
of European Chemical Transport
Professor Alan McKinnonDr Maja Piecyk
Logistics Research CentreHeriot-Watt UniversityEDINBURGH, UK
Report prepared for
For electronic version of this report, see www.cefic.org
Contents
Foreword 2
ExecutiveSummary 3
1.Introduction 4
2.MeasurementofCO2Emissions 5 2.1Settingobjectivesforcarbonmeasurement 5 2.2Selectingmethodsofcalculation 5 2.3Definingboundaries 6 2.4Factorsaffectingthechoiceofemissionfactors 9 2.5ReviewofEuropeandatasourcesonfreightemissionfactors 13 2.6Characteristicsofchemicaltransportoperations 14 2.7Averageemissionfactorsforthemovementofchemicalsbythedifferenttransportmodes 16 2.8Recommendedaverageemissionfactorsforchemicaltransportoperations 20
3.MeasurementofTransport-relatedCO2EmissionsinotherSectors 21
4.OpportunitiesforDecarbonisingChemicalTransportOperations 25 4.1Modalsplit 26 4.2Supplychainstructure 27 4.3Vehicleutilisation 27 4.4Fuelefficiency 29 4.5Carbonintensityoffuel 30
5.CostEffectivenessofDecarbonisationMeasures 31
6.Conclusion 34
Biographies 36
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Foreword
Climatechangeisoneofthebiggestchallengesfac-ingindustries,governmentsandsociety.
Policymakersandindustrysectorsacrosstheworldareworkingtounderstandtheirownroleandrequiredactions.Individualchemicalcompaniesarealreadydoingalotofworkintheareaofenergyefficiencyandinnovation,recognisingenvironmentalperformance–alongsidehealth,safetyandsecurity–asessentialforbusinesssuccess.
Thechemicalindustryisuniquelyplacedtoenableenergysavingsandreducegreenhousegasemissionsthroughtheapplicationofourproducts,forexamplebuildinginsulationandlow-temperaturedetergents.TheEuropeanchemicalindustryhasanexcellenttrackrecordovermanydecadesofimprovingenergyefficiencyatitsmanufacturingsites.
Toidentifyhowwecanimprovetheperformanceofthelogisticsoperationsofthechemicalindustry,wemustfirstunderstanditscurrentcarbonfootprint.Bydevelopingacommonunderstandingofhowtocal-culatethis,alongwithrelatedissuesandchallenges,individualcompanieswillbeabletoassessthemselvesinawaythatiscomparableacrosstheindustry.
InthisReport,ProfessorAlanMcKinnonandDrMajaPiecykassessarangeofexistingtoolsandtheoriesoncarbonfootprinting.Theirreviewofavailableliteratureillustratesthenumerousapproachesandassumptionsinthisarea.McKinnonandPiecykalsolookatthelessonsthatcanbelearntfromwhatotherindustriesaredoing.
Althoughthereisnodefinitivemethodologyoncalculatingcarbonemissionsatpresent,thereportprovidesclearguidanceinkeyareas.
Bytakingacloserlookattheoperationsofsomeofthelargerchemicalcompanies,McKinnonandPiecykareabletostarttobuildapictureofcurrentCO2emissionsofthevarioustransportmodes.Finally,theyconsidersomeofthepotentialdecarbonisationmeasuresavailabletothechemicalindustryandthepossiblechallengesthatneedtobeovercometoachievethese.
ThisReportrepresentsthefirststeptounderstand-inghowwecanassessandimproveouroperations.Incommissioningthiswork,thechemicalindustryistakingaproactiveroleinimprovingthemeasurementandmanagementoftransport-relatedcarbonemis-sionsaspartofitscontinuingcommitmenttosafe,efficientandsustainablelogistics.
Jack EggelsChairman
Cefic Strategy Implementation Group Logistics
Cefic - European Chemical Industry Council
Executive Summary
Thisreportexaminestheoptionsformeasuringandreducingcarbondioxide(CO2)emissionsfromtransportingchemicalsproducedinEurope.Itisbasedonareviewofliterature,theresultsofapreliminarysurveyoflargechemicalcompaniesundertakenbyCefic,interviewswithseniorlogisticsmanagersinthechemicalindustryandahigh-levelworkshoponthesubjectconvenedbyCefic.Thestudyalsoinvestigatedthemeasurementofcarbonemissionsfromtransportinotherindustrialsectorstoseewhatlessons,ifany,canbelearnedbychemicalcompanies.
Thereportbeginsbyconsideringthereasonswhycompaniesneedtocarbonfootprinttheirtransportoperations.Itthendiscussesaseriesofkeyissuesthatmustberesolvedwhendesigningacarbonmeasure-mentsystemforfreighttransport.Theseincludethechoiceofapproach(eitherenergy-basedoractivity-based),thedefinitionofcorporate,functional,systemandgeographicalboundariesaroundthelogisticssystemtobeaudited,thetypesofgreenhousegas(GHG)andtransportmodestobeincludedinthecalculation,thedegreeofanalyticaldisaggregationandassumptionstomadeabouttheallocationofemissionsfromtheemptyrepositioningofvehiclesandcontainers.
Wethenreviewthepublisheddata,atbothEuropeanandnationallevels,oncarbonemissionfactorsforthevarioustransportmodesusedbychemicalcompa-nies.Arangeofvaluesexistforeachmodereflectingdifferencesinprimarydatasourcesandassumptionsaboutvehicleloadfactors,fuelefficiencyandtypeofenergy(forelectrifiedrailfreightservices).Tableshavebeencompiledtoshowtherangeofvaluesreportedinpublishedreportsanddata-sets.Aseriesofaver-ageemissionfactorsarethenrecommendedforthemovementofchemicalsbyeachofthetransportmodes,takingaccountoftheparticularcharacter-isticsofchemicallogistics.Inthecaseoftrucking,thedominantmodeofchemicaltransport,matricesarepresentedtoshowhowtheaverageemissionfactorsvarywiththeweight-basedloadingfactorandpercentageofemptyrunning.Giventhediversityofwaterbornefreightservices,separateaverageemis-sionfactorsareprovidedfordifferenttypesofshort-seaanddeep-seaoperations.Mode-specificemissionfactorshavebeencombinedtoderivecompositeemissionfactorsforinter-modalfreightservices.
AstheEuropeanchemicalindustryisnotaloneintryingtocarbonfootprintitstransportoperations,acomparisonhasbeenmadeofsimilarinitiativesinnineothersectors:cement,fertiliser,steel,metalcans,bitumen,wineandspirits,food,paperandboard/packagingandpostalservices.Severalofthesesectors,suchasfertiliser,packagingandwinesandspirits,havegonethroughasimilarprocesstotheEuropeanchemicalindustryinadoptinganactivity-basedapproachtothecarbonfootprintingoftransport.
Overall,however,thechemicalindustryappearstobeoneofthemostprogressivesectorsinitsmeasure-mentoftransport-relatedemissions.
Havingmeasuredtheseemissions,thenextstageisforcompaniestodevelopstrategiesforreducingthem.Theremainderofthereportexaminesarangeofdecarbonisationmeasuresforchemicaltransportoperationswithina‘greenlogistics’framework.Thisframeworkfocusesattentiononfivekeyparameters:freightmodalsplit,supplychainstructure(i.e.num-berandlengthoflinksinthesupplychain),vehicleutilisation,energyefficiencyandthecarbonintensityoftheenergysource.Opportunitiesforalteringeachoftheseparametersisassessed.Considerationisalsogiventothegeneralcost-effectivenessofthesede-carbonisationmeasures.Availabledatasuggeststhatmostofthemeasureswhichcutcarbonemissionsalsoreducecostsandproveself-financingintheshorttomediumterm.
Theconcludingsectionshowshow,astheavailabilityofdataonenergyuse,loadfactorsandconsignmentroutingincreases,themeasurementofcarbonemis-sionsfromchemicaltransportcanevolvefromthecurrentactivity-basedapproachtoamoreaccurateandflexibleenergy-basedapproach.
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Tomeettheambitiouscarbonreductiontargetsthatgovernmentsarenowsettingfor2020andbeyond,individualcompaniesandindustrysectorswillhavetoimplementdecarbonisationstrategiesoverthenextfewyears.Thelongerthatittakesthemtogetontoanappropriatecarbonreductiontrajectory,theharderitwillbetoreachthetargets.Manyindustrysectorsandcompaniesarestillatanearlystageinthispro-cess,analysingtheirgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsandexploringoptionsforreducingthem.Astheoldbusinessmantrastates,‘ifyoucan’tmeasureityoucan’tmanageit’andsothelogicalplacetostartiswithdetailedmeasurementofGHGemissions.
Effortshavebeenmadeinternationallytostandardisethemeasurementandreportingoftheseemissionsinordertoensurecomparability.Atpresentthereisnosingleagreedstandard,thoughthetwomainstan-dardsdevelopedbytheWorldBusinessCouncilonSustainableDevelopment/WorldResourcesInstitute(2004)(theGreenhouseGasProtocol)andInterna-tionalStandardsOrganisation(ISO14064)arebroadlysimilar.Bothsetoutguidelinesforthecarbonaudit-ingofindividualbusinessesandprovideadviceonthescopingofthecalculation,datacollectionmethodsandtheallocationofemissions.Neither,however,providedetailedguidanceonhowcarbonemissionsfromspecificactivities,suchastransport,shouldbemeasured.AseparateinitiativebyCEN,theEuropeanstandardsorganisation,iscurrentlydevelopingandagreeingstandardsforthemeasurementofGHGemissionsfromtransport,butthisprocessisunlikelytobecompleteduntilthemiddleof2012.
Inthemeantime,companiesandindustrybodiescanobtainadviceonthecarbonauditingoftransportoperationsfromgovernmentdepartments/agen-cies,suchasDEFRAintheUKandADEMEinFrance,andnationalstandardsbodies,suchastheBritishStandardsInstitutionandtheFrenchAFNOR.Intheabsenceofagreedmeasurementstandards,however,thereisadangerthatindividualsectorswilladoptstandardsandproceduresthatproduceinconsistentresults.OnepurposeofthisreportistoexaminethewaysinwhichcarbonemissionsfromfreighttransportarebeingmeasuredinEuropeand,onthatbasis,recommendacarbonfootprintingprocedureforchemicaltransportoperations.
Cefichasrecentlyconductedasurveywhichcollecteddataontonnagesanddistancesmovedbydifferenttransportmodesandpermittedthecalculationofag-gregatefiguresforCO2emissions.Thisinitialexercisehashighlightedtheproblemsofchoosingsuitableemissionfactorsforthevarioustransportmodes.Thepresentstudyaimstoachievethreemajorobjectives:
• ProvideadviceonmeasuringthecarbonfootprintofEuropeanchemicaltransport,inparticularonthechoiceofappropriateaveragecarbonemissionfactorsforthedifferentmodesoftransport
• Reviewsimilarinitiativesinotherindustrialsectorstoseeiftherearelessonstolearned
• IdentifymajoropportunitiesforreducingthecarbonfootprintofEuropeanchemicaltransportoperations
1. Introduction
Inundertakingthisstudywehavereviewedrelevantpublishedliterature,datasetsandwebsites.AllthemainestimatesofcarbonemissionfactorsforEuro-peanfreighttransporthavebeencompared.Insomecaseshypotheticalvalueshavebeeninsertedintoon-linecarboncalculators,simulatingfreightmovementsthatwouldbetypicalofthechemicalindustry.Togainadeeperinsightintochemicaltransportoperationsandthepracticalproblemsofcollectingemissions-relateddataandopportunitiesfordecarbonisation,wehaveconductedtelephoneinterviewswithseniorlogisticsmanagersinlargechemicalcompanies.AworkshopwasalsoheldatCefic’sofficesinBrus-selstodiscussanearlierdraftofthisreport,whichwasattendedbylogisticsmanagersfromchemicalcompanies.Inthisreportprimarydatacollectedfromtheinterviewsandthisworkshophasbeenintegratedwithsecondary,publisheddataobtainedfromothersources.
Inassessingtherangeofmeasuresthatcanbeap-pliedtocutCO2emissionsfromchemicaltransport,wehaveadoptedananalyticalframeworkdevelopedinthecourseofaUKuniversityresearchprojectcalledGreenLogistics1.
Sections2and3ofthereportdealwithcarbonmeasurementissues,whilesection4concentratesonpossiblecarbonreductionoptionsforEuropeanchemicaltransport.
1 Moredetailsofthisresearchprojectcanbefoundatwww.greenlogistics.org.
2 CarbonTrust(2007)‘CarbonFootprintsintheSupplyChain:theNextStepsforBusiness’London.
3 Piecyk,M.‘CarbonAuditingofCompanies,SupplyChainsandProducts’inMcKinnon,A.C.etal(eds)(2010)‘GreenLogistics’,KoganPage,London.
2. Measurement of CO2 Emissions
TheUKCarbonTrust2hasrecommendedafivestepprocedureforthemeasurementandreportingofcarbonemissionsfrombusinesses(Figure 1).Inthissectionwewilldiscusseachofthesestepsastheyrelatetochemicaltransportoperations.
FIGURE1
CarbonMeasurementProcess(adaptedfromtheCarbonTrust,2007)
2.1Settingobjectivesforcarbonmeasurement
Itisimportantforacompanyorindustrytoestablishattheoutsetwhytheyaremeasuringcarbonemis-sionsbecausetheanswertothisquestionlargelydeterminestherequireddegreesofcoverage,ac-curacyanddisaggregation.Thereareseveralpossiblereasons,someexternaltothebusinessandothersyieldinginternalbenefits:
Externalfactors
1.Legalobligation:insectorscoveredbytheEuropeanEmissionsTradingScheme(ETS)ornationalcarbontaxation/levyschemes,carbonmeasurementiscompulsory.Whiletheproduc-tionactivitiesofchemicalcompaniesarecurrentlycoveredbytheseschemes,transportandlogisticsoperationsarestillexcluded.(AirtransportwillbeincludedintheETSin2012,thoughchemicalcom-paniessendonlyatinyproportionoftheirfreightbythismode.)
2.Customerrequest:industrialcustomerscanaskforestimatesoftheamountofcarbon‘embedded’intheproductstheybuy.Thisisbeginningtohappenintheretailgrocerysector,thoughisstilluncom-moninthechemicalindustry.
3.Corporatesocialresponsibility:carbonauditingandreportingisbecomingakeyaspectofCSR.
4.Participationinindustry-widesurveysandbench-markingexercises:industrysectorsarekeentodemonstrateandimprovetheir‘carboncredentials’.
Internalmotives
5.Identifyingopportunitiesforcuttingcarbonandimprovingefficiency
6.Assessingthecarbonimpactoflogisticsdecisionsandinvestments
7.Measuringchangesincarbonemissionsthroughtime
2.2Selectingmethodsofcalculation
TherearebasicallytwoapproachestotheestimationofCO2emissionsfromfreighttransportoperations:onebasedonenergyconsumptionandtheotherontheleveloftransportactivity3.
Energy-basedapproach:sincealmostallCO2emis-sionsfromfreighttransportareenergy-related,thesimplestandmostaccuratewayofcalculatingtheseemissionsistorecordenergyuseandemploystan-dardemissionfactorstoconvertenergyvaluesintoCO2.Theunitofenergywilltypicallybelitresoffuelfortrucks,diesel-hauledtrains,bargesandships,andkilowatthoursforelectrifiedrailandpipeline.Forcarriersandcompanieswithinhousetransport
STEP5Verification and reporting
STEP4Calculation
STEP3Data collection and choice
of emission factors
STEP 2
Selecting calculation approach and defining boundaries
STEP1Setting objectives
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4 Thistoolcanbefoundatthewww.greencargo.comwebsite.
operations,whichhavedirectaccesstotheenergydata,theenergy-basedapproachisclearlyprefer-able.AsmosttransportoperationsintheEuropeanchemicalindustryareoutsourced,however,shipperslackdirectaccesstothisenergydata.Somechemicalcompanieshaveaskedforthisdataandreceivedes-timatesofaveragefuelefficiencyfromtheircarriers.Noevidencehasbeenfoundofcarriersprovidingfuelconsumptiondataonajourney-by-journeybasisforchemicalflows.Theissueofobtainingfueldatafromcarriersismorefullydiscussedinasection4.4.
Activity-basedapproach:Intheabsenceofenergydata,itispossibletomakearoughestimateofthecarbonfootprintofatransportoperationbyapplyingasimpleformula:
CO2=tonnestransportedxaveragedistancetrav-elledxCO2emissionsfactorpertonne-km
Companyrecords,ERPsystemsanddeliverymanifestscanprovidethenecessarydataontonnagesmoved.Forroadmovements,estimatesofaveragelengthofhaulcanalsobebasedondatafromthesesources.Ifnecessary,softwarepackagessuchasMapPointandAutoroutecanbeappliedtolistsofcustomerloca-tionstoestimateroaddistances.Obtainingdistancedataforrailandwater-bornetransportcanbemoreproblematic,thoughtheEcoTransitonlineenviron-mentalassessmenttoolcanbeusedforthispurpose.Inthecaseofintermodaltransport,shippersoftendonotknowtheroutefollowedorthedistancesplitbetweendifferenttransportmodes.Theyusuallyrely
oncarrierstoprovidethisinformation,thoughtheEcoTransittool4providesapproximateroutinganddis-tancedataforintermodalflowsspecifiedbytheuser.
Oneofthemostdifficultissuestoresolveinapplyingtheactivity-basedapproachisthechoiceofcarbonemissionfactorsforeachmode.ThesearegenerallyexpressedasgrammesofCO2pertonne-km.Thisweight-basedmeasurementofemissionfactorsiswellsuitedtothechemicalindustryasitsproductshavearelativelyhighdensityandcausevehiclesto‘weighout’beforethey‘cubeout’.Asaconse-quence,vehicleloadfactorsinthechemicalindustryaregenerallymeasuredinweightterms.
Oneofthechemicalcompaniesconsultedhadobtainedfuelconsumptiondatafromsomeofitscar-riersandmanagedtoderiveitsownsetofemissionfactors.Nogeneralemissionfactors,however,havesofarbeencalculatedforchemicaltransportasawhole.Itisnecessarytorely,therefore,onthenumer-ousstudiesthathavebeenundertakeninEuropeoverthepastdecadetoestimateemissionfactorsforthegeneralmovementoffreightbydifferentmodes.Theyarereviewedinsection2.5.
2.3Definingboundaries
Fourtypesofboundarymustbedrawnaroundthetransportsystemtodelimittheextentofthecalcula-tion:corporate,functional,systemandgeographicalboundaries.
2.3.1Corporateboundary
Thisdeterminesthedivisionofresponsibilityforcar-bonemissionsbetweenthecompanyanditssuppli-ers,customersandcarriers.Thelineshouldbedrawninawaythatminimisesdouble-countingandallo-catesresponsibilitytotheentitythathasthegreatestcontrolovertheemissions.Thisusuallyreflectstheallocationoffinancialresponsibility.WhoeverpaysfortheactivityshouldbeassignedtherelatedCO2emis-sions.Forcompaniestakingownershipofthegoods,thedeliverytermsprovideasolidcommercialandle-galbasisforallocatingthetransportemissions.Wherethefinishedproductissoldonadeliveredpricebasis,theshipperwillberesponsiblefortheseemissionsasfarasthecustomer’spremises.If,ontheotherhand,ashappenswitharound20-30%ofchemicalsales,thecustomerarrangescollectionfromtheplant,hemustassumeresponsibilityforthetransportCO2.
Thesituationwithcarriersismorecomplicatedandrequiresjudgementandnegotiation.Wheretrans-portisoutsourced,theemissionsfallintowhattheGreenhouseGasProtocolcallsScope3,i.e.emissionsfromactivitiesperformedbyothercompaniesonyourbehalf.ItisnowconsideredgoodpracticeforbusinessestocounttheseScope3emissionsaspart
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oftheircarbonfootprint.Thereremainssomedebate,however,overtheallocationofacarrier’semissionsbetweenitsclients.Whereachemicalcompanydes-patchesafullloadofproduct,itwouldbeallocatedalltheemissionsfromthisoutboundjourneyleg.Asalargeproportionofoutbounddeliveriesinthechemicalindustryfallintothiscategory,thismakestheallocationrelativelystraightforward.Moreconten-tiousistherepositioningofemptyvehiclestocollectconsignmentsofchemicals.Broadlyspeakingonecantaketwoviewsonthisissue:
1.Itistheresponsibilityofthecarriertofindreturnloadsforitsvehicles.Thisgivesitacommercialincentivetofindabackload.Manycarriersarereluctanttodivulgeinformationaboutemptyrun-ningandreturnloading,onthegroundsthatthiswouldweakentheircommercialpositioninnego-tiations.Ifitisassumedthatitisthecarrier’sjobtomaximisebackloadingandthathewillnotdisclosethelevelofemptyrunning,itseemslogicalthatheshouldtakeresponsibilityforrelatedemissions.Thecarrier,afterall,hasmuchmorecontrolovertheuseofbackhaulcapacitythantheshipper.
2.Therepositioningofemptyvehiclesisanintegralpartofthetransportserviceprovidedbyacarrier.Theshipperindirectlypaysfortheemptylegsaspartoftheratethecarrierchargesand,hence,itshouldacceptatleastsomeoftheresponsibilityfortherelatedcarbonemissions.Mostofthepub-lishedemissionfactorsforroadfreightalsomakeanallowanceforemptyrunning.
Discussionswithlogisticsmanagersinthechemicalandotherindustriesindicatethatthefirstpropositioncommandsagooddealofsupport.However,asasignificantamountofemptyrunningisinevitableandattributabletotheoutbounddeliveryofchemicals,itseemsreasonablethatchemicalcompaniesshouldassumesomeresponsibilityforcarbonemissionsfromemptyjourneylegs.Intheestimationofemissionfac-torsforroadtransportinSection2.4,therefore,theeffectsofdifferinglevelsofemptyrunningonroademissionfactorsweremodelled.
2.3.2Functionalboundary
Boundariesmustalsobedrawninternallytodefinethescopeofthetransportcalculation.Inthecaseofchemicallogisticstherearetwoareaswherethisisparticularlysignificant:
Internalsupplychain:thereisunanimousagree-mentthatoutbounddeliverytocustomersandinter-planttransfersshouldbeincludedinthecalculationandthatthemovementofmaterialsontheproduc-tionsitebeexcluded.On-sitetransportisconsideredpartoftheproductionprocess.Opinionsdifferonwhetherinboundflowsofmaterialsshouldliewithinthescopeofthecalculation.Theeasiestwayofdeal-ingwiththisissueistoapplytherulediscussedaboveunderthecorporateboundaryheading(section2.3.1)i.e.ifthecompanytakesresponsibilityforcollectinginboundsupplies(i.e.buysthemonanexworksbasisandpaysforthetransport)thentheyshouldalsoas-sumeresponsibilityfortherelatedcarbonemissions.
Relatedlogisticsactivities:shouldthecalcula-tionincludeemissionsfromwarehousing,materialshandlingoperations,tankcleaningetctopermitmorecomprehensivecarbonfootprintingoflogisticsasawhole?Forexample,usingdataprovidedbyamajortankcleaningcompany,weestimatethattheCO2emissionsassociatedwiththisprocessrepresentaround5-7%oftheaverageCO2emissionsfromaroadshipmentofchemicals.Onemajorbenefitofadoptingabroaderapproachisthatitexposescarbontrade-offsinthemanagementoftheseinter-relatedlogisticalactivities.Decarbonisationeffortscouldthenbemoreeffectivelyco-ordinatedacrosstheentirelogisticsfunction.Whilethiswouldbeaworthwhilegoalinthemediumterm,thepriorityatpresentliesinrefiningcarbonmeasurementofthetransportfunction.
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2.3.3Systemboundary
TheSwedishenvironmentalorganisation,NTM,hasdifferentiatedfivelevelsofsystemboundarythatcanbedrawnaroundatransportoperationandlabelledthemSB1-SB5(Figure 2).Theselevelsarecumulative:
SB1:confinesthecalculationtoemissionsfromtheactualtransportoperation,mostofwhichemanatefromthevehicleexhaust,thoughinthecaseofelec-trifiedrailfreightoperationsincludeemissionsfromtheelectricalpowersource.
SB2:alsotakesaccountoftheextraction,production,refining,generationanddistributionofenergy,takingaso-called‘well-to-tank’perspective.
SB3:alsoincludestheservicingandmaintenanceofvehiclesandtransportinfrastructure
SB4:broadensthescopeevenfurthertoincludeemissionsfromthemanufactureofthevehicles,constructionoftransportinfrastructureandtheirsubsequentscrappageanddismantling.
SB5:alsoincludesemissionsassociatedwiththeman-agementoftransportoperations,essentiallyofficefunctionsandtheactivitiesofstaff.
ItmaybealongtermaspirationtoadopttheSB5levelofauditing,butatpresentmostmeasure-mentofcarbonemissionsfromfreighttransportisconductedattheSB1level.Someorganisationshavecompiledemissionfactorsthatembracelevels
FIGURE2
SystemBoundariesaroundTransportOperationsforCarbonMeasurement(source:NTM)
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SB5Administrative functions, personnel, etc
SB2Energy supply (well-to-tank / power plant)
SB1Traffic operations - propulsion (engines / power plant) - evaporation and battery losses - cargo climate control
SB4Vehicle / train / vessel / aircraft - constructionandscrappingTrafficinfrastructureandtransportinfrastructure - construction and dismantlingServiceandmaintenanceinfrastructure-constructionanddismantling
SB3Vehicle / train / vessel / aircraft - service and maintenanceTraffic infrastructure - operation and maintenance Transport infrastructure (terminals) - operation (incl. energy supply and maintenance)
SB2andSB3forsometransportmodes.Itmightbepossible,therefore,tomakeroughestimatesofthecarbonfootprintofchemicaltransportatlevelsSB1,SB2andSB3,thoughthefocusofthisreportwillbeonemissionswithinSB1.
Itisimportanttoapplythesystemboundarylevelconsistentlyacrosstransportmodes.Forexample,itisessentialtoincludeemissionsfromthegenerationofelectricityforelectrifiedrailfreightoperations.AttheSB1level,onlydirectemissionsfromtheelectricalgeneratingplantareincludedandcanbecomparedwithfuelburnedbynon-electricvehicles.
2.3.4Geographicalboundary
TheEuropeanchemicalindustryservesaglobalmarketandmuchofitsexportvolumeissoldonadeliveredpriceor‘costinsurancefreight’(cif)basis,makingthecompaniesresponsiblefortransportatleastasfarastheforeignportofentry.WhilethemainfocusofthecarbonmeasurementexerciseisontransportoperationswithinEurope,allowanceisalsomadeforemissionsfromtheexportofchemicalsbydeep-seavesselsand,toamuchlesserextent,airfreight.
2.4Factorsaffectingthechoiceofemissionfactors
Severalissueshavetoberesolvedinchoosingappropri-ateemissionfactorsforchemicaltransportoperations:
a)Greenhousegasestobeincludedb)Transportmodestobecoveredc) Degreeofdisaggregationbytypeofvehicle
andpowersourced)Energysupplychaine)Assumptionsaboutvehicleloadfactors
andemptyrunningf) Natureoftheproductg)Logisticaloperationsatdifferinglevels
inthechemicalsupplychainh)Geographicalvariability
2.4.1Greenhousegases
CO2isestimatedtoaccountforaround93-95%oftotalGHGpotentialofemissionsfromfreighttransport.Nitrousoxideandrefrigerantgasesmakeupmostoftheremainder.Asfewifanychemicalconsignmentsrequiretemperature-control,theCO2shareoftotalGHGemissionfromchemicaltransportislikelytobeevencloserto100%.Furthermore,mostofthepublishedemissionfactorsforfreightareexpressedsolelyintermsofCO2
5.ItisrecommendedthereforethatthecarbonfootprintingofchemicaltransportalsobeconfinedtoCO2.
2.4.2Transportmodes
EmissionfactorswillberequiredforthemainmodesoffreighttransportusedtomovechemicalsinEurope:
• Road• Rail• Inlandwaterway/barge• Short-seashipping:bulk,tanker,
ro-roferry,container• Deep-seashipping• Pipeline• Air
Althoughonlyatinyproportionofchemicalconsign-mentsmovebyair,theytravellongdistancesbythismodeandairfreightserviceshaveacarbonintensityaroundtentimesthatofroadhaulage.
Itispossibletocalculatecompositeemissionfactorsforintermodaltransportbyweightingmode-specificfactorswithestimatesofthedistancestravelledbyeachmode.Whilethiscanbedoneforindividualflowsonparticularroutesusingonlinetools(suchasEcoTransit),nopublisheddataareavailableonthedistancesplitbetweenmodesthatwouldberequiredtocalculateaverageemissionfactorsfordifferentintermodalcombinationsataEuropeanlevel.Averagevaluesforthisdistancesplithavehadtobeestimated.
5 ADEMEquotetheiremissionfactorsingCO2equivalent.
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2.4.3Degreeofdisaggregationbyvehicletypeandpowersource
Onecaneitheruseaveragevaluesforeachofthemainmodesordisaggregatethembyvehicletypeandpowersource.Theavailabledatasetsvaryintheextenttowhichtheydisaggregateemissionfactorsandintheclassificationstheyuse.Themodeofferingthegreatestdegreeofdisaggregationbyvehicletypeisroad.Thisisfortunateaschemicalsarepredomi-nantlymovedbyroad.Itispossibletodifferentiatethecarbonintensityofheavyarticulatedtrucks,whichaccountforalargeproportionofthetotalmovementofchemicalsinEurope.
Muchlessdisaggregationispossibleforrailfreightoperations.Themaindistinctionisbetweenelectri-fiedanddiesel-hauledfreighttrains,withtheformerfurthersub-dividedtotakeaccountofwidediffer-encesinthecarbonintensityofthevariousformsofelectricitygeneration.Whileitispossibletoobtainarangeofemissionfactorsforthesedifferentrailfreightenergycategories,itisverydifficulttoapplytheminpracticeasrailcompaniesandintermodaloperatorsdonotprovideshipperswithabreakdownofthedistancetravelledortonne-kmsmovedusingdiffer-entpowersources.Untilthisinformationisroutinelyprovided,chemicalcompanieshavelittlechoicebuttouseemissionfactorsforrailfreightthatreflecttheaveragediesel/electrictractionsplitforfreighttrainsandaveragemixofelectricalpowersources.
Thereisalsolimiteddifferentiationofvesselsmovingfreightontheinlandwaterwaynetworkorbysea.Inthecaseofmaritimeoperations,thegrossweightofthevesselisakeydeterminantoftheemissionfactor.Somedatabasescontainindicativeemissionfactorsforvesselsofdifferinggrossweights.
2.4.4Energysupplychain
Asdiscussedabove,oneofthemaindecisionsthatmustbemadeinanycarbonmeasuringexerciseiswhetherornottoincludeemissionsfromtheextraction,productionanddistributionofenergy,inotherwordswhetherthecalculationsshouldbedoneona‘well-to-wheel’basisoronlytakeaccountofemissionsatthepointofenergyconsumptiononthevehicle(‘tank-to-wheel’).Theemissionfactorsquotedinthisreportrelatesolelytofuelconsumptiononboardthevehicle,exceptinthecaseofelectrifiedrailfreightoperationswhereemissionsfromthegen-erationofelectricityinpowerplantsisincluded.
2.4.5Assumptionsaboutvehicleloadingandemptyrunning
Averagecarbonemissionfactorsareverysensitivetotheseassumptions.ThisisillustratedbyFigure 3whichshowshowtheemissionfactorsforthemove-mentoffreightina44tonnetruck(witha380brakehorsepowertractorunit)haveanegativeexponentialrelationshipwithpayloadweight.ThecalculationisbasedondatacollectedbyCoyle6invehicletrialsfor
theUKgovernmenttomonitortheeffectsofpayloadonthefuelefficiencyoftrucks.Overthepayloadrange1-10tonnesthereisadramaticreductioninthecarbonemissionfactor.ThereaftertherateofreductionisrelativelygentleasthecurvebecomesasymptotictotheX-axis.Figure 4magnifiesthelowersectionofthecurveandshowshow,evenacrossthisflattersection,modestchangesinpayloadcanhaveasignificantimpactontheemissionfactor.Increasingtheloadfrom20to26tonne,forexample,reducesthegCO2pertonne-kmfrom48to41.5.Noallowanceismadeinthiscalculationfortheemptyrunningofthetruck.Table 1addsanextradimen-siontothecalculationandshowshowvaryinglevelsofemptyrunningaffecttheemissionfactor.Foragivenpayloadontheladensectionofthejourney,thelevelofemptyrunningcanhaveamarkedeffectontheemissionfactor.Forexample,foranaveragepay-loadof26tonnesontheladensection,theemissionfactorcanvaryfrom41.5gCO2pertonne-kmwithnoemptyrunningto68.6gCO2pertonne-kmwhen40%ofthekilometresarerunempty.
Itismucheasiertoassesstheeffectsofvehicleload-ingonemissionfactorsintheroadfreightsectorthanitisforothertransportmodes.Thisispartlybecausemuchlessresearchhasbeendoneontherelationshipbetweenloading,energyuseandemissionsinthecaseofthesemodes,butalsobecauseshippersoftenhavelittleknowledgeoftheutilisationoffreighttrains,bargesandships.Itispossibleforthemtomonitortheloadingoftrucksaswellasdedicatedtrainsandbargesleavingtheirsites.Wherechemicalcompanies’consignmentsaregroupedwiththoseof
6 M.Coyle(2007)‘EffectsofPayloadontheFuelConsumptionofTrucks’DepartmentforTransport,London.
FIGURE3
RelationshipbetweenCarbonEmissionFactorandTruckLoadintonnes(fullrange)TABLE1
CarbonEmissionFactors(gCO2/tonne-km)for40-44tonneTruckwithVaryingPayloadsandLevelsofEmptyRunning
FIGURE4
RelationshipbetweenCarbonEmissionFactorandTruckLoad(10-29tonnes)(basedondatafromCoyle2007)
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10 81.0 84.7 88.8 93.4 98.5 104.4 111.1 118.8 127.8 138.4 151.1
11 74.8 78.2 81.9 86.1 90.8 96.1 102.1 109.1 117.3 127.0 138.6
12 69.7 72.8 76.2 80.0 84.3 89.2 94.7 101.1 108.6 117.5 128.1
13 65.4 68.2 71.4 74.9 78.9 83.4 88.5 94.4 101.3 109.5 119.3
14 61.7 64.4 67.3 70.6 74.2 78.4 83.2 88.7 95.1 102.7 111.8
15 58.6 61.0 63.8 66.8 70.3 74.2 78.6 83.7 89.7 96.8 105.3
16 55.9 58.2 60.7 63.6 66.8 70.5 74.6 79.5 85.1 91.7 99.7
17 53.5 55.7 58.1 60.8 63.8 67.2 71.2 75.7 81.0 87.2 94.7
18 51.4 53.5 55.8 58.3 61.2 64.4 68.1 72.4 77.4 83.3 90.4
19 49.6 51.5 53.7 56.1 58.8 61.9 65.4 69.5 74.2 79.8 86.5
20 48.0 49.8 51.9 54.2 56.8 59.7 63.0 66.9 71.4 76.7 83.0
21 46.6 48.3 50.3 52.5 54.9 57.7 60.9 64.5 68.8 73.9 80.0
22 45.3 47.0 48.8 50.9 53.3 55.9 59.0 62.5 66.5 71.4 77.2
23 44.2 45.8 47.6 49.6 51.8 54.3 57.2 60.6 64.5 69.1 74.7
24 43.2 44.7 46.4 48.3 50.5 52.9 55.7 58.9 62.7 67.1 72.4
25 42.3 43.8 45.4 47.3 49.3 51.7 54.3 57.4 61.0 65.2 70.3
26 41.5 42.9 44.5 46.3 48.3 50.5 53.1 56.0 59.5 63.6 68.5
27 40.8 42.2 43.7 45.4 47.3 49.5 52.0 54.8 58.1 62.1 66.8
28 40.2 41.5 43.0 44.6 46.5 48.6 51.0 53.7 56.9 60.7 65.3
29 39.7 41.0 42.4 44.0 45.7 47.8 50.1 52.7 55.8 59.5 63.9
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othercompaniesintrainsandvessels,however,theoveralldegreeofloadingisnotknown.Onemustthenrelyonestimatesbasedonaverageloadingofthesemodes.Therehasbeenevidenceinthepastofmodalbiasesintheassumptionsmadeaboutvehicleloading,withemissionfactorsforsomemodesbasedonfullloadingandforothersonlyonaverageloadfactors.Itisimportantthattheorganisationscompil-ingemissionfactordatasetsmakeassumptionsaboutvehicleutilisationexplicit.Wheretheyarenotde-clared,cautionmustbeexercisedinusingthequotedemissionfactors.
Afurthercomplicationexistsinthecaseofro-rofer-riesandcontainervessels.Estimatingacarbonemis-sionfactorforthemovementofchemicalsbythesemodesrequiresatwo-tierassessmentofloading.Thefirstistheloadingfactorofthevehicleorcontainerandthesecondtheloadingoftheavailablespaceonboardthevessel.Theaverageemissionvaluescurrentlyavailableforro-roferriesneithermakethisdistinctionnordeclaretheassumptionsonloading.
2.4.6Natureoftheproduct
TheCeficsurveyofchemicaltransportoperationsaskedcompaniestodistinguishbulkfrompackagedproduct.Thenatureoftheproductanditspackagingwillinfluenceitsdensityandhencetheweight-basedloadandemissionfactors.Itisourunderstanding,however,thatinthechemicalindustrymostpackagedproductisalsodenseandresultsinahighproportion
ofloadsreachingthemaximumvehicleweightlimit.Theremay,therefore,belittleneedtoapplydifferentemissionfactorsforbulkandpackagedproduct.Ifitwerenecessarytodothis,newempiricalresearchwouldberequiredasnoneofthepublishedsetsofemissionfactorscurrentlydifferentiatefreightbyphysicalcharacteristics,otherthanweight.
2.4.7Logisticaloperationsatdifferentlevelsofthechemicalsupplychain
Thenatureofthefreighttransportoperationvariesacrossthechemicalsupplychain.Attheupperendofthechain,primaryproducersofbasechemicalsdis-tributetheirproductsmainlyinbulkinvolumesthatcanfillroadvehicles,barges,ships,wagonsandevenwholetrains.Theyalsomakerelativelyheavyuseofthelowercarbontransportmodes(rail,water-borneservicesandpipeline).Theaveragecarbonintensityoftheseoperationswill,therefore,besignificantlylowerthanthoseofmorespecialistproducersfurtherdownthechainwhoseoutputisdespatchedinsmallerorderstoamorediversemixofcustomers,some-timesonroad-basedmultiple-dropdeliveryrounds.Ideally,separateemissionfactorsshouldbeappliedtocompaniesatdifferentlevelsofthechaintoreflectthesedifferencesincarbonintensity.Simplyextrapo-latingthecarbonfootprintoftransportoperationsattheprimaryendofthechaintotheindustryasawhole,inproportiontotonnagesorsales,islikelytounder-estimatetotalcarbonemissionsfromEuropeanchemicaltransport.
2.4.8Geographicalvariability
TheaverageemissionfactorsforparticularmodesvaryfromcountrytocountryinEuropeasaresultofseveralfactors:
Road:natureoftheroadinfrastructure,leveloftraf-ficcongestion,maximumvehicleweight,leveloffueltaxes,climate,topography,drivingstylesetc.
Rail:%ofrailfreightserviceselectrified,%ofrail-freightelectricityfromlowcarbonsources,railwayloadinggauge,densityofaccesspointsonthenetworketc.
Inlandwaterways:maximumdraught,size,weightandageofvessels,densityofaccesspointsonthenetworketc.
Somedatabases(e.g.Tremove,INFRASandIFEU)containseparateaverageemissionfactorsfordiffer-entcountries.Somecountriesalsomaintainnationalemissioninventories,basedoncountry-specificemis-sionfactors.Therangeofcarbonemissionfactorscurrentlyavailableatcountrylevelforthevarioustransportmodesistoolimitedtoconducttheanalysisanacountrybasis.Thiswouldalsorequirethechemi-calcompaniestoprovideabreakdownbycountryofthequantitiesoffreightmovedandaveragedistancetravelled.Itmayeventuallybepossibletoobtainallthenecessarycountrydatafora‘bottomup’analysisofEuropeanchemicaltransportemissions.Fortheforeseeablefuture,however,itwillbenecessarytorelyonaveragemodalemissionsfactorsforEurope
12
7 McKinnon,A.andPiecyk,M.(2009)‘MeasurementofCO2EmissionsfromRoadFreightTransport:AReviewofUKExperience.’EnergyPolicy,Vol.37,no.10.
8 INFRAS/IWW/IFEA(2004)‘ExternalCostsofTransport:UpdateStudy’Zurich/Karlsruhe.
9 Knorr,W.andReuter,C.(2005)‘EcoTransIT:EcologicalTransportInformationTool-EnvironmentalMethodologyandData’IFEU,Hiedelberg.
asawholeandhopethatthesefaithfullyreflectthenationalpatternoftransportemissionsacrossthecontinent.
2.5ReviewofEuropeandatasourcesonfreightemissionfactors
Numerousstudieshavebeenundertakenoverthepast20yearswithinEuropetodevelopemissionfactorsfordifferentformsoftransport.MuchofthisworkhasbeensponsoredbytheEuropeanCommis-sionandnationalgovernments.Thesestudiescanbedividedintotwogeneralcategories;thosewhichhavecompiledprimarydatafromlaboratoryexperi-ments,runningvehiclesunderartificialconditionsonrollerbedsandthosebasedonthecollectionoffuelconsumptiondatafromvehiclesinthecourseofnormal,real-worldoperation.RecentresearchintheUK7hassuggestedthat,wheretheobjectiveistomeasurecarbonemissionsfromtrucksatanationallevel,thelattermethodyieldsmoreaccurateandrealisticresults.Undercontrolledconditionsinlabo-ratories,however,itispossibletomodelrelationshipsbetweenvehiclespeed,loading,energyconsumptionandemissionsinmuchgreaterdetail.Whilethisisre-quiredforenvironmentalmodellingoftrafficflowsbypublicagencies,itgoeswellbeyondtheneedsofthecurrentCeficinitiativetocarbonfootprintchemicaltransportoperations.Someofthisprimarydataonvehicleemissions,frommajorprojectssuchasMEET,PHEM,ARTEMISandCOPERT,hasneverthelessbeenusedtocalibratemoregeneralisedemissionfactor
datasets,suchasTremove.Itisthemoregeneraliseddatasets,derivedeitherfromlaboratorytest-bedanalysisorindustrysurveys,whicharemostrelevanttothepresentstudy.SomeofthesedatasetsrelatetotransportataEuropeanlevel,otherstonationaltransportsystems.
2.5.1EU-widestudies
INFRAS/IWW/IFEU:TheseorganisationsdevelopedemissionfactorsforarangeoffreightandpassengertransportmodesinthecourseofaprojectfundedbyCER,themainorganisationofEuropeanRailways,tocalculatethe‘externalcosts’oftransport.EmissionfactorsareprovidedforEuropeasawholeandforindividualEuropeancountries.Thelastsetoffigureswaspublishedin20048.
IFEU:OnaseparatecontractfromEuropeanrailwaycompanies,thisorganisationhasdevelopedtheEcoTransittoolwhichallowsuserstocomparetheenvironmentalimpactofmovinggoodsbydiffer-enttransportmodesonspecific,user-definedroutesacrossEurope.Inaseparatemanual,IFEUoutlinesthemethodologyandchoiceofemissionfactors9.Unfor-tunately,inthismanual,theemissionfactorsforthevarioustransportmodesareexpressedusingdifferentmetrics(e.g.gCO2pertonne-km,gCO2perkgoffuel),makingitdifficulttocomparethemonaconsis-tentbasis.Byapplyingthetooltoasampleoffreightmovements,however,itispossibletodeterminetheunderlyingemissionfactorsusingthestandardgCO2pertonne-kmratio.
TREMOVE:ThisdatasetiscompiledbyTransportMobilityLeuven(TML)oncontracttotheEuropeanCommission.TheTremove2.7bspreadsheet(February2009)providespast,presentandfutureestimatesoftotaltonne-kms,energyconsumptionandemissionsfortrucks,vans,railfreightservicesand‘inlandship’forseventeenEUcountries.Manyoftheemissionfac-torshavebeenderivedfromCOPERTandotherearlierstudies.BydividingestimatesofCO2emissionsforthevariousmodesbythecorrespondingtonne-kms,itispossibletocalculatetheaverageemissionfactors.
TREND:ThisisanotherEU-fundedprojectwhichhasreviewedpasttrendsinemissionsbyalltransportmodesandprojectedtheirfuturecourse.Again,byanalysingtherelevantspreadsheetsitispossibletoestablishtheembeddedemissionfactorsforthemajorfreightmodes.
2.5.2Nationalstudies
SwedenTheSwedishtransportandenvironmentorganisa-tionNTMhasgainedareputationasanauthoritativesourceoftransportemissionvalues.ItsonlineNTMCalctoolemploysaseriesofemissionfactorsforfreightmovementsbyroad,rail,inlandwaterway,seaandair,ineachcasesplitbyvehicletypeand,whereappropriate,powersource.Inmostcasesthesevalueshavebeenobtainedfromtransportoperators.TheNTMcalculatoralsogivesuserstheoptionofmeasu-ringemissionsonawell-to-tankbasis(SB2)andwithinfrastructure-relatedCO2emissionsincluded(SB3).
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10 DEFRA(2009)‘Guidanceonhowtomeasureandreportyourgreenhousegasemissions’London.
11 ADEME(2007)‘EmissionFactorsGuide:EmissionFactorsCalculationandBibliographicalSourcesUsed’Version5.0.
NTMwillbereleasinganupdatedandmorerefinedversionoftheircalculator(NTMCALC3.0)in2010.Muchmoredatahasbeenobtainedfromoperatorstopermitgreaterdifferentiationbyvehicletypeandpowersource.
UKTheDepartmentoftheEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs(DEFRA)publishesguidelines10forcompaniesonthereportingofCO2emissionswhichcontainindicativeemissionfactorvaluesforseveralfreighttransportmodes.Inthecaseofroadfreightmove-ments,differentloadfactorsarespecified,thoughtheupdatedversionofthisguidancein2007actuallyre-ducedthefourlevelsofloading(empty,25%,50%,75%and100%fullbyweight)toonlythree(empty,50%and100%full).
TheNationalAtmosphericEmissionsInventoryalsocontainsemissionfactorsforheavygoodsvehiclesandrailfreightoperations,thoughinthelattercaseonlyasingleaverageisquoted.Theroadfreightemissionfactorsfordifferentclassesoftruckwereoriginallybasedsolelyonlaboratorytestbedstudies,thoughnowmakegreateruseofsurveysofroadfreightoperators.
FranceThemainfreightemissionfactorsusedinFrancewerecompiledbythestateenvironmentalagencyADEME.ItpublishesanEmissionsFactorManual,whichisnowinitsfifthversion11.Thisonlycontainsemissionfactorsforroadandrailfreightoperations.Thepub-lishedemissionfactorsforroadarebasedonaverage
levelsofvehicleloadingandemptyrunninginFranceandsomaynotbetransferabletoothercountries.
Noneofthesedatasetsontheirownprovideacomprehensivesetofemissionfactorsforusebythechemicalindustry.Theyvaryintheircoverageoffreighttransportmodes,theextenttowhichtheydifferentiatebyvehicletypeandpowersourceandintheassumptionstheymakeaboutvehicleloading(wherethisismadeexplicit).Itisnecessarythereforeto‘cherry-pick’incompilinganappropriatesetofemissionfactorsforchemicaltransportoperations.Othersectors,suchastheWineandSpiritTradeAs-sociation,andcompanies,suchasJ.F.Hillebrandtheworld’slargestdistributorofwinesandspirits,haveadoptedasimilarapproach.
2.6Characteristicsofchemicaltransportoperations
Indevelopingasystemofcarbonfootprintingforchemicaltransportoperations,itisimportanttorecognisethattheseoperationshaveseveraldistin-guishingfeatures:
1.Almostallchemicaltransport,withtheexcep-tionofmovementsbypipeline,isoutsourced.Aschemicalcompaniesdonotcontrolthetransport,theycannotcollectenergyandemissionsdatadirectlyandmustrelyontheircarrierstoprovidethenecessaryinformation.
2.Chemicalcompaniesemploythefullrangeoffreighttransportmodes.Unlikeinsomeothersectors,inwhichallbutasmallproportionoffreightmovesbyasinglemode,abroadrangeofmodalemissionfactorsarerequiredforthecarbonfootprintingex-ercise.Thechemicalindustryisalsooneofthefewtomakeextensiveuseofpipelinesasatransportmode.
3.Thechemicalindustrygeneratesahighproportionoffullloads,particularlyattheupperendofthesupplychainwherelargevolumesareproducedanddistributed.ThisreducestheneedtoallocateCO2emissionsbetweendifferenttypesoffreighttrafficsharingthesamevehicle.
4.Astransportcostsrepresentarelativelyhighproportionofproductsellingprice,chemicalcompaniesareunderstrongpressuretomaximiseloadsizeandweightandthusmaximisetheiruseoftransportcapacity.Itcanbeassumed,therefore,thatvehiclescarryingchemicalsachievehighloadfactors.
5.Therelativelyhighdensityofchemicalproducts,particularlyattheupperendofthesupplychain,resultsinroadvehiclesreachingtheirmaximumweightlimitbeforetheirvolumelimit.Thisheavyweight-basedloadingofvehiclesiswellalignedwithweight-basedemissionfactorsnowwidelyusedforfreighttransport(gCO2/tonne-km).
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6.Thenatureofthetransportoperationchangesasproductsmovedownthechemicalsupplychain:theproportionofpackagedgoodsincreases,averageordersizedeclines,theaveragenumberofdropsperdeliveryandrelativeuseofnon-roadmodesdecreases.Asthesechangesaffectthecar-bonintensityofthetransportoperationpertonne-km,itisimportantthatanycarbonmeasurementsystemadequatelyrepresentsthedifferenttiersinthesupplychain.
7.WhilethemajorityofchemicalsalesinEuropearemadeonadelivered-pricebasis,asubstantialminority(estimatedtobearound20-30%)involvethecustomercollectingtheproduct.Thishasim-plicationsforthedivisionoftransport-relatedCO2emissionswithinthechemicalsupplychain.
8.Nootherindustryinterfaceswithsomanysectorsasthechemicalindustry,aschemicalsareincorpo-ratedintoabroadarrayofproducts.Atthespecial-istendofthechemicalindustrytheseinterfacescanblur,makingitdifficult,intermsofproductclassification,todeterminewheretheouterperim-eterofthechemicalindustryshouldbedrawn.
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organisation gCO2/tonne-km assumptionsaboutvehicleloading
NTM 59 60%utilisation
IFEU 66 average
Tremove 77.2
DEFRA 82 >32tGVW/27%emptyrunning/59%loadfactor
INFRAS 91
ADEME 109 maxload25t/21%emptyrunning/57%loadfactor
TABLE2
PublishedEmissionFactorsforHeavyArticulatedTruck
TABLE3
PublishedEmissionFactorsforRailFreightMovement(gCO2/tonne-km)
organisation allrailfreight diesel-hauled electric-hauled
ADEME 7.3 55 1.8
NTM 15 21 14
AEATechnology 20
DEFRA 21
INFRAS 22.7 38 19
TRENDS 23
Tremove 26.3
IFEU 35 18
McKinnon/EWS 18.8
2.7Averageemissionfactorsforthemovementofchemicalsbythedifferenttransportmodes
Thissectiondiscussesthechoiceofaverageemissionfactorsfortherangeofmodesusedtotransportchemicals.Theycanbeusedtoestimatethetotalcarbonfootprintofchemicaltransportoperationsorbyindividualcompaniesasdefaultvalues.Itisclearlypreferable,ifpossible,forcompaniestoderiveemis-sionfactorsfortheirspecifictransportoperations,reflectingthecharacteristicsoftheirsupplychains,productsandcustomerbase.
2.7.1Road
Itisassumedthatthestandardvehicleusedforchem-icaldeliveriesisa40tonnearticulatedtruckcarryingamaximumpayloadof26tonnes12.Table 2showsthepublishedemissionfactorsforsuchavehicleandindicatestheassumptionsmadeaboutvehicleload-ing,wherethesearedisclosed.Theseemissionfactorsvarywidelyfrom59to109gCO2/tonne-km.Some,butnotall,ofthisvariationcanbeexplainedbydif-ferencesinthedefinitionofthevehicleweightclassandassumptionsaboutaveragevehicleloadfactorsonladentripsandthelevelofemptyrunning.
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12 Estimatesoftheemissionfactorsforthe44tonnetruckspermittedintheUKandIrelandareshownonFigure4andTable1.Thesevehiclescancarryamaximumloadofaround29tonnes.
Anindependentanalysis,referredtoinSection2.4.5above,wascarriedoutforthisstudyusingUKdatacollectedinon-the-roadtrialsofmaximumweightarticulatedvehiclesrunningwithvaryingpayloads.ThevaluesinthebottomhalfofTable 1tendtoconfirmemissionfactorsatthelowerrangeofvaluesshowninTable 2.If,forexample,weightbasedloadfactorsacrossthechemicalsupplychainaveraged77%andthelevelofemptyrunningaround20%,anaverageemissionfactorof59.8gCO2/tonne-kmwouldapply,similartotheNTMvalue.A77%loadfactorwouldbesubstantiallyhigherthantheaverageformaximumweightarticulatedvehicles,thoughinothersectorsahigherproportionofloads‘cubeout’beforethey‘weighout’.Ontheotherhand,theneedtocleantanksandcontainerspriortobackloadingmayresultintheaveragelevelofbackloadinginthechemicalindustrybeinglowerthantheaverageforheavytrucks.Ifoneweretocombineanaverageloadfactorof80%witha25%emptyrunningfigure,theresultwouldbeanaverageindustryemissionfactorofroughly62gCO2/tonne-km,slightlyabovetheNTMfigure,butwellbelowtheaveragefiguresforroadhaulageasawholeadoptedbyTremove,INFRASandtheBritishandFrenchgovernments.Individualcompaniesmayhoweverusedifferentemissionfac-torsthatbetterreflecttheparticularcircumstancesoftheirtransportoperations(see Table 1).Anaverageemissionfactorof62 gCO2 / tonne-kmisrecommendedforroadtransport.
2.7.2Railfreight
Averageemissionfactorsforrailfreightrangefrom7.3to23gCO2/tonne-km,thoughmostestimatesliewithintherange15-23(Table 3).Asexplainedearlier,theseaveragesareinfluencedmainlybyfourfactors:thesplitbetweendieselandelectrichaulage,thecarbonintensityoftheelectricalpowersource,theenergyefficiencyofthelocomotiveandassump-tionsabouttrainloadfactors.Allfourcanvarywidelybetweencountries,makingitdifficulttoestablisharepresentativeemissionfigureforthewholeofEu-rope.Itisworthnotingthewidevariationsinthecar-bonintensityofdifferenttypesofelectrifiedrailfreightservicefrom0.003gCO2/tonne-kmforelectricitygeneratedbyrenewables(NTM)to1.8forpredomi-nantlynuclearpoweredservicesinFranceto19fortheelectricalenergymixacrosstheEU,comprising55%fossilfuel,30%nuclearand15%renewables.Thefigureof7.3recommendedbyADEMEforFranceisclearlyanoutlier,reflectingthehighproportionofelectrifiedrailfreightservicesandheavydependenceonnuclearpower.AstudyundertakenbyMcKinnon(2007)13intheUKfoundthatthecountry’selectricalenergymixresultedinelectrifiedrailfreightserviceshavingaverysimilarcarbonintensitytodiesel-hauledservices.Forthepurposeofthisstudyanaverageindustryemissionfactorof22 gCO2 / tonne-kmisrecommended.
2.7.3Inlandwaterway
Therearefewerpublishedestimatesofaverageemis-sionfactorsforbargemovementsoninlandwater-waysandamuchnarrowerrangeofvalues(Table 4).Indeedtheclosesimilaritybetweensomeofthesevaluessuggestthatthefiguresmayhavebeenderivedfromthesamesource.Reflectingtheappar-entconsensusbetweenthestudiesonthecarbonintensityofthismode,itisrecommendedthatavalueof31 gCO2 / tonne-kmbeused.
TABLE4
PublishedEmissionFactorsforInlandWaterway/BargeMovements
organisation gCO2/tonne-km
INFRAS 31
TRENDS 31
Tremove 32.5
IFEU 28-35
13 McKinnon,A.C.(2007)‘CO2EmissionsfromFreightTransportintheUK’CommissionforIntegratedTransport,London.
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gCO2/tonne-km Source
Bulkship
Smalltanker(844tonnes) 20 DEFRA
Largetanker(18371tonnes) 5 DEFRA
Small(solid)bulkvessel(1720tonnes) 11 DEFRA
Large(solid)bulkvessel(14201tonnes) 7 DEFRA
Containervessels
Smallcontainervessel(2500tonnes) 13.5 DEFRA
Largercontainervessel(20000tonnes) 11.5 DEFRA
Averagedeep-seacontainervessel 8.4 BSR/CleanCargo
(assuming mean 11 tonne load per TEU)
Deep-seatanker(120,000tonnes) 5 NTM
AllMaritime 14 TRENDS
TABLE5
PublishedEmissionFactorsforMaritimeTransport
2.7.4Shipping
Shortseashippingoperationscanbedividedintothreetypes:ro-roferryoperations(carryingtrucksand/orrailwagons),bulkshipsandcontainervessels.Foreachofthesemaritimemodestwosetsofpublishedemis-sionfactorvalueswerefound,thoughtheyarenotdirectlycomparablegivendifferingassumptionsmadeaboutthevesselweightclass(Table 5).Thereisthere-forelittlechoiceintheselectionofemissionvaluesforshipping.Anoverallemissionfactorforshort-seashippingof16 gCO2 / tonne-km isproposed.
Acrossasampleofninedeep-seacontainership-pinglines,CleanCargo/BSRfoundtheweightedaverageemissionsofCO2perTEU-kmtobearound93g.AssumingthattheaverageTEUcarriesaloadof11tonnes,thisyieldsacarbonintensityvaluefordeep-seacontainershippingof 8.4 gCO2 / tonne-km.(Thisemissionfactormakesnoallowanceforthere-positioningofemptycontainers.)Anestimateofthecarbonintensityofdeep-seatankeroperationshasbeenobtainedfromNTM,5 gCO2 / tonne-km.
2.7.5Intermodaltransport
Onceasetofemissionfactorshasbeenagreedforindividualtransportmodes,thesevaluescanbeusedtoderivecompositeemissionfactorsforintermo-daloperations.Thesecompositevaluesneedtobeweightedbytherelativedistancestravelledoneachofthemodesinthecourseoftheintermodaljourney.Chemicalcompaniesoftendonotknowtherouteingofintermodalconsignmentsandhencethedistancesplitbetweenthemodes.Onecompanycontribut-ingtotheCeficsurvey,assumedthattheaverageroad-railintermodalhaulwas1000kmlongandthatroadfeedermovementsatbothendsoftherailline-haulwouldbearound100kmslong.ItisnotknownifthesefigureswouldberepresentativeoftheEuropeanchemicalindustryasawholeandofotherintermodalcombinations.Onewayofobtain-ingarepresentativevaluewouldbetosurveylargeintermodaloperatorsspecialisinginthemovementofchemicalsandaskthemtoprovideaveragevaluesofthedistancesplitsfordifferentintermodalcombina-tions.Inthemeantime,wehaveconstructedatableshowingarangeofemissionfactorsfordifferenttypesofintermodalservicewiththeroadshareofthetotaldistancetravelledvaryingfrom5%to20%(Table 6).Untilmoredataisprovidedbyintermo-daloperators,weproposethata10%roadfeederdistancebeadoptedandthatemissionfactorsinthesecondcolumnofTable6beusedforintermodalservices(bolded).
TABLE6
CompositeEmissionFactorsforIntermodalCombinations
intermodalcombination Roaddistanceas%oftotal
5% 10% 15% 20%
road-rail averagerailfreight 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0
electrifiedrail(EUaverage) 21.2 23.3 25.5 27.6
electrifiedrail(France) 10.0 12.8 15.5 18.2
dieselrail 25.9 27.8 29.7 31.6
road-inlandwaterway 32.6 34.1 35.7 37.2
roadshort-sea ro-roferry-truck 49.7 50.3 51.0 51.6
ro-roferry-rail 38.3 39.5 40.8 42.0
smalltanker(844tonnes) 22.1 24.2 26.3 28.4
largetanker(18371tonnes) 7.9 10.7 13.6 16.4
smallbulkvessel(1720tonnes) 13.6 16.1 18.7 21.2
largebulkvessel(14201tonnes 9.8 12.5 15.3 18.0
smallcontainervessel(2500tonnes) 15.9 18.4 20.8 23.2
largercontainervessel(20000tonnes) 14.0 16.6 19.1 21.6
allshortsea 18.3 20.6 22.9 25.2
shorthaul mediumhaul longhaul source
1580 800 570 WRI/WBCSD(2003)
1925 867 633 NTM(2005)
673 INFRAS/TRENDS(2004)
TABLE7
EmissionFactorsforAirFreightTransport
2.7.6Airfreight
Relativelysmallamountsofchemicalsmovebyair.TheCeficsurveyindicatedthatonly0.01%oftonnesand0.07%oftonne-kmsmovebyair.Thesearemainlyspecialistpolymers,samplesandemergencyconsignments.Publishedcarbonemissionfactorsforairfreightvarywidely,reflectingdifferencesinthelengthofhaulandnatureoftheoperation (Table 7).Twosources,WRI/WorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDistributionandNTM,haveprovideddifferentemissionfactorsforeachdistancerange.AsthemeanlengthofhaulforairfreightmovementsintheCeficsurveywas7000kms,anaverageofthetwolonghaulemissionfactorsisproposedi.e.602 gCO2 / tonne-km.
2.7.7Pipeline
TheonlypublishedfigurethatwehavebeenabletofindforpipelineappearedinareportpublishedbytheUKRoyalCommissiononEnvironmentalPol-lutionin199414.Thisstudyassignedavalueof10gCO2/tonne-kmtopipelines.Sincethenthecarboncontentofelectricityhasreducedasaresultoftheswitchtogas-firedstationsandrenewables.Itisalsolikelythattheenergyefficiencyofpipelinepumpingequipmentwillhaveimproved.Ithasbeendecidedthereforetousealowervalueof 5 gCO2 / tonne-kmatpresent,pendingfurtherenquiries.
14 RoyalCommissiononEnvironmentalPollution(1994)‘TransportandtheEnvironment’HMSO,London.
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Transportmode gCO2/tonne-km
Roadtransport 62
Railtransport 22
Bargetransport 31
Shortsea 16
Intermodalroad/rail 26
Intermodalroad/barge 34
Intermodalroad/shortsea 21
Pipelines 5
Deep-seacontainer 8
Deep-seatanker 5
Airfreight 602
TABLE8
RecommendedAverageEmissionFactors
2.8Recommendedaverageemissionfactorsforchemicaltransportoperations
Theproposedsetofcarbonemissionfactorsaresum-marizedin Table 8.
Theserecommendedemissionfactorsareaveragevaluesforthewiderangeoftransportactivitiesofthechemicalindustry.Theycanbeusedtoestimatethetotalcarbonfootprintofchemicaltransportoperationsorbyindividualcompaniesasdefaultvalues.Itisclearlypreferable,ifpossible,forcompaniestoderiveemissionfactorsfortheirspecifictransportoperations,re-flectingthecharacteristicsoftheirsupplychains,productsandcustomerbase.
15 WBCSD(2009)‘CementIndustyEnergyandCO2Performance:GettingtheNumbersRight’Geneva.
16 InternationalFertiliserIndustryAssoc(2009)‘Fertilisers,ClimateChangeandEnhancingAgriculturalProductivitySustainably’Paris.
3. Measurement of Transport-related Emissions in other Sectors
TheEuropeanchemicalindustryisnotaloneintryingtocarbonfootprintitstransportoperations.Othersectorshavelaunchedsimilarinitiatives.Itispossiblethatthechemicalindustrymaybeabletolearnfromtheexperienceintheseothersectors.Aspartofthisstudy,therefore,areviewwasconductedofotherindustrialandcommercialsectorstoexaminetheireffortstomeasureCO2emissionsfromtheirtransportoperations.Thismainlyinvolvedanonlinesearchofthewebsitesofindustrytradebodiesandcompanies,combinedwithkeywordsearchesforreports,papersandpresentations.Informaldiscussionswerealsoheldwithlogisticsspecialistsinseveralindustrieswhohavecontributedtoourpreviousresearchprojects.
Thisreviewhasrevealedthatinmostsectorscarbonmeasurementisatafairlyearlystageandrelatesprincipally,andinsomecasessolely,toemissionsfromthecoreactivity,suchasprimaryprocessing,manufacturingorpackaging.Littlereferenceismadetothecarbonfootprintoftransportoperations,particularlyinthosesectors,suchascement,withahighlycarbon-intensiveproductionprocess.Whereindustryassociationsorcompanieshavepublisheddataontransport-relatedemissions,theyseldomdisclosethemethodsusedtoderivethesestatistics,theunderlyingassumptionsandtheirchoiceofemis-sionfactors.
Itispossibletodetectanevolutionarypathinthedevelopmentofcarbonmeasurementcapabilityatanindustrylevel.Initiallymacro-level,top-downestimatesofaggregateemissionsarecompiledwithlittleornodifferentiationbyactivity.Thesearetypi-
callybasedonsimplerelationshipsbetween,ontheonehand,totaloutput,salesandenergyconsump-tionand,ontheotherhand,carbonemissions.Atalaterstage,surveysofkeycompaniesintheindustrypermitmoreaccurate‘bottom-up’estimationofCO2emissionsandsomedifferentiationofemissionsbyactivity,includingtransport.Atfirst,thecarbonauditingoftransportreliesongeneral,cross-industryaverageemissionfactors,butcansubsequentlyberefinedwiththedevelopmentofsector-specificemis-sionfactors.Furtherevolutionseesthedisaggregationoftransport-relatedcarbonmeasurementbyindustrysub-sectorandcanleadtointer-companybenchmark-ingofcarbonintensity.Mostofthesectorsreviewedarecurrentlyintheearlystagesofthisevolutionarypath.Thechemicalindustryappearstobeoneofthemoreprogressiveinitseffortstoquantifycarbonemissionsfromitstransportoperationanddevelopcarbonreductionstrategiesfortransport.Itmay,nevertheless,benefitfromadoptingsomeoftheideasandpracticesofothersectors.Thecurrentsituationintheseothersectorscanbesummarisedasfollows:
Cement
The‘CementSustainabilityInitiative’,ledbytheWorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment,haspublishedareport15on‘gettingthenumbersright’inmeasuring‘energyandCO2performance’.Noneofthenumbersinthisreportrelatetotrans-port,however.Carbonmeasurementisconfinedtotheproductionoperation,withonlyabriefreference
tothetransportofinboundclinkerbeingminimalascementplantsaregenerallylocatedbesidequarries.TheCementIndustryGHGProtocolcurrentlyexcludes‘off-site’transportbecause‘theseemissionsaresmallcomparedtoemissionsfromthekilnanddifficulttoquantifyinaconsistentmanner’.Ifcompanieschoosetoincludetransport-relatedemissionstheyareencouragedtousetheWRI/WBCSD‘MobileCombustionTool’forthispurpose.LaFarge,oneofthelargestEuropeancementproducers,estimatesthatitsoutbounddistributionbyroadrepresents5%ofits‘manufacturingemissions’,thoughgivesnoindicationofthemethodofcalculation.
Fertiliser
TheInternationalFertiliserIndustryAssociation16hasincludedtransportandlogisticsinitsanalysisofGHGemissions.Itconcedes,nevertheless,thatthis‘isdiffi-cultbecauseofcontinuouslyshiftingtradeandtrans-portpatternsandbecausetradeaccountsforonlyaminorityoffertilisermovements’.Itestimatesthatdistributionrepresents‘about3%oftotalemissionsassociatedwiththefertiliserlifecycle’(thisexcludestheupstreamtransportofrawmaterials).ThemethodadoptedbytheIFIAisverysimilartothatofCefic:‘multiplyingthenumberoftonnesbythenumberofkilometresandthecoefficientfortheappropriateformoftransport’.Itencouragescompaniestoobtain‘locallyadjustedcoefficients’,inrecognitionofthefactthat‘thereseemstobesomeregionalvariationwithregardtowhethertransportbyrailandinland
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17 McKinnon(2007)op.cit.
18 WorldSteelAssociation(2008)‘CO2EmissionsDataCollection:UserGuideversion6’Belgium.
19 WSTALogisticsGroup‘TransportEmissionsCarbonCalculator’London.
20 Smith,A.etal(2005)‘ValidityofFoodMilesasanIndicatorofSustainableDevelopment’DEFRA,London.
waterwayhastheleastenvironmentalimpact’.ThemodalemissionfactorsquotedintheIFIAreportareobtainedfromMcKinnon(2007)17andNTM.
Steel
TheWorldSteelAssociation18providesadvicetomembercompaniesonthecalculationofCO2emis-sionsandhascalculatedtheindustry’stotalcarbonfootprint(1.7tonnesofCO2emittedpertonneofsteelproduced).Transportofrawmaterialsupstreamoftheplantare‘excludedfromthesystemboundary’.Presumablydownstreamdistributionoffinishedprod-uctsisincluded,thoughtheWSA’s‘CO2EmissionsDataCollection’reportoffersnoguidanceonhowtherelatedcarbonemissionsshouldbemeasured.Allthepublishedemissionfactorsapplytoproductionoperations.
Metalcans
CanMakers,thetradebodyrepresentingmanufac-turersformetalcans,commissionedconsultantstoconstructacarboncalculatorfortheirsupplychainoperations.Thistoolcanbecalibratedwithcompany-specificemissionfactorsorstandarddefaultvaluesderivedmainlyfromDEFRA.
Bitumen
Nynas,oneofthemainproducersofbitumen,hascarbonfootprintedtheproductionoperationandupstreamsupplychainforthisproduct.ThisincludestheinboundmovementofoiltotheirEuropeanproductionfacilities,butexcludesdistributionofthefinishedproduct.Nodetailsaregivenofthemethodofcalculation,thoughDEFRAappearstobethemainsourceofemissionfactorvalues.
Wineandspirits
TheWineandSpiritsTradeAssociation19,jointlywithJ.F.Hillebrand,havedevelopedacarboncalculatorformeasuringcarbonemissionsfromtransportinthissector.This‘representsanobjective,reasonableandconservativeassessmentofemissionsfromoneofthemostcomplexelementsofthebeveragesup-plychain’.Thecalculatorallowsuserstoestimate,onalanebylanebasis,CO2emissionsperlitreofwinetransportedbydifferenttransportmodes,forbulkandpackagedproductandforfull-loadsandgroupage.TheWSTAandHillebrandindicatethesourcesofallthemodalemissionfactorsbuiltintotheircalculator.TheseincludeDEFRA,McKinnon,theUKNationalAtmosphericEmissionsInventoryforroad;Tremove,NTMandINFRASforrailandNTM,McKinnonandMaerskforshipping.Typicalpayloadsarealsoprovidedforwines/spiritsmovedbyroadtrailerorcontainerindifferentcountries.Inaseparateinitiative,theScotchWhiskyAssociation,hasanalysed
(withtheassistanceoftheScotchWhiskyResearchIn-stitute),onalifecyclebasis,totalCO2emissionsfromtheproductionandworld-widedistributionofwhisky.Thishasestablishedthatoutbounddistributionofthefinishedproductconstitutesaround11%ofthetotal.Themacro-levelfootprintwascalculatedbymultiply-ingoutboundtonnagesbycarbonemissionfactorsforthedifferenttransportmodesused,assuminghighlevelmodalsplitestimates.Anemissionfactorof85gCO2/tonne-kmisusedforroadmovements,ob-tainedfromtheUKLowCarbonVehiclePartnership.Inthesecondphaseofthisproject,themainwhiskyproducersareprovidingmuchmoredetailedfiguresonthequantitiesofScotchmovedondifferentlanesbydifferentmodes.Carriershavealsobeenaskedtoprovidefuelconsumptionandemissionsdatatohelptorefinethecalculationandreducerelianceonstandardised,cross-industryemissionfactors.
Food
Numerousstudieshavecarbonfootprintedthesupplychainsoffoodproductsonalifecyclebasis.Manyhavebeenmotivatedbyconcernaboutthe‘foodmiles’issuei.e.thetrendtosourcefoodproductsfrommoredistantlocations.Thishasfocusedatten-tiononemissionsfromthetransportoperation.Giventhepublic/governmentinterestinthistopic,muchofthisworkhasbeenpublicly-fundedratherthancommissionedbytradeassociationsorcompanies.Studies,suchasSmithetal(2005)20,forexample,haveproducedmacro-levelestimatesoftransport-
relatedCO2emissionsfordifferentclassesoffoodbymultiplyingtonnage,distanceandmodalemissionfactorvalues.Overthepastthreeyears,however,muchmoreprogresshasbeenmadeatthemicro-level,measuringcarbonemissionsfromthesupplychainsofspecificproductstopermitcarbonlabelling.
NumerousstudieshavebeenconductedonproductcarbonfootprintingintheUK,France,Germany,KoreaandJapan.Inanefforttostandardisethisprocess,theBritishStandardsInstitute(BSI)publishedguidelinesonthecarbonfootprintingofconsumerproducts(PAS2050)21whichincludesasectionontransportoperations.Itprovidesadvice,forexample,ontheallocationofCO2emissionsbetweenconsign-mentssharingthesamevehicle.
Inthecaseofloadslimitedbymass(i.e.weight),theallocationisbymass;wheretheloadisvolume-constrained,CO2istobedividedbyvolume.Thisrecommendationiscrude,however,andofferslittleguidanceonhowtodealwithmanycommonly-encounteredtransportsituationssuchas:wheretheloadisneithermass-norvolume-constrained,wherealoadcomprisesamixtureofhighandlowdensityconsignmentsorwheregoodsaredelivered/collectedonmultiple-stoprounds.
Asitisunlikely,fortheforeseeablefuture,thatchemicalcompanieswillberequiredtodisaggregatetransportCO2estimatesbyproductorconsignment,thisrecentdevelopmentofcarbonauditinginthefoodsectorislikelytobeoflimitedinterestintheshorttomediumterm.
21 BritishStandardsInstitute(2008)‘PAS2050:Specificationforthemeasurementofembodiedgreenhousegasemissionsinproductsandservices’London.
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Paperandboard/Packaging
The‘frameworkforthecarbonfootprintingofpaperandboardproducts’wascompletedin2007andapprovedbytheConfederationofEuropeanPaperIndustries(CEPI)22laterthatyear.Itdefined‘transport-relatedgreenhousegasemissions’asoneofthe‘tentoes’oftheindustry’scarbonfootprint.Thisincludes‘transportingrawmaterials,productsandwastesalongthevaluechain’.TheGHGcalculationproce-dureisasfollows,withdatacomingfrom‘companiesprovidingtransportservices,companytransportexpertsandlife-cycledatabases’:
Calculationsteps:1.Usesystemboundaries,cut-offcriteriaand
knowledgefromotherstudiestodecidewhichtypeoftransporttoincludeintheanalysis
2.Estimateemissionsassociatedwiththeselectedaspectsoftransport
3.Iftransportisusedformultipleproducts,useappropriateallocationmethodstoidentifytheemissionsassociatedwiththeproductofinterest
4.Ifneededtosatisfytheobjectivesofthefootprint,dividetheemissionsintocategoriesreflectingcontrol
5.Recordthegreenhousegasemissionsattribuabletothefunctionalunitoftheproductbeingstudiedintheappropriatereportingform
ForpaperproductsanEnvironmentalPaperAs-sessmentTool(EPAT)hasbeendevelopedinNorthAmericawhichincludesacalculationof‘transportemissionsassociatedwithcarryingproductfrom
themillstoadistributionpointorconverter’.This‘providesbuyersandsellersofpaperproductswithaconsistentlanguageandframeworktoevaluateandselectenvironmentallypreferablepaper’.TheFedera-tionofEuropeanCorrugatedBoardmanufacturers(FEFCO)whichisaffiliatedtoCEPI,haspublishedamoretechnicalmanualonthecarbonfootprintingofthisclassofproducts.Thismakesnoexplicitreferencetotransport,thoughindicatesthattheBritishPAS2050methodologyhasbeenemployedinitsGHGcalculations.
Concernabouttheenvironmentalimpactofthegrowthofpackagingand,insomecountriestheproposedintroductionoftaxesonpackaging,hasstimulatedresearchontheenvironmentalauditingofthepackagingsupplychain.AstudybyCEDelft23hasestimatedthetransport-relatedCO2emissionsfromthesupplychainsofarangeofpackagingproducts.ThishasusedaseriesofCO2-intensityvaluesfordif-ferenttransportmodes(78g/tonne-kmforroadand34g/tonne-kmforrailandinlandwaterway).IthasalsoestimatedtheaveragelengthofeachlinkinthepackagingsupplychainwithintheNetherlandsandquantitiesofproductmovingoneachoftheselinks.
Postalservices
Althoughthemovementofmailpresentsverydif-ferenttransportchallengestothedistributionofchemicals,arecentinitiativebytheInternationalPostCorporation24(IPC),whosemembershandle80%of
globalmailvolume,meritsattention.Ithasestab-lishedanEnvironmentalMeasurementandMonitor-ingSystem(EMMS)thatmemberorganisationsandtheircustomerscanusetocarbonfootprinttheirmailoperations,whichareessentiallylogistical.EMMSwasdevelopedto‘implementacommoncarbonmeasure-mentandreportingframeworkinlinewithcustomerrequirementsandstakeholderexpectations’.Itscorescompanies’‘carbonmanagementproficiency’onaconsistentbasisusingthe‘plan-do-check-act’approachadvocatedbytheInternationalStandardsOrganisation.TheIPChassetitsmembersatargetofreducingtheirtotalCO2emissionsby20%by2020.
Summary
Thereisnoindustryorsectorwhichcancurrentlyberegardedasbestpracticeintermsoftransport-relatedcarbonauditing.Some,suchasfertiliser,packagingandwines&spirits,havegonethroughasimilarpro-cesstoCeficinadoptinganactivity-basedapproachtocarbonmeasurementandsurveyinglargemembercompaniestocompilethenecessarybasedataformacro-levelestimationofCO2emissions.
Severalofthesectoralinitiativesoutlinedabove,mostnotablythoserelatingtofertiliser,foodandpaper&board,gobeyondcarbonmeasurementandprovideadvicetocompaniesonmethodsofdecarbonisingtheirtransportoperations.
24
22 CEPI(2009)‘FrameworksfortheDevelopmentofCarbonFootprintsforPaperandBoardProducts’Brussels.
23 CEDelft(2007)‘EnvironmentalIndicesfortheDutchPackagingTax’Delft.
24 InternationalPostCorporation(2009)‘PostalSectorSustainabilityReport2009’Brussels.
4. Opportunities for Decarbonising Chemical Transport Operations
TheseopportunitieswillbeexaminedwithinaframeworkdevelopedfortheGreenLogisticsresearchprojectintheUK(Figure 5).Thisframeworkmapsthecomplexrelationshipbetweentheweightofgoodspro-ducedinaneconomyorindustrialsectorandtheCO2emissionsfromitsfreighttransportoperations.Thisrelationshippivotsonasetofsevenkeyparameters:
Modalsplitindicatestheproportionoffreightcarriedbydifferenttransportmodes.Followingthissplit,subsequentparametersneedtobecalibratedforparticularmodes.TherestofFigure 5 hasbeendefinedwithrespecttoroadtransport.
Averagehandlingfactor:thisistheratiooftheweightofgoodsproducedbyanindustrialsectortofreighttonnagesloadedontovehiclesatthestartofajourney,allowingforthefactthat,astheypassthroughthesupplychain,productsareloadedontovehiclesseveraltimes.Thehandlingfactorservesasacrudemeasureoftheaveragenumberoflinksinasupplychain.
Averagelengthofhaul:thisisthemeanlengthofeachlinkinthesupplychainandessentiallyconvertsthetonnes-liftedstatisticintotonne-kms.
Averagehandlingfactorandlengthofhaulreflectthatoverallsupplychainstructure.
Averagepayloadonladentripsandthepropor-tionofkmsrunemptyarethetwokeyvehicleutilizationparameters.Averagepayloadisnormallymeasuredsolelyintermsofweight.Thisisveryap-
FIGURE5
DecarbonisationFrameworkforFreightTransport
CO2emissions
Distribution of vehicle - kms by vehicle size, wieght and type
Aggregate
Key parameter
Determinant
Efficiency of vehicle routing
Vehicle carrying capacity by weight / volume
Vehicle utilisation on laden trips
Level of backhaulage
Supply chain structure
Road tonne -kms
Total vehicle -kms
Traffic conditions
Timing of deliveries
Spatial pattern of deliveries
Weight of goods transported by road
Road tonnes -lifted
Weight of goods produced / consumed
Similaranalysesforothermodes
Fuel consumption
Fuel efficiency
Carbon intensity of fuel
Modal split
Average % empty running
Average length of haul
Average handling factor
Average load on laden trips
25
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propriateinthechemicalindustryasalargepropor-tionofloadsareweightconstrained.
Energyefficiency:definedastheratioofdistancetravelledtoenergyconsumed.Itisafunctionmainlyofvehiclecharacteristics,drivingbehaviourandtrafficconditions.
Carbonintensityoftheenergysource:i.e.theamountofCO2emittedperunitofenergycon-sumedeitherdirectlybythevehicleorindirectlyattheprimaryenergysourceforelectrically-poweredfreightoperations.
4.1Modalsplit
Ithasbeenseenhowcarbonintensity(expressedasgrammeofCO2pertonne-km)varieswidelybetweentransportmodes.Shiftingfrommodeswithrelativelyhighcarbonintensitiestothosewithmuchlowercarbonemissionscanhelptodecarbonisefreighttransport.ToillustratethepotentialsavingsinCO2fromfreightmodalshiftwithinthechemicalsupplychaintwohypotheticalscenarioshavebeenconstructedonthebasisofthedatacollectedintheCeficsurvey (Figure 6).Thefirstreducesroad’sshareofchemicaltonne-kmsfrom37%to27%andspreadsthedisplacedtrafficevenlyaroundtheotherlowercarbonmodes.ThesecondappliestheaveragemodalsplitofthetwocompaniesintheCeficsurveywhichsendthelowestproportionsoftheirfreighttonnagebyroad.Inthefirstscenario,anetCO2sav-
ingof15%wouldbeachieved,whileintheseconditwouldbealmost27%.
Allthecompaniesconsultedindicatedthattherewasapotentialtoshiftmorefreighttorailandwater-borneservices,thoughsomecompanieshavealreadyincreasedtheirrelativeuseoflowercarbonmodesoverthepastdecade.Modalshiftwasbeingconstrainedbyseveralfactors:
1.Shortlengthsofhaul:itwasarguedthat,inchemicaldistribution,railtendsonlytobecomecompetitivewherethelengthofhaulisgreaterthan400-500kms.Thethresholddistancepartlydependsonwhethertheoriginand/ordestinationarerail-connectedand,ifnot,theextenttowhichflowshavetodeviatefromthedirectroadroutetopassthroughintermodalterminals.ManyEuropeanchemicalplantslackarailconnection.
0
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Intermodal road-railPipelineShort SeaInland WaterwayRailRoad
FIGURE6
Impactof2ModalShiftScenariosonCO2EmissionsfromChemicalTransport
Current modal split
Greener modal split
Two greenest modal splits
%o
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Greenermodalsplit: Marginalreallocationofroadfreighttolowercarbonmodes:15%lessCO2
Twogreenestmodalsplits: Applyingthetwo“greenest”modalsplitsinCeficsample:27%lessCO2
25 Chemicalcompaniesin‘swaparrangements’supplycustomerswithstandardproducts,oftenbrandedbyaparticularcompany,fromthenearestproductionplant.CompanyAmaythereforesupplyCompanyB’scustomerifitsplantiscloserandviceversa.Thisminimisestheaveragedistanceoverwhichproductsaredistributed.
26 McKinnon,A.(2004)‘SupplyChainExcellenceintheEuropeanChemicalIndustry’EPCA/Cefic,Brussels.Braithwaite,A.(2005)‘MaximisingPerformance:ThePowerofSupplyChainCollaboration’EPCA/Cefic,Brussels.
2.Lengthofthetransittime:water-borneservices,inparticular,areoftentooslowtomeetcustomerorderleadtimerequirements.
3.Inadequatereliability:whilefulltrainloaddeliv-eriestendtobequitereliable,therecanbequitewidevariationsinthetransittimesforwagonloadtrafficontheEuropeanrailnetwork.
4.Lackofcostadvantage:modalswitchtorailorwaterstillcannotbejustifiedpurelyonenviron-mental/decarbonisationgrounds.Theremustalsobeacommercialcaseforitandthisisoftenlacking.
5.Capacitylimits:therailand,toalesserextent,waterwaynetworkscanlacksufficientcapacityonkeylinksatbusytimestoaccommodateasubstan-tialmodeshiftfromroad.
4.2Supplychainstructure
Forsomechemicalcompaniestheaveragelengthofhauliscurrentlyincreasingastheirmarketareasexpand.Thegradualcentralisationofproductionandinventoryinthechemicalindustryisalsoincreasingitsfreighttransportintensity.Thereislittleprospectintheforeseeablefutureforthesewell-establishedgeographicaltrendsbeingreversed.Thereare,never-theless,othermeasuresthatcompaniescantaketooffsetthesetrendsandpossiblyreducetheindustry’stransport-relatedcarbonfootprint.
Expandingswaparrangements25:byessentiallyreducingthedemandfortransportandeliminatingtonne-kms,swappingisanidealdecarbonisationmeasure.Itisalreadywidelyappliedinthechemicalindustryforcommodityproductssuchasethylene,propyleneandbenzene,though,intheopinionofseveralofthemanagersconsulted,itcouldbeexpanded.NogeneraldataisavailableonthecurrentlevelofswapsortheresultingsavingintransportandCO2emissions.Itisnotpossible,therefore,tomodelthepotentialsavingsfromafurtherincreaseinswaps.Toachieveasignificantincreaseinthelevelofswap-ping,itwouldprobablybenecessarytotreatasstan-dardcommoditiessomeproductsthatarecurrentlybrandedanddifferentiatedformarketingpurposes.
Disintermediation:inotherwords,allowinglargerconsignmentstobypassdistributorsandexternalwarehousesandtraveldirectlyfromplanttocustom-ers.Thiseliminatesalinkinthesupplychain,reduc-ingthe‘handlingfactor’andcuttingtotaltonne-kms.Thisalreadyhappens,evenwherethesaleisstillhandledbythechemicaldistributor,butisrelativelyuncommon.CompanieswouldhavetoensurethatthisdidnotcontraveneEUcompetitionrulesandthathighvehicleloadfactorsweremaintainedonthesedirectdeliveries.
Improvedrouting:thecircuitousroutingofprod-ucts,bothatasupplychainlevelviaintermodaltermi-nals,warehousesandtankcleaningstations,andontheroadandrailnetworkscangenerateunnecessarytonne-kms.Thereisprobablyscopeforoptimisingchemicaltransportoperationsatboththeselevels,
usingmoreadvancedlogisticsplanningandvehicleroutingtools.Inthecaseofhazardouschemicals,morecarefulroutingoftheproductsalsoreducestheriskofaccidentsandthusyieldssafetybenefits.
4.3Vehicleutilisation
Theloadingofroadandrailvehicles,tanksandcontainersinthechemicalindustryisalreadyhigh,particularlyattheupperlevelsofthesupplychain.Astransportcostsrepresentarelativelylargepropor-tionofproductvalue,companiesareunderintensepressuretomaximisevehicleutilisation.Pricingstruc-turesalsogivecustomersastrongincentivetotakefulltruck,tankandcontainerloads.Furtherdownthesupplychain,however,acombinationofjust-in-timepressuresandproductdiversificationismakingitdif-ficultforchemicalcompaniestomaintainloadfactors,letaloneincreasethem.Figure 7(page28)liststherangeoffactorsthattypicallyconstrainvehicleloadingandgroupsthemintofivecategories.Allofthesefac-torsimpingeonchemicaltransportoperations.Thereare,nevertheless,somemeasuresthatwouldpermitasignificantincreaseinvehiclefill.SeveralofthemarediscussedintheEPCA/Ceficreportspublishedin2003and2004onsupplychainexcellenceintheEuropeanchemicalindustry26.Theyallhavethemeritofsavingmoneyaswellascuttingcarbon:
Increaseinthemaximumvehicleweight:manytruckscarryingchemicalproductsreachtheirmaxi-mumlegalweightbeforealltheavailabledeck/cubic
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27 McKinnon,A.C.(2005)‘TheEconomicandEnvironmentalBenefitsofIncreasingMaximumTruckWeight:theBritishExperience’TransportationResearchpartD,vol.10,pp.77-95.
capacityisoccupied.Arelaxationofgovernmentweightrestrictionsfrom40to44tonnesacrossEuropewouldthereforepermitgreaterloadconsoli-dation.WithinthreeyearsoftheUKgovernmentincreasingthemaximumweightlimitto44tonnes,61%oftonne-kmsinthepetrolandpetroleumprod-uctscommodityclasswerebeingmovedintrucksregisteredatthishigherweightlimit27.Inestimatingthenetcarbonsavingsfromgreaterloadconsolida-tionin44tonnetrucks,allowancewouldhavetobemadeforanyerosionofchemicaltrafficfromrailandwater-bornemodes.If,however,theincreaseinmaxi-mumtruckweightwereaccompaniedbyanevengreaterincreaseintheweightlimitforintermodalunitsto50tonnes,ascurrentlyproposedbyCefic,anynegativeimpactonrailcouldbeneutralised.
Relaxmonthlyorder-invoicecycles:ThiswasidentifiedintheEPCA/Ceficsupplychainexcellenceinitiativeasanimportantefficiencyimprovementmeasure.Itwouldhelptoreducetheartificialpeak-ingoffreightflowsatthestartofthemonth.Theintervieweesinthepresentstudy,however,differedintheirassessmentofitspotentialbenefitinbothcostandcarbonterms.Onecompanyhadmovedtoasystemofrollingcreditmainlytoreducepeakingandrelievepressureonloadingbays.Thisisalsolikelytohavecutcarbonemissions,thoughthesesavingshadnotbeenquantified.
FIGURE7
FactorsConstrainingVehicleUtilisation
Market-related
Demand fluctuations
Lack of knowledge of loading opportunities
Health and safety regulations
Vehicle size and weight restrictions
Unreliable delivery schedules
Just-in-Time delivery
Goods handling requirements
Limited storage capacity at facilities
Incompatibility of vehicles and products
Poor coordination of purchasing, sales and logistics
Regulatory
Inter-functional
Equipment-related
28
Infrastructural
28 McKinnon,A.C.‘IncreasingFuelEfficiencyintheRoadFreightSector’inMcKinnon,A.C.etal(eds)(2010)‘GreenLogistics’,KoganPage,London.
Improveloadingpractices:morecarefulloadingofconsignments,forexampleputtingmorestackableproductslowerinthevehicle,canimprovevehiclefill.Thisoftenrequiresbetterstafftrainingandsupervi-sion.
Expandingstoragecapacityatdeliverypoints:vehicleloadingispartlyconstrainedbythestor-agecapacityofsilosandtanksatthecustomer’spremises.Investmentinadditionalstoragecapacitycouldincreasetheproportionoffullloaddeliveries,particularlywhenlinkedwithvendormanagementofthecustomer’sinventory.
Vendormanagedinventory:theEPCA/Ceficsup-plychainexcellencestudieshighlightedthepotentialeconomicandenvironmentalbenefitsofVMIinthechemicalindustry.Fiveyearson,anevenstrongercasecannowbemade,intermsofdecarbonisation,forthewideradoptionofVMIinthissector.
Logisticalcollaboration:inotherindusties,mostnotablythefastmovingconsumergoodssector,logis-ticalcollaborationinitiativesaregatheringmomentumandachievingsignificantreductionsinvehicle-kms,transportenergyuseandemissions,mainlybyex-ploitingbackloadingopportunities.AsrevealedbytheEPCA/Ceficstudy,largepotentialexistsfortransportcollaborationintheEuropeanchemicalindustry.
Moreeffectivemanagementofdrivers’hours:drivers’hoursrestrictionslimittheamountofproductthatcanbedeliveredbyavehicle,particularlyonmultiple-droprounds.Althoughitisunlikelythat
theselegalrestrictionsaregoingberelaxed,itmaybepossiblethatimprovedroutingandschedulingwouldallowcompaniesandtheircarrierstoimproveaverageloadingwithinexistingconstraints.
4.4Fuelefficiency
Asmostchemicaltransportisoutsourced,responsibil-ityformaximisingfuelefficiencyrestswiththecarrier.‘Open-book’contractswithcarriersgiveshippersvisibilityoffuelconsumption,buttendonlytoapplytodedicatedtransportoperationsandappeartobecomparativelyrareinthechemicalindustry.Manycarrierswouldbeunwillingtodivulgeinformationabouttheirfuelefficiencyasthiscouldinfluencecommercialnegotiations.Atleasttwoofthechemi-calcompaniesconsulted,however,hadmanagedtoobtainthisinformationwithouttoomuchdifficultyfromcarriers.Ifthisinformationwereroutinelyprovided,carrierscouldbebenchmarkedontheirfuelperformance,ashashappenedintheUKintheseriesofgovernment-sponsoredtransportKPIssurveys.MostoftheKPIsthatchemicalcompaniesrequestfromtheirtransportprovidersrelatetoservicequalityratherthanoperationalorenergyefficiency.Bytakingagreaterinterestinthefuelefficiencystandardsandprogrammesoftheircarriers,chemicalcompaniesmightbeabletoexertmorepressureonthemtocutfuelconsumption.Onecantaketheview,however,thatcarriersarealreadyunderstrongcostpressuretominimisefuelconsumption,asitaccountsfor25-30%oftotalcosts,andthattheincrementaleffect
ofshippers‘takinggreaterinterest’inthesubjectcouldberelativelysmall.BenchmarkingsurveysintheUK,Germany,Canadaandothercountries,however,revealquitewidevariationsintheaveragefuelefficiencyofroadcarriers,eventhoseengaginginsimilartypesofhaulagework.Itwouldprobablybebeneficial,therefore,inbothcarbonandfinancialterms,toworkwiththeEuropeanChemicalTransportAssociationtoestablishanddisseminatebestpracticeinfuelmanagementamongthechemicalindustry’scarriercommunity.
Bestpracticeinfuelmanagementinvolvesapplyingarangeoffueleconomymeasures28.Thesecanbedividedintothreecategoriesrelatingtothedesign,maintenanceandoperationofvehicles.
4.4.1Vehicledesign
Fivevehicleattributeshaveastronginfluenceonfuelconsumption:
• Fuelefficiencyofnewtrucks:Therearesignifi-cantvariationsinthefuelefficiencyofdifferentmakesandmodelsofnewtruckonthemarket.Tradepublicationsreportvariationsof5-10%infuelconsumptionoverastandardtrialrouteforaparticularclassofvehicle.
• Enginepower-rating:Itiscommonforcom-paniestopurchasetractorunitsthataremorepowerfulthantheyneedtobeforaparticulartypeofdistributionoperation.
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• Vehicletare(i.e.empty)weight:Fuelefficiencycanalsobeenhancedbyreducingthistareweight.Useoflightermaterials,suchasaluminiumorcar-bonfibre,andtheremovalofunnecessaryfittingscansignificantlycutthetareweight.
• Aerodynamicprofiling:Aseriesofgoodpracticeguidesandcasestudies(e.g.DeptforTransport,2007)29havereportedpotentialfuelsavingsintherange6-20%forimprovedaerodynamicstylingoftrucks.Inarticulatedvehicles,bothtractorandtrailerneedtobestreamlinedeitheratthetimeofmanufactureorbysubsequentlyretrofittingwith‘fairings’.
• Installationoffueleconomydevices:Thesecanincludeanti-idlingcontrols,fuelmetresandspeedgovernors.
4.4.2Vehiclemaintenance
Inunder-maintainedvehiclestherearenumeroustechnicaldefectswhichcanpreventalorryfromoperatingatoptimumfuelefficiency.Theyincludefuelleaks,under-inflatedtyres,mis-alignmentofaxlesandpoorenginetuning.Moreregularandthoroughmaintenancecutsfuellossesassociatedwiththesedefects.
4.4.3Vehicleoperation
Thekeymeasurestobeintroducedunderthishead-ingare:
• Improveddrivertraining:Itisgenerallyacceptedthatdrivingstyleisthesinglegreatestinfluenceonfuelefficiency.Drivertrainingprogrammeshavebeenshowntoimprovefuelefficiencybyasmuchas8-10%.
• Driverincentiveschemes:Toderivelongertermbenefitfromdrivertraining,companieshavetogivedriversanincentivetocontinuedrivingfuel-efficiently.
• Reducingspeedlimits:Imposingtighterlimitsonvehiclespeedshasbeenshowntoachievesignifi-cantfuelsavingsoftenwithminimalincreasesintheorderleadtime.
• Fleetmanagement:Thisincludesassigningthe‘rightvehiclestotherightjobs’.Fleetmanage-mentcanalsobereinforcedbytheappointmentofa‘fuelchampion’whosejobitistoanalysethepatternoffuelconsumption,promotefuelsavinginitiativesandgenerallyinstilafuel-savingcultureintheworkforce.
4.5Carbonintensityoffuel
Goodfuelmanagementalsoincludesanassessmentofthecostsandbenefitsofusingalternativefuels,someofwhich,onalife-cycleorwell/fieldtowheelbasis,canyieldnetreductionsincarbonemissions.Aswithfueleconomymeasures,however,themaindeci-siononwhethertoswitchtobiofuelsorcompressednaturalgaswillcontinuetorestwiththecarrier.Chemicalcompaniescouldsignificantlycutthecarbonfootprintsoftheirtransportoperationsbypri-oritisingtheuseofrailinthosecountriesgeneratingalargeproportionoftheirelectricityfromnuclearandrenewalsources,wherethecommercialconditionsarefavourable.Itislikely,however,thattheywillgainonlylimitedcarbonbenefitfromthehybridisationandfullelectrificationoftrucks.Itisoperatorsofsmallerrigidvehiclesthatwillderivemostofthebenefitofhybridandplug-intechnology.Theheavyarticulatedtrucks,whicharethe‘work-horses’oftheEuropeanchemicalindustry,arelikelytocontinuerunningonconventionaldieselfuelfortheforeseeablefuture.RecentresearchfortheLowCarbonVehiclePartner-shipintheUKsuggeststhat,inthemediumterm,poweringheavygoodsvehicleswithbiomethanewillproveamuchmorecost-effectivemeansofdecarbo-nisinglongdistanceroadhaulageoperationsthantheuseofbiodieselblends.
30
29 DeptforTransport(2007)‘AerodynamicsforEfficientRoadFreightOperations’FreightBestPracticeProgramme,London.
5. Cost Effectiveness of Decarbonisation Measures
A InvestinpipelinenetworkB Modalshifttorail/inland
waterwaysC ExpandswaparrangementsD UseofalternativefuelsE MoreefficientvehicleroutingF Enhancedvehicle
aerodynamicsG ImprovedvehicleutilisationH Drivertraininginfuel
efficientdriving
Thenumerousdecarbonisationmeasuresoutlinedintheprevioussectionvaryintheirrelativecostef-fectivenessasillustrated,inaratheridealisedfashion,inFigure 8.Thisfigureshowsatentativerankingofsomeofthemainmeasuresintermsoftheinitialset-upand/orcapitalcosts.Insufficientdataisavailableatpresenttocalibratethisgraph.Itshouldbenotedthatmanyofthesemeasureswouldhaveafairlyshortpaybackperiodand,onanongoingbasis,yieldbothcostandCO2savings.
FIGURE8
VariationsintheRelativeCost-effectivenessofDecarbonisationMeasures
0 50 100 150 200 250
H
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EuropertonneofCO2saved
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MeasureAppraisalperiod
(years)£/tonneofcarbon
saved
Drivertraininginfuelefficientdriving(over5years) 5 65-75
Financialincentiveformodalshifttorail(over3years) 3 90
StreamliningofHGVs(over5years) 5 130
CompanyadviceonHGVfuelefficiency(over5years) 5 190
Companyadviceonvehicleroutingandtelematics 5 240
TABLE9
EstimatedCost-effectivenessofCarbonReductionMeasures.
FIGURE9
CostandCarbonSavingsAccruingfromImprovedFuelEfficiency(fullyladen40tgrossweightarticulatedvehicle)
0
0,02
0,04
0,06
0,08
0,010
0,012
0,014
0,016
0,018
0,020
32,92,82,72,62,52,42,32,20
10
20
30
40
50
60 Cost per tonne-km (€)
gCO2 per tonne-km
ThedirectlinearrelationshipbetweencostandCO2reductionscanbeeasilydemonstratedinthecaseofmeasureswhichimprovefuelefficiency(Figure 9).
AnattempthasbeenmadeintheUKtoassessthecost-effectiveness,overa3-5yeartimeframe,ofarangeofcarbonreductionmeasuresinthefreighttransportsector(Table 9).
ResearchersattheEindhovenUniversityofTechno-logy30havealsomodelledtherelativecostandcarbonimpactsoflogisticalmeasuressuchasfreightmodalshiftandimprovedbackloadingusingdatafromcasestudycompanies.Theiranalysissuggeststhat,inthecaseoftwocompanies,carbonemissionreductionsofupto15%mightbeachievedatanetsavingintransportcosts (Figure 10).
EffortshavealsobeenmadetoassesstherelativeeffectsofarangeoflowcarbonvehicletechnologiesandpracticesoncostsandCO2emissions.Ananalysisofthistype,undertakenfortheUKgovernment31,assessedtherelativedegreeofriskinthedevelop-mentandapplicationofthesemeasures(Figure 11).Itidentifiedmeasuressuchastraininginsafeandfuelefficientdriving(SAFED),lowrollingresistancetyresandtheretrofittingofaerodynamicdevices(‘aerofairings’)tovehiclesasofferinglargereductionsintail-pipeCO2emissionsatrelativelylowcost.
30 JanC.Fransoo,TarkanTan,A.G.(Ton)deKok,andHennyP.G.vanOoijen(2010)‘Measuringandregulatingcarbonemissionsintransportation’,WorkingPaper,SchoolofIndustrialEngineering,EindhovenUniversityofTechnology.
31 Ricardo(2009)‘ReviewofLowCarbonTechnologiesforHeavyGoodsVehicles’UKDeptforTransport,London.
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gC
O2
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Fuelefficiency(km/litre)
FIGURE10
EffectsofFreightModalShiftonTransportCostsandCO2Emissions
FIGURE11
RelativeCost-effectivenessofLowCarbonTruckTechnologiesandPractices(AdaptedfromRicardo/UKDepartmentforTransport)31
-2
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252015105
eco-drivingtraining
low rollingresistance
tyres automatictyre
pressureadjustment
biogashydrogen
full hybrid
biofuel(FAME)
compressed natural gas
aerodynamic trailers
electric vehicles
fuel cells
stop/starthybrid
aero fairings
mechanical turbocompound
electric turbocompound
Co
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Company B
Incr
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Themeasurementofcarbonemissionsfromfreighttransportoperationsisstillatanearlystageinmostindustrialsectors.ThereviewofinitiativesinothersectorssuggeststhattheEuropeanchemicalindustryisrelativelyprogressiveinitseffortstocarbonfoot-printitsfreighttransportoperations,despitethatfactthattheyaccountforonlyasmallproportionoftotalCO2emissions.Atpresent,thisindustry,likeothers,haslittlechoicebuttoadoptthe‘activity-based’approachtomeasuringtransport-relatedemissions,applyingstandardisedcarbonemissionfactorstoestimatesoftonne-kmsmovedbydifferentmodes.
Itwillbedesirable,however,tomigratetoan‘ener-gy-based’methodofcalculationusingfuelconsump-tiondataprovidedbycarriers.ThiswillpermitmuchmoreaccurateestimationofCO2emissions.Asitmaytakeseveralyearstoachievethisgoal,itmaybepossible,asaninterimmeasure,todevelopa‘refinedactivity-based’approachinvolvingclosercollabo-rationbetweenshippersandcarriers.ThiswouldincorporateintotheCO2calculationsampledataondistancestravelled,consignmentrouting,backloadingandfuelefficiencyprovidedbycarrierstopermitthecalibrationofemissionfactorsspecifictothechemicalindustry(Figure 12).Thiscouldleadinthemediumtermtofulloperational,energyandcarbon‘transpa-rency’betweenshippersandcarriers.
Therefinementofthecarbonmeasurementprocesswillhelpthechemicalindustrytodevelopatrans-portdecarbonisationstrategyembracingthevariousmeasuresoutlinedinthisreport.Thesemeasurescanbetargetedonfivekeyfreighttransportparameters:modalsplit,supplychainstructure,vehicleutilisation,energyefficiencyandcarbonintensityoftheenergy.Thefirsttwoparametersareunderdirectcontrolofchemicalcompanies.Responsibilityforvehicleutili-sationissharedwithcarriers,whileenergyefficiencyandthecarboncontentoffuelismuchmorestronglyinfluencedbythelogisticsprovider.
Measuresthatchemicalcompanies,andtheircarriers,haveintroducedinrecentyearsprimarilytoimprovetheeconomicefficiencyoftransportwillalsohavecutcarbon.Moreresearchisrequired,however,toassesstherelativecosteffectivenessofabroaderrangeofdecarbonisationmeasures.
Fromdiscussionswithchemicallogisticsmanagers,itseemsthatthereisstillareasonableamountof‘lowhangingfruit’tobeharvested,whichwillbeself-fi-nancingintheshorttomediumterm,thoughrequiresomeinitialinvestment.Someoftheseself-financing,quickpaybackmeasurescanbeimplementedbyindi-vidualcompanies,whileotherswillrequireinter-com-panycollaborationasrecommendedinearlierreportsontheEuropeanchemicalsupplychain32.
32 McKinnon,(2004)op.cit.;Braithwaite(2005)op.cit.
34
FIGURE12
PossibleEvolutionofCarbonMeasurementProcess
Shipper-dependent
NOT SPECIFIC TO
Activity-based
Tonne-km-basedemissionfactor
sector
company
product
supply chain tier
EMISSION FACTORS
IMPROVINGCALIBRATION
Tonne-km-basedemissionfactor
sector-specific
company-specific
product-specific
Collaborativeinitiative
Refinedactivity-based
tonnes
distance
tonnes
distanceEnergy used
STANDARD VALUES
Energy-based
Energy-basedemissionfactor
Carrier-dependent
sampledistanceandenergydata
Cha
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35
Biographies
ProfessorAlanMcKinnonisdirectoroftheLogisticsResearchCentreatHeriot-WattUniversity,Edinburgh,UK.AgraduateoftheuniversitiesofAberdeen,BritishColumbiaandLondon,hehasbeenresearchingandteachinginfreighttransport/logisticsforthirtyyearsandhaspublishedextensivelyinjournalsandbooks.AlanhasconductedstudiesfornumerouspublicandprivatesectororganisationsandbeenanadvisertoseveralUKgovernmentdepartmentsandparliamentarycommitteesandvariousinternationalagencies,includingtheInternationalTransportForumandInternationalEnergyAgency.In2003-4hefacilitatedthe‘SupplyChainExcellence’initiativeoftheEuropeanPetrochemicalAssociationandCefic.Inrecentyearsmuchofhisresearchhasfocusedonthedecarbonisationoflogistics.AlanisamemberofWorldEconomicForum’sGlobalAgendaCouncilontheFutureofTransportationandrecipientoftheSirRobertLawrenceAward,thehighestdistinctionoftheUKCharteredInstituteofLogisticsandTransport.
DrMajaPiecykisaLecturerintheLogisticsResearchCentre,basedatHeriot-WattUniversity,Edinburgh.Herresearchinterestsfocusontheenvironmentalperformanceofsupplychainsandsustainabilityoffreighttransportoperations.MuchofhercurrentworkcentresontheCO2auditingofbusinessesandforecastingoflong-termtrendsinenergydemandandtheenvironmentalimpactsoflogistics.
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36
Special thanks to all chemical and transport companies who kindly made pictures available to illustrate this report.
This report was prepared and published with the support of
des
ign
by
ww
w.w
itvr
ou
wen
.beCefic aisbl - European Chemical Industry Council
Avenue E. van Nieuwenhuyselaan 41160 Brussels - BelgiumT +32 2 676 72 11F +32 2 676 73 00www.cefic.org