Meeting of Expert Geographers from African Countries; Final...

Distribution: general ED/CS/112/6 PARIS, 30 January 1968 Original: English

UNITED NATIONS E D U C A T I O N A L , SCIENTIFIC A N D C U L T U R A L ORGANIZATION

^MEETING O F E X P E R T G E O G R A P H E R S F R O M AFRICAN COUNTRIES

Accra, Ghana, 4-13 September 1967J

/ 'oX FINAL REPORT, / co

I /O *-U J

CONTENTS

Introduction 2

I. T h e Organization and W o r k of the Meeting 3

II. Teaching Programmes for Geography in Africa 4

III. A M o d e r n Methodology for G e o g r a p h y in Africa 16

I V . Equ ipmen t for Geography Teaching and the Geography R o o m 18

V . T h e Training of Geography Teachers in Africa 22

VI. A Framework for the Future 25

Appendix: List of Participants and Observers 26

67 - 6 8 / E D M / 1 3 -000/13 -4111

ED/CS/112/6 - page 2

INTRODUCTION

A meeting of expert geographers to make recommendations and practical suggestions on the improvement of geography teaching in primary and secondary schools of countries in tropical Africa was held in Accra, Ghana, from 4 to 13 September 1967. The meeting was organized by Unesco at the Unesco Regional Centre for Educational Information and Research in Africa with funds made available under the Technical Assistance programme. In the planning and organization of the meeting Unesco had the active assistance of the Commission on the Teaching of Geography of the International Geographical Union.O)

The purpose of the meeting was to establish a report containing recommendations and practical suggestions on the improvement of geography teaching in Africa. To that end, the meeting examined such matters as the objectives of geography teaching, curriculum development, the provision of textbooks and teaching materials and the training of teachers .

The Accra meeting followed up the work of several earlier meetings concerned with secondary education in Africa and particularly that of the meeting of expert geographers from African countries which was organized by the Ethiopian Government in Addis Ababa in December 1965 willi assistance from Unesco under the Programme of Participation in tho Activities of Member States. The meeting was a further step forward in Unesco's programme for the improvement of geography teaching.

(1) Chairman, Professor Benoît Brouillette, c/o Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales, 535 avenue Viger, Montreal 24, Canada.

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I. O R G A N I Z A T I O N A N D W O R K O F T H E M E E T I N G

The meeting was attended by 15 participants, including experts from nine M e m b e r States^', two advisers (United Kingdom, Poland) and two Unesco field experts serving in Sierra Leone and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The IGU's Commission on the Teaching of Geography was represented by M r . G . C . Last. A list of participants and observers is given in the appendix.

The following officers were elected: Chairman, M r . W . Senteza Kajubi (Uganda); Vice-Chairman, M r . M a m a d o u Sarr (Mali); Rapporteur, D r . George Benneh (Ghana). Unesco was represented by M r . Zaude Gabre-Madhin, Director of the Unesco Regional Centre, and his staff, and by M r . Ryon K w a n K i m , of the Department of Educational Methods and Techniques and Teacher Training.

The meeting was opened by H . E . Modjaben Dowuona, Commissioner for Education of the G o vernment of Ghana, who welcomed the participants to his country and gave an assurance of continuing support for the Unesco Centre and its activities from the Government of Ghana. He spoke of the significance of geography teaching in Africa and in particular commented, "it is not enough that students should learn about the resources of countries; it is essential that they should also appreciate their significance for development generally, and that they should be set thinking of what part they can play in this development". The opening session was also addressed by M r . Gabre-Madhin, and by M r . Last.

After two days of plenary sessions, the participants formed two committees, one on curricula and textbooks, the other on teaching methods and teacher training. Taking into account the work done at the 1965 Addis Ababa meeting, which was concerned mainly with planning a source book for teaching the geography of Africa and examining general aims, problems and needs of geography teaching in Africa, the meeting focused its attention on practical questions related to raising the level of geography teaching in Africa. Discussions reflected the c o m m o n agreement among educators in African countries that curricula of primary and secondary schools need to be carefully revised so that they reflect the realities of the current political, economic and social scene in Africa.

After reviewing standardized syllabuses for secondary schools in French-speaking countries in Africa, which were finalized early in 1967, the meeting formulated two sets of suggested teaching programmes for primary and secondary schools in Africa. The suggested programmes were arranged according to stages of pupils' development so that they can be adjusted if necessary to particular school structures and can be elaborated according to the requirements of various national systems. In essence, the programmes provide that school geography should begin with an examination of the pupil's immediate surroundings - village, community, region - and then proceed to the study of his homeland, continent and the world, ever broadening his horizons.

After reviewing present practices in geography teaching in Africa, participants concluded that in spite of the efforts made in recent years the approach to the subject in many schools was still too formal and did not involve pupils and students in practical activities, particularly in direct observation lessons. The meeting stressed that geography must be taught both inside and outside the classroom and a variety of active teaching methods must be employed. In particular, it placed e m phasis on the need to develop direct observation lessons through field work in which students can observe local geographical phenomena, record in a scientific way what they have observed and draw conclusions from their observations.

The participants pointed out that, for the effective teaching of geography at any level, certain basic equipment must be provided. The view was expressed that although some expenditure is inevitable this expenditure is small compared with the total capital and recurrent cost of establishing and maintaining a school and in comparison with expenditure in other subject areas. Geography is a practical and experimental subject requiring from, time to time the application of scientific m e thodology in laboratory exercises. In c o m m o n with science, there are items of equipment without which basic concepts cannot be illustrated and developed. To assist education authorities with the equipping of schools a basic equipment list for primary and secondary schools was drawn up by the meeting.

(1) Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville), Ghana, Madagascar, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Upper Volta.

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The participants agreed that every secondary school should be provided with a special geography room or laboratory in which geographical teaching materials can be easily available, and in which practical experiences can be carried out. In planning new schools, and. in considering modi fications in existing schools, education authorities were asked to consider the specifications for the geography room recommended in the Unesco Source Book for Geography Teaching.

The participants pointed out the great need for an increasing supply of geography textbooks written as far as possible by African authors from the African point of view, which meet African needs and which will present a correct view of African conditions, not only to students in African schools but also to the outside world. This process, it was recommended, should be actively encouraged by M e m b e r States in Africa. Also, Unesco was asked to assist African authors in the writing of new textbooks and to provide funds which would enable authors to carry out appropriate research. The meeting placed emphasis on the need for the cultural and educational authorities in African countries to collaborate in the production of photographic material which can be used for visual teaching methods in geography. The meeting was also convinced that modern means of mass communication, in particular educational television, have an important rôle to play. Current efforts to develop home-produced programmes in geography for educational television were encouraged.

The participants made a number of specific recommendations regarding the nature of courses in which teachers are trained for primary and secondary schools. In general, the meeting asked authorities responsible for the organization of these courses to ensure that the training reflects the requirements of the geography syllabus in Africa and its objectives, and placed emphasis on the practical, experimental and direct observation methods which are of great significance in African schools. Training should include an introduction to research methods in geography and in education so that teachers will be in a position to produce materials for use in schools.

The following sections of the report give a s u m m a r y of work done by the two committees on various topics related to the improvement of geography teaching in Africa.

II. TEACHING P R O G R A M M E S FOR G E O G R A P H Y IN AFRICA

During the discussions on the geography syllabus, it was agreed that the basic principles and objectives underlying the construction of a programme of studies in geography should first be set out. Thereafter, as a practical exercise, one method of achieving the object should be defined. The objectives can be reached in a variety of equally acceptable ways, and therefore the resulting syllabus, with its introductory paragraphs and its summary of various aspects of geography teaching at each stage, should not be presented as a standard format for the teaching of geography in Africa.

The meeting expressed some concern about the small amount of time allotted to geography in many schools. In view of the fact that the subjecthas a great deal to offer in preparation for citizenship and of the need to carry out both classroom teaching and practical observation lessons , the meeting strongly recommended that four periods a week should be reserved for geography in the school time-table. This time allocation should not fall below a m i n i m u m of three periods a week at any level and it could, with profit, be increased to five a week at the higher level of the secondary school.

In the organization of the time allocation, school authorities were asked to arrange for at least one "double period" a week for geography. Unless such extended periods of teaching are provided, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to carry out the practical work recommended for lessons both inside and outside the classroom.

A . T H E PRIMARY S C H O O L P R O G R A M M E

Introduction

1. The basic objectives underlying this syllabus are: (a) that it must form part of a curriculum conceived of in terms of activity and experience rather than of facts to be stored and: (b) that the accumulation of essential facts is best achieved through exposing pupils to meaningful experiences. The geography syllabus is, therefore, conceived of in terms of units of experience which incorporate the progressive development of geographical understanding as well as basic skills.

ED/CS/11-2/6 -page 5

2 . M o d e r n educational practice involves active participation on the part of the pupil. S u c h an a p proach is especially necessary in a cultural climate which often v iews education in a n a r r o w , a c a d e m i c w a y . T h e r e is, therefore, considerable stress placed on a variety of teaching techniques which involve the pupil actively. T h e s e not only lead.to effective learning but also provide practical training a n d a n e w educational process in which the pupil does things for himself and acquires understanding through the solution of p r o b l e m s .

3 . T h e geography syllabus proposed is essentially concentric in approach in that it starts f r o m an examination of the locality before studying regions farther afield. This approach is based on the general educational principles that w e m u s t proceed f r o m the k n o w n to the u n k n o w n , f r o m the f a m i liar to the less familiar, and f r o m the particular to the general . H o w e v e r , t w o precautions should be kept in m i n d :

(a) That w e m u s t constantly return to the locality at e a c h level of p r i m a r y and secondary school geography teaching to seek first-hand evidence of the increasingly c o m p l e x situations.

(b) That w e should b e w a r e of the deve lopment of a parochial attitude through a syllabus with an over-developed local a p p r o a c h . Pupils are directly part of the local scene but they are also indirectly part of the world s c e n e . In addition, an essential part of the educational deve lopment of young children is the further stimulation of the imagination which they already p o s s e s s . It is necessary, therefore, to offer imaginative experiences, even in the initial stages of e d u c a tion, through the inclusion of s a m p l e studies of distant peoples, f r o m which comparat ive c o n clusions can be d r a w n in regard to the local scene .

4 . In this syllabus, considerable stress has b e e n placed u p o n the need to base teaching o n a g r o w ing understanding of the local and regional s c e n e . W e m u s t , therefore, take note of two important implications:

(a) That the detailed teaching p r o g r a m m e will not be the s a m e in any two p r i m a r y schools. T h e teacher m u s t , therefore, be put in a position which enables h i m to m a k e the necessary adaptations to produce an effective geographical p r o g r a m m e based on a c o m m o n general a p p r o a c h . It is often asking too m u c h to expect the teacher to be able to do this for himself . Basic r e quirements are therefore (i) a detailed teachers' handbook; and (ii) the careful training of teachers-in-training in this m e t h o d o l o g y .

(b) That , since effective teaching depends u p o n the availability of local and regional data, i m m e diate steps m u s t be taken to collect factual information, prepare s a m p l e studies and define r e gional and provincial geographical teaching resources , so that these can b e u s e d in p r i m a r y schools. T h e effectiveness of both geography and science teaching in p r i m a r y schools depends u p o n suitable reference material being available to teachers . It is suggested that high priority be given by Ministries of Education to the preparation of general handbooks o n .all aspects of local p h e n o m e n a , including flora and fauna, which will list, illustrate, describe and n a m e , in both English or F r e n c h and the local language, facts of the local env ironment on which teaching m u s t be b a s e d .

5 . Wi th regard to the question of whether or not this subject w a s to be regarded as an integrated part of "social studies", it w a s felt strongly that the social studies approach is not always a p p r o priate in the school s y s t e m . Effective social studies teaching requires the assimilation of highly c o m p l e x concepts involving the interrelationships of m a n y factors. Space does not allow further elaboration of this question but the following points should be m a d e :

(a) T h e m o s t important step is to define carefully the content and conceptual structure of the g e o graphy which is to be introduced as part of the total teaching p r o g r a m m e . O n c e this has been d o n e , but only afterit has b e e n d o n e , it is possible, with careful organization, to carry out s o m e degree of integration, either through the class teacher in the p r i m a r y school or through t e a m teaching at the secondary level.

(b) At the p r i m a r y school level, there is a close relationship be tween geography and science. F o r the m o s t part, geography e x a m i n e s the facts of h u m a n activities and the relationship of these activities to the facts of the physical e n v i r o n m e n t . In the study of the physical env ironment , geography m a r c h e s hand in h a n d with science. It is important that the geography syllabus should be designed to permit a parallel growth of understanding in general science. Certa inly , the claim cannot be m a d e that geography belongs exclusively to the social sciences.

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Objectives

(a) T h e structure of the p r o g r a m m e which follows attempts to stimulate the logical development of thinking processes. It starts with perception, or the ability to discriminate and differentiate a m o n g the properties of objects, and it requires that this process be carried out through individual sensory experiences. It next proceeds to the process of association, ör the ability to relate symbols or words to things experienced. It then begins to build concepts or simple ge neralizations based on a variety of practical experiences. At a m u c h later stage, it is concerned with:

(i) relational thinking - a step beyond association - which d e m a n d s an ability to relate facts, concepts and understanding to form further generalizations;

(ii) critical thinking, which involves the incorporation of different points of view leading to the establishment of standards, values and purposes;

(iii) creative thinking, which is the expression of thoughts and feelings in original w a y s .

In addition, the geography course concerns itself with the stimulation of the imagination by requiring the visualization of scenes and processes which cannot be observed at first-hand.

(b) T h e geography p r o g r a m m e is concerned with the development of general skills. It offers the possibility, through the spoken w o r d , the written w o r d , drawing, m o d e l - m a k i n g , m a p - m a k i n g and mathematical expression, for the development of a wide range of m e a n s of communication. Through the stress, given to observation lessons and practical activities, general h u m a n skills are developed;

(c) Geography is concerned with the development of specific abilities and skills, the most i m p o r tant of which are an ability to orientate oneself, a sense of magnitude and scale, and an understanding of spatial characteristics, coupled with the specific skill of expressing these in m a p f o r m .

T o be fully effective, the geography teaching p r o g r a m m e must include a variety of teaching techniques and methods in which field w o r k , practical m e a s u r e m e n t , simple scientific experiments, discussion, reading, writing, drawing, m o d e l - m a k i n g and s o m e direct teaching all have a place. It is essential that this p r o g r a m m e should be practical, active, empirical, inductive and deductive. T h e central core of the methodology to be used is problem-solving.

Vocabulary

Special attention should be paid to the problem of developing geographical vocabulary in the language of instruction at each stage. This problem has three aspects:

(a) the creation of suitable terms in the language of instruction where these do not exist. It is i m portant that this problem should be tackled in a systematic and co-ordinated w a y , otherwise confusion and duplication in terminology m a y result;

(b) the establishment of precise definitions for special t e r m s , used or created. Precision in identification and description is one objective of geographical training;

(c) where m o r e than one language of instruction is in use in the school system, there mus t be careful co-ordination of the geographical terminology in both languages. This is most important in the development of concepts since a concept learned initially in one language must appear to be the s a m e thing in the second language.

At each stage in the development of this geography p r o g r a m m e , a heading " I N T R O D U C E V O C A B U L A R Y " has been inserted. This has not been specified further since the language base andthe local terminology may vary from region to region. The heading "INTRODUCE V O C A B U L A R Y " serves as a reminder that the job must be done of teaching new vocabulary terms at the beginning of each new stage in the teaching programme.

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Time allocation for geography

Geography should appear on the Primary School Teaching Programme four times a week, if possible but, in any case, not less than three times a week.

The syllabus

Stage 1 - The first years of school

At this stage, when children are being introduced to school work, school routine and school life, there is no place for formal geography. There are no subject barriers and ho "geography lessons" as such. School work during this period is largely devoted to securing an adequate base in the essential tools of communication - language, pictorial communication and simple calculation. H o w ever, the activities designed to promote these first stages, in education should Include elements of what can be called "geography readiness" or "pre-geography". These activities should be based on simple nature study lessons which will serve as an introduction to: -

(a) observation and "using the eyes". This should result in collections of various things -.stones, leaves, grasses, flowers, etc. This activity should not be developed-to the stage of scientific description or classification. It is sufficient to reach an understanding that there are groups of objects and that a variety of different characteristics and qualities exist within these groups (e.g. light stones, heavy stones, soft stones, hard stones; large leaves, small leaves, flpwers, etc.);

(b) the basic vocabulary associated with things found around us;

(c) the experience of outdoor lessons - establishing from the beginning that learning is not all "classroom". A controlled widening of experience m u s t begin as soon as pupils enter school.

The natural interest of children can be stimulated by stories, of children in other lands.

T o w a r d s the end of this first stage the class teacher can begin to keep class diaries - of w e a ther and events and seasonal routines. These should take the form of simple standard pictorial symbols for each category coupled with the basic national language term - "rain", "high wind", "harvest began today", "flood", "thunderstorm", etc.

Skills: Pupils should gain useful practical experience f r o m drawing objects collected and m a k i n g imaginative drawings of local scenes, and scenes in other lands about which stories have been told.

Introduce vocabulary (see c o m m e n t s in the Introduction)

N . B . T h e time necessary for this introductory stage in school life will vary from region to region according to local p r o b l e m s . If, for e x a m p l e , school begins with a language of instruction which is not the language of the h o m e , this process will take longer. Bearing in m i n d that even in the m o s t favourable circumstances, a certain foundation of knowledge, ability and organization m u s t be laid before a wider subject matter can be introduced, it is thought that this introductory stage of "pre-geography" will occupy at least one year but, in m o s t unfavourable circumstances, probably not m o r e than two years, so that geography as such can begin to e m e r g e in the third year of school at the latest.

Stage 2 - "Things around us - Q u r C o m m u n i t y "

Pupils should be led to the discovery of categories of facts dealt with under defined topics. T h e y should be assisted by the' teacher to give greater precision to the description of facts gathered. Teaching should be empirical and the whole year should be regarded as a voyage of discovery within the immediate locality of the school. A s far as possible, topics should begin with the first-hand observation of the subject of discussion (out-of-class excursions should be limited to a radius of 10-15 minutes' walk from the school).

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Aspects of geography teaching

The structure of the geography programme must provide for (among other things):

1. T h e development of first-hand observation and recording techniques. (This should lead, apart f r o m the skills acquired, to a widening and deepening of the pupils' understanding of their o w n local area. This understanding is basic to the development of m o r e general geography studies).

2 . T h e development of specific geographical skills. In the pr imary school, by far the most i m portant of these are m a p skills.

3 . T h e introduction and development of basic geographical concepts and principles. It is i m p o r tant that the teaching p r o g r a m m e should allow for a proper and logical structural development of these concepts and principles if geographical understanding is to g r o w .

(a) Observation and recording

In Stage 2 , w e lay the foundations of a systematic attempt to lead the natural interest of children into a m o r e scientific approach to the facts of the immediate environment. T h e topics to be examined will all be familiar in a general sense. T h e job of the teacher is to bring m o r e precision to this general knowledge . E a c h of the topics listed (Our H o m e , T h e Things W e N e e d , O u r C o m m u n i t y ) should incorporate short visits (usually not m o r e than 10-15 minutes' distance from the school) to examine various features at first-hand. Alternatively, small objects can be brought into the classroom for first-hand examination. At this stage, however , actual r e cording (in m a p or note form) in the field will be very limited. Observation will be followed by discussion.

(b) M a p skills

T h e first stage in the development of m a p skills is to show the difference between a picture and a m a p and to illustrate this f r o m specific and familiar objects viewed at first-hand. This introduction to m a p s m u s t begin simultaneously with geography. For example , the first topic " O u r H o m e " should begin with pictorial illustrations of houses d r a w n by pupils. This should lead to the drawing of a simple (unmeasured) sketch plan of a house . At this early stage, m o d e l - m a k i n g can provide a useful link between object and plan and also provides an early introduction to the problem of scale. M o d e l - m a k i n g is also a valuable part of active general education. Pictures, models and plans of specific objects lead to the construction of simple sketch m a p s w h e n w e c o m e to an examination of "the c o m m u n i t y " . At this stage, the i m p o r tant m a p concepts of direction and distance are introduced. T h e need to locate a variety of information on simple sketch m a p s of the locality leads to the use of symbols on m a p s . (The use of symbols to record weather information also serves to strengthen the introduction of this basic representation concept). B y the end of Stage 2 , pupils can be introduced to the simpler techniques of m e a s u r e m e n t (e.g. first on the school c o m p o u n d , then on walks through the village) which will lead to the construction of m o r e accurate plans and m a p s . B y the end of Stage 2 , s o m e foundation in the use and construction of simple sketch m a p s should have been laid.

(c) Basic geographical concepts

Concepts demanding an understanding of the relationship between two or m o r e factors cannot be introduced at this stage except where they arise naturally f r o m p h e n o m e n a very familiar to pupils. F o r example , seasonal change in weather is related to the seasonal rhythm of w o r k on the farm but pupils cannot be expected to relate wind direction to the occurrence of rainfall. T h e emphasis in Stage 2 m u s t be upon simple classification of geographical information and a growing precision in the description of local p h e n o m e n a . W o r k in Stage 2 should also lead to a grasp of the m a j o r features of the local c o m m u n i t y .

Introduce vocabulary (see c o m m e n t s in Introduction to Section II.A)

Stage 3 - District studies

In Stage 3 , the progression is f rom the c o m m u n i t y to a wider geographical area. This m a y be m o s t conveniently expressed as the regional administrative area, but not necessarily limited rigidly to the confines of administrative boundaries if these cut across geographical features.

ED/CS/112/6 - page 9

This transition should follow natural lines of development in teaching. Two possibilities offer themselves for logical lines of development:

(a) It will have b e c o m e clear f rom studies in Stage 2 that the local c o m m u n i t y is not entirely self-sufficient. T h e r e are m a n y points of h u m a n contact with other parts of the region. T h e local people visit marke t s outside the local c o m m u n i t y ; there is a regional pattern of trade in local products and in transport connecting settlements; there are specific requirements , e . g . m e dical services, courts, visits to relatives; there are elder brothers and sisters attending secondary school e l sewhere .

(b) T h e physical features of the local area are not isolated p h e n o m e n a . T h e y have structural c o n nexions with the rest of the region and extend beyond the confines of the local a rea . F o r e x a m p l e , local rivers and s t r eams can be followed on the m a p and in discussion. T h e a n s w e r s to the questions " W h e r e do they g o ? " or " W h e r e do they c o m e f r o m ? " lead to the construction of a basic drainage pattern for a m u c h wider area and this can provide a f r a m e w o r k for other studies. L ikewise , hills, moun ta ins , valleys or plains m a y extend beyond the local horizon.

(a) and (b) above can form the topics for a preliminary discussion with pupils, opening the year 's w o r k .


(a) Observation and recording

Loca l study is maintained and developed through:

(i) the study of the immedia te physical landscape;

(ii) the study of a local f a rm or factory;

(iii) the continued study of local wea ther . This should n o w include the keeping of m o r e precise data, e . g . , a rain g a u g e . M o r e precise ideas about wind can be gathered by using a s i m plified Beaufort scale and wind direction should be recorded daily f rom a weather vane erected in the school c o m p o u n d .

In Stage 3 , pupils should be introduced to the t h e r m o m e t e r and should be s h o w n h o w a t h e r m o m e t e r m e a s u r e s t empera ture . S p e c i m e n readings can be taken at different t imes of the day and inside and outside the c lass room so that pupils begin to associate specific temperatures with actual weather conditions. T e m p e r a t u r e readings, as part of the daily routine, will be introduced towards the end of Stage 3 .

(b) M a p skills

(i) T h e r e is a m p l e opportunity for the continued d rawing and use of m a p s . O n m a p s of the local area, this should be done by very generalized layer shading with special s y m b o l s for cliffs, etc . T h e technique of representation of relief in a m o r e accurate w a y should then be introduced by considering first a s imple hill m o d e l constructed in the c o m p o u n d and then an actual s a m p l e and isolated relief feature ( e .g . a smal l hill). This should lead to ve ry s imple w o r k with large-scale s k e t c h - m a p s to illustrate m e t h o d s of showing relative heights;

(ii) the introduction of m a p s of different scales. T h e s k e t c h - m a p of the local area should be c o m p a r e d with the m a p of a larger area (district). T h e topic c a n be introduced by discussing the need to represent both the m a p of the local area and the m a p of the large district on the s a m e sized sheet of p a p e r .


In a n u m b e r of w a y s , through the growth of factual knowledge and the extension of experience, an increasing a w a r e n e s s of relationships begins to develop. Pupils will begin to respond to questions beginning " W h y " .

E D / C S / 1 1 2 / 6 - page 10

Introduce vocabulary

Stage 4 - Our country and its wealth

Stage 4 is devoted to the study of the country as a whole with its variety of landscapes, resources and h u m a n activities. It is important that this should not be a passive and static study. It should be based on activity lessons which give the impression of the changing scene.

1. Introductory work

(i) Locating the school and the wider administrative area on the m a p of the country. Discussion of comparative sizes and distances to gain s o m e impression of the dimensions of the country.

(ii) Locating the country on the globe. W h e r e is our country? H o w do w e fix its position? Study of latitude and longitude .

2 . Exploring our country

A n introduction to the environment and resources of the nation through topics appropriate to the geographical characteristics of the country, perhaps through "journeys" or the study of h u m a n activities and products. T h e w o r k in Stage 4 should include a review of wealth f rom the land and wealth f rom industries, transport and p o w e r leading to an elementary understanding of the t e rm "resources" .

Stage 4 could conclude with "our neighbours", a sample of studies of w o r k in neighbouring countries emphasizing place-people-work.


(a) Observation and recording. Local study is maintained and developed through: (i) local study of rocks and soils; (ii) further study of local rivers and s t reams; (iii) a m o r e scientific ap proach to weather observation and recording; (iv) study of local vegetation.

M a p skills

Continued use and construction of m a p s is required to study: (i) local distribution of m a p s of rocks , soils, drainage and vegetation; (ii) route m a p s and regional m a p s of the country; (iii) various distribution m a p s on a country scale.

M a p s skills are developed through: (i) the continued srtudy of m a p s on different scales finishing with a continental m a p ; (ii) the need to increase the variety of symbol s used on m a p s ; (iii) the t ime devoted to discussions of direction and distance; (iv) the introduction of the concept of specialized m a p s , e . g . rainfall m a p s , vegetation m a p s , etc.; (v) the introduction of specific m e t h o d s of recording distribution, e . g . , rainfall lines and temperature lines; (vi) w o r k onthe graphical presentation of various data.

(b) Basic geographical concepts

(i) T h e concept of the round globe introduced through the study of latitude and longitude. This should lead to a treatment of the p h e n o m e n a of night and d a y . (ii) T h e strengthening of u n derstanding of the various relationships between factors and the introduction of n e w relationships, (iii) T h e concepts of the river basin and drainage basin and the w o r k of rivers in shaping the land, (iv) T h e concept of climate regions, (v) T h e simple concepts unde r lying the growth of industry and p o w e r , (vi) T h e concept of d y n a m i s m in geography; the w a y in which things change (a) in the physical landscape (b) in h u m a n activities.

E D / C S / 1 1 2 / 6 - page 11


Stage 5 - "Our.country In the world"

1. The peoples of Africa

This aspect of world geography is probably the most significant to African pupils terminating studies in the primary school.

Sample studies should be m a d e of peoples in the various regions of Africa. These, however, should not follow the traditional treatment arising from the study of natural regions, in which wet forests are equated with Pygmies, savannah grassland with Masai and deserts with Bushmen . Instead, a study should be based on a variety of economic activities; e.g. cocoa farmers in Ghana, cotton cultivators in Uganda, fishermen on the East African coast, a miner in the Copper Belt, etc.

2 . The world around us

The study of the geography of the rest of the world should emphasize those aspects which have the greatest significance for a pupil terminating full-time education at this level. The aspects which have the greatest significance are those in which a practical point of contact between the country and the rest of the world can be established. In many countries this m a y take the form of trade links, and these can be examined through a number of specific topics which follow the history of products through the various stages of production to final marketing and processing. A brief review can be made of the geography of the countries trading with the homeland. A world view can be given of the commodity markets in which the homeland products play a part.

3 . The world's peoples

A study of peoples in various parts of the world in which h u m a n activities comparable to, and contrasting with those found in the homeland, should be undertaken through case studies. These case studies might very well have as subject those countries with which the homeland has strong, external contacts. At the same time, however, an attempt should be made to include studies of densely populated regions, as well as sparsely populated regions, so that the relationship between m a n and his environment in different settings can be stressed. Emphasis should also be given to case studies on countries in the process of development on other continents, giving examples of development activities.


(a) Observations and recordings

(i) T h e w o r k on trade can begin with an examination of the goods for sale in the local shop . W h e r e do these products c o m e f r o m ? W h a t are they? (Collections of labels f r o m various products or collections of advertisements f rom local newspapers or other journals can be m a d e and pasted on the notice board)

(ii) A further introduction to trade can be m a d e through the study of actual statistics, which can be presented in graph or diagram form by the pupils.

(iii) If there is an export wholesaler or one of its branches (e.g. a coffee exporter) in the locality, pupils can study its workings .

(b) M a p skills

In Stage 5, w e deal with the world m a p and the globe, both of which should be used by pupils. Otherwise, there will be consolidation of all types of m a p w o r k through the need to d r a w sketches of small areas, compile m a p s of Africa and insert information on world m a p s .


B y the' end of the elementary course, students will have been introduced to a variety of basic geographical concepts and ideas, including: (i) the concept of the earth as a globe; (ii) the

E D / C S / 1 1 2 / 6 - page 12

idea of the earth as the home of m a n ; (iii) the idea of variety of environments on the globe; (iv) the concept of the region; (v) the concept of m a n as a positive factor in the environment, in his use of and development of its resources; (vi) the idea of perpetual.change.

N e w concepts are actually introduced in Stage 5. The significance of the work at this stage is that it offers an opportunity for wider experience and, therefore, the possibility of a deeper understanding of geography from a global standpoint.

B. THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PROGRAMME

T h e secondary p r o g r a m m e of geography studies which follows places an emphasis on those aspects of geography, including practical skills, which are m o s t likely to be required of educated citizens and employees with a secondary school education, working in the developing countries of Africa. T h e syllabus carries students to the level of the first school leaving examination ("O" level in the British s y s t e m ) , but could be expanded or used as a basis for satisfying the requirements of the Baccalauréat or " A " level examinations.

T h e syllabus can be divided mos t conveniently into three cycles as follows:

1. T h e introductory stage (The fundamentals of geography) in which the foundations of m o r e systematic geography are laid through a study of the fundamentals' of geography.

2 . A n exploratory and development stage (The world of m a n ) in which an introduction is m a d e to the broader features of world geography, including sample studies in m a j o r natural regions, a study of selected political units and a survey of world economic geography.

3 . The stage of consolidation of geographical knowledge (Africa and the homeland), in which ability and understanding are furthered through a detailed study of the continent of Africa and the homeland.

Stage 1 - The fundamentals of geography

A n introduction to the tools and skills of geographical analysis, and an introduction to the relationships between m a n and his environment based on the examination of the local environment, local landscapes and human activities in the locality, and leading to the analysis of more distant and less familiar environments. This course has four main objectives:

(a) T o introduce students to methods of analysis and synthesis in geography and to acquaint t h e m with the tools and skills which are necessary in a scientific approach to geography.

(b) T o provide an opportunity for practical w o r k which will enable students to observe and record geographical p h e n o m e n a in the locality. Concepts are abstractions and they m u s t be based on a knowledge and understanding of specific e x a m p l e s . If these are available in the locality: e . g . , ariver, aspring, a convex slope, a mountain, vegetation; they can be observed and e x a m i n e d at first-hand. If they are not available locally, then they m u s t be examined through photographs, drawings or other m e d i a . W h e r e v e r possible these specific examples should be d r a w n f r o m within the h o m e l a n d .

(c) T o provide an opportunity for practising and developing the particular skills of m a p w o r k and diagram drawing.

(d) T o provide a foundation for geography studies in the succeeding years of secondary school. T h e idea of regional geography is introduced in Stage 2 , by which t ime it is a s s u m e d that students will have an English^' or F r e n c h working vocabulary in geography, that they have been introduced to simple geographical concepts, that they have a working knowledge of m a p s , and that they are beginning to think geographically. A b o v e all, this introductory course should lead to an understanding of the significance to m a n of the various geographical p h e n o m e n a discussed. This discussion of the relationship between m a n and the various environments in

(1) H e r e , it has been a s s u m e d that the m e d i u m of instruction in pr imary schools will be the local language but that either French or English will be used in the secondary school.

ED/CS/112/6 - page 13

which he finds himself should not leave the impression of a deterministic control over man by nature, but should emphasize the positive rôle which man can play in the development and utilization of natural resources.

Approach

The teacher should start from local observable phenomena, then proceed to African phenomena and, finally, to examples from other continents.

Mápwork

By the end of Stage 1, students should have a basic understanding of direction, scale, spatial relationship, elementary contour forms and the use of simple conventional signs. They should have had regular practice in drawing maps of various types. In addition, they should have been introduced to:

1. The use of the sketch map as a tool in geography.

2. The uses to which maps are put by man, the types of maps used in everyday life and the circumstances in which they are used.

Summary

The study of the fundamentals of geography should cover:

(i) The earth and the solar system;

(ii) the various aspects of climate;

(iii) a study of the physical landscape;

(iv) a study of the major types of vegetation.

This introductory geography should conclude with a co-ordinated local study in which all the material covered from first-hand observation should be drawn together in an elementary study of the locality of the school.


(This should be specified at each stage as in the primary school programme)

Stage 2 - The world of man

This section of the geography course is designed to present a global coverage of geographical concepts and principles; to acquaint students with the major features of the various continents through a study of natural regions, their characteristics and human activities within each region. The final section of the course emphasizes those aspects of world political and economic geography which have the greatest significance tct an African citizen.

The course has four major sections:

Section I: Climate, vegetation and man - A short review of the main features of work covered in Stage 1, together with an, introduction to new concepts necessary for the study of natural regions.

Section II: The natural regions of the world - A study of the major regions as the home of m a n , through the examination of specific case studies in depth.

Section III: Man and the resources of nature - Some conclusions on man and his environment, man and natural regions and world population and production.

E D / C S / 1 1 2 / 6 - page 14

Section IV: M a n organizes himself - A n introduction to political and economic geography through a study of selected national units, leading to a view of world patterns, and concluding with a discussion of the major problems n o w facing m a n and the geographical foundation of these problems.

S u m m a r y of objectives:

A . T o define a world coverage of geography emphasizing the relationships between m a n and n a ture within natural regions: to develop a critical understanding of the concept of natural regions; to illustrate this concept with specific examples through studies in depth; to stress the significance of m a n as a positive factor in the environment and the part played by cultural, scientific, political and economic factors in m a n ' s use of natural resources.

B . T o illustrate the nature of geography as:

(a) a synthesis of the interrelationships of geographical facts;

(b) the study of spatial relationships;

(c) the study of land use .

Approach

(1) Teachers should present this material so that an inductive or a deductive approach is possible and so that, through the study of specific cases, problems emerge which can be solved through discussion. F r o m this, general propositions will e m e r g e .

(2) There should be constant reference to, and comparison with, geographical conditions in the homeland and in Africa.

(3) It is important that geographical facts should be taught in h u m a n t e r m s . In the initial phase, teaching should take the form of questions concerned with population, settlement and h u m a n activities (e.g., w h y do m a n y people live in this region? H o w are they distributed? What do they do?) and the final objective should be a thorough understanding of the answers to these questions. T h e study of the actual impact of natural conditions on the life of peoples is the core of school geography. T h u s , it is as important to consider the impact of a shortage of water as it is to consider crops produced under conditions of adequate rainfall.

(4) It is important to consider both the use and the misuse of resources and examples of the ways in which m a n can adversely affect the balance of nature should be given and discussed.

(5) These studies should lead to an appreciation of the uneven character of population, climate, vegetation, effective resources, income and wealth, etc., in different regions.

(6) At the saine time, it is important to stress the essential interdependence of peoples and regions of the globe.

(7) The dynamic processes - particularly in h u m a n geography - at work on the globe should be carefully illustrated. In no m a n n e r should a static or purely descriptive view of geography be given.

M a p work

Topics to be covered: Further practice in: interpreting and constructing relief m a p s ; describing the m a p orally and in written exercises; drawing sections; locating points accurately on the m a p (reference systems); direction finding and orientation using the m a p . Also, exercises in: gauging scale and distance; identifying h u m a n and economic information on the m a p ; learning the conventional signs of h u m a n geography; studying settlements on the larger scale- m a p . Other exercises might include: the enlargement and reduction of m a p s ; the interpretation of aerial photographs; making m a p s from aerial photographs; field sketching; identifying different techniques in world m a p projections. In addition to these new topics, regular practice in the interpretation of larger scale contoured topographical m a p s should continue.

E D / C S / 1 1 2 / 6 - page 15

Stage 3 - Africa and the H o m e l a n d

(A) A regional survey of Africa

These studies should be based upon existing African conditions, upon the fact of the political independence of most African nations, and upon the necessity for rapid industrialization to produce balanced economic development and help bring Africa into the technological age. Pupils should be encouraged to consider the possible ways in which m a n can extend his control over nature and use natural resources more efficiently. The present level of development in different African countries should be examined, as well as Africa's need for international co-operation in the development of regional resources. Teaching should be dynamic and teachers should ensure that factual and statistical information is as up to date as possible.

A review should be m a d e of various aspects of the development of resources in Africa, using examples drawn from the regional studies to illustrate general issues. There should be some discussion of: (a) the present pattern of development and (b) problems of further development of agriculture, industry, communications, mineral resources, power resources and urban settlements in Africa.

(B) The geography of the homeland or of the homeland region

The final part of the programme in Stage 3 is devoted to a detailed study of the geography of the homeland. At this stage, geographical concepts and principles which have been learned duringthe secondary school course can be applied to a study of the areas most familiar to students.

The syllabus for this part of the work cannot be specified, but attention is drawn to the following points:

(a) S o m e emphasis should be placed upon the question of the future development of resources in the h o m e l a n d .

(b) Individual countries m a y wish to extend this final p r o g r a m m e to include studies of the h o m e land region and bordering areas.

(c) A s in previous years, it is important that field work should continue throughout the final stages. Students should be involved in organized practical field study exercises in the locality, which will enable them (a) to study, record and evaluate the relationships between several geographical factors and, particularly, the relationship between natural factors and h u m a n activities; (b) to carry out a study as an individual achievement demonstrating ability to organize and pre sent geographical information using the various techniques of the sketch m a p , diagrammatic representation and written account to illustrate a geographical study.

M a p w o r k in Stage 3

Topics to be introduced during the study of Africa: the techniques of simple surveying; m a k i n g a traverse; m a k i n g a chain and c o m p a s s survey; using the plane table; and recording information from field surveying in m a p f o r m . Exercises in the following should continue: interpretation and use of large scale contour m a p s ; drawing sections from contoured m a p s of various scales; and measuring gradients.

Introductory exercises should also be given on the interpretation of the evidence of h u m a n activities (settlements, transport routes, etc.) on large-scale m a p s , and this evidence should be related to topographical features of relief and drainage.

Topics to be introduced during the study of the homeland are: practical m a p w o r k exercises on large-scale topographic m a p s , involving scale, section drawing, interpretation of relief, orientation, m e a s u r e m e n t of areas and, particularly, the study of h u m a n features in the landscape. T h e following n e w aspects should be introduced:

(a) simple exercises, with the presentation of statistical information on the m a p ;

E D / C S / 1 1 2 / 6 - p a g e 16

(b) a simple introduction to land-use m a p s ;

(c) an elementary introduction to the techniques of constructing large-scale survey m a p s .

III. A M O D E R N M E T H O D O L O G Y F O R G E O G R A P H Y IN A F R I C A

Introduction.

The Unesco Source Book for Geography Teaching has set forth principles for a modern approach to teaching geography in school. It was not the intention of the meeting to review this material in detail, but to draw attention to those aspects of a modern approach to the teaching of the subject which are not at the moment fully developed on the continent. The meeting also considered it appropriate to draw attention to those aspects of teaching which require special emphasis in Africa.

In general, the meeting felt that a strong and persistent effort should be m a d e to encourage teachers to move away from formal and traditional methods of teaching, which are still widespread in Africa, and which inhibit the proper development of the subject. Discovery methods in teaching are not widely used.

A variety of methods must be used in teaching geography and a variety of materials and teaching aids must be employed. Teaching methods must be active and involve pupils in practical activities. Teaching must also be firmly based on acquiring experience in the locality. Finally, geography teaching must be a combination of work in the classroom and work out-of-doors.

(A) Direct observation

The meeting regarded field work (or outdoor work) as essential to geography teaching, and recommended that it be undertaken at all levels. If possible, it should have its own separate place in the curriculum and time-table. Field work must be followed by interpretation and explanation in class.

It was suggested that it is often possible to combine field work in geography with field work in biology, history and civics. There should be graded categories of field work for each study level.

The words "field work" and "excursion" are sometimes regarded as synonymous, but this is not correct. A n excursion implies a pleasure trip. Field work implies exploring the area in the vicinity of the school. W h e n a study tour involves travel, care must be taken to impress on the students that it is not just an excursion.

The meeting judged it appropriate to make the following suggestions:

1. Field w o r k cannot be conducted successfully without the most careful preparation.

(a) T h e teacher himself m u s t k n o w and understand the geography of the locality.

(b) Appropriate materials need to be acquired and distributed to individual pupils (paper, pencils, rulers, erasers, simple m a p s of the area, etc.) .

(c) In the c lassroom, precise verbal - or preferably written - instructions m u s t be issued. P u pils m u s t k n o w exactly what they are going to do and what their duties are .

There m u s t always be a return to the classroom after the field w o r k to consolidate and to interpret the knowledge which has been directly acquired.

2 . It is hoped that the various examining bodies will pay attention to the need to include field w o r k in their syllabuses, if they have not already done so, and to the need to explore w a y s of examining this aspect of geography.

3 . Training colleges could help very greatly by ensuring that field w o r k is always included in their geography syllabuses for regular students and by providing in-service courses at appropriate times for other teachers.

ED/CS/112/6 - page 17

(B) Indirect observation

At present, geography teaching is largely confined to the classroom. The need to carry geography teaching outside the classroom has already been noted. However, inside the classroom, methods are still too formal. The meeting listed five basic groups of media which can be used for indirect observation lessons inside the classroom:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The blackboard

The atlas, wall maps,

Textbooks

Visual material

Sample studies

globes and topographic maps

Space does not permit a detailed discussion of each of these media but the meeting drew special attention to the following:

1. Atlases

In view of the fact that there is a great need for the publication of n e w atlases for use in the schools of Africa, and bearing in m i n d that such publications m a y be beyond the technical and financial re sources of individual countries, the meeting requested U n e s c o , in co-operation with publishers of school atlases, to find ways and m e a n s of assisting individual countries in the preparation of atlases m o r e appropriate for use in African schools.

2. Wall maps

The selection of wall maps must reflect local and national requirements and the meeting, for reasons similar to those given for atlases, requested Unesco to seek ways of assisting Member States in the production of suitable wall maps.

3 . Globes

T h e globe is perhaps the most ancient of teaching aids in geography and, as such, it requires no introduction in a chapter on m o d e r n methodology, except to emphasize its particular significance in the teaching of geography in Africa. Thus:

(a) African schools are located in tropical latitudes, in regions which usually are the least distorted in various projections used in atlases and on wall m a p s of the world. Those parts of the world w h e r e the distortion is greatest are farthest f rom the experience of the African child. It is, therefore, m o s t important to have available a terrestrial globe which will cor rect this distorted picture.

(b) In m a n y societies in Africa the concept of the round globe is directly opposed to local traditions, and therefore needs m o r e careful treatment, using the globe in class.

(c) Pupils in m o r e developed regions are exposed to a variety of information and educational sources (e.g. pictures of spacecraft in magazines) , which give a picture of the world as a whole . In Africa, particularly at the pr imary school level in small village communi t i e s , the school is virtually the only educational influence, and the teacher with his m a p s and his globe is the pupils ' only introduction to the world.

4 . Topographical m a p s

Sets of m a p extracts: these are smaller extracts f r o m large sheets (say, 20 x 30 c m . ) . T h e y can s o m e t i m e s be obtained from examination boards which sell, in quantity, examples of m a p extracts used in previous examinations. Otherwise, it m a y be possible for Ministries of Education to m a k e an arrangement with the G o v e r n m e n t Survey Department to print m a p extracts for educational purposes .

ED/CS/112/6 - page 18

5 . Aerial photographs

Vertical aerial photographs, of the kind produced in aerial survey w o r k , are widely used in developing countries. Very often they are used because large-scale topographic m a p s have not yet been d r a w n u p . T h e y also have their o w n value since, owing to the special techniques of photographic interpretation, they reveal m o r e details of the landscape than topographic m a p s . If at all possible, students in upper-level classes should be introduced to the aerial photograph; they should see and study examples of it, and be s h o w n h o w aerial survey is used as the basis of m o d e r n m a p - m a k i n g .

6 . Pictures

Africa is still desperately short of photographic documents of any kind, in particular of documents on its o w n geography. It is essential that national education authorities in Africa encourage and stimulate the production and distribution of photographic documents for use in the c las sroom. These should be on the s a m e lines as the sets of geographical pictures produced and distributed under the sponsorshipofUnesco. i l )

IV. E Q U I P M E N T FOR G E O G R A P H Y TEACHING A N D T H E G E O G R A P H Y R O O M

Geography is a practical and experimental subject requiring, from time to time, the application of scientific methodology in laboratory exercises.

For the effective teaching of geography at any level certain basic equipment, without which basic concepts cannot be illustrated and developed, must be provided. Although some expenditure is inevitable, this expenditure is small compared with the total capital and recurrent cost necessary to establish and maintain a school, and in comparison with expenditures in other subject areas.

In planning the establishment and development of both primary and secondary schools, therefore, education authorities should regard geography as being of as high a priority as science.

Primary schools - Minimum equipment

1. A blackboard or chalkboard.

2 . Textbooks for pupils. Since there will be a severe shortage of visual material, particularly in rural p r i m a r y schools, these textbooks should be very well illustrated. Textbooks should be provided, one for each pupil, and pupils should be permitted to ^ ike t h e m h o m e .

3 . Teachers ' reference books . A small reference library for teachers should be established in every p r i m a r y school. This should include, as a m i n i m u m , the following geographical texts:

(a) a geography of the country;

(b) a geography of Africa;

(c) a world geography;

(d) a text covering general geography;

(e) a text on basic methodology and activity methods in geography teaching. If possible, this text should be specially written for specific application in various localities.

In providing these reference books , education authorities should bear in m i n d the n u m b e r of teachers in the school. A large school will require m o r e than one copy .

4 . Terrestrial globes. These should be in sufficient quantity to provide one for each class w h e n several geography periods are held at the s a m e t ime .

(1) U n e s c o Geography Series, Set 1, E u r o p e . This series, which w a s published early in 1967, comprises 16 wall charts in colour accompanied by teachers' notes dealing with D e n m a r k , F r a n c e , H u n g a r y , Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, U S S R , and the United K i n g d o m .

ED/CS/112/6 -page 19

5 . Wal l m a p s . Essential requirements are:

(a) a m a p of the country;

(b) a m a p of Africa;

(c) a m a p of the wor ld .

6 . Atlases. T h e s e should be in sufficient quantity to provide one for each pupil in all geography classes being held at the s a m e t i m e .

7 . Instruments. T h e basic instruments for weather recording (1 m a x i m u m / m i n i m u m t h e r m o m e t e r and 1 rain gauge) and the basic apparatus for field w o r k ( lcompass and 1 5 0 - m e t r e m e a s u r ing tape) should be provided as m i n i m u m equipment .

Secondary schools - M i n i m u m equipment

1. Textbooks. O n e basic text per student should be m a d e available, so that the student can familiarize himself with its content in out-of-school t ime , and so that exercises, based on an analysis of the material in the book, can be designed.

2 . Teachers ' reference b o o k s . At the secondary school level, reference materials to be m a d e available to each teacher should include:

(a) the m o s t advanced available study of the geography of the country;

(b) an advanced text on the geography of Africa;

(c) a good advanced text on general geography;

(d) a m a n u a l on m o d e r n teaching methods in geography;

(e) a text on elementary surveying m e t h o d s .

In addition, the school library should include:

(a) supplementary texts on those parts of the world and those countries selected for special treatm e n t in the geography course;

(b) statistical reference material; particularly basic demographic and economic statistics (regional and national) for the homeland;

(c) a good university level world atlas.

3 . Terrestrial globes in sufficient quantity to serve all geography periods held at the s a m e t i m e .

School supplies should include at least one slate or blackboard globe which can be used for various aspects of general geography.

4 . A full set of wall m a p s , including:

(a) m a p s of the country in which the school is situated (general m a p s and regional m a p s ) ;

(b) world m a p s showing relief, climates, vegetation and population;

(c) physical and political m a p s of the various parts of the world showing, if possible, natural, h u m a n and economic features;

(d) m a p s of the principal countries, or at least those selected for special treatment in the syllab u s .

ED/CS/112/6 - page 20

5 . Atlases in sufficient quantity to allow the distribution of one to each pupil for those classes having geography at the s a m e t ime.

6 . Topographical m a p s . Several sets of large-scale topographic m a p s of the h o m e country should be available in sufficient quantity to allow individual study or study in groups of two or three. These m a p s should cover typical environments and typical settlement patterns in the country.

T h e school should also have copies of the topographic m a p sheet covering the area around the school. If possible, this m a p sheet should be on a fairly large scale - at least 1:25,000, but pre ferably 1:5,000 or 1:10,000.

7 . Instruments

(a) Apparatus for measuring temperature, atmospheric pressure and precipitation ( m a x i m u m and m i n i m u m t h e r m o m e t e r , barometer and rain gauge).

(b) Apparatus for field w o r k (6 prismatic compasses and one 50-metre measuring tape).

(c) A wind vane should be purchased if this cannot be m a d e in the school.

8 . Visual aid equipment

(a) 1 filmstrip projector should be m a d e available. It should be sufficient to have one provided for the school, which can be shared between subjects.

(b) A basic set of slides covering:

(i) the geography of the country;

(ii) the geography of Africa;

(iii) h u m a n activities in various parts of the world;

(iv) basic physical geography.

N . B . T h e lenses of projection equipment should be "bloomed" against deterioration in h u m i d clim a t e s . ' "

9 . Duplicating equipment

Secondary schools should be provided with a duplicating machine and supplies of material for general use in the school. Since the geography p r o g r a m m e in each school must be based on local conditions and local resources, it is essential that the teacher be able to duplicate material.

1 0 . Samples and specimens

T h e effective teaching of geography requires the first-hand examination of samples and specimens of crops, rocks , minerals, etc. M a n y samples and specimens can be collected by the teacher in the normal course of hjs w o r k , but education authorities should consider, in consultation with local geography teachers, the advisability of purchasing sets of specimens of materials not found locally.

(1) T h e Meeting requested that Unesco give consideration to this question of storage of equipment (including textbooks) in humid conditions and, in co-operation with the Unesco Regional Centre for Science and Technology at Nairobi, produce a guide for education authorities on possible solutions to this prob lem, indicating practical steps which could be taken by schools to keep equipment in good order .

ED/CS/112/6 - page 21

Special note on Unesco assistance for the production of teaching materials for geography

1. Mention has already been m a d e of the recommendat ion to request Unesco assistance in the production of atlases and wall m a p s for local and regional use in Africa.

2 . In view of the fact that there appears to be three major problems in the production of n e w textbooks for Africa:

(a) that authors are often inexperienced and require s o m e professional assistance if they are to produce satisfactory texts;

(b) that authors are often handicapped by lack of funds (often, for example , the author of a geo graphy textbook cannot travel and have first-hand knowledge of the areas about which he is writing);

(c) that illustrative material for textbooks is difficult to obtain.

T h e meeting agreed on the following recommendat ions:

(i) That U n e s c o be asked to consider the preparation and publication of a Source B o o k for Textbook Preparation and Publication. This would include advice to authors on the writing of manuscripts, technical advice on the preparation of typed manuscripts for printing, technical details concerning styles, sizes and types of books suitable for school use , a d vice concerning the illustration of school textbooks and c o m m e n t s on the distribution and publishing aspects of the question.

(ii) T h e meeting r e c o m m e n d e d that, in the proposals for a rearrangement of the administration of the N e s s i m Habif Prize, consideration be given to the establishment of a n u m b e r of awards to African authors submitting manuscripts for geography textbooks. T h e award would enable the author to undertake further research and travel for the i m p r o v e m e n t of the final publication.

(iii) It w a s brought to the attention of the meeting that at the recent international conference on copyright held in Stockholm, a resolution W a s passed which will permit developing nations in Africa to reproduce educational materials published in developed nations without having to pay for the use of the copyright. T h e participants asked U n e s c o to clarify the position in regard to this considerable modification in the international copyright conventions .

(iv) T h e meeting urged Unesco to give serious consideration to the problems of African textbook writers in making fellowship awards and, in particular, to consider awarding travel fellowships to African authors of geography textbooks, so that they can collect material for future textbooks. National C o m m i s s i o n s for Unesco were also asked to reflect this urgent need in the lists of approved applications that they compile .

(v) T h e meeting requested that U n e s c o arrange for the production of a teaching kit on the geography of Africa, consisting of 120 coloured slides and teaching notes. If this is ag reed upon, the National C o m m i s s i o n s of M e m b e r States in Africa should' be asked to supply, in collaboration with educational and geographical bodies in their o w n countries, a set of 15 colour slides covering the m a j o r aspects of the geography of the country, as follows:

Relief and vegetation 5 slides

Agriculture, industry, transport 5 slides

People, settlements and houses 5 slides

T h e slides should be accompanied by captions and by extensive notes on each topic. F r o m the total collection, a set of 120 slides, representative of the major aspects of the general geo graphy of Africa, should be selected by experts. At a later stage, consideration could be given to the selection of further sets of slides on particular topics.

E D / C S / 1 1 2 / 6 - page 22

The geography room

The meeting recognized that the vast majority of secondary schools in Africa do not have rooms specially designed for geography teaching. It also took notice of the fact that material and financial resources are limited in Africa, and that there is often difficulty in providing adequate basic classroom accommodation.

However, after a lengthy exploration of the difficulties facing education authorities in. Africa, the meeting decided that its only alternative was to insist on the provision of special geography rooms in all new secondary schools to be constructed in Africa.

The meeting considered that the rôle which geography must play in training future citizens and equipping them to take an active part in the process of development.fully justifies the marginal addition to capital expenditure incurred in the construction of a geography r o o m . Without one it will be difficult, if not impossible, to carry out the kind of teaching which will bring the best results.

Development plans should also include measures for the gradual provision of geography rooms in all existing secondary schools .

However, until special geography rooms can be m a d e available, it is strongly recommended that a normal classroom be allocated to geography. (This, m a y be easier to arrange if, in the school, students move to specialized classrooms and workshops - as they already do for science, handicrafts, physical education, etc., instead of teachers circulating to the various classrooms.) Every effort should be m a d e in the absence of a proper geography room, to provide space suitable for storing.geography equipment that will be easily accessible to the teacher.

V . T H E TRAINING, O F G E O G R A P H Y T E A C H E R S IN A F R I C A

A . Training of teachers at the primary school level

Introduction. The training of teachers for primary schools must naturally, remain of a general nature owing to the fact that primary school teachers are called upon to teach all the subjects in the syllabus. Their geographical training is only a part of their teacher-training p r o g r a m m e . But serious training in geographical analysis, together with an initiation to the special aspects of methodology in the teaching of geography, are indispensable.

Content. In the training of primary school teachers in Africa, it was recommended that the following material be included in the course:

(a) A special course on the general and regional geography of the h o m e l a n d . If teacher-training institutes are organized on a regional basis, or if it is k n o w n in which area the teacher is likely to be posted, the course can also include a special study of the region or area in which the teacher is likely to teach.

(b) A special course on the geography of the continent of Africa, with particular reference to the African region in which the h o m e l a n d is located.

(c) A special course o n geographical skills, methods and techniques, with particular emphas i s on elementary m a p - m a k i n g and m a p interpretation.

T h e course on teaching methodology should, if possible, be given by a geography specialist. This training in geography methodology should be thorough and should not a s s u m e that teachers in training will be able to apply m e r e l y general principles to the specific purposes of geography. T h e course should therefore include specific instructions on:

(i) the teaching of geography indoors;

(ii) the teaching of geography out of doors;

(iii) the construction and use of simple d iagrams and sketch m a p s in geography;

(iv) the use of visual aids and particularly the use of still pictures in geography teaching.

E D / C S / 1 1 2 / 6 - page 23

It is most important that trainees be taught how to adapt their geographical knowledge to local conditions. This is the main consideration in the teaching of geography at the elementary school level. Whether they succeed or not will depend largely on the ability of the specialist teaching geography at the teacher-training college.

The integration of geography with other subjects in the primary school curriculum

In some school systems, social sciences are grouped together and taught as a single subject. In others, history, geography and elementary training in citizenship are treated separately. W h a t ever solution is adopted, it was considered that teachers in training should be initiated in the particular objectives, requirements and methodological principles pertaining to each subject. Only when they have mastered these to some degree canthey be shownhow the subjects can be co-related, and in what manner such integration might be feasible. This approach is all the more to be recommended as the essential is for the trainee to grasp the basic notions underlying history and geography, respectively. N o method of combining the two subject-matters is conceivable that does not take into account their distinct entities.

Degree of achievement required: It is desirable that applicants to the teaching profession in primary schools be admitted to teacher-training colleges where they can receive sound pedagogical training and attain a level of general ability at least equal to, if not higher than, that which is expected of a pupil at the completion of his secondary course.

B . Training of secondary school teachers of geography

Content: By the time a teacher has finished his training for teaching at a secondary school level (whether he has been trained in an advanced teacher-training institution or a university), he should have covered a course which includes the following items:

(i) A complete course on physical geography to provide a thorough grounding in basic geography. This course should conclude with a special exercise on some aspect of physical geography based on a first-hand study of local phenomena;

(ii) a regional study of the geography of the homeland. This should conclude with a special exercise based on first-hand research into some aspect of the human geography of the homeland;

(iii) a study of the problems of development of the African continent, which will consist largely of economic and h u m a n geography, including specific case studies. The projected Unesco Source Book for Teaching the Geography of Africa could very well be used as a text for this part of the course. The course should conclude with a special exercise on some aspect of the development of resources on the continent of Africa;

(iv) a course in world geography, based on studies in contrasting cultural landscapes and emphasizing: the geography of large and smale -scale farming; forest exploitation; industrialization; urbangrowth; mineral exploitation; and over-and under-population. This course should conclude with a special individual exercise consisting of a further development of one of these topics.

N . B . The four special exercises (one of which could be required in each of the four years of university training) should consist of individual pieces of written work involving some element of firsthand research. These exercises should be recognized requirements for final graduation.

Methodology: The methodology course must emphasize the practical, experimental and scientific nature of geography, and must give teachers a thorough grounding in all aspects of practical geography, inside and outside the classroom. The Unesco Source Book for Geography Teaching and the projected Source Book for Africa cpuld both be used in this course.

Language ability: Since effective teaching depends upon effective communication between teacher and student, the training course must ensure that teachers do not fall below m i n i m u m standards of language ability in the language of classroom instruction. The course must therefore include, both regular practice in developing language skills, and some guidance on how to adapt the complexity of the language used to the level of understanding of the student.

ED/CS/112/6 - page 24

Degree of achievement required: Generally speaking, teachers in African secondary schools, especially those teachers called upon to teach in upper forms, should have qualifications corresponding to a B . A . or a "licence" degree, supplemented by a period of training in methodology. Teachers called upon to take classes in lower forms should have qualifications corresponding at least to the diploma granted by a training college.

For French-speaking countries, the following recommendations were made:

(a) Teachers called upon to teach geography classes in the lower forms of the secondary school cycle should at least possess the qualifications and level of general information expected of a university student at the end of the first two years' cycle.

(b) Teachers called upon to teach geography classes in the upper forms of the secondary school cycle should have a "licence" ( B . A . ) degree in geography, or possess at least an equivalent level of qualification.

For the English-speaking African countries it w a s r e c o m m e n d e d that teachers of geography teaching classes in the lower forms in secondary schools should possess at least the qualifications required for a training college diploma; and that the teachers called upon to teach m o r e advanced classes should possess at least a degree, in addition to s o m e training in the methods of teaching.

In either case, professional training essentially oriented towards the acquisition of the particular methods and skills required for geography teaching should be provided for t h e m .

In-service training and special courses

T h e meeting r e c o m m e n d e d that the following steps be taken:

1 . T h e organization of regular in-service training courses during school vacations for pr imary school teachers, in which emphas is should be put upon:

(a) activity methods in geography;

(b) the development of geography teaching out of doors;

(c) the creation of a local s c h e m e of w o r k for teaching based on the general approved syllabus, but using the teaching resources of the locality;

(d) the distribution of materials which will help teachers present geography from the local and national viewpoint.

2 . T h e organization of regular in-service training courses during school vacations for secondary school teachers in which emphasis could be placed upon:

(a) the development of field studies in secondary schools;

(b) courses on the geography of the homeland;

(c) courses on the geography of Africa (introducing and discussing the U n e s c o Source B o o k for Teaching the Geography of Africa, w h e n this b e c o m e s available);

(d) the development of practical skills in secondary school geography teaching.

3 . T h e organization of field study trips for teachers (perhaps in conjunction with University G e o graphy Departments) , in which teachers would have the opportunity of participating in a well-organized study tour and gathering detailedinformationonlocal areas which could be used in sample study form in their o w n teaching.

4 . T h e strengthening of the inspectorate at both pr imary and secondary school levels so that teachers at both levels could seek the advice of a geography specialist at frequent intervals.

ED/CS/112/6 - page 25

5. The holding of national seminars on the teaching of geography. Unesco was urged to assist Member States, whenever possible, by providing experts and materials for such seminars.

VI. A F R A M E W O R K FOR T H E F U T U R E

1. Lines of communicat ion: T h e meeting strongly r e c o m m e n d e d that immediate steps be taken to ensure that contact between all countries in Africa is established for the purpose of geography.

It r e c o m m e n d e d that, through the National C o m m i s s i o n for U n e s c o and in consultation with national education authorities, a practising geographer of high calibre be nominated f r o m each M e m b e r State. This geographer would be required to act as:

(a) the channel of communicat ion between the M e m b e r State and U n e s c o on matters concerning the development of geographical education;

(b) the channel of communica t ion between the M e m b e r State and the two Geographical D o c u m e n t a tion Centres n o w established in Addis A b a b a and Abidjan;

(c) the focal point through which requests for documentation and visual materials concerning the geography of the country can be channelled.

T h e meeting recognized that certain steps have already been taken within the French-speaking countries of Africa to organize systems of this kind. T h e s e steps w e r e w e l c o m e d , and it w a s hoped that they will be followed by similar m e a s u r e s within the English-speaking countries of Africa.

T h e meeting also recognized that, in certain M e m b e r States, geographical organizations have either developed or are beginning to develop, and that national authorities m a y possibly wish to d e s ignate these organization as the official channels for geographic c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

2 . R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for future meetings: T h e process of i m p r o v e m e n t in geographical education a m o n g M e m b e r States on the continent of Africa has been initiated through a n u m b e r of meetings of expert geographers w h o have participated in a personal capacity, and it w a s recognized that the experience which they bring f r o m particular countries has been of great value to the meet ings . H o w e v e r , it w a s felt that steps should be taken to widen this contact between geographers working in different M e m b e r States. It w a s also felt that a closer review should be m a d e of the impact of previous meetings which have m a d e various r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , and which have set in motion v a rious projects.

T h e meet ing, therefore, r e c o m m e n d e d that a meeting of geographers representing all M e m b e r States in Africa, be called by U n e s c o during the period 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 0 . This meeting should include on its agenda:

(a) a review of the impact of the report of the present meeting in the various countries;

(b) a review of the draft edition of the U n e s c o Source B o o k for Teaching the G e o g r a p h y of Africa;

(c) a review of the draft material for the project initiated by this meeting, in order to prepare a kit of colour slides on the geography of Africa, with accompanying text;

(d) a review of the working arrangements for channels of communicat ion between geographers in Africa.

In the interim, it w a s r e c o m m e n d e d that M e m b e r States organize national seminars on the teaching of geography so that delegates to the continental meeting will be well prepared .

3 . Documentation: It w a s r e c o m m e n d e d that all M e m b e r States in Africa take immedia te steps to collect and process geographical documentation (textual, statistical and visual) on their o w n countries. This is necessary, not only for teaching purposes within the country, but also for the purpose of the exchange of materials between African M e m b e r States and for the purpose of c e n trally organized operations such as: (a) the documentation centres in Addis A b a b a and Abidjan; (b) the proposed U n e s c o project for slides on the geography of Africa; and any future d e m a n d for m o r e s p e cific and up-to-date geographical information.

ED/CS/1I2/6 - page 26

APPENDIX

LIST O F PARTICIPANTS A N D OBSERVERS

PARTICIPANTS

M r . E . W . K . Agbelie, Assistant Headmaster, Tema Secondary School, P . O . Box 300, Tema, Ghana

M r . E . F . Allison, Education Officer, King's College, c/o Federal Ministry of Education, P . O . Box 2832, Lagos, Nigeria

M . Albert Balima, Professeur au Lycée Zinda, Ouagadougou, Haute-Volta

D r . George Benneh, Department of Geography, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana

Professor E . A . Boateng, Head of Geography Department, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana

M . Amadou Makhtar Diop, Lycée Charles de Gaulle, Saint Louis, Senegal

M r . W . Senteza Kajubi, Director, National Institute of Education, Makerere University College, Kampala, Uganda

M r . Severin Ndunguru, Institute of Education, University College, P . O . Box 9184, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

M . Edward Ralaimihoatra, Professeur au Lycée Rabearivelo, 35 rue du Dr . Besson, Tananarive, Madagascar

M r . MamadouSarr, Censeur du Lycée Askia Mohamed, Bamako, Mali

M . Tchicaya Thystere, Directeur de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure d'Afrique Centrale, B . P . 237, Brazzaville, République du Congo

ADVISERS

Dr . Joseph Bar bag, Professor at Warsaw University, Warsaw, Grottgere 3, Poland

M r . G . C . Last, Adviser, Department of Curriculum and Research, Ministry of Education, P . O . Box 1367, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

U N E S C O FIELD E X P E R T S

M . Max Liniger-Goumaz, Directeur des Etudes à l'Institute Pédagogique National, B . P . 8815, Kinshasa, République démocratique du Congo

M r . J. North, Milton Mar gai Training College, P . O . Box 1261, Freetown, Sierra Leone

OBSERVERS

M r . C . O . Agbenyega, Principal Research Officer, Test Development & Research Office, West African Examinations Council, P . O . Box 917, Accra, Ghana

M r . E . Bennet Caulley, W C O T P Africa Office, P . O . Box 3510, Accra, Ghana

M r . F . A . Iwerebon, Director, Longmans of Nigeria Limited, P ; M . B . 1036, Ikeja, Nigeria

ED/CS/112/6 - page 27

¡Vir. B . W . de Graft Johnson, Lecturer in Geography Methods, Faculty of Education, University College, Cape Coast, Ghana

Dr. K . A . J . Nyarko, Head of the Department of Geography, University College, Cape Coast, Ghana

REPRESENTATIVES O F T H E U N E S C O SECRETARIAT

M r . Z . Gabre-Madhin, Director of Unesco Regional Centre for Educational Information and Research in Africa, P . O . Box 2739, Accra, Ghana

M r . Ryon Kwan Kim, Programme Specialist, Division of Education for International Understanding, Department of Educational Methods and Techniques and Teacher Training, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris 7e, France

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