Sara DashtiGhufran MearajRawan Najeeb
Mohammed EbrahimHunter Aly
12AMarch 25, 2014
Memory & Thought
Ch.10. 1 pg. 273
The Processes of Memory
Memory is the input, storage, and retrieval of what’s been
learned/experienced.There are three processes;
encoding, storage, and retrieval .
Encoding
Transforming information to the nervous system to be processed.
You use your senses to establish and encode a memory .
Storage
Information is maintained over time .
Information can be stored for a few seconds or longer depending on how much effort was used to
encode it .
RetrievalInformation is brought to mind
from storage .How easily you can retrieve
information depends on how it was encoded and stored .
Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
The senses of sight and hearing are able to input for a fraction of a second before
it disappears .Example: when you watch a moving
picture, you do not notice the gaps between the frames, the action seems smooth because each frame is held in
sensory storage until the next frame arrives .
Three Stages of Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory Capacity Virtually everything you hear Or see at one instant.Duration Fraction of a secondExample You see something for a instant and then someone asks you to recall one detail.Short Term memoryCapacity: 7 items in healthy adults.Duration: less than 20 secondsExample: you look up a telephone number and then try to memorize it
enough to dial it Long Term MemoryCapacity: uncountableDuration: a life timeExample: you remember the house you lived when you were 7 years
old
Short Term Memory
Limited memory in capacity to about 7 times and in duration by the subject's active rehearsal. It
is when you don't pay full attention and then someone
accuses you because of that, you then deny not paying attention
then repeating the last words they said. Holding the words in
your mind is short term memory .
Maintenance Rehearsal
It is a system that involves repeating information to oneself without
attempting to find meaning in it, it is also in a limited duration .
For example: looking at a number long enough to dial then it'll be in
your mind. When you get distracted or if you make a mistake in dialing,
you will look at the number once again. It has been lost by short term
memory.
Chunking Grouping items to make them
easier to remember. Short term memory is not only limited in duration, but also in capacity.
The Primary Recent Effect
Remembering first items and last items in a list but forgetting the
middle items.
Working Memory Short term memory is also known
as the working memory. It includes the short term memory
and information stored in long term memory.
Long-term memoryLong- term memory refers to the storage
of information over extended period of time.
The capacity of long-term memory appears to be limitless
Represents of countless facts, experience and sensations.
Information can be programmed, stored, and retrieved.
Types of long term memory
•Procedural: Permanent
storage of learned skills that does not
require conscious
recollection.
*Declarative: Stored knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed.
Types of declarative Semantic is the memory of
knowledge of language including rules, words and meanings
Episodic is the memory of remembering
How do we encode information into long-term memory?
The more we process information, the better it is remembered.
The longer we are exposed to information, the better we remember it.
The more we rehearse a piece of information, the higher its probability of
being remembered
Elaboration The way in which we process stimuli
influences our ability to encode.Intention, in and of itself does not
help us learn.Depth of processing, or thinking
about what we learn, improves our ability to instruct information.
How is memory studied?
Human patients with brain structural abnormalities
◦Disease◦Injuries
Animal models to study causationMRI, CAT, PET scans
Memory and The BrainLong term memory is just begging to find out what
happens for long term memory to be stored. One theory is that the neuronal structure of nerves change and another s that molecules and chemicals in the brain
change. Evidence has shown that both theories might be correct. The changes in memory depend on how
hard you examine something. Procedural Memories may occur in the striatum in the front part of the cortex.
Declarative memories happen because of activity in the hippocampus and amygdala. It is not certain how nerve
cells establish connections with each other. It is a complex process which allows for new connections to be made. Chemicals such as calcium and potassium
affect the process. But it is not certain how these factors are all connected.
Video
Now we will watch a video about happiness in memory and
thought .
THE END
Chapter 10 Section 2
Noor AlBuainainJenan HabibClara Nabil
Retrieving Information
Two types of long-term memoryDeclarative memory: memory which
can be continuously recalled.Example: facts and knowledgeProcedural memory: memory for the
performance of particular types of action; unconscious memory.
Example: Skills (learning to play a game)
RecognitionKnowing whether or not something is
familiar.Measure of declarative memory.Identify a person, object, idea or situation,
that has been seen or been through before.For example: a child says “cat” when he
sees one for the first time because he has seen a picture of a cat before. In this case, the child recognizes the cat because of the
memory of the picture seen.
RecallReconstruction of information.Measure of declarative memory.Reconstructive process: memories may be
altered or distorted depending on experience, attitudes, and inferences from other information.
Confabulation: filling in memory gaps.Schemas: conceptual frameworks used to make
sense of the world .Eidetic memory: ability to remember with great
accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure.
23, ,76 ,89 ,98 ,57 ,43 ,64 ,21 ,36 ,90 ,95 ,49 ,30.
Time is too slow for those who wait, too swift for those who fear, too long for those who
grieve, too short for those who rejoice, but for those who
love, time is eternity. -Henry Van Dyke
RelearningA measure of both declarative and
procedural memory.Learned something years ago, which
can benefit you by learning it quickly now.
For example: you have studied your subjects a long time before your test,
then relearn it the day before the test, which makes it easier.
AmnesiaLoss of memory after a blow to the
head or brain damage .Amnesia may be a result of drug
use or severe psychological stress.Infant amnesia: lack of early
declarative memories .For example: not remembering
your childhood (infant amnesia)
ForgettingFail to remember something or someone .Involved into three parts:Decay: fading away of memory over time.Repression: to forget by force. Interference: the blockage or erasing of
memory by previous or subsequent (following) memories .
•Proactive: earlier memory blocks you from remembering later information .
•Retroactive: new memory blocks you from remembering earlier information.
“Do Not Forget” Challenge
You are supposed to remember this sentence until the end of
the presentation to win the challenge.
Improving Memory Elaborative rehearsal: the linking of new
information to material that is already known.Mnemonic Devices: techniques to memorize
and retrieve information.Method of Loci was used by ancient Greeks
which is associating each line of a speech with a different spot, to memorize speeches.
For Example: when studying history, you can relate dates and years with someone’s birthday;
the WWII ended on 1945, relating it to 1954, which is your father’s birth year, which can
make it easier to remember.
Volunteer to try the Method of Loci .
“Do not Forget” Challenge Winner
Now which genius still remembers the sentence
word by word?
Game time !
Thinking and Problem Solving
Abdulla Ahmed Al Bin AliMohamed Al AbbasiTarek AhmedAbdulla Ali Albalooshi
CH11.1
ThinkingThinking: when information stored in memory is
changed and reorganized in order to create new information.
◦Even the simplest of actions requires individuals to think. An example of thinking can include the creation of this
PowerPoint to walking a dog.◦Thinking has 5 major units that are the building blocks of
mental activity.◦There are three kinds of thinking: Convergent, Divergent, and
metacognition thinking.
Units of ThoughtThinking involves 5 units:
◦Image: A visual representation of a event or objectExample: determining whether two shapes are identical or different
◦Symbols: A sound, object, or design that represents an object or qualityExample: Commas, apostrophes, hyphens, etc. all symbolize punctuation
◦Concept: Labeling a class of objects or events with one or more common factors.
Example: what factor makes something a fruit or vegetable ?◦Prototype: A representative example
Example (ironically): When someone says the word celebrity, you may think of Tom Cruise, Robert Downey Jr., etc
◦Rule: A statement of a relation between conceptsExample: You can’t walk on air
Forms of ThinkingConvergent/Directed thinking: Logical attempt to reach
an objective .◦Depends on symbols, concepts, and rules.◦Used to solve problems
Divergent/Non-directed thinking: Free flow of thoughts with no specific objective
◦Depends on images and emotions◦Used to relax, daydream, etc.
Metacognition: Thinking about thinking
Problem SolvingProblem solving: Use of direct thinking to
move from a problem to a solution.Strategies of problem solving:
◦Creating subgoals for a complex problem◦Working backwards (ex:ending to beginning)◦Thinking about various methods to reach the goal
(ex: shortcuts in a road trip to Kuwait)◦Algorithms: Fixed set of rules that lead to a
solution. (ex: Chess, checkers, math problems)◦Heuristics: Rule-of-thumb/simplifying problems
Problem Solving ObstaclesMental set: Habitual strategy of problem
solving.Functional fixedness: Inability to imagine
new uses for familiar objectsWrong assumptionsRigidity is the most influential factor in
problem solving
CreativityCreativity: When information and abilities are used in
a new and original wayCreativity involves:
◦Flexibility: ability to overcome rigidity (inflexibility)◦Recombination: Rearranging a problem’s elements for a
creative solution◦Insight: Realization of a problem’s solution
Journal Question
How often do you talk to yourself? (6
sentences)
Chapter 11 Section 2
Language
Objectives
–Explain the structure of language.–Describe how children develop language.
Understanding and speaking a language is a complex processIt incorporates learning thousands of words and countless rules
of grammar to make sense of those words
to communicate
Introduction
Some people talk to themselves when they are thinking or solving a problem.
When we are talking or thinking, we are using language.
Language is a system of communication that involves using rules to make and combine symbols in ways that produce meaningful
words and sentences .
The Structure of Language
Language permits us to communicate facts and ideas.
We can solve problems and make decisions every day largely because of what we learn from experience and from each
other, which is transmitted through language.
Language consists of four rules, or parts: phonemes, morphemes, syntax,
and semantics.
The Structure of Language (cont.)
The smallest units of sound in the human language, such as consonants and
vowels, are phonemes.Phonemes can be a single letter, such as t,
or a combination of letters, such as sh.We can produce about 100 different
recognizable sounds, but not all sounds are used in all languages.
Phonemes
A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a given language.
It is made up of one or more phonemes.Morphemes can be a word, a letter (s),
a prefix (un in uncertain), or a suffix (ly in slowly).For example: Love is one morpheme, Loves is two
morphemes (love and –s)
Morphemes
Phonemes and Morphemes
A set of rules for combining words, phrases, and sentences to express
thoughts that are meaningful syntax.In English we follow certain grammatical rules.
For example: placing adjectives in front of nouns.What happens if we don’t have syntax? Sentences won’t
make sense: “Boy small bike large rode”
Syntax
Activity
“ Disconnected Phone” game. Listen to the rules!
Understanding the meaning of words or phrases when they appear in certain sentences or contexts is semantics.
The same word can have different meanings.
People know what different words mean depending on the context.
Semantics
Semantics Activity
Come up with two sentences that give different meanings to the same word.
For many years a debate over exactly how children learn language raged.
B.F. Skinner believed that children learned language as a result of
operant conditioning.Critics state that children understand language before they
speak–and before they receive any reinforcement.Some psychologists propose that children learn language
through observation, exploration, and imitation.
Language Development
Psychologist Noam Chomsky did not believe that all the complex rules of
language could be learned by imitation, observation and exploration
Chomsky proposed that infants possess an distinctive capacity for language; that is,
children inherit a mental program that enables them to learn grammar.
Language Development (cont.)
If Chomsky is right, then we would expect that all children go through similar stages
of language development, no matter what culture or language group they
belong to.Infants, in fact, do go through four stages of
language development.
How Language Develops
Around 2 months of age, infants begin to coo.
Cooing refers to long, drawn-out sounds such as oooh or eeeh.
At around 4 months of age, infants reach the first stage of language development
and begin to babble.Babbling includes sounds found in all
languages, such as dadada and bababa .
How Language Develops (cont.)
At around 12 months of age, infants begin to utter single words.
They use these words to describe familiar objects and people, such as
da-da or doggie.At this stage, children use single words
to describe longer thoughts.At around age 4, children begin to
form sentences.
How Language Develops (cont.)
The first sentences a child utters, though, follow a pattern called telegraphic speech.
Telegraphic speech is a pattern of of speaking in which the child leaves out the
articles (the), prepositions (with), and parts of verbs.
How Language Develops (cont.)
Animals communicate with one another.However, do animals learn language?
Language involves more than just communicating–it involves rules
of grammar.Although animals do not possess the ability to use
grammatical rules, they have been taught to communicate
with humans .
Do Animals Learn Language?
People use language to communicate their culture and express their ideas.
Do people who speak different languages actually think differently
from one another?Benjamin Whorf argued that language affects our basic
perceptions of the physical world.
Whorf used the term linguistic relativity to refer to the idea that a person’s language influences
his or her thoughts .
Gender and Cultural Differences
Does the English language express a particular value system?
Some people argue that certain words in language create gender stereotypes.
The use of pronouns also affects our thinking.
Many organizations have instituted guidelines for the use of nonsexist
language.
Gender and Cultural Differences (cont.)
End of the Lesson
What was the main idea of the lesson?