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8/10/2019 Mediation and Facilitation
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ISNETH Zurich
Eidgenssische Technische Hochschule ZrichSwiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich
MEDIATION AND FACILITATIONIN PEACE PROCESSES
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND SECURITY NETWORK
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Simon A. MasonMediation Support ProjectCenter for Security Studies, ETH Zurich
MEDIATION AND FACILITATIONIN PEACE PROCESSES
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND SECURITY NETWORK
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2007 ISN
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 4
Conceptual and Theoretical Approaches.....................................................................5
Mediating Peace Agreements .....................................................................................10
Economy and Environment......................................................................................... 12
Justice and Governance ................................................................................................13
Security ...........................................................................................................................15
Society ............................................................................................................................16
Endnotes ........................................................................................................................19
About the Author ..........................................................................................................22
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John Garang, former chairman of the Sudanese
Peoples Liberation Arm, once arued that the
National Islamic Front (NIF) regime in North
Sudan could not be reformed, that the were too
deformed to be reformed and must therefore be
removed not improved.1Yet later he negotiated and
sined the Comprehensive Peace Areement with
this same reime. What happened to enable such a
dramatic shift from a strate of war to a strate
of neotiation leadin to a joint overnment with
the former enem? What was the role of mediation
in endin a war that cost the lives of 2 million
people?
This dossier focuses on the role of and potentialities
for mediation and facilitation in peace processes inviolent inter-roup conicts in countries such as
Sudan, Nepal, Columbia, Mozambique, Anola, DR
Congo, Guatemala, Indonesia and Burma to name
but a few. It does not focus solel on track one
intergovernmental mediation of peace agreements,
but rather aims at a wider assessment of
mediations and facilitations in peace processes,
focusing on the multi-actor (IGOs, goverments,
NGOs, internal and external actors), multi-phase
(pre-negotiation, negotiation and implementation)
and multi-topic (overnance, justice, securit,
societ and econom) dimension of todas
complex processes. The dossiers focus is broaderthan pure track one mediation, et narrower than
peacebuildin and conict resolution in eneral.
Mediation is a wa of assistin neotiations and
transformin conicts with the support of an
acceptable third part.2 Facilitation is similar to
mediation (especiall facilitative mediation), et
it is less directive. Unlike mediation, facilitation
does not focus so much on decision-makin, but
rather on enhancing the mutual understanding of
perceptions, interests and needs or preparing for
joint action.
Since the end of the Cold War, mediation has been
used in about 50 percent of all international crises.3
It enerall leads to a ve-fold reater probabilit
of reaching an agreement compared to a non-
mediated one, and a 2.4 times reater probabilit
of longer-term tension reduction.4 The high
acceptabilit from the side of the conict parties,
and low cost from the side of the third parties, are
some of the reasons for the methods wide use.
Besides mediation and facilitation, other approaches
like sanctions, arbitration, civilian peacebuildin
and militar peace support operations can be used
in a complementar manner as well.
This dossier provides an analsis, introduction oftrends, rationales and lessons learned regarding
mediation and facilitation methodolo. It pools
relevant resources on topics related to mediation
and indicate where and what kind of third-part is
active. The dossier also highlights the processes in
which opponents move from htin in the eld,
to htin over the table, to realizin the can ain
more through compromises and negotiations than
throuh killin.
The rst section of this dossier focuses on
conceptual and general methodologicalapproaches. One of the ke methodoloical
aruments is that various topics pla a role in
peace processes and that these topics need to be
better interlinked in order to achieve sustainable
peace. The second section then examines various
topics related to peace processes, sorted b the
sub-topics: mediatin peace areements, econom
and environment, justice and overnance, securit
and societ. Each topic and its subtopics are brie
introduced, followed b a selection of documents
and links that are accessible on the internet. While
it is beond the scope of this dossier to examine
specic cases, the sections databases, news andreferences from the online version provide links
to external sources that provide basic material to
stud specic cases.
The dossier was formed in the context of the
Mediation Support Project (MSP), a joint project
of the Center for Securit Studies, ETH Zurich and
swisspeace, funded b the Political Division VI of the
Swiss Federal Department of Forein Affairs. Special
thanks oes to Ran Cross, Matthias Siefried and
Vivian Fritschi. The online dossier (http://www.
isn.ethz.ch/news/dossier/mediation) is intendedto be dnamic; to interate new lessons learned,
resources and links as it develops. If ou wish to
contribute to this dossier, please contact us.
Mediation and Facilitation in Peace Processes
4International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2007 ISN
INTRODUCTION
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Dimensions of Analysis
Various dimensions can be used to help examine a
mediation or facilitation effort, for example if the
conict is hihl escalated or not, or if the mediator
uses a ver direct approach or not. In realit it is
ver difcult to t a specic mediation effort to a
specic cateor. These dimensions, however, can
help us oranize our intuition and thinkin when
examin a third part effort.
Numerous dimensions have been proposed tostructure the analsis of mediation or facilitation.
Some examples of such characteristics are:
Escalation:5 Escalation describes the dnamics of
increasin tension between the conict parties.
The choice of third-part method depends on the
level of escalation, enerall the more escalated,
the more interventionist the third part has to be.
Schools of thought: Various schools of thouht or
worldviews about how to resolve or transform
conicts have been described. Jean Nicolas Bitterproposes three distinct worldviews that inuence
how one approaches a conict.6
The most mainstream approach in the West
is the Harvard Approach, which focuses on
specic interests (wh people want what the
want) and uses neotiations to nd a mutuall-
acceptable settlement to the different interests.
Neotiations also seek mutuall-acceptable
criteria for assessin solutions. It tends to becontent and output-oriented, and is based on an
individualist worldview.7
The Human Needs Approach refers to all needs-
based approaches to (permanentl) resolve the
root causes of a conict. It arues that some
issues cannot be neotiated and no conict can
be dealt with in a sustainable wa if the basic
needs (for example reconition and identit) of
the conict parties are not satised. Universal
needs are also seen as a bride between different
conict parties. It analses the problem and can
be output, process or relationship-oriented.8
Finall, the term conict transformation refers
to all relationship-focused approaches that
view conicts as culturall constructed realities.
Conicts are not just conicts of interests, but
of values, that take place in a specic cultural
context. Conicts can be motors of social chane.
Understandin the lanuae and the terms
of reference, is important to empower conict
parties and support reconition between them.
This approach is process-oriented.9
Tracks: The various levels of decision-makin andlinks between conict actors have been described
as tracks,10
Track one (ofcial, overnmental and decision-
makin level),
Track two (non ofcial, but inuential and linked
to decision-makers), and
Track three (rass roots and civil societ).
Recentl, one has also seen the use of the term
track 1.5 which refers to processes involvin both
track one and track two actors, or track one actorsworkin in their personal capacit.11
CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO
MEDIATION AND FACILITATION METHODOLOgy
Mediation and Facilitation in Peace Processes
5International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2007 ISN
The followin analsis provides an overview of various dimensions that are used to analze mediation and
facilitation, trends in international mediation and facilitation, rationales for the use of the method, and
lessons learned on determinants on what makes the method effective.
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Phases:Various phases are central to the analysis of
mediation and facilitation in peace processes. One
can differentiate between a pre-negotiation phase, a
negotiation phase and the implementation phase.
The pre-neotiation phase consists of buildin
and keepin contacts and talks about the talks,
sometimes over ears or even decades.
The neotiation phase is when the parties are
actuall sittin at the same table. Neotiatin
a cease-re areement ma be one step before
negotiating a peace agreement, that should
support the development of a vision of societ
and includes political issues such as forms of
power-sharin.
The implementation phase often needs a greatdeal of muscle, often external militar power in
the form of peace support operations, to enforce
what has been areed to in the peace areement.
The peace areement should brin the countr
out of a conict and pave the wa for the
inclusion of more actors from societ to shape the
more denitive constitutional and institutional
set-up. Elections are often one milestone in the
implementation process, as peace areements b
their ver nature lack democratic leitimac.12
Assertiveness: Various mediation stles can beapplied, varin in their deree of assertiveness:
facilitative (minimal inuence on content, focus
on process and support of communication),
formulative (focus on coordination and proposing
solutions), and manipulative (creating incentives
and disincentives, greater use of pressure and
increasin the zone of areement). Manipulative
meditation (usin incentives, such as mone and
disincentives, such as sanctions or bombs) seems
to be more effective in reachin areements, while
facilitative mediation seems more effective in
longer-term tension reduction.13
Orientation:Mediation can also be more oriented
towards the output (settlement/evaluative/
substantive/task-oriented) on the one hand, or
towards the process (facilitative/procedural/socio-
emotional/relational) on the other.14
Mediator role:Finall the mediator role is enerall
described in the West as bein outsider/neutral
and in other cultures more insider/partial.15 The
trend seems to be movin from the arument
that mediators need to be neutral, then to the idea
that the should be impartial, then multi-partial,to now focusin on them bein acceptable. While
it is impossible to be full-neutral or full multi-
partial, the bottom-line is that a mediator has to be
acceptable, and trin to be multi-partial ma help
but is not alwas a necessit. The US is aruabl not
an impartial plaer in the Middle East, nevertheless
it is accepted b Israel and PLO-overned Palestine,
as it is seen as the onl third part that can deliver.
Post- Cold War Trends of Mediation and Facilitation
Besides the conceptual aspects inuencin how we
approach a mediation effort, there are also trends
that affect present da mediations, and that should
be considered when focusin on specic cases. The
approach of labelin armed non state actors as
terrorists for example, has become much more
dominant in the post-9/11 context. The increasinstandardization of peace processes and the tension
between these standards and local norms is another
trend inuencin most present da peace processes.
Conicts in the post-Cold War era are typically
inter-state, often involving power and status
asymmetry between conict actors
Classical diplomac on track one has limitations
when dealin with non-state actors. A mult-track
approach in mediation/facilitation is crucial. There
is a reat temptation to focus on the media-read
triumph of track one hand-shakes even if it isclear that peace requires efforts at all levels of
societ; nearl half of all countries that have ended
a civil war have fallen back into conict within the
rst decade.16
Decline in armed conicts, genocide and human
rights violations since the 1990s
Possible reasons for this decline include the end of
the Cold War, an increase in peacebuildin efforts
of third-part actors (for example the UN), increase
in state capacit and equitable economic rowth.17
Mediation and facilitation has become a popular
tool in the post-Cold war era
Accordin to International Crisis Behaviour (ICB)
data, of the 434 international crises that occurred
between 1918 and 2001, 128 experienced some form
of mediation. While this is onl a 30 percent rate of
incidence durin the entire period, when we narrow
our focus to the post-Cold War era, we nd that 46
percent of all crises were mediated.18 According
to one count usin news sources, there were 3,452
mediation events in relation to 309 international
conicts between 1945 and 1995. About a third ofthese (1,040) in relation to internationalized ethnic
conicts.19
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Increasing complexity of peace processes
generall, mediators have moved from mediatin
a clear-cut areement, to trin to develop a
vision for societ and a means to neotiate and
consolidate this in the post-conict phase thus
leading to longer and more complex processes.
Increasing number, diversity and competition of
third-party actors
UN and other international organisations, states
and NgOs, pla or seek to pla an increasinl
important role in mediatin intrastate conicts.20
Peace processes will have man different third
parties involved. The coordination between these
third-part actors is difcult. The harmonization
of NgOs/states/IgOs role in the mediation settinis not clear. generall, the lower level has the
advantae of exibilit, workin below the radar,
the hiher level has the advantae of ofcial
leitimac and more power. There are cases where
third-part competition has been detrimental to the
peace process. Conict parties are ood at plain
third parties out aainst each other so third-part
coordination is essential. groups of friends21 is
one wa to coordinate the various third parties or at
least keep all involved informed. Members of such
groups should not have a major strategic interest
in the outcome of the conict and should be ableto pla a benecial role in transformin it.
Increasing standardization of peace processes
While experience shows that no peace process
is the same, no size ts all there is nevertheless
an increasin standardization of peace processes.
Human rihts and international law are
increasinl shapin peace processes. International
standards and thresholds regarding human rights
that mediated areements have to fulll ma make
the neotiatin space narrower, for the ma scare-
off negotiators that have perpetuated human
rihts crimes. Here there is a difcult balancebetween the benet of judin the top criminals
on the one hand, and neotiatin with these
people to reach an agreement and change societal
structures on the other hand. On the positive side,
however, international standards allow mediators
to deleate the issue of amnest and impunit
(for example no amnest for war crimes, crimes
aainst humanit or enocide) to the international
communit in particular the International
Criminal Court (ICC). Furthermore, human rights
elements in an areement tend to make peace
more sustainable and deter offences. The challenefor mediation/facilitation is therefore often a
question of sequencin, when and how to include
the human rights aspects into the negotiations.2223
Increasing impact of the interests of various
international actors on peace processes
International communities are not neutral, but
have strong interests in the outcome of a peace
process, as well as in how the process is carried out.
Interests ma concern support of one or other actor,
securit considerations (who to talk to, who to list
as a terrorist), access to resources and economies
and political prestie (where talks are held), etc.
Tension between internal and external legitimacy
of peace processes
The process and outcome of a peace process has
to be leitimate both in the ees of the local
actors, as well as for the international communit.
Since a lack of cultural diversit is at the root ofman conicts,24 the internal leitimac of peace
processes have to be iven reat consideration, if
the are to be sustainable.
Policy of ostracization instead of dialogue with
armed non-state actors post-9/11
The post-9/11 situation has made the distinction
between terrorists and freedom hters more
delicate. Some arue that isolation is the onl wa
forward to avoid leitimizin armed non-state
actors, others argue that dialogue does not mean
a leitimization of means and ends, but ratherkeepin channels open, and is the best wa to
support moderates, avoid greater extremism and
allow for transformation.25
Rationale for Mediation and Facilitation
In this section some of the basic assumptions and the
loic behind mediation are explored. One such ke
rationale, for example, is to differentiate between a
person and the persons behavior, thereb allowin
for respect for people, even if one is horried b
their behavior. Another ke belive shared b man
mediators is that process and transformationis possible: people can chane their behavior.
Mediation leads to a change of perspective,
allowing for a change in positions
The ke loic behind mediation is that conict
parties form their positions (what the want) as a
reaction to how the perceive the positions of the
other, whom the often have never met. Once at
the table, hearin their opponent, parties bein to
realize that their view of the other part was not
full correct thus allowin them to adapt their
own position and the development of mutuall-acceptable options.26 This process often requires
the support of an acceptable third part facilitatin
communication and structuring the process.
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Differentiation between the behavior and the
person
Eliminatin people is one wa of dealin with
behavior that oes aainst ones own interests the
Savimbi approach, (Jonas Savimbi was head of the
UNITA movement and was killed b the Anolan
overnment arm after havin sined and broken
a peace agreement and having ignored election
results).27 yet non-state actors ma enjo some
form of political leitimac and murder does not
change the situation, as others then replace them.
The mediation approach does not inore inoble
behavior (for example human rihts violations), but
seeks to maintain respect for all people, irrespective
of their actions. If respect for the intrinsic value of
the other is no loner iven, an work at chaninor transforming the situation through mediation is
not possible. The question of justice has to be dealt
with, but often b other actors and at a different
point in time.
Process and content are two separate levels that
are linked, but are equally important
In the words of Fink Hasom the riht answer in
the wron process sinks like a stone. generall a
facilitator or mediator will focus on the process,
structurin and supportin it, while the content
level is left to the attention of conict parties andexperts.
The use of mediation in violent conicts is due to
the acceptability of mediation
If a fraile state cannot take on the function of
peacefull settlin conicts (throuh leitimate
rules and institutions, a monopol of power or
a central authorit) or if a conict exists in the
international anarchical context where there is
no monopol of power, then the processes b
which international disputes are manaed and
(perhaps) settled have to be larel informal and
larel depend upon their acceptabilit to thoseindependent and soverein entities enaed
in the conict. If the are not acceptable, the are
not used.28 This also leads to the Golden Rule
of mediation: the mediator has to be accepted/
mandated b the conict parties.
Mediation is acceptable, because it maintains the
independence, sovereignty and freedom of choice
of the conict parties.
Mediation seems (on the face of it) to offer a
ood practical method of manain conicts
and helpin to establish some sort of reional orinternational order: It can do so because its ver
essence is guaranteed to guard the independence,
sovereint and freedom of choice that all actors in
conict so jealousl value.29
Attractiveness of mediation as an effective low-
cost method. Mediation increases the possibility of
successful negotiations and managing conicts.30
In relation to other was of dealin with conict,
for example via militar peace support operations
(PSO), mediation is ver cost-effective. It cannot be
used alone, however, but as one tool amon others.
Durin the implementation phase, militar PSO is
normall needed to enforce the areement.
Possible soft-power niche for small countries
Because the power of mediation lies in bein
acceptable to the conict parties, it is a possibletool for small countries. The cannot compete on
the international market in terms of hard power,
et here the have some room. Lack of power can
be an added-value in that small powers are less
threatening.
Rationale for facilitation as a complementary tool
to mediation
Even if the conict parties seek mediation and a
neotiated areement, these are often insufcient
inredients for sustainable peace. As peace
processes become loner and more complex,reater variet of third-part support is required,
thus there is a need for facilitation alonside an
explicit mediation mandate. Mediation can also
be used as a tool in an implementation phase, for
example in brinin various actors toether to
discuss on how to deal with the past.31
Lessons Learned on Determinants of Successful
Mediation and Facilitation
This section includes some of the experiences
on what works and what does not work. This
partl includes some of the aspects in the previoussections, however, the are more directl drawn
from cases studies as well as lare n empirical
studies. One of the ke lessons, is that mediation
works - it increases the liklihood of reaching an
agreement and easing tension in the long term.
Political system: The political sstem does not
seem to have a great impact on the success of
mediation (democracies enerall use mediation
with non-democracies). Mediation is most effective
when parties have equal power. The previous
relationships have a strong impact on the outcomeof mediation.32
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Type of conict: The nature of dispute has an
inuence on mediation success: securit (40
percent chance of success), ideolo (50 percent),
sovereint (44 percent), resources (70 percent),
ethnic (66 percent). Conicts with low fatalities
(up to 500 dead) are more likel be successfull
mediated than ones with a hih number of
mortalit (such as 10,000).33
Ripeness: The timing of a mediation effort and the
conict ripeness34 also seems important, various
aspects have been suested: When actors have
reached a mutuall-hurtin stalemate,35depending
on escalation level,36 dependin on the BATNA/
WATNA (Best/Worst Alternatives to a NeotiatedAgreement)37and/or when incentives /disincentives
have changed.3839
Personality: What impact does the nature of
a mediator have? It seems the emphasis on
impartialit is misleadin, more important is
the abilit to extend the interests of the parties.
Leitimac is one of the ke forms of leverae,
hih mediators rank, as well as a mediators
previous relationship with the conict parties.
Experienced mediators are more successful than
non-experienced ones.
40
Personalit also plas a kerole, for example the capacit to listen, empathize,
patience, perseverance and robustness under verbal
assault.41
Coherence of parties: Mediation is more difcult
without reconizable leaders within the conict
parties, more difcult with internall-divided
conict parties, with spoilers and the involvement
of major powers.42
Pressure and dialogue: The dialoue approach at
the heart of mediation is complementar to the use
of power.43In man cases a joint effort of pressureand dialoue are needed to et parties to move:
et the person carrin the threat should not be
the same person mediating. The important thing
is that various actors take on different roles, and
that these ma have to chane from one phase to
another. The implementation phase needs a lot of
power, a mediator should enerall not be involved
in implementin an areement that he/she has
been involved in durin the neotiation phase.44
Support local cooperative efforts: Facilitation
does not use power and therefore has to focus onsupportin local ener; if this is not present, the
facilitator should leave. It is vital for a facilitator
to watch the relations before startin to inuence
them. Lederach calls this web-watchin before
web-buildin.45
Personal relations are the ke to trust and bein
asked to mediate a conict.46The pre-negotiation
phase ma take a ver lon time (that is decades),
where the main aim is to keep a foot in the door,
keep the conict parties linked to another realit
and to build trust.
One of the main internet resources on mediation and
facilitation methodolo, summarizin numerous
books on the concepts and theories, is based at
the Universit of Colorados Conict ResearchConsortium; in particular Beond Intractabilit and
the Conict Resolution Information Source. Other
ke sources are INCORE on topics related to peace
and conict and the PILPg, for example for peace
areements online. Further sources can be found in
the dossier sorted b topics, databases, news and
full list of references and resources.
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This section investiates issues related to conict
analsis, armed roups, third parties and peace
areements. Conict analsis, conict warnin
sstems and conict indicators (conict analsis
and eopolitics) stud the emerence, escalation
and de-escalation of tensions. Special focus is given
to the various state and non-state actors usingviolent means in trin to reach their political
interests, as well as the various third-part actors
that become involved in the conict to assist the
parties in negotiating an agreement. The most
tpical product of third-part assisted neotiations
are cease-re areements endin hostilities and
the more complex peace areements outlinin new
structures and institutions on how to share power
and deal with differences in a non-violent manner.
Conict Analysis and GeopoliticsConict analsis is one of the rst steps before a
third part becomes involved in mediation. Besides
focusin on analzin hostilities, this must also
assess whether cooperative relations still exist
between the conict parties, as well as local and
external efforts supportin these. Analsis varies
reatl dependin on the time-scale and level
of conict (for example local, reional, state or
international). Often the links between these levels
are extremel important but nelected.47 Parties
often onl enter into serious neotiations when
the are pressured to do so, when unilateral means
of achievin a satisfactor result are blocked.At that ripe moment often in a mutuall
hurtin stalemate parties are more amenable
to alternatives.48 Conict analsis, amon other
thins, seeks to understand the alliances and hostile
relations between various actors as well as their
respective interests, means to reach these interests,
perspectives of each other and the issues at stake.
Various sstems of earl-warnin of conict have
been developed; enerall, the problem is not a
lack of knowlede, however, but a lack of adequate
action. geopolitical considerations should also be
factored in, such as the inuence of reional powerblocks, particularl inuential states, historical
relations or the availabilit of natural resources (for
example oil). In this dossier conict is understood
to mean an incompatible interaction between two
or more political roups, where one or both actors
are intentionall damaed b the other actor
through the use of violence.
Armed GroupsSIPRI characterizes armed roups as non-state
actors that include, but are not necessaril limited
to, rebel opposition roups, local militias and
warlords, as well as viilante and civil defence
roups, when such are clearl operatin without
state control. The diversication of violence and
prevalence of multiple armed groups complicates
traditional conict manaement and resolution,
and poses a sinicant challene for international
securit overnance more enerall. Most
contemporar conicts are intra-state, involvin b
denition at least one non-state actor, and man
are fouht without state involvement, between twoor more armed groups. Nevertheless, international
laws and norms overnin the use of force are still
understood primaril on the state level.49
Mediation and facilitation in peace processes mostl
involve one or more armed roups. Ke questions for
a mediator are to what deree armed roups have
a political agenda, or excuse of a political agenda,
to distinuish them from oranized criminal
actors, as well as if the tacit areement of the host
countr or international communit is needed
before enain with such actors. The mediationapproach arues that a lack of enaement
enerall strenthens hardliners and these roups
Mediation and Facilitation in Peace Processes
10International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2007 ISN
The use of mediation and facilitation in a peace processes requires the consideration not onl of the
method in and of itself (as described in the Analsis section), but also a rane of other overlappin topics.
The rationale for examinin these topics is based on the experience of a mediation ap between the use
of mediation and mediative approaches in the core business of mediatin peace areements on the one
hand, and its (still limited) use in the other elds relevant to an effective peace processes.
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often hold the ke to endin violence. Some form of
often informal contact with the outside world
helps to prevent their loic from oin askew. The
limits of enaement are therefore less viewed in
a principle, in the unethical nature of the armed
roup, but rather in a pramatic assessment of how
benecial dialoue is estimated to be in a specic
situation.
Third Parties and Multi-track Diplomacy
Third parties are actors that become involved in a
conict to help the involved conict actors deal with
the conict in a constructive manner. These can be
internal actors from the conict settin, NgOs from
civil societ, other states, reional oranizationsand interovernmental oranizations such as the
UN. The need to have multiple actors is at the heart
of the multi-track approach, which arues it is not
onl overnment diplomats that are needed to
deal with conict (as was tpical in the Cold War
settin), but various third parties on all levels of
societ. Coordination between the various third
parties is essential to avoidin a waste of resources
or even doin harm. groups of friends involved
in a process, as well as other was of keepin each
other informed, is therefore essential.
Peace Agreements and Cease-re Agreements
Peace agreements are contracts negotiated under
ver different premises, but enerall seek to brin
conict parties and their respective societies out of
a situation of conict and pave the wa to a more
sustainable peace. The are not democraticall
leitimized. The are enerall more comprehensive
than cease-re areements, as the tend to include
political aspects. In some cases, elements of the
peace areement will be interated into the
transitional arranements and ma even end up in
the nal constitution after a process of adaptationand political leitimization. About half of all peace
areements fail, therefore the need to be ver clear
about the implementation modalities alread in
the areement (the devil is in the detail), as well
as agreeing on mechanisms to ensure its forceful
implementation (for example UN peacekeepin,
peace enforcement). A comparison of peace
areements is helpful to provide ideas, however, one
idea pulled out of its context is often inadequate
in another context. The deree to which a peace
areement reects and is based on local knowlede,
histor and customs is an essential determinant ofits effectiveness.
Cease-re areements are sined to suspend
hostilities and enerall consist of three steps: 1)
endin the htin, 2) movin the troops out of
the zone of combat, and 3) makin sure the hold
their position. The are far less comprehensive
compared to peace areements, but are often a
ke step on the wa to peace areements that deal
with political issues. A cease-re areement that is
not followed up b a political process often fails.
Training for Mediators and Facilitators
Mediation techniques can be learned, even if
personalit and experience are perhaps more
important in shaping the effectiveness of a
mediator/facilitator. Basicall two tpes oftrainins are possible: a more academic/theoretical
approach; and a more interactive/workshop-based
method, where interpersonal skills, communication
strateies and role-plain exercises are dominant
tools. Trainin can also be differentiated between
mediation/facilitation trainin in the micro-/inter-
personal eld meso-/oranizational eld, and
macro-political/international context. Some of the
techniques are the same, but there are also major
differences, such as the scope of violence, use of
power, context knowlede and the leal framework.
Besides mediation and facilitation in the narrowsense of the word, conict analsis, personal
conict behavior and neotiation strateies should
all be part of a comprehensive trainin.
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Wealth Sharing, Environment, Resource Conicts
and War Economy
No peace will be secure unless it is rounded in
equitable sharin of scarce resources or offers
a sustainable future for all concerned. Malcom
Rifkind, former UK Forein Minister. Environmental
conicts can be caused b the indirect or directuse of natural resources. Indirect use conicts
arise in connection with the production and trade
of natural resources for the lobal market, for
example, timber, sh, mineral oil or diamonds.
Especiall oil and other lucrative natural resources
are sometimes related to the onset, intensit or
duration of armed conict and civil war.50 Armed
roups and states need mone to wae war, often
ained from marketin lucrative natural resources.
The worlds ener supplies durin the next 30 ears
will continue to depend on fossil ener resources.
An increase in geographical concentration of theremaining oil and gas reserves in the Middle East
has been identied thus a lobal economic
dependenc on the stabilit in this reion. Direct
use conicts on the other hand arise in relation to
the actors directl usin the resource, for example
for ariculture. These kinds of violent conicts over
water and land are enerall found on a local scale
in countries with subsistence ariculture, with
weak economies and political instabilit.
Various approaches at labelin conict free
resources, such as the Kimberl Process fordiamonds or the Extractive Industries Transparenc
Initiative (EITI), are central to end and prevent
conict b excludin conict actors from the
market and creatin more transparenc on how
the natural resources revenues are used. In the
lon run, however, onl sustainable resource
consumption especiall in afuent countries
will address the root causes of conicts related
to resource usage. While focusing on an individualconict, it is therefore vital to keep an ee on the
lobal economic set-up benetin or limitin the
nancin of conicts. The sharin of wealth (for
example oil resources) can be a major issue in a
peace areement. Often the wa forward, as in
the Sudanese Comprehensive Peace Agreement of
9 Januar 2005, is to share the benets of the oil
revenues, rather than the oil resources per se.
Business and Development
A stud b the World Bank shows that civil waris more probable in countries that experience
economic decline, low and unequall distributed
income, and that are hihl dependent on primar
exports (for example natural resources).51 Lack of
development can cause conicts, but the process
of development can also cause conicts in its
own riht. Thus, there is the need for a conict-
sensitive development approach, do no harm,52
if development is to be successful and the costs
of these conicts are to be reduced.53 54 The role
of business in relation to peace and conict is an
evolvin eld; not least of all due to the increasin
role multinational companies pla in man areasof the world. On the one hand, business actors are
interested in stabilit and peace, and central to
post-neotiations reconstruction of a countr. On
the other hand, business can at times also benet
from conict and instabilit, and therefore there is
a need to reulate business actors.
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12International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2007 ISN
Aspects of wealth sharin, resources, unsustainable development and war economies create particular
dnamics that need to be tackled to nd effective solutions to onoin conicts. Development aid and the
role of business can create situations in which conicts escalate or continue, despite the best of intentions.
On the positive side, however, the can also create incentives for peace and are essential in rebuildin
economies and a stable societ.
ECONOMy AND ENVIRONMENT
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Governance, Institution Building and Creating
Long-term Stability
Buildin peace in a post-conict situation is
perhaps an even greater challenge than ending a
war. Almost half of all post-conict states fall backinto violent conict within a decade. yet this is
avoidable: Experience shows that there are was to
rebuild the fabric of societies and create institutions
that enhance sustainable peace.
Peace areements often form the conceptual basis
for the subsequent overnance structures and
stipulate the specic division of power, resources,
representation or autonom that will be built
into the emerging governance and institutional
structures of societies. These peace agreements
and interim arranements, however, often lackdemocratic leitimac, et the are important
in pavin the wa to these more denitive
constitutional and institutional set-ups. Thus,
buildin successful and lastin overnance and
institutional structures for societies that have
experienced sinicant levels of violence and
unrest hines not onl on the peace process but on
several other factors.
The creation of a constitution is a ke component.
Constitutions dene the polit, the set the rules
of the relationship between the state and its
citizens; the x and reect the social contract thatunderpins the functionin of an oranized societ.
There seems to be a trend from lon-lastin
constitutions, to those that are more frequentl
amended. Often there is also a need for interim
arranements between the peace areement and
the nal constitution.
Human Rights
If ou accept these kinds of jobs, ou o and
mediate between warlords, faction leader, bandits,
all sorts of people, people whom the humanrihts purist want to see han. What I tell them
is, Let me nish, and then o ahead and han
them. Lakhdar Brahimi is quoted as sain.55The
United Nations Universal Declaration of Human
Rights entrenched the concept of humans having
universal rights regardless of gender, location or
ethnicit or nationalit. Human rihts are based onthe notion that there is inherent human dinit,
which should be respected universall and is
inalienable in character. While there is a universal
dimension to human rihts, the problem is often
in the lack of a culture-sensitive terminolo
and manifestation. Imprisonment, for example,
is viewed in some cultures as a far worse form of
torture than beatin.56
B its ver nature, human rihts are at the heart
of mediation and facilitation of peace processes.
However, if chared and explicitl labeled as human
rihts violators too earl in the process, there is adaner that the conict parties will stand up and
walk out. The conict then continues and no service
is done to human rihts. Thus, the question is not so
much justice and human rihts versus peace, but a
question of sequencin, brinin human rihts on
board at the riht moment and in the riht form.
Transitional Justice, Dealing with the Past,
Reconciliation
The repression and violence that occur during
a conict leave a mark on all efforts at buildinsustainable peace. If the past is not adequatel
dealt with, there is the daner that it will repeat
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13International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2007 ISN
JUSTICE AND gOVERNANCEThe role of international law in the settlement of intrastate or interstate conicts is becomin increasinl
important. Transitional justice and addressin the past is ke to creatin cultures of peace. The same people
and institutions that must create peace have often perpetrated rave injustice in the conict. How to
integrate notions of human rights and functioning institutions into the governance model is a challenge
that requires an in-depth understandin of local codes and practices and how the local interates into
international norms. Buildin stron institutions and overnance structures plas a critical component in
preventin a return to violence and creatin the conditions for lon-term stabilit.
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itself. Transitional justice involves judicial and non-
judicial means. The truth must be acknowleded.
The process of dealin with the past must be
leitimate in the ees of the local civil societies.
The culture of violence as a means of dealing
with conict needs to be transformed, and the
oal of depolarizin the societ needs to be kept
at the forefront. These tasks call for a multitude
of mediation efforts between various actors and
on various issues.57 The International Center for
Transitional Justice works alon ve main lines:
prosecuting perpetrators, documenting and
acknowledin violations throuh nonjudicial
means such as truth commissions, reforming
abusive institutions, providin reparations to
victims and facilitating reconciliation processes.58
International Law
No present-da peace areement has international
support if the conict parties aree between
themselves on amnesties reardin war crimes,
crimes aainst humanit or enocide. Amnesties
allowed under international law are those applied
to insurent forces for belonin to, or htin
with, insurent forces and minor crimes associated
with rebellion.59 The International Criminal Court
(ICC) is one of man possible avenues of seekinjustice and applin the rule of law to individuals
accused of the most serious crimes of international
concern, namel enocide, crimes aainst humanit
and war crimes. Mediation and neotiation in
peace processes are intimatel tied to concepts of
justice and law, and some observers have arued
that the evolution of the ICC has made mediation
and neotiation harder as blanket amnesties
for crimes committed b conict parties are no
loner possible. On the other hand, the ICC has also
claried the framework mediators must work with
and has allowed mediators to deleate some of
the difcult issues to the international communit.Thus, a mediator can never ive a blanket amnest,
but he or she can sequence when these issues
are dealt with in the process so that the are not
a burden to a process. Human rihts issues ma
effectivel onl be explicitl brouht up (that is
labeled as such) in a neotiation process after the
point of no return, such as when substantive issues
have been dealt with, or when it is ver likel parties
will reach an areement, so that it is less likel the
conict parties will walk out.
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Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration
(DDR) and Small Arms and Light Weapons
The United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) denes disarmament, demobilisation and
reintegration (DDR) as a multi-faceted exercise
requirin a multi-dimensional response that seeksto demobilize and reinterate former combatants,
militia and retirin members of the armed forces or
roups into societ. DDR is not just about providin
alternative sources of income; it is vital that former
combatants receive some pscho-social support
in order that the ma reinterate into their
communities and effectivel adjust to life durin
peacetime.60 During the mediation of a peace
areement, it is important to shape the basis for a
successful DDR process, often this entails allocating
resources to communities to provide for education
and infrastructure to interate former combatants,rather than ivin mone directl to them.
A component of DDR is the problem of small
arms and liht weapons (SALW). The problem of
the rowth and uncontrolled spread of SALW has
gained importance on the international agenda
over recent ears. This is a loical conclusion of its
neative consequences: destabilization of complete
reions; escalation, rowth or the prolonin of
conict; the hinderin of peace operations and
humanitarian assistance; the thwartin of post-
conict reconstruction and development; and the
contribution to oranized crime and social violence.These weapons both leal and illeal can
present grave dangers to national governments
and to international and reional peacebuildin
efforts.
Security Sector Reform (SSR)
Militar and police forces often pla a contrar roledurin a conict, are often involved in human rihts
violations and often clearl alined to one or the
other of the conict parties. Securit sector reform
in a post-peace agreement phase often entails a
process in which the armed forces from both sides
of the conict are interated, trained and their
respective institutions adapted and democraticall
leitimized. If SSR is not successful, there is a far
reater probabilit of violent conict reemerin.61
During the mediation of a peace agreement, the
basic outline of future securit arranements are
laid; often it is important to create mechanismsthat can evolve during the implementation phase
to take up new issues as the arise.
Peacekeeping and Peace Enforcement
Peacekeepin and peace enforcement are codied
respectivel in Chapters 6 and 7 of the United
Nations Securit Council resolutions.62Peacekeepin
refers, accordin to the UN, to a United Nations
presence in the eld (normall involvin civilian
and militar personnel) that, with the consent of
the conictin parties, implements or monitors
arranements relatin to the control of conictsand their resolution, or ensures the safe deliver
of humanitarian relief.63 Peacekeepers monitor
and observe peace processes that emere in post-
conict situations and assist conictin parties
with implementin the peace areement the
have sined. Such assistance comes in man forms,
includin promotin human securit, condence-
buildin measures, power-sharin arranements,
electoral support, strenthenin the rule of law,
and economic and social development.64 Under
Chapter 7 of the UN Charter, the Securit Council
ma take peace enforcement measures in reactionto a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or
act of aression. It authorizes the interruption
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SECURITYCreatin the securit necessar for the emerence of peace requires uarantees that violence will not return.
Frequentl the UN, amon others, has plaed a central role in this with the deploment of peacekeepin and/
or peace-enforcement forces. Disarmament, demobilization and reinteration (DDR) of combatants, as well
as securit sector reform (SSR) are two essential processes in stabilizin a post-peace areement situation.
Both DDR and SSR tpicall require the support, but not imposition, of the international communit to
assist this process and ive the assurances necessar for it to be successful.
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Public Participation and Degree of Inclusiveness
The degree of inclusiveness of a mediation process
is a ke challene. If there are too man people
at the neotiation table, deleates talk to the
audience rather than to each other. The other
problem is the choice of criteria for whom to
include and exclude. Often power (that is armed
force) is a decisive factor. The involvement of greater
sements of societ in a peace process, often run b
an elite that is not democraticall leitimized, is
essential to increase the scope of issues addressed
and thereb make an neotiated areement moreleitimate and supported b societ. The challene
is how to do this when the neotiatin elite is
not in favor of it and clear representatives of civil
societ are difcult to identif. Often the various
conict parties aree to brin their civil societ
on board, but these do not necessaril reect
societ. One wa is to create mechanisms (for
example settin quotas for representatives of civil
societ that are not at the neotiation table) that
enhance reater public participation both durin
the process (for example on topics, public hearins,
consultations, etc.), as well as afterward durin
the implementation phase. Peace agreements arenot democraticall leitimized, thus the need for
elections and institutional reform during the post-
peace agreement phase.
Forced Migration
The International Association for the Stud of Forced
Miration (IASFM) describes forced miration as
a general term that refers to the movements of
refuees and internall-displaced people (those
displaced b conicts) as well as people displaced
b natural or environmental disasters, chemicalor nuclear disasters, famine or development
projects. generall, it is considered that there are
three tpes of forced miration, which, althouh
the can be interrelated, are cateorized b their
causal factors. The causal factors are: conict,
development policies and projects, and disasters.
Forced miration is a complex, wide-ranin and
persistent phenomenon.67 The diasporas pla a ke
role in man conicts, often as important sources
of information and nancin of both conict and
peace efforts. The repatriation of refugees after a
conict is another major issue that inuences post-
peace areement stabilit.
Gender and Women Involvement
Women and men are both actors and victims in
armed conict and peace processes, et the pla
different roles, and these differences need to be
considered to be able to react adequatel to realit.
(See UN Securit Council Resolution 1325 Women
Peace and Securit, 2000.) Women are often amon
the most vulnerable victims of an armed conict.
In man conicts rape is sstematicall used as a
weapon aainst women, irls and to a lesser deree
also aainst men and bos. Besides the direct
phsical and pscholoical trauma, these victimsare often afterwards also sociall marinalized.68
The culture and context-sensitive inclusion of more
women mediators and more women deleates in
mediation and facilitation engagements leads to
increased efcienc and strenthens leitimac
and outreach. For peace processes that ignore
half the population have less hope of popular and
sustainable support. Measures are also needed
to raise awareness on ender stereotpes (for
example cultural attributions of differences to
the masculine and feminine). A gender-sensitiveapproach to peace processes also means that a
pure track one focus (even includin more women)
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16International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2007 ISN
SOCIETYMediation and neotiation tpicall occurs between a few elite people who represent roups with diverent
interests. However, violent conict impacts ever individual in the broader societ. Enain the public and
broader societ to accept and work with a settlement neotiated b an elite is often a ke challene. If
this does not occur, however, an settlement will lack leitimac and will nd limited acceptance b the
larer populations. Forced miration creates tensions both in the recipient communities and societies, as
well as when those forced to mirate return home. gendered perspectives of mediation and neotiation
processes increase effectiveness in ndin solutions to violent conicts, as women and men pla different
roles and have different needs - be the actors or victims. A violent conicts impact on children can create a
situation that ends in conict resurence ears in the future. Furthermore, conict can become embedded
in the various cultural norms, which are often nelected in an increasin standardization of peace processes.
The role of reliion can often be a means to allow for the acceptance and understandin of differences, or at
the other extreme be used as a means to instiate conict.
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is not enouh. Public participation from all tracks
and both enders is essential. gender is not alwas
best introduced into a male-dominated neotiation
process explicitl as endered, it ma be more
effective to introduce a topic like victims or land
ownership. Then, one will automaticall have to
deal with the specic role of women and mediators
can then invite women into the process to speak
with their own voice.
Culture and Religion
Culture is one of the main bases of identit.Without the recognition and the respect for the
dinit of all cultural identities, there can be no
lasting peace, no development and no harmonious
cultural chane. If respect for a persons culture
is not iven or a persons identit is attacked, the
person ma retaliate to survive pscholoicall or
phsicall. Lack of respect for cultures can lead to
war. Respect for cultures does not mean inorin
aspects of a certain culture that have been
identied as problematic b representatives of
this culture - it is much more a question of how
to address them. The answer is throuh dialouebased on knowlede and respect. A culturall-
sensitive approach to mediation and facilitation in
peace processes also means using language that
communicates, rather than moralistic language
that condemns (that is some aspects of Western
human rihts terminolo). Art can pla an
important role in a societs expression of the inner
experiences of a conict and can thus pla a ke
role in healing in a post-peace agreement phase.
Furthermore, art can be used to counter violence, in
the words of Alexandr Solzhenitsn:
[...] [V]iolence does not live alone and is notcapable of livin alone: it is necessaril interwoven
with falsehood. [] Falsehood can hold out
aainst much in this world, but not aainst art.
And no sooner will falsehood be dispersed than
the nakedness of violence will be revealed in all its
uliness - and violence, decrepit, will fall.69
There is a cultural dimension to religion in the sense
of shapin a persons value sstem, but there is also
somethin more. One can differentiate between
two was of understandin and livin reliion:
one takes a more lealistic perspective of reliion;the second takes a more mstical perspective
of religion, that unites and focuses on healing
relationships. The rst understandin of reliion
can be manipulated to channel peoples eneries
into violence, creatin enem imaes. At its most
danerous, reliion can ive conict parties a sense
of superiorit and leitimac, of htin with god
on our side. For the vast majorit, however, the
golden Rule (treat other people as ou would
like to be treated) of world reliions tends to foster
peace and not violence. The second, more mstical
and relationship-oriented form of reliion is best
described b gandhi:
Quite selshl, as I wish to live in peace in themidst of a bellowin storm howlin around me,
I have been experimentin with mself and m
friends b introducin reliion into politics. Let me
explain what I mean b reliion. It is not the Hindu
reliion, which I prize above all other reliions,
but the reliion which transcends Hinduism,
which chanes ones ver nature, which binds one
indissolubl to the truth within and which ever
puries.70
Media
The media pla a ke role in ever mediationprocess and often it can often wreck it. At an earl
stae of a process, the parties enerall aree
that nothin will be said to the press without
common agreement of all attending the process
but parties ver rarel stick to this areement.
Leakin information is mostl done deliberatel,
with a specic aim, for example to test an idea
before committin to it or to continue htin the
opponent in the media. Press conferences that are
hosted b the mediation team can be one wa of
keepin the press informed, without jeopardizin
the sensitive nature of a mediation process. Onthe positive side, a non-biased media can enhance
public participation and information, and therefore
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1. Chairmans 19th Anniversar Messae: to all SPLA, SPLM and CANS Units and to the CivilPopulation of the New Sudan.
2. Mediation is enerall dened as the intervention in a neotiation or a conict of anacceptable third part who has limited or no authoritative decision-makin power, but whoassists the involved parties in voluntaril reachin a mutuall-acceptable settlement ofissues in dispute. In addition to addressin substantive issues, mediation ma also establishor strenthen relationships of trust and respect between parties or terminate relationshipsin a manner that minimizes costs and pscholoical harm. Moore, C. The Mediation Process:Practical Strategies for Resolving Conict.(2nd edition). Josse-Bass Publishers. 2003. p. 15.
3. International crisis is a chane in tpe and/or an increase in intensit of disruptive (i.e.hostile verbal or phsical) interactions between two or more states, with a heihtenedprobabilit of militar hostilities that, in turn, destabilize their relationship and challenesthe structure of the international sstem lobal, dominant or subsstem. Brecher, Michael/Wilkenfeld, Jonathan. A Stud of Crisis. 2nd ed. (with CD rom). Ann Arbor: Universit of MichianPress, 2000. Zitiert in: Beardsle, Kle C./Quinn, David M./Biswas, Bidisha/Wilkenfeld, Jonathan.
Mediation Stle and Crisis Outcomes, inJournal of Conict Resolution,50 (2006), Nr. 1, S. 58-86.4. Beardsle, Kle C./Quinn, David M./Biswas, Bidisha/Wilkenfeld, Jonathan. Mediation Stle andCrisis Outcomes, inJournal of Conict Resolution, 50 (2006), Nr. 1, S. 58-86.
5. glasl, Friedrich, Koniktmanaement. Ein Handbuch fr Fhrunskrfte, Beraterinnen undBerater (7. Auae) Stuttart: Verla Freies geistesleben, 2002. [For summaries on escalationclick here.]
6. Bitter, Jean-Nicolas, Les Dieux Embusqus, geneve, Paris: Librairie DROZ, 2003.7. Fisher, R, Ur W. Patton B. Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In.Penuin: New
york, London, Victoria, Ontario. 1991.8. Burton, John. Conict: Human Needs Theor, New york: St. Martins Press, 1990. See also
Rosenber, Marshall B. Nonviolent communication a lanuae of compassion - 5th print.Encinitas, CA: PuddleDancer Press, 2001.
9. Bitter, Les Dieux Embusqus. and: Lederach, John Paul. The Moral Imaination, the art and soulof buildin peace, Oxford: Oxford Universit Press, 2005.
10. Montville, Josef V. The Arrow and the Olive Branch, the Case for Track Two Diplomac. In:McDonald, John W. & Bendahmane, Diana B. (eds.) Conict Resolution: Track Two Diplomac.
Washinton DC: Forein Service Institute, US Department of State, S. 5-20. 1987.11. Diana Chias. Track II (Citizen) Diplomac. Auust 2003.12. Hottiner, Julian Thomas. Auf das achten, was nicht esat wird. In: Schweiz global 4 (2005),
S.32-33.13. Beardsle, Kle C./Quinn, David M./Biswas, Bidisha/Wilkenfeld, Jonathan. Mediation Stle and
Crisis Outcomes. In: Journal of Conict Resolution, 50(2006), Nr. 1, S. 58-86.14. Vl. Picard, Cherl. In Practice: Common Lanuae, Different Meanin: What Mediators Mean
When The Talk About Their Work. In: Neotiation Journal 18 (2002), Nr. 3, S. 251-269.15. Wehr, Paul/Lederach, John Paul. Mediatin Conict in Central America. In: Bercovitch, Jacob
(ed.). Resolvin International Conicts: The Theor and Practice of Mediation, Boulder, CO: LnneRienner Publishers, 1996.
16. Collier, P., V.L. Elliott, H. Here, A. Hoefer, M. Renal-Querol and N. Sambanis, Breakin theConict Trap - Civil War and Development Polic, Washinton DC: World Bank/Oxford UniversitPress, 2003.
17. The Human Securit Report 2005 - War and Peace in the 21 Centur. Human Securit Center,Universit of British Columbia. New york, Oxford: Oxford Universit Press, 2005.
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Areements, 2006.23. William ONeill, Mediation and Human Rihts, HD Backround paper 4e.24. Perner, Conradin. The Human Rihts of Cultures, Lessons from Experiences with Traditional
South Sudanese Cultures. Nairobi: Conference on Emerent Human Rihts Themes in EastAfrica, Callenes for Human Rihts NgOs, October 2004.
25. grifths, Martin. Talkin Peace in a Time of Terror: United Nations Mediation and CollectiveSecurit. HD Center, Opinion Paper, March 2005.
26. Mason, Simon A. Lehren aus den Schweizerischen Mediations- und Fazilitationsdienstenim Sudan. In Andreas Wener, Victor Mauer (Hrs.): Bulletin 2006 zur schweizerischenSicherheitspolitik, 2006. p 43-96. Center for Securit Studies (ETH-CSS), Zurich.
27. BBC News, Monda, 25 Februar, 2002, Obituar: Jonas Savimbi, Unitas local bo.See also Jonas Savimbi, From Wikipedia, the free encclopedia.28. Mitchell, C.R. and Webb, K. New Approaches to International Mediation, greenwood Press.
1988.29. Bercovitch J. (ed), Introduction: Puttin Mediation in Context. In Bercovitch J (ed) Studies in
International Mediation, Palrave, Houndsmill, New york. 2002.
30. Beardsle, K, Quinn D, Biswas B, Wilkenfeld J, Mediation Stle and Crisis Outcomes Journalof Conict Resolution 50(2006):1 and Bercovitch J. (ed),. Introduction: Puttin Mediation inContext. In Bercovitch J (ed) Studies in International Mediation, Palrave, Houndsmill, New york.2002.
31. Bleeker, Mo. Dealin with the Past. swisspeace workin paper, Koff Series, 2004.32. Bercovitch J and Houston A. Understandin Success and Failure of International Mediation,
Journal of Peace Research, 199; and The Stud of International Mediation: Theoretical Issuesand Empirical Evidence, b Jacob Bercovitch and Allison Houston.
33. Bercovitch J and Houston A. Understandin Success and Failure of International Mediation,Journal of Peace Research,1996; and The Stud of International Mediation: Theoretical Issuesand Empirical Evidence, b Jacob Bercovitch and Allison Houston. Bercovitch J. and DeBrouenK. 2004 Mediation in Internationalized Ethnic Conicts: Assessin the Determinants of aSuccessful Process. Armed Forces & Societ, Vol. 30, No. 2, 2004 pp. 147-170 - Bercovitch J. 2004.International Mediation and Intractable Conict, Beond Intractabilit, Eds. gu Buress, HeidiBuress, Conict Research Consortium, Universit of Colorado, Boulder. Posted 2004.
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21International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2007 ISN
47. Simon A. Mason, Tobias Hamann, Christine Bichsel, Eva Ludi and yacob Arsano. LinkaesBetween Sub-national and International Water Conicts: The Eastern Nile Basin. WorkinPaper. ISN Publishin House, 2005.
48. Zartman, I. William. Ripeness. Eds. gu Buress and Heidi Buress. Beond Intractabilit.Conict Research Consortium, Universit of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: Auust 2003.49. SIPRI Holmqvist, C.,Enain non-state actors in post conicts settins, (eds.) Brden, A.
and Hni, H., Securit governance and Post-conict Peacebuildin, geneva Centre for theDemocratic Control of Armed Forces, DCAF (Berlin: Lit Verla, 2005).
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2004 .55. Martin, Harriet. Kin of Peace Pawns of War, the Untold Stor of Peace-makin. New york,
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Paper. b Medecins Sans Frontieres, International Womens Da, 8 March 2005.69. Alexandr Solzhenitsn, The Nobel Prize in Literature 1970, Nobel Lecture.70. Ier Rahavan (ed.): The Moral and Political Writins of Mahatma gandhi, I/III New york:
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Simon A. Mason, Dr sc,
environmental scientist,
Swiss Federal Institute of
Technolo, ETH Zurich,
PhD on water conicts
and cooperation in
the Nile Basin. From
2003 onwards his work
focused on Dialogue
Workshops for transformin water conicts.
Presentl he is senior proram ofcer at the
Center for Securit Studies (CSS), ETH Zurich, in
the Mediation Support Project (joint project withswisspeace, funded b the Swiss Forein Ministr),
focusing on the role and determinants of mediation
and facilitation in peace processes. Besides doing
research on mediation in the international context,
he occasionall also mediates interpersonal
conicts.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR