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GIJ: LEVEL 300 (SEMESTER 1) – CSPR 307 MEDIA RELATIONS IN PUBLIC RELATIONS

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Media Relations involves working with media for the purpose of informing the public of an organization's mission, policies and practices in a positive, consistent and credible manner. Typically, this means coordinating directly with the people responsible for producing the news and features in the mass media. The goal of media relations is to maximize positive coverage in the mass media without paying for it directly through advertising.

Media relations refer to the relationship that a company or organization develops with journalists, while public relations extend that relationship beyond the media to the general public. Public Relations practitioners’ earnings or income rely on the media.

What is media? Media is the channel through which your organizational messages reaches your target audience or publics. Media includes all newspapers, magazines, TV channels, Radio stations, community newsletters and online news sources ie; social media, e-zines and online newspapers).

What does the media wants? The media wants news and information.

What is the role of media? The role of media is to tell THE story, not to tell YOUR story.

Media is a business entity and must make money/profits.

Principles of the Media : a)Credibility b)Give service c)Accept media independence

The media has a)large readership/audience b)loyal readers/audience

Purpose of Media Relations or Possible reasons an organization may reach out to the media are: 1.To build awareness through third party sources (media houses). 2.To develop public image, foster goodwill towards the organization 3.To create understanding of an issue or position 4.To publicise the launch of a new product/service 5.For the initiation of new factories/offices 6.To publicise financial results 7. To promote organization sponsored events or awards 8.To launch organization promotional campaigns 9. To announce recent disasters, strikes or organizational closures 10.To announce visits from company dignitaries/celebrities 11. To publicise involvement in local/community activities

Hypodermic needle theory/Magic bullet theory: Harold Laswell is one of the proponents of this theory developed in 1930s and 40s. This theory posits that media messages are directly received and wholly accepted by audience. The Hypodermic needle theory is a linear communication theory that suggests that media messages are injected directly into the brains of passive audiences.

Basic Assumptions

■ Media audiences are passive and helpless. ■ The media has a strong and direct effect on the behaviour, thinking and attitudes of media users. ■ Media audience react uniformly to stimuli.

Implication of Hypodermic needle theory

■ The theory demonstrates that the media has immense power to drastically influence opinion, behaviour and attitude. Thus, there is no escape from media effects.


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■ For showing negative messages to audience, media organisations are largely responsible for negative acts (violence, obscenity) in society.

■ Hypodermic needle thinking is usually the basis for advocacy for more control (regulation) of the media.

Uses and gratification theory: Herta Herzog (1944) is the main proponent of this theory which was further enhanced by Blumler, J. & McQuail D. in 1969. UGT explains how audience/individuals deliberately choose media that satisfy their particular needs such as knowledge, entertainment, relaxation, or socializing. UGT is an audience-centered to understanding mass communication.

Basic Assumption of Uses and gratification theory

■ Audience members are active and they have power over media usage (selective). ■ Audience’s selection and use of mass media is purposive, goal directed and motivated to satisfy

certain social and psychological needs or desires.

Media dependency theory or Media system dependency theory: The theory was postulated by communications researchers Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur in 1976. This theory argues that you depend on media information to meet certain needs and achieve certain goals, but you do not depend on all media equally. MDT is a build on of the Uses and Gratification Theory.

Basic Assumptions

■ The greater the number of social functions performed for an audience by a medium (information, entertainment), the greater the audience’s dependency on that medium.

■ The greater the instability of a society (conflict and rapid social change) the greater the audience’s dependency on the media and, therefore, the greater the potential effects of the media on the audience.

Factors influencing the Degree of Media Dependence

■ The ability of media to meet a number of needs. People become more dependent on media that meet a number of needs than on media that provide just a few.

■ Social stability. High rates of social changes/conflict challenge established beliefs, and practices, compelling individuals to re-examine their media use and make new choices. Reliance on the media for information increases in conflict of or high social change, it decreases in stable times.

Two-step flow theory: The theory was postulated by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson and Hazel Gaudet in 1944. The Two Step Flow Theory suggests that opinion leaders pay close attention to the mass media and pass on their interpretation of media messages to other individuals. Unlike the Hypodermic Needle Theory, The Two Step Flow Theory maintains that audiences are active participants in the communication process.

Basic Assumptions of two-step flow theory

■ The flow of information and influence from the mass media to their audiences involves two steps: from the media to certain individuals (i.e., the opinion leaders) and from them to the public.

■ Opinion leaders absorb the messages from the mass media, recast and reinterpret the messages, and through personal connections, pass them along to the usually less active, distracted and unaware audience.

■ Audiences are composed of individuals who are part of a society. They interpret media messages and are influenced by people around them.


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In working with the media PR practitioners have to research and plan *who are you dealing with and *what are they interested in.

Scoop in journalism means exclusive news.

What is news? News is an account of an event, person or issue that interests people. News is *something that is happening now (new) *unique or unusual *controversial or confidential *relevant to many people *extreme – very sad, very happy, very serious, very inspiring, etc Is it the first? Is it new?, is it timely?, is it the only one?, is it local?

An issue is anything that is topical. You must decide what is newsworthy by examining the elements of news: *Proximity (location) *Prominence (who) *Timeliness (current) *Oddity (unusual/absurd) *Consequence (impacts people) *Conflict (difficult) *Human interest *Extreme (superlatives) *Scandal *Controversy *Impact *Sex *Drama *Progress or Retrogression

Sources of news 1.the Organisation 2.the Media 3.the Government 4.Natural Occurrences 5.Individuals/Groups (within or outside the organization)

Public relations Unit – involves 1 or 2 person in the organization Public relations Department – involves about 5 persons in the organization Public relations Directorate – involves 6 or more persons in the organization

Fake news is any information that is deliberately meant to mislead. Reasons for fake news are 1.financial gains 2.entertainment 3.political

How to identify fake new? Search for the source and author, to see what they’ve published before and what others are saying about them.

Dealing with fake news? *stick to trusted sources of news *report it *critique it and prompt others *Install Adblocks

How does news get to the public? Through the MEDIA

Three forms of media at the disposal of Public Relations Professionals PAID media – when you pay to leverage a third party channel OWNED media – channel you create and control yourself EARNED (GAINED) media – when customers, the media and the public share your content or speak about your brand (word of mouth advertising). The mentions are “earned”, hence the customers, media/press and the public become voluntary channels.

In Public Relations, we have two types of publics. A) Internal Publics: newsletters, websites, email, memos, staff durbars, org., intranet, dep’t meetings. B) External Publics: news releases, news conferences, adverts on radio, TV and newspapers.

Why the need to be skillful to earn the media space? Because journalists deal with lots of people; organisations, entrepreneurs, including emails, calls, news


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releases, various assignments and more. Journalists are tight on deadlines, thus they will make time for you if you prove that you’re a VALUABLE SOURCE OF INFORMATION. First you must prepare. By preparing a checklist for establishing good media contacts.

Contact with the media does not guarantee coverage. You must persuade the media that your story or idea is newsworthy.

In Public Relations, there are two things you must be good at a) A good writer B)A good speaker In Media Relations, there are two things involved. You must be A)Proactive and B)Re-active

The media is an advocacy tool this means the media can speak for the voiceless. Public Relations practice must use the media, so that they can speak for us.

Media Outreach Harnessing the power of the media as an advocacy tool requires the use of several communication tools:

1.News Release (Press Release or Media Release) 2.News Conferences (Press Conference or Media Conference) 3.News Briefings/Soiree (Media Briefing or Press Briefing) 4.Open Days for Journalists 5.Op-Eds (Opinion Editorials) or Letters to the Editor 6.Media or Press Trips

News Release (Press Release or Media Release) A press release, news release, media release, press statement or video release is an official statement delivered to members of the news media for the purpose of providing information, an official statement, or making an announcement on something newsworthy. It may be exclusive (Scoop) or Syndicated (sent to many media houses). Press releases can be delivered to members of the media both physically and electronically. Types of News Release *News Releases aimed at Journalists *Announcement News Releases *Feature News Releases *Hybrid News Releases (announcement & feature combined) *VNRs (Video News Releases) *ANRs (Audio News Releases)

If you have news that you want the press to know about before it officially goes public so they can prepare a story to run the day you make the information public, instead of putting “FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE” on the top of your news release, you write “EMBARGOED UNTIL” at the top of your news release. If you attach a report, also place the embargoed title at the top.

If a press release is distributed before the information is intended to be released to the public it is embargoed. An embargo requests that news organisations not report the story until a specified time.

FORMAT OF PRESS RELEASE You press release must answer the questions (5 Ws). Write in the inverted pyramid format. Who – the subject of the story What - the news that the media must know Where - the event is taking place/location When - the date, week, year and time Why – why is the event significant


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ELEMENTS OF A NEWS RELEASE Organisational identification (letterhead) The Headline: should be short, catchy, most important fact you have to report. The first paragraph: should contain the most important facts you have to report. Body of the news release: the five W’s The release date: Embargoed or For Immediate Release Signed with Contacts: For authentication, validation and follow up. Add telephone number.

Planning: Determine which news outlet should get the news release (which journalist/reporters) Distribution: must be released in a timely manner to the appropriate outlets and reporters Distribution style: Email, fax, hand delivered, WhatsApp, Company Website, etc

VNRs are in five (5) parts 1.Opening billboard: series of screens that introduce the VNR sponsor and intended audiences 2.VNRs: news story which spans 60-90 seconds. Contains (Sound on tape) and announcer voice overs. 3.Sound bites Actualities (Audio/Visual). VNR without Announcer voice over. The tape will however contain rough cuts or rashes 4.B-Roll: Extra footage that accompany the VNRs 5.A-Roll: the main tape

Media Advisory – a document used to invite reporters to cover your event, story or assignment, such as press conference, forum, etc. It should be short, and must entail the venue and time for the programme. How to write a Media Advisory *Type MEDIA ADVISORY at the top of your page on your organisations letterhead. *Make sure it says FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE *Write the information that will resonate with the media, so they won’t turn it down. Hook them. *After a brief introduction, organize your media advisory by who, what, why, when and where.

News Conferences (Press Conference or Media Conference) A news conference or press conference is a media event in which newsmakers invite journalists to hear them speak and, most often, ask questions. A joint press conference instead is held between two or more talking sides.

Press Conferences are organized when the information you want to communicate is so complex that a dialogue is required to clarify it. A Press Conference is appropriate when you have real news item – a major report. Example, one must respond quickly to a fast breaking news story and are unable to reach all the media one-to-one.

How to organize a News Conference *Planning a media conference – media advisory listing who, what, where, when, why of the upcoming event to your mist of media outlets. *Contacting the media – serve reminders 3-days prior, - phone call, Text/Whatsapp/Email to all potential news outlets that might cover your event. *Format: -convenient location/easy access -make sure there is enough space -sufficient electric outlets for camera -a standby podium and enough chars for sitting


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Brand the venue: *Hang organizational pull-up banner behind the podium *Make arrangements for press registration table *Have a sign-in sheets and pens on the table *A moderator should introduce the speaker and coordinate the question period *Availability of media kits (Both printed speeches and video clips or an ad campaign) Visual stories are more likely to receive coverage especially with TV *Speakers: limit the number of speakers to allow for follow-up questions from the press *Timing: Generally, press conferences should be held between 10:00am and 11:00am or 1:30pm and 3:00pm

One week before the News Conference (CHECKLIST) Podium Speaker system Microphone Backdrop Chairs Water for participants Speeches Electricity outlets Table to media sign-ups Audio Recovers Video Recorders

The day before the News Conference (CHECKLIST) -formalise the order of speakers -call all prospective media houses and urge their attendance -double check the wire-services if they have announced your press conference -collate media materials -walk through the site and review details -type up names and titles of spokespeople for media handout

One the morning of the News Conference -Make last minute calls to assignment desk editors -double check the room several times hours before -Walk to the news conference with principal speakers -Protocal: After the main speaker is done, no one should speak again. Sitting arrangements 3,5,7 etc

After the News Conference Event -Follow-up with the sign-in sheet of reporters that attended. Check those who didn’t attend and hand deliver the press kit or them and follow-up an hour or so later. Team Media Briefing: After the news conference find out what went well and what didn’t go well. Review what worked and what didn’t work at the press conference with your team. Schedule evaluation with key staff as soon as possible to discuss the organization of the event, the way participants reacted to press questions and the coverage or the lack of it.

News Briefings/Soiree (Media Briefing or Press Briefing) News/Media Briefings or Soiree involves giving update to the media on both old or new issues about the organization. News Briefing sessions can be the most effective method of reading reporters with story ideas. Media Briefings are ways of introducing reporters to a new issue or new information on an old issue, to introduce reporters to an outside expert whose research or opinions support your organisations work, or to update reporters on activities affecting your issue. It is also an excellent way for your policy staff to meet reporters and get experience with the interview process. However, like any press event, media briefings require preparation by the spokespeople.


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News conference news briefing_________________________ take a critical issue already in the media domain an update on what has or is going to happen requires Public Relation moderation & coordination requires no moderation or coordination by PR

An example of media briefing is MEET THE PRESS.

NEWSLETTERS – they are internal publications that reach a highly unified public – employees, shareholders, members, volunteers, voting constituencies and others with a common interest. Can be used by external publics, who view it in company reception. They usually include a balanced mix of employee-related information and news about the company.

Types of Newsletters *Association newsletters: help a scattered membership with common interest keep in touch *Community group newsletters: are often used by organisations to keep in touch with members, announce meetings and stimulate attendance at events. *Institutional newsletters: usually distributed among employees and designed to give employees a feeling of belonging.

Content of Newsletters *Articles and story ideas *50% information about the organization *20% of employee information (promotions, birthdays, transfers, awards, funerals and staff social life) *20% of non-company information (competitors, community, etc) *10% small talk and personals (puzzles, jokes, health tips, cartoons, etc

Open Days for Journalists Open days where journalists are allowed to visit the organization and interact with all staffs in all departments.

Op-Eds (Opinion Editorials) or Letters to the Editor A proactive approach to publicise your views/opinions. Where you write your story in the form of an editorial and send it to the newspaper house. Make use of modern ICT such as blogs, to make your voice (content) heard and increase traffic flow to your website. Examples of OP-EDs are: Abura Epistle by Panyin Asamoah, Kofi Akorda’s space and Elizabeth Ohene’s column, etc

HOOTSUITE – is a social media management platform that can handle more than 3 social media platforms for free. It can track your social media channels and monitor what people are saying about yo.

Media or Press Trips -organising a facility visit -organising a plant/event tour -media/press tours -be ready to pay the bill by yourself Media Pitch – is a proposal for a project, product, story, upcoming events, film or just about anything which requires Public Relations messages to reach people in selected audience by way of media. Media Pitch is a verbal presentation or describes of an idea to a journalist (reporters, editors, bloggers and social media influencers)


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Pitch Letters – most editors, reporters and interviewers will insist you send a letter explaining your idea or subject you are requesting. A pitch letter is a story idea sent to a journalist or editor in the hopes of getting media coverage for a company's product or service. Individuals also use them to promote themselves as experts available for interviews.

A backgrounder is a brief article that summarizes an issue or company for the press and media. The backgrounder gives the press or other interested parties a more detailed background of an issue, event, person of interest or launch. It is one of the more common press materials that a Public Relations writer may be asked to provide. A backgrounder is often provided with press releases or other brief press pieces.

Contemporary Media Relations Management Social media may be described as the tools and technologies that facilitate social interaction over the internet. Social media can be considered as a NEWS CHANNEL.

Questions to ask yourself Who is your audience? How can you reach them? What do they want from you?

Some social media platforms include: FACEBOOK, LINKEDIN, YOUTUBE, INSTAGRAM, TWITTER, etc

The Current State of Public Relations Public Relations is evolving currently, due to digital and social space. Areas of traditional Public Relations agencies are changing due to clients wants and needs are changing and progressing, as businesses and consumer habits changed and moved online.

Adopting a Customer Focus Doing what the customer wants. Their interests and mindsets have changed from traditional to online. That is where Public Relations professional can reach their publics. In the past, Public Relations were directed to Journalists, but now Public Relations are directed to bloggers and influencers. “The message is as important as the messenger”

Mastering New Tools While the old tools and ways still apply, access to online influencers is still vital. Because Public Relations has evolved, one must master social media tools available to find influencers, bloggers and journalists.

Why is Social Media So Powerful

Because you are developing relationship with huge numbers of people directly – often they feel that this relationship is one-on-one.

It is much quicker, more direct route and communication to a target audience who have chosen to engage with your brand on social media.

Provides owned and earned media.

Social Media has Changed News Reporting

Readers find stories and journalists by picking newspapers or magazines or by clicking TV or tuning to radio stations. Currently news and information is being shared real time on the internet.

Millenials follow daily news but receive it passively as part of their social media feed.


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Now companies who want to engage with an audience need to be where those readers are looking for news: Social Media Sites.

Social Media Sites: Twitter, Facebook, Youtube, because news and media can be shared and discussed in teal time. Companies can connect with sources and audiences.

Why Use Social Media for News?

Monitoring of discussions and anticipate issues Emergency communications medium Continue ties with your publics Create more loyalty and respect ”Bond with the Brand” Be where the action is Be part of the discussion To find stories To monitor development in breaking news stories as they happen As reporting tool to find eyewitnesses, sources and images To engage readers or viewers through continuous news update To promote content both pre and post-publication To develop an on-going relationship with the audience and promote through retweeting

What PROs Must Understand 1.Social Media is real-time 2.Social Media goes straight to the audience, bypassing the traditional media gatekeepers 3.Content creators are technology savvy 4.Social Media adds more channels to the mix 5.Everyone is a journalist 6.Social Media is interactive 7.Social Media never sleeps

Social Media Strategy WHY – why your target audience uses digital channels. Product research, comparison, feedback, etc HOW – how your target audience would like to be communicated with and the tone of the communic… WHAT – understand what kinds of platforms they use, facebook, twitter, youtube, etc WHAT – what can you offer them that is unique

Determine your social media platform, by what your audiences are using. TWITTER: news source for the social media world FACEBOOK: for both news, info, text and images and videos INSTAGRAM: image driven posts, considered a “service” for your audience SNAPCHAT: temporary posts BLOGS: mini opinion sharing sites. WHATSAPP: text, docs, images, videos (audio and visual)

Social Media Influencer A social media influencer is a user on social media who has established credibility in a specific industry. A social media influencer has access to a large audience and can persuade others by virtue of their authenticity and reach.


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Why Use Influencers 1.They build relationships 2.They are engaged on social media 3.They generate sales 4.They create content 5.They have fresh perspective to something 6.They are a trusted voice 7.They create brand awareness 8.They grow your social following 9.They convert leads 10.They are information providers

Maximising Visibility on Social Media *Have employees include Social Media Icons in their Email Signatures *Make your Social Media Icons Easily visible on your Website *Post during the right time and days of the week *Use Hashtags *Embed Posts in your Blog *Include a video/Image *Boost/Promote relevant content *Hold a contest *Tag other pages and personalities *Ask for retweets and re-share

Benefits of Social Media to Public Relations *Connects you with your pubics *Saves you money *Enables real time customer service *Connects you with mobile consumers *Source for breaking news and stories *Help generate higher revenue *Keeps you at par with competitors *Reduces brokers and middlemen *Very easy to conduct research *Prepares you for the internet of things *Helps you to compete with large companies

Evaluate your Reach in Social Media *How many twitter followers do you have? *How many facebook fans have you accumulated? *How many youtube viewers do you have?

Out take means “taking away” in PR. Social media is here to stay and its impact will increase over time. Think big, do more and constantly look for those stories that can become game changers in your business and for your clients. That is the future of PR work.

SPOKESPESONS AND ETHICS Action: Get the Institute of Public Relations Ghana code of ethics manual. You can enroll as a student member of the Institute of Public Relations Ghana.

A spokesperson, is usually a member of a company’s communications department, hired by the company to represent a professional “face” and consistent message for the company in media interviews. Depending on the context or gender, they are referred to as spokesman or spokeswoman.

Public Relations is the practice of deliberate managing the spread of information between an individual or organization (such as a business, government agency or non-profit) and the public.

Public Relations may include an organization or individual gaining exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that do not require direct payment.


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Reasons or Importance of having an organizational spokesperson (a)building your company’s profile and (b)protecting its reputation should be key aspects of your Public Relations strategy but an entire strategy can be derailed if the wrong spokesperson is selected to front the media.

Training of a Spokesperson a)Practitioners must understand the business of their organization, such as vision, mission, core values, products and services, publics, etc b)Seek knowledge of your organisations past and current Public Relations activities.

Roles of Government Public Relations Officers a)Explaining government policies b)Providing information about ministerial activities c)Explaining to electorates the services and benefits provided by the government agencies and dept’s.

Roles of the Public Relations Practitioners Most practitioners begin their careers as (a) communication technicians: Focuses on the actual production and dissemination of public relations materials. Technician tasks include writing press releases, creating fliers, and updating media lists, employee newsletters, media placements, web site content, speeches, blogs, and social media messaging. Practitioners in this role are usually not involved in defining problems and developing solutions, but base their tactics on the technical skill of writing. (b) The expert prescriber is similar to the role a doctor performs with a patient: He or she identifies communication problems between an organization and its publics and proposes solutions to those problems. In this role, the practitioner is expected to be the most knowledgeable person in the organization both about public relations and communication problems. (c) The communication facilitator is a boundary spanner who listens to and brokers information between the organization and its key publics. The goal of the communication facilitator’s role is “to provide both management and publics the information they need for making decisions of mutual interest.” (d) The problem-solving facilitator collaborates with other organizational managers to define and solve problems. The problem-solving facilitator helps other organizational managers think through organizational problems using a public relations perspective.

In Working with the Media, you must: 1. Do your homework / prepare 2.Talk from the viewpoint of the public interest, not the orgs 3.State the most important facts first 4.Do not lose your cool 5. Tell the truth

How to choose a spokesperson *High-ranking executive: but not necessarily the CEO. Must be media friendly, not nervous or shy disposition or can come across as un-trustworthy. *Know the business and its key messages: should have a strong knowledge of the company’s background and the issues that journalists may raise, including the vision, mission and core values. *Well-presented and well spoken: it doesn’t matter how knowledgeable a member or staff is, if they can’t string a sentence together for radio or look presentable on camera, they shouldn’t be choosen. *Understand the importance of Media: must appreciate the power of the media and the value for the company of getting good press. *Media training is recommended: many people get nervous when approached by the media, but by having a plan in place, your spokesperson will have more chance of giving a successful interview.


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Spokesperson’s Guidelines 1.Research before you speak/ Plan your presentation (IBC) 2.Be confident (Be yourself) 3.Authenticity (Credibility – knowledge and expertise) 4.Ethical – credits sources/truthfulness/accuracy/honesty 5.Passion 6.Engagement with the audience 7.Eloquence (speak in audible and natural tone) 8.Ability to paint a picture through story telling/non-verbal cues 9.Wearing smile with a sense of humour 10.Be a good listener 11.Relax and be genuine 12.Don’t avoid any questions 13.Practice, practice, practice. ETHICS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

In Public Relations, it pays to be honest. A business is more likely to succeed if it is trusted. Public Relations will not work unless it is believed. Factual information has to be presented as objectively as possible.

Public Relations Officers are to show professionalism and adhere to a code of ethics. IS THIS OFTEN THE CASE? PROs sometimes paint non-existing pictures.

ETHICS is the discipline dealing with what is morally right or wrong, good or bad, moral and immoral that one applies to messages that are sent and received. Ethics refers to the standards of conduct which indicates how one should behave based upon moral duties and virtues rising from principles of right and wrong.

Ethical systems describes the critical process of how we work through moral issues.

Ethics and Law

When there is a universal feeling, ethics become codified into law, but laws do not address all moral questions.

Law (for example, are behaviours that are permissible and those that are prohibited by legislation)

Morality (for example, generally, a spiritual or religious prohibition. Immorality is a charge usually leveled in issues on which religious feelings have concentrated.)

Ethics ( for example, standards set by the profession, an organization, or oneself, based on conscience – what is right or fair to others as well as to self).

Public Relations and the Law

Public Relations do not operate in a societal vacuum. Fundamentally, law is that system of rules that govern society. Institute of Public Relations was adopted from the International Public Relations Association, which was also adopted in Athens on 12th of May 1965, and modified in Tehran on 17th of April 1966 (under the United National charter of fundamental human rights)


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PRSA Public Relations Society of America Ethical Values

Advocacy (serving the public interest) Honesty (adhering to the highest standards of truth and accuracy) Expertise (responsible use of knowledge and experience) Independence (objective counseling and accountability for actions) Loyal (faithfully representing and serving the public interest) Fairness (in dealing with all and respect the fight of free expression)

Ethical Theories

1. Deontological or Non-Consequential Ethics: From deon (Greek for “duty”). It says that Rule Determines The Result. Rule is good regardless of the act. “duty” ethics or the “humanitarian” approach. Ethical behaviour is judged on whether the action violates human rights. Requires PR practitioners to choose not to disseminate false information because that would constitute an act of lying which is “wrong”. Problems with this approach a) Which human rights are deemed more important b) As society evolves over time, will norms of basic human rights change.

2. Mill’s Principle of Utility / Consequentialists and Teleologists: This theory considers what course will yield the best consequences for the welfare of human beings. Good end must be prompted, bad end must be restrained. This approach asks the question, which decision will provide the greatest good to the greatest number of people. The ethical decision is defined as that which maximizes positive consequences and minimizes negative outcomes. Requires PR practitioners to think about the consequences of their actions. Problems with this approach a) How can you calculate greatest good? Or who defines the majority? b) Won’t you have to act before you can determine the outcome?

3. Rawls’s Veil of ignorance / Egalitarianism: This theory ignores ethnicity, race, gender, occupation, group interest, age, sexual orientation, class, etc and puts all players on an equal playing field. In other words, decisions are based on fairness for all.

4. Judeo – Christian Ethics: All moral obligations derived from the command to love God and mankind. Love for neighbour as the normative. “Love your neighbour as yourself”. Treat others as you would want to be treated.

5. Situational Ethics: Situation ethics asserts that no moral law or principle is absolute: the situation alters or define the rules. It suggests that decision-making should be seen as dependent on specific circumstances. Instead of following the same set of rules in each decision, practitioners engaging in situational ethics decide on a case by case basis. Requires professionals not to comment to the press when releasing the information could result in considerable harm to one’s client or the public.


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Four Dimensions of Moral Analysis / Making Ethical Decisions

The Potter’s BoxModel of Reasoning

The decision making model was developed by Harvard divinity professor Ralph Potter and is now widely accepted as an organized approach to considering the application of values, principles and loyalties to making defensible ethical decisions.

1. Problem definition - gather all available information that will show how situation became the way it is and what exactly it looks in that very moment. If the problem is not defined accurately, it cannot be expected to be solved to anybody’s satisfaction.

2. Analysis of values - after one becomes aware of all facts of the situation it is time that he or she examines his corporate or personal values that could be important it the situation. Is money and security more vaulable than truth and fairness? These are more likely to manifest in decision. Values are also likely to change as you experience more life or from organisationt to organisation.

3. Application of principles - in this case principles are those personal approaches to moral decision-making. Finding the mean between two extremes, or you consider the greatest good to the greatest number of people (utility principle).

4. Delineation of loyalties - the final step before making the final decision about whom to be loyal. To employer, client, society or yourself. According to most professional associations, the most important loyalty in a given professional situation should be employer or client. Than again there are whistle-blowing situations where you are determined that there is a potential harm that could be done to society and therefore your loyalty to your employer needs to take second place to your loyalty to society.

Ethical Dilemmas *Duty to whom? Self, client or organisation? *Self legislative and self-enforcement or Group Approval?

Sharing or Withholding Information *As a Public Relations Professional, at what point must you share or withhold vital information for public consumption? *As a Manager or CEO of an organisation, is it ethical to withhold or share sensitive information to staff? *In romantic relationship, must you share all information with your spouse?

Indicators of Professional Status *Specialised educational preparation *Professional association *Continuing education


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Must maintain high ethical standards in communication especially when to say what, where and how

CRISES MANAGEMENT How to use media to manage crises in communication.

Issues and Crises management An issue is a “gap between corporate pactice and stakeholder expectations”. An issue is also an unsettled matter that is in dispute between parties. The dispute evokes debate, controversy or differences of opinion.

A crises is a situation that has reached a critical phase for which dramatic and extraordinary intervention is necessary to avoid or repair major damage.

Kathleen Fearn-Banks, in her book Crisis Communications: A Casebook Approach, writes, “A crisis is a major occurrence with a potentially negative outcome affecting the organization, company, or industry, as well as its publics, products, services, or good name.”

Research found that the top three triggers for a crisis are (1) financial irregularities, (2) unethical behavior, and (3) executive misconduct.

Crises management is a process designed to prevent or lessen the damage a crises can inflict on an organisation and its stakeholders. Crises management is an essential PR skill. A well-managed crises can result in an enhanced image rather than a damaged one. Identify potential crises, draw up contingency plans and you will be able to keep a calm head when crises arise.

Crises Typology *Fraud, robbery, sabbotage, kidnapping, boycotts, blackmail * Natural disasters (flooding, earthquake, environmental damage or pollution) * Fatal factory or organisation fire * a leak of sensitive information or technology hack *Management misconduct and poor management decisions * a dangerous product or design fault

Crises Communication Management (How to Communicate during Crises)

Fink’s (1986) four-stage model 1. Prodromal stage – clues or hint of a potential crises begin to emerge. 2. Acute stage or Crises Breakout – a triggering event occurs along with the attendant damage. 3. Chonic stage – the effects of the crises linger as efforts to clean up the crises progress. 4. Resolution stage – there is some clear signal that the crises is no longer a concern to stakeholders – it is over.

Engaging the Media 1. Assemble your crises communication management team 2. Define the cause of the problem, who is or are affected, risks and actions to mitigate 3. Establish communication protocols 4. Set up media headquarters (monitor and pick media queries)

Communicate – Denial, Evasion of reponsibility, reduction of the offensiveness of events and notification and corrective action.


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- Speak first and often - Stay with the facts and don’t speculate - Be truthful and never lie - Be open and concerned, not defensive - Treat the media as a friend

Post crises evaluation

- Did the company communicate in a friendly manner? - Was your spokesperson (s) effective? - Were the company’s messages consistent?

Many professionals and books offer good advice on what to do during a crises . The below image is a compilation of good suggestions.

Timothy Coombs postulates that an organization’s response may vary on a continuum from defensive to accommodative. Here is Coombs’s list of crisis communication strategies that an organization may use:

■ Attack the accuser. The party that claims a crisis exists is confronted and its logic and facts are faulted. Sometimes a lawsuit is threatened.

■ Denial. The organization explains that there is no crisis.

■ Excuse. The organization minimizes its responsibility for the crisis. Any intention to do harm is denied, and the organization says that it had no control over the events that led to the crisis. This strategy is often used when there is a natural disaster or product tampering.


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■ Justification. Crisis is minimized with a statement that no serious damage or injuries resulted. Sometimes, the blame is shifted to the victims, as in the case of the iPhone 4. Consumers complained that when held a certain way their new

iPhones had problems with reception. Initially, Apple’s response was to tell consumers they were holding the phone wrong.

■ Ingratiation. Actions are taken to appease the publics involved. Consumers who complain are given coupons, or the organization makes a donation to a charitable organization. Burlington Industries, for example, gave a large donation to the Humane Society after the discovery that it had imported coats from China with fur collars containing dog fur instead of coyote fur.

■ Corrective action. Steps are taken to repair the damage from the crisis and to prevent it from happening again.

■ Full apology. The organization takes responsibility and asks forgiveness. Some compensation of money or aid is often included.

The Coombs typology gives options for crisis communication management that depend on the situation and the stance taken by the organization.

PUBLIC RELATIONS / MEDIA PLANNING

Every organisation’s objectives is to stay in business, maximise profits and create a favourable image among its customers. It is therefore important to establish, maintain and sustain relations with organistions’s customers (publics) on which its success of failure depends.

What is Public Relations?

“Public relations is the management function that identifies, establishes, and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the various publics on whom its success or failure depends.” - Effective Public Relations by Scott Cutlip and Allen Center / Chartered Institute of Public Relations

“The deliberate, planned and sustained effort to create and build positive relationships through value-adding communications, primarily between an organisation and its target customers, to increase new customer acquisition, customer retention rates, and profit margins.”

It’s more important to remember the key words that are used in most definitions that frame today’ s modern public relations. The key words are: ■ Deliberate. Public relations activity is intentional. It is designed to influence, gain understanding, provide information, and obtain feedback from those affected by the activity. ■ Planned. Public relations activity is organized. Solutions to problems are discovered and logistics are thought out, with the activity taking place over a period of time. It is systematic, requiring research and strategic thinking. ■ Performance. Effective public relations is based on actual policies and performance. No amount of public relations will generate goodwill and support if the organization has poor policies and is unresponsive to public concerns. ■ Public interest. Public relations activity should be mutually beneficial to the organization and the public; it is the alignment of the organization’s self-interests with the public’s concerns and interests. ■ Two-way communication. Public relations is not just disseminating information but also the art of


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listening and engaging in a conversation with various publics. ■ Management function. Public relations is most effective when it is a strategic and integral part of decision making by top management. Public relations involves counseling, problem solving, and the management of competition and conflict.

Planning is a management process, concerned with defining goals for future direction, determining missions and resources to achieve those goals. To meet goals, one must develop Public Relations Plan or Marketing Plan.

Types of Public Relations Plans

Ad hoc plans – is a temporary plan that is means to fix a problem that arises. After the problem is remedied, the plan is ended. “Ad hoc” means “for this purpose only”

Standing plans – this is “long-lasting” but still not permanent plans. They are designed to maintain good working relationships with important, long-term publics. This plan might include regular and frequent communication with a public such as newsletter or regular meetings between employees and managers. But standing plands will occassionally need changing; when they become obselute, they should be changed to keep the relationship on good terms.

Contingency plans – this is for “what if” scenarios. The company identifies a scenariou that could potentially play our, and they have a plan in place for it and when it happens. This allows them to catch and issue when it happens.


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Why the need to plan

1. Strategic outlook - management by objectives - systematic activities (Who, How, When to perform specific tasks)

2. Benefits of certainty in organisation’s; as to what we are to do in Public relations (minimise uncertainty

3. Aids in budgeting 4. Plan in tandem with other departments plan (facilities co-ordination) 5. Encourage innovation (suggests ways and means to improve performance) 6. Proactive and Preventive than remedial and reactive programming

Public Relations Plans

Media Plan Crises Management Plan Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Plan Government Relations Plan Communication Plan

A Public Relations campaign allows you to control the spread of information about you and your business, creating a media narrative that positions you to attract customers without the expense of traditional advertising.

Media Plan What goes into a Media Plan? To achieve your public objectives and reach your customers, you need to develop a media plan by outlining the following:

- Who you want to reach - What you want to achieve - What you are going to do - How you will evaluate your success

Steps to Media Plan

Step 1: Define the objectives: Define and write down your objectives. What will your Public Relations campaign be designed to achieve? Do you want to:

- Establish your expertise - Build goodwill with your customers, suppliers, community? - Create and reinforce your brand and professional corporate image? - Create positive perceptions of your company and service? - Introduce a new service or product to your market? - Mitigate the impact of negative publicity or a corporate crises?

Step 2: Establish clear goals: Articulate clear goals for your campaign. Your goal must be quantitative. Goals should also be in line with your overall business, marketing and sales objectives. Goals must also be SMART:

- Specific: what is the ideal outcome you are trying to create - Measurable: how will you measure the success of the campaign - Achievable: How can your accomplish your goals within the constraints of your available resources

such as budget and staff hours.


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- Realistic: How possible it is to achieve your goals or objectives. - Time-bound: How long doyour have to accomplish your goals or objectives.

Step 3: Identify your target market:

- Identify who you want to communicate with - What key message will you send - Which media platform will you use - How will you gain consumer attention and trust - What language, images or topics shoud you use

Step 4: Develop your plan of attack: Using tools such as press releases, articles, customer success stories or testimonials, letters to the editor, press conferences, interviews, media tours, press interviews, seminars, speaking engagements, events sponsorships. What communication vehicles will you use to get your message to the publics; TV, RADIO or NEWSPAPERS.

Step 5: Create a schedule:

- Which media outlets will you appear in? - What sort of appearances and durations do you have on various media outlets. - Follow up actions to take afterwards. - Reach – are schedules that run partly during a media campaign duration - Flighting – are shedules that run during the whole media campaign duration.

Step 6: Measure or evaluate the success of your campaign: Put measures in place to track the results (monitor) of your public relations media plan. After each campaign, sit down and review the results.

- Did you achieve the defined objectives and goals of this campaign - Should you consider modifying your original media plan? And if so, how and why?

Media monitoring – to measure the extent of media coverage.

Media content analysis – to analyse the nature of the media coverage.

Lecturer Mr Kojo Dadzie

https://twitter.com/nanakojodadzie

Past Exam Questions 1. Shea Beauty is a local manufacturer of hair care products and enjoyed wide local acceptance. To

expand and capture different geographic markets, the brand decided to produce different products for different hair types in a series of TV commercials. They did not consider that in their push for expansion and inclusivity, they included mostly white women with a few Women of Colour (WOC) / black women represented. Seeing that WOC had been their core audience from the start, the backlash was furious. The WOC sho had supported Shea Beauty thought they were behind as the company grew.


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The local market which serves as the company’s core source of revenue has eventually boycotted their products leading to a fast decline in revenue figures and the continuity of business. In view of that, your PR firm has been contacted to develop a media plan to manage the crisis.

2. Discuss the view that media relations involves collaborating with and acting in a strategic way with the media with the aim of informing the public of the organisation’s mission, policies, practices and expectations in a credible and coherent manner.

3. Theories have been described as a way of explaining a phenomenon. Examine this statement in the light of three (3) theories of the media.

4. Write short notes on any four (4) of the following:

i. Media Release ii. Media Advisory iii. Backgrounders iv. Pitch letters v. Newsletters

5. Who is a social media influencer? Why should a Public Relations professional engage influencers to

complement his/her media relations efforts?

6. You are the Media Relations manager for PAK Limited, a baby food manufacturing company. A batch of PAK cereal that your company produced was found to contain Sudan IV, a known cancer causing chemical. A news reporter at KAP TV has contacted you to ask about the details and offered to help you kill the story if your company will pay him GHC20,000.

7. What will be your course of action, taking into consideration the need to be ethical in your dealings as

a media relations practitioner?

8. Write a press release indicating steps your company is taking to recall the affected batch.

9. (a) Discuss four ways by which a Public Relations Practitioner can engage his/her publics using social media platforms. (b) Mention five (5) principles for dealing with the media.

10. (a) TV GIJ has invited two people (a male and female) from your company for an interview on their

business show. Mention two Do’s and one Don’t with regards to dressing for a TV interview for each of the spokespersons from your company. (b) State and explain four (4) characteristics of news.

11. Discuss three (3) advantages of social medua over traditional media

December 2019 Exam Questions


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12. With the elements of a News Release in mind write an embargoed News Release on GIJ @ 60 anniversary celebration with the theme “celebrating Our Past; Inspiring Our Future”.

13. Justify with examples to your Chief Executive four (4) purposes for the Public Relations department to incorporate Media Relations in its PR activities.

14. As the Public Relations Officer of your organisation, explain with examples to your CEO four (4)

importance of Social Media in contemporary Media Relations Management in the practice of Public Relations.

15. As the Public Relations Officer of the Ghana Institute of Journalism discuss the factors you will consider

in organising a syndicated News Conference on GIJ @ 60 anniversary launch.

16. Write Short Notes on any five (5) of the following: i. Media soiree ii. Media / Press Trips iii. Media Advisory iv. Expert Prescriber v. Communication Facilitator vi. Communication Technician

17. (a) Outline five (5) Crisis Typologies

(b) You are the PR practitioners of your organisation, discuss the steps youu will employ to engage the media during crisis Communication.


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