Medicinal Plants in the Atlantic Forest Knowledge, Use, And Conservation

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Human Ecology [huec] pp555-huec-377807 July 25, 2002 12:11 Style file version Nov. 19th, 1999

Human Ecology, Vol. 30, No. 3, September 2002 ( C© 2002)

Medicinal Plants in the Atlantic Forest (Brazil):Knowledge, Use, and Conservation1

Alpina Begossi,2,4 Natalia Hanazaki,2 and Jorge Y. Tamashiro3

This study focuses on knowledge of medicinal plants among the Caicaras (ru-ral inhabitants of the Atlantic Forest coast, Brazil). In particular, we examinethe use of medicinal plants according to sex and age to reveal general patternsof Caicara knowledge and use of plant resources. Data collected through449 interviews at 12 Caicara communities (Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulocoastal sites) include citations of 249 plants and identification of 227 species.We show the importance of introduced as opposed to native plants and of keyindividuals for the conservation of the Caicaras-Atlantic Forest.

KEY WORDS: Atlantic Forest; Brazil; conservation; Caicaras; diversity; Shannon; Rarefaction;ethnobotany; folk medicine; medicinal plants.

INTRODUCTION

Medicinal plants are among the forest resources most used by theCaicaras, rural inhabitants of the south eastern Atlantic Forest coast inBrazil. Native knowledge of medicinal plants is fairly well documented andthere is a wide literature on the use of medicinal plants from different regionsof the world. According to Alcorn (1995), about 80% of people in the worldrely on folk, or traditional, medicine. This study focuses on medicinal plantsused in the Atlantic Forest coast. Considering the diversity of citations onmedicinal plants as a measure of knowledge of the environment and as an

1This study is dedicated to the memory of Hermogenes de Freitas Leitao-Filho (1944–96).2NEPAM/UNICAMP, C.P. 6166 Campinas, S.P., Brazil, 13081-970.3Depto. de Botanica, UNICAMP, Campinas, S.P., Brazil.4To whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail: [email protected].

281

0300-7839/02/0900-0281/0 C© 2002 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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282 Begossi, Hanazaki, and Tamashiro

estimate of the intensity of resource use, we look for

1. general patterns of plant uses observed among the Caicaras, alongwith variations within communities, for example according to sex andage;

2. specific patterns of uses, for example the category of medicinal plantsused (native or introduced); and

3. data that might contribute to the conservation of Atlantic Forestareas.

STUDY AREA AND INHABITANTS

Data were collected between 1986 and 1998 in different communitiesalong the Atlantic Forest coasts of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro States,south eastern Brazil (Fig. 1). The Atlantic Forest includes about 7.5% ofremaining primary vegetation. It is an important area of endemism in SouthAmerica (Da Silva and Tabarelli, 2000), and one of the leading areas in termsof endemic species and of habitat loss for both plants and animals (Myerset al., 2000)—about 536,000 ha has been deforested between 1985 and 1990(Capobianco, 1994). Typical Atlantic Forest formations include high alti-tude, slope, and coastal plain forests. This study was conducted in coastalplain forest areas where plant species such as Myrtaceae, Melastomataceae,Lauraceae, Celastraceae, Clusiaceae, Fabaceae, Mimosaceae, Anacardi-aceae, Compositae, Rubiaceae, Monimiaceae, and Ochnaceae are found(Joly et al., 1990).

The Caicaras

The rural native inhabitants of the south east Atlantic Forest coast,Caicaras, are descendants of native Tupinamba Indians and Portuguese selt-ers. There is little contact between the Caicaras and the Guarani Indianswho live inside the nine Indian reserves (aldeias) located in Sao Paulo State,which cover 8953 ha. With a lifestyle comparable to the Amazonian caboclo(Moran, 1990), Caicaras subsist through small-scale agriculture, fishing and,especially in the last 20 years, through tourist-related activities. They liverelatively close to urban sites, such as Santos, Sao Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro,but in designated conservation areas, such as State and National Parks, oreven restricted Biological and Ecological Reserves.

Since the 1950s, anthropologists and geographers have studied Caicarascommunities. See, for example, Franca (1954) on Sao Sebastiao Island(Ilhabela), and Willems (1952) and Mussolini (1980) on Buzios Island. Seealso Marcılio (1986) on historic and demographic aspects of the Caicaras,

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Medicinal Plants in the Atlantic Forest 283

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Chastan (1975), Correa (1981), and Lima (1985) on their history, folklore,music, and dance, Oliveira et al. (1994) and Peroni and Martins (2000) on agri-cultural management, Diegues (1994) on social and environmental issues,and Ferreira (1996) on local conflicts and organized movements. Researchon aspects of the ecology of the Caicaras, such as diet, food taboos, fishingand ethnoichthyology, as well as territoriality, has been published elsewhere(Begossi, 1995, 1998; Hanazaki et al., 1996; Seixas and Begossi, 1998). TheCaicara diet is based on fish, rice and beans, manioc flour, and whenever pos-sible, spaghetti. Among the animals consumed, marine resources account for40–70%. Fishing is done from paddled or motorized dugout canoes, usinghook and line, set gillnets, encircling nets, and the cerco (floating net), aJapanese introduction (Mussolini, 1980). The ethnobotany of the Caicaras isfound in Begossi et al. (1993), Figueiredo et al. (1993, 1997), Hanazaki et al.(2000), and Rossato et al. (1999).

METHODS

This study is based on 449 interviews and 227 plant identifications. In-terviews with adults up to 18 years old, using open-ended questionnaires,were conducted in 12 communities on the Atlantic Forest coast. By consid-ering two adults per family, we estimate a sample of about 59% of residents(Table I).

The study area covers sites from the southeastern coast of Rio de JaneiroState to the northern coast of Sao Paulo State, including the coastal islands ofItacuruca and Jaguanum (Sepetiba Bay), Gipoia and Grande Island (GrandeIsland Bay), and Buzios and Vitoria Islands (Sao Paulo northern coast). Thenumber of families living at each locality is shown in Table I.

Table I. Data From the 12 Communities Studied in the Atlantic Forest Coast

Number of families Number of interviews Source

Buzios Island 44 28 Begossi et al. (1993)Vitoria Island 13 11 Rossato et al. (1999)Puruba Beach 14 22 Rossato et al. (1999)Sertao do Puruba 22 28 Rossato et al. (1999)Ponta do Almada 31 45 Hanazaki et al. (2000)Casa de Farinha 17 18 Rossato et al. (1999)Picinguaba 70 83 Rossato et al. (1999)Camburı Beach 70 57 Hanazaki et al. (2000)Aventureiro Beach 22 26 —Gamboa 26 58 Figueiredo et al. (1993)Calhaus Beach 24 42 Figueiredo et al. (1997)Gipoia Island 36 31 —

Total 389 449

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Plants collected were identified by H. F. Leitao Filho and by J. Y.Tamashiro. Diversity indices were calculated on the basis of local namesand the number of citations per plant. We calculated the Richness, Shannon,and Rarefaction on the plant citations per men, women, old (40 years ormore) and young (less than 40 years). Comparisons of Shannon diversityindices were based on Zar (1984) (See Begossi, 1996).

RESULTS

Plants Used by the Caicaras

The Caicaras use wild and cultivated plants for food, handicrafts, theconstruction of houses and canoes, as well as for medicinal purposes(Table II). Food plants are cultivated in small gardens next to houses (hortas)or in swiddens (rocas), or bought at nearby local markets. Manioc (Manihotesculenta Crantz) is a staple crop, but sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas (L.)Lam.), and beans (Phaseolus spp. and Cajanus cajan (L.) Mill.), are also im-portant. Fruits bearing trees and vines, such as avocado (Persea americanaMill.), star apple (Syzygium jambos (L.) Alton), papaya (Carica papaya L.),mango (Mangifera indica L.), and passion fruit (Passiflora spp.) are usu-ally cultivated in backyards. Other fruits are collected in natural fields, suchas bacuparı (Rheedia spp.), coquinho (Syagrus sp.), and pitanga (Braziliancherry, Eugenia uniflora L.).

Native trees provide raw material for handicrafts, houses, and dugout ca-noes, which are built using indigenous techniques. Some of the species usedare aricurana (Alchornea iricurana Casar), caixeta (Tabebuia cassinioides

Table II. Plant Richness Mentioned in Selected Communities of the Atlantic Forest Coast

CommunitiesUse categoryrichness Almadaa Buziosb Calhausc Camburıa Gamboad Purubae Picinguabae

Food 39 61 38 48 40 45 82Medicine 76 53 53 68 72 64 105Construction/ 54 32 — 64 35 29 70

handicrafts

Total richness 152 135 75 162 100 124 216

Interviews 45 28 42 57 58 22 83

Note. Coastal communities: Almada, Camburı, Puruba, and Picinguaba; Islands: Buzios,Itacuruca (Gamboa), and Jaguanum (Calhaus).aHanazaki et al. (1996, 2000).bBegossi et al. (1993).cFigueiredo et al. (1997).dFigueiredo et al. (1993).eRossato et al.(1999).

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(Lam.) A. P. DC), capororoca (Rapanea spp.), inga (Inga sessilis (Vell.)Mart.), paina (Pseudobombax grandiflorum (Cav.) A. Robyns), andbacurubu or guapurubu (Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) S. F. Blake).

Medicinal plants of the Atlantic Forest coast reflect both indigenous andEuropean influences. Of the 227 species we identified, 44% are introducedand 38% are native species. The other 18% are invasive annual plants withno defined category. Among the 49 species that represent more than 1% ofthe species cited, 57% are introduced and 39% are native species (two areundetermined).

The Caicaras use a relatively highly diverse range of medicinal plants fora relatively high diversity of purposes, demonstrating a wide knowledge ofthe plants’ habitats and properties (Table II). In spite of proximity of urbancenters (Fig. 1), the Caicaras rely primarily on folk medicine, because indus-trialized drugs are usually too expensive (Figueiredo et al., 1993). Medicinalplants are prepared as teas or baths made with leaves, roots, or bulbs, assyrups, and as pounded leaves. Figure 2 shows the main medicinal uses ofplant species by the Caicaras. A large number of species are cited for illnessesassociated with fever/pains, respiratory diseases (bronchitis, influenza), andgastrointestinal problems (diarrhea, worms, stomachaches), and somewhatfewer for circulatory and heart disorders, sedatives, and urological problems(Table III). Medicinal plants used to treat respiratory and gastrointestinaldisorders are frequently used by tropical groups such as the Yanomami andthe Yucatec-Maya of Mexico (Ankli et al., 1999; Milliken and Albert, 1997).Dermatological uses of medicinal plants are observed in other indigenouspharmacopoeias (Balick and Cox, 1996), but they appear to be secondaryfor the Caicaras. The use of plants to treat high blood pressure makes sensein coastal communities that consume fish, especially dry salted fish.

Diversity: Species, Families, and Knowledge

The Caicaras cited 249 medicinal plants comprising 227 species belong-ing to 77 families. Figure 3 and Table III show the most cited plants in terms ofthe number of species (citations) and number of interviewees (informants).Only 17 species were mentioned by more than 10% of the interviewees(Table III). These results show that only 7% of the plants cited, mostly in-troduced, have uses spread among the populations and localties. Therefore,the knowledge and uses of medicinal plants seem widely spread among inter-viewees, reflecting the high diversity found in the vegetation of the AtlanticForest coast. Diversity includes the variety and relative abundance of species(Magurran, 1988). The spread of individuals between species is a componentof diversity (Putman and Wratten, 1984). In particular, the Shannon index isa measure of the average degree of uncertainty in predicting to what species

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Fig. 2. Number of species per category of medicinal use, based on the plant specieswith more than 1% of citations in interviews: PF = fever and pains; RE = respiratorydiseases; GI = gastrointestinal disorders; CA = circulatory and heart disorders (highblood pressure); SE= sedative; UR= urological disorders; LI= liver associated prob-lems; OT = others: rheumatism, diabetes, abortive, measles, chickenpox, eyes; WO =women-associated treatments (menstrual cramps); DE = dermatological diseases.

an individual, chosen at random from a collection of S species and N individ-uals, will belong (Ludwig and Reynolds, 1988). The high diversity found inthe Atlantic Forest environments allowed the citations of different speciesby different interviewees, at different sites, because a high diversity meansa small probability of encounter per species.

Some plant families that included many medicinal species were men-tioned in few interviews. For example, Solanaceae (not represented in Fig. 3)included 11 cited species of plants mentioned by less than 1% of intervie-wees. Similar cases were observed for Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae.The most important families are Asteranceae, Lamiaceae, Euphorbiaceae,and Rutaceae, if we consider a minimum of 1% of cited species (Fig. 3).

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Table IV. Diversity Indices of the Medicinal Plants Quoted According to Sex and Age

Men Women Young (less than 40) Old (40 or more)

Number of interviews 215 234 223 219Number of quotations 924 1,315 1,003 1,172Richness (S) 176 191 169 197Mean of citation per speciesa 5.25 6.88 5.93 5.95SD 9.39 15.44 12.50 11.38Shannon-Wiener (base e) (H ′ )b 4.38 4.19 4.12 4.44Evennessc 0.85 0.80 0.80 0.84Hmax(lnS) 5.17 5.25 5.13 5.28

Note. There are some interviews where the age is missing, leading to different sample sizes.a t tests: Difference of citation means, using “Welch’s approximate t” considering unequal vari-ances of the samples (Zar, 1984, p. 130), men and women (t = 3.10, p < 0.002, df = 2194).The confidence intervals (two-tailed, t[0.05] are men (L1 = 4,88, L2 = 5,62), women (L1 =6,57, L2 = 7,19).

bt tests: Differences of two diversity indices (Zar, 1984, p. 146), men and women (t = 3.35, p <0.01, df = 2,124), younger and older (t = 5.57, p < 0.01, df = 2076).

cEvenness = H ′/lnS

Considering all citations, the most important families in terms of the num-ber of species are Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Solanaceae, Myrtaceae, Cucur-bitaceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae. These families include many introducedspecies which are not representative of the Atlantic Forest. Among the397 medicinal species used by 291 North American tribes, Asteraceae wasthe most representative family, including one species, Achillea millefolium L.,used to treat colds by the Abnaki of North America (Moerman,1996). This species is similarly used by the Caicaras (cited by 5% ofinterviewees).

Women cited more plants than men, (Table IV), but this result seemsrelated to different sample sizes. The rarefaction curves used to comparesamples of different sizes show a higher diversity of medicinal plant citationsamong men, rather than among women (Fig. 4(a)). Women also showed ahigher variance of citations compared to men, indicating a more heteroge-neous knowledge of medicinal plants (Table IV). Considering the relativeabundance of citations per species (Shannon index), we observe that menshowed a higher diversity, along with a higher homogeneity of citations,compared to women (higher evenness). The maximum diversity of citations(Hmax, Table IV) was observed among women and elders. Among the in-dividuals that mentioned more than 15 plant species per interview, we find10 women and 5 men. A 50-year-old woman from Puruba Beach cited 31plants in one interview. This means that there are key individuals in the pop-ulation with a very detailed knowledge of medicinal plants. Finally, olderCaicaras (40 years old or more) showed a higher diversity of plant citationscompared to younger Caicaras (Table IV, Fig. 4b).

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Fig. 4. Rarefaction curves comparing men and women (A), and old and young (B)according to the quotations of medicinal plants in interviews.

DISCUSSION

The Importance of Introduced Plants

Like the Caicaras, people living in communities in other tropical areashave often included introduced plants in folk medicine (Bennet and Prance,2000). A mixture of native and introduced plants has also been found in

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the folk medicine of Amazonian caboclos (Amorozo and Gely, 1988). Elis-abetsky and Shanley (1994) observed that ethnobotanical and ethnophar-macological studies of caboclos show intensive use of the secondary forest,of nonnative species, and of cultivated species. Ankli et al. (1999) observedthat garden plants are usually more important to the medical system of theYucatec Maya (Mexico) rather than plants collected outside the villages.

Caicaras houses and surroundings are frequently located in disturbedhabitats or on forest edges (areas with introduced and annual plants), a factthat facilitates the collection of medicinal plants while walking the trails.Dennis (1988) showed that the “pharmacy” of the Miskito from Nicaraguaand Honduras includes common weedy species growing widely around thevillages, and Laurance (1997) observed that weeds are likely to proliferatein disturbed habitats. Voeks (1996) observed in coastal Bahia, north easternBrazil, that medicinal plants are herbaceous, cultivated, or introduced plantsfound in disturbed areas. According to Voeks (1996), species with annual lifecycles are twice as likely to employ secondary compounds in defense, such asalkaloids and phenols, suggesting that secondary forest species, weeds, andgarden plants may represent a good source of bioactive compounds. The useof introduced plants from disturbed habitats in Caicara medicine probablyhelps preventing major detrimental impacts in the forest.

Tropical and Local Medicinal Plant Diversity

The diversity of plants used by the Atlantic Forest Caicaras (249 species)is high when compared to other tropical forest communities, even takinginto account different numbers of informants (Table V). Other studies inthe Atlantic Forest coast (Figueiredo et al., 1993, 1997; Rossato et al., 1999)showed that Caicaras from coastal communities cited a higher diversity ofmedicinal plants compared to Caicaras living on islands. If islanders have alow diversity of plants available (even from disturbed areas), there appearsto be an association of plant knowledge with plant diversity in the AtlanticForest coast. The majority of medicinal species are nonnative and do notbelong to typical plant families of the Atlantic Forest. Nevertheless, coastalsites have an expected high plant diversity, and show a higher diversity ofcitations in interviews compared to the islands.

Elders demonstrated a detailed knowledge of medicinal plants and theyrely more often on traditional care than young people. The importance of el-ders and of women in the retention of knowledge of plant resources has beenstressed in many communities. Among the Carib population of Guatemala,the majority of people who knew and used medicinal plants were women,mostly housewives, with an average age of 46 (Giron et al., 1991). Women ofthe Extractive Reserve Cachoeira in Acre (Brazilian Amazon) possess great

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Table V. The Richness of Medicinal Plants in Other tropical Areas

Richness Informants or Interviews Locality Source

50 14 Brazilian Amazon Kainer and Duryea (1992)64 ? Central Guyana Johnston and

Colquhoun (1996)100a 6 NE Brazil Voeks (1996)103 300 Guatemala Giron et al. (1991)105 50 Tonga Whistler (1991)149 809 Nicaragua Barret (1994)150 9 Thailand Pake (1987)164 ? Thailand Anderson (1986)198 ? Brazilian Amazon Milliken and Albert (1997)220 17 Brazilian Amazon Amorozo and Gely (1988)229 15 Nicaragua Coe and Anderson (1996)249 449 SE Brazil This study320 40 Mexico Ankli et al. (1999)

aThe number of species reach 200 species if species used to treat spiritual problems and magicwere included.

skills and knowledge of plant resources and there are local institutions assist-ing women in product diversification and marketing (Kainer and Duryea,1992). Nohan and Robbins (1999) observed that in rural communities inArkansas and Missouri that rely on folk medicine women play a pivotalrole in health care: they gather wild plants, they are experienced in child-birth and in treating illnesses from childhood to geriatric ailments. The samestudy suggested that communities with an older structure appear to con-servate knowledge of medicinal plants, compared to those with a youngerstructure. Caicara knowledge of medicianl plants is not concentrated amongwomen. Men have a fairly well-balanced knowledge (equitable distribution)of medicinal plants, whereas women show a heterogeneous knowledge. How-ever, we found a few women with very wide knowledge of medicinal plantswho are key elements in retaining medicinal knowledge in the community.

Models of cultural transmission predict the importance of “cultural os-cillations” (as an analog of genetic oscillation) as a form of losing culturaltraits (Boyd and Richerson, 1985). Cultural oscillation may increase thefragility of the native system, affecting its resilience. Holling (1992) definedcycles in terms of functions, such as exploitation, conservation, release, andorganization: Resilience is determined by release and reorganization se-quences. Berkes and Folke (1998) consider as a measure of resilience themagnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes:It may be a measure of the buffering capacity of the system. Schlapfer andSchmid (1999) define resilience as the rate at which an ecosystem variablereturns toward a reference state following a perturbation, and resistance asthe degree to which an ecosystem is changed, followed a perturbation. Inother words, the resilience of native systems may be disrupted by cultural

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oscillations: First, because knowledge of medicinal plants may be not evenlydistributed through the population (elders and a few women); second, be-cause native populations are usually small in number; and third, becausethe probability of losing such cultural traits increases inversely to the sizeof the population. For example, the death of a knowledgeable individualmay cause shifts in local medical treatments, or even push people to look forother kinds of medical care. Thus, for Atlantic Forest conservation eldersplay an important role in management due to their wide knowledge of plantresources, but only a few women seem to be pivotal elements in the system.

Medicinal Plants and the Conservation of the Atlantic Forest:Concluding Remarks

Medicinal plants comprise the most diverse category of plants usedamong the Caicaras. They are often introduced species, frequently used totreat pains, fever, respiratory, and gastrointestinal problems. Policy-makersneed information about the value of natural resources and the way resourcesare used (Alcorn, 1995). We have shown that elders and a few women arekey elements for the maintenance of local knowledge of folk medicine inthe Atlantic Forest coast. The management of Atlantic Forest areas shouldconsider medicinal plants as a local economic alternative because about halfof medicinal plants are introduced plants from disturbed habitats, meaningthat plant collection may have little or no impact in the forest. Moreover,boundary limitations such as “use zones” for the Caicaras should take intoconsideration that they do not necessarily need the most preserved sites ofthe forest to collect medicinal plants.

Economic alternatives are central aspects for managing inhabited trop-ical forests. Phillips et al. (1994) stressed that collection of nontimber for-est products is not immune to destructive harvesting, although their collec-tion certainly has a less conspicuous impact on the forest. In the case ofmedicinal plants, their cultivation, commercialization, and use for health/environmental education seems to be a valuable contribution for the localeconomy. In Mexico, among the Yucatec Maya, to encourage indigenous useof medicinal plants, a medicinal garden was created with the cooperation oflocal communities (Ankli et al., 1999). In an earlier study at the Upper JuruaExtractive Reserve, Brazil (Begossi et al., 1999), we observed caboclos se-lecting residences as first-aid centers with a program including medicinalplant gardens.

The extraction of non-timber forest products by rural people is believedto be compatible with conservation as long as there is low environmental im-pact as well as incentives for users to conserve resources provided they holdsecure rights (Momberg et al., 2000). There are products widely used in Latin

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America, such as zarzaparrilla (Smilax spp.) and quina (Cinchona officinalis)(Hvalkof, 2000), that could support sustainable local economies. Examplesof local management of a sustainable and commercial system include rat-tan (Calamus spp.) and damar (Shorea javanica) in Indonesia (Fried, 2000;Michon et al., 2000), and in Africa the development of the extraction processof Ancistrocladus korupensis, a medicinal plant new to science (first collectedin 1987) and used locally to treat measles and dysentery, is bringing benefitsfor local people (Laird et al., 2000).

Extractive Reserves should be viewed in a broad economic sense(Begossi et al., 1999), and as a form of controlling outsider’s entrance(tourists). The economy of an Extractive Reserve should not be based onone or two products but on a variety of non-timber products (Godoy et al.,1993). What is expected is an economy integrated to a regional/global econ-omy (Begossi, 1999), with the collection and cultivation of natural resources,along with benefits from commerce and conservation (Fig. 5). Changes

Fig. 5. Sketch showing a possible relationship of medicinal plants,economic alternatives, and conservation measures for the AtlanticForest coast.

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in status, such as the recognition of “traditional use zones” inside a park(Momberg et al., 2000) might facilitate alternatives with less bureaucracywhile maintaining conservation priorities.

Maintaining resilience may be important for both resources and socialinstitutions (Berkes and Folke, 1998). When analyzing 12 cases of forestdegradation and local organization from different parts of the word, Kuchli(1997) concluded that any feasible plan to preserve genetic and species di-versity must acknowledge the reality of small-scale dynamics at the villagelevel. The results of our study have implications for the conservation of theAtlantic Forest. First, like other peasant pharmacopoeia, the importance ofintroduced plants in the medicine of the Caicaras helps to prevent overuseof native species. Second, plant use information may help in building bound-aries concerning the use of sites of the Atlantic Forest coast. Third, elders anda few key women should be considered in the transmission of knowledge ofmedicinal plants, and the monitoring, and managing of the potential marketfor them. Fourth, economic alternatives are needed to maintain the Caicarasand the Atlantic Forest coast environment. Fifth, the process of householdforest uses, of economic alternatives, and of environmental education may beclosely tied and may serve as a vehicle for conservation, and key individualsfrom each community should be included in management programs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported by CNPq (productivity scholarship) andby FAPESP (research grants) (Brazil). We thank M. Petrere Jr. for helpfulsuggestions, and S. C. Rossato and C. S. Seixas for data collected atAventureiro Beach. We also thank the Caicaras for their kind patience dur-ing the study.

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Medicinal Plants in the Atlantic Forest Knowledge, Use, And Conservation

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