Memory wksp II

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Memorization and the PerformingMusician

November, 2007

Jennifer Mishra | [email protected] 1

Jennifer Mishra University of Houston November, 2007

Mishra, J. (2005). A theoretical model of musical memory. Psychomusicology, 19(1), 75-89.

Memorization begins before

& continues after conscious

memorization

Three stages

Preview

Practice

Overlearning

Enculturation

Conscious memorization is the period after which piececan be played technically correct with notation, butbefore a piece can be performed without mus ic.

Can memorize piece withoutunderstanding relationships (passive) Novice musicians

Mindless repetition not efficient nor

stable

Understanding a piece requires active

processing

Patterns unique to individual

performer

Labels beneficial, but not necessary

Younger students need guidance to

patterns

Memorizing music in-volves mindful and

deliber-ate practice.Developing anunderstanding of the

music and recognizing patterns are active pro-

cesses; thoughtlessly repeat-ing muscular movements is

a passive process.


Analytical memory Also termed Conceptual memory

Not a memory, but a process

Meaningful understanding of the piece Need not be theoretical analysis

Need not be through score study

Differs from sensory memorizationstyles influenced largely by training and ability Expert and advanced musicians use;

inexperienced performers do not

Structural boundaries (phrase structure)

emerging as dominant in experts.

Analytical memoryrequires the cognitiveinterpretation of patterns

and repetitions in amusical work. The focus is

on forming relationshipsand finding familiar

patterns.


Human mind designed to find patterns.

Musical pattern is any meaningful grouping of notes Learned patterns e.g., scales, arpeggios, chords

Found relationships between 2+ notes

Pattern processed as unit, not individual notes Patterns allow for prediction Sight reading

If memory lapse occurs


Man is, perhaps above all else, a predicting

animalHe must pattern the world we mustpattern the world.Music, The Arts & Ideas

Leonard Meyer (p. 227-8 )

Music performed serially, but understood as a web of

connections Web is unique to the piece and to the individual performer Patterns are not what composer intended, but what performer

perceives

Performers understanding of piece impacts interpretation(Consciously or unconsciously)

Can find unique patterns not intended by composer.

Even aleatoric music, truly random music, can have

patterns imposed upon it by performer

Patterns & connections can be anywhere


Labels- brings patterns to the surface, fixes in mind Isolate elements to direct attention to patterns.

Mapping is visual analysis & simplification of structure Visual icons symbolizing patterns

Verbalizing or labeling patterns

Attending to patterns Similarities can be unconsciously understood, but

labeling brings to forefront

Need not use theoretical terms/labels


Shockley, R. P. (2001). Mapping Music: For Faster Learning

and Secure Memory. A-R Publications.


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November, 2007



Shockley, R. P. (2001). Mapping Music: For Faster Learning and Secure Memory. A-RPublications.

Common practice techniques emphasize pattern

recognition; allow obscure patterns to become clear playing hands separately blocking chords (on keyboard)

rehearsing under-tempo

rehearsing the piece backwards

score study away from the instrument

transposing

Analysis may be visual (based on scored notation)

Analysis may be aural (i.e., not notation-based) interplay between voices in a fugue

Analysis may be kinesthetic (e.g., blocking chords)


Four memories popular memorization topic Focus of 60% of 121 pedagogical articles on memory since

1900

Most advocate a mixture of memorization styles implying memories are equal and mutually supporting

No research support

Isolated usage of strategies rare (depending on study)

Not memories, but processing strategies Can be used as early as sight reading

Used throughout notation-based practice

Aural, Visual, & Kinesthetic Sensory Learning styles rather than memory stores


Also termed melodic memory, auditory memory, ear

memory Used primarily to monitor performance

for errors Good aural memory doesnt insure good

performance can hear the next note and not know how

to play it Removing aural feedback doesnt affect

performance Pianists can perform in absence of

auditory and kinesthetic feedback (Repp,1999)

Only effect when aural feedback removed

was pianists pedaled less (Repp, 1998)

Aural memory is theability to hear the notes of

a piece of music in the proper order withoutrelying on a sound source

or notation.


Also termed Photographic, eye memory

Not necessarily full-scale photographic

memory for notation Visualize part of notation Visualize finger patterns on an instrument Isolated visual memory t rainable

Used primarily as a memory cue to

initiate recall beginnings of sections

difficult sections

Visual memory is theability to recall a mental

picture of the musicalnotation, as a whole or in

parts, or to visualize finger patterns or handpositions.

Also termed Motor, hand, tactile, muscular, finger,

digital memory

Most misunderstood memory Often confused with automated

procedural memory (more later) Notincidentally developed

Notthoughtless

Used to assist with difficult or

awkward passages

Kinesthetic memory is

the retention of muscularmovements involved in

performing a piece of music. Tactile memory is

the memory for the feel of the instrument and is notexactly the same as kin-

esthetic memory.



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November, 2007


Research attempt to determineusage among musicians Mixed results

Aural: 4 42%

Visual: 0 50% Kinesthetic: 3 50%

Mixed: 13 58%

Discrepancy - lack of

standard definitions


(Analytical not considered in all studies, so omitted)

Variable definitions for memory styles Question too broad which memory style do you use?

Musical Memory Inventory(MMI) Specific questions

Asked how often

Musical Memory Inventory(MMI) resultsMishra, J. (2007). Correlating Musical Memorization Styles and Perceptual Learning Modalities.Visions of Research in Music Education, 9-10. Retrieved July 14, 2007, fromwww.rider.edu/~vrme/

Past experiences affect the way we learn new material Every musical experience combines into schemas

Expectations formed

Applied to new music

Continually processing and storing information

Learning all the time

Learning without conscious study

Can be problematic - CDM

Memorize, at least in part, naturally through experience

and practice


Tonal music easier to memorize than

atonal

More experience with tonal music =

stronger expectations

20th

century music often played withnotation

Structure preserving errors

(proofreaders errors) Goldovskys Sightreading Experiment


Wolf, T. (1976). A cognitive model of musical sight-

reading.Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5(2), 143-171.

Example from Boulez

Third Piano Sonata

Jennifer Mishra University of Houston

November, 2007

BrahmsCapriccio Op. 76 No. 2

Find the error (recording

is performed as

musically expected, notas notated)

Error in:Breitkopf EditionHenle Urtext Edition

Peters Edition


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November, 2007


Memorization begins very early in the learning process

Unconscious

Even when memorization not primary goal

Sightreading study

4 playings - mask bars

Between 30 and 88 % of the missing notes could be

recalled


Lehmann, A. C., & Ericsson, K. A. (1996). Performance without preparation: structure andacquisition of expert sight-reading and accompanying performance. Psychomusicology, 15, 1-29.

Many factors potentially influence theamount of time required to memorize Characteristics of the musician

Experience - Enculturation

Memorization practice strategies

Characteristics of the composition Memorization takes a long time

36-bar exercise up to 100 minutes

Musicians often decidewhether they are good or

poor memorizers basedon a handful of salient

experiences or informalconversations rather thana systematic observation

and comparison. There isno doubt that some

musicians memorize fasterthan others; however even

the most advancedmusician requires time tomemorize

Organizing memorization practice Holistic (Whole) develop concept of entire piece Segmented (Part) break piece down into sections

Additive systematically lengthensections

Serial play as far as possible


Mishra, J. (2002). A qualitative analysis of strategiesemployed in efficient and inefficient memorization.

Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education,152, 74-86.

Holistic - most efficient Emphasizes connections throughout piece

Segmented & Serial less efficient

section 2-100 bars

Other possible divisions: hands, elements

Structural, but not necessarily By line not musical structure


Why segmented strategy might be less efficient focused on discrete fragments ignoring others

very short segments of 2-4 measures not necessarily

musically meaningful Repeat each fragment in isolation a large number of times

(43 consecutive times without any discernable errors ) Boring, mindless repetition

Unable to connect newly mastered segment to as

previously learned segments had been forgotten!

Additional time was wasted on practicing the connection of

the discrete segments.


Evidence from expert musicians - Alternating Holistic &

Segmented mindless sectionalizing and rigid adherence to repetition is

counter productive Musically meaningfulsegments

Amount of segmentation Difficulty of piece

Experience of performer (e.g., with genre)

Length of piece

Intersperse Holistic practice to develop an overall

concept of piece



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November, 2007


Serial inefficient strategy Beginning learned very well, but the end never played

musician conceded defeat when confronted by an error or

memory lapse by returning to the beginning

No attempt is made to understand why the error occurred

or to place the problematic section into the context of the

piece. strategy regrettably may be in common usage, especially

among younger, less experienced performers


Compositional characteristics of a piece, to a largeextent, determines the amount of time required to

memorize the piece length of the piece (in terms of notes)

harmonic complexity

Tonality

familiarity with the genre

Number of notes single best

predictor of memorization

time Pianists more time

Pianists more notes


Curve Estimation

0.69

1.49

2.29

3.10

3.90

4.71

5.51

6.31

7.12

7.92

8.72

9.53

10.33

11.14

11.94

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Numberof Notes

TotalMemorizationTime(Hours)

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

Note: Times are only measured until 1 or 2 memorized playthroughs


When is a piece memorized? No standardized operational definition for memorized.

The first time a piece played through by memory? Second?

Musicians continue to rehearse even after piece played bymemory

Overlearning Stage - point after which a piece can be

performed from memory, but before the memory isstable enough for performance. Important stage, though the purpose of extended practice

not well understood

As much as 150% more practice time is needed to stabilizethe memory


Overlearning = Testing

Testing memory cues (reminders, triggers) for

effectiveness Testing cues - starting at various points throughout the

piece Cues not resulting in stable retrieval can be replaced Unnecessary cues removed

Added cues especially in difficult sections

Fewest cues possible = less to remember

Cues may be aural, visual, kinesthetic, or analytical

Attend to where the memory fails add cue Simply circling place in music calls attention to the point

visualize the circle

May not be consciousJennifer Mishra University of Houston November, 2007

Structural boundaries as landmarks

Hierarchy of retrieval Entire piece not retrieved simultaneously - lightening the

memory load

Test by starting at points throughout piece Structural boundaries

Not random points, cues are related to musical form


Williamon, A., & Valentine, E. (2002). The roleof retrieval structures in memorizing music.Cognitive Psychology, 44(1), 1-32.


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November, 2007


Any over-learned motor sequencerequires automated muscle movements Frees attention Driving automated series of

movements allows attention to shift

Attention is a bottle neck in humanprocessing system can only fullyattend to one thing at a time Mustautomate to perform complex

sequences of motor movements

Automated movements faster than conscious

thought

As cognitive control of actions requires time, quick

physical sequences must beautomated to occurwithout conscious control.

Far from dangerous,automating movements is

necessary for a musicalperformance both for speed

of movement andredirecting precious atten-tion to interpretative

rather than technicalaspects of the music.

Confusion between kinesthetic memory andautomating movements Fingers seem to move without conscious thought

Repeating motor movements automates process

Kinesthetic memory is conscious awareness

of muscle movements

Much to attend to in performance Automated to free attention interpretation & communication with audience

Attend to demands of performance situation

Difficult sections

Cant generally verbalize automated procedures

Tie Shoes


Overlearning = Re-learning

Repetition is ONE way of learning

superficial level of processing

More connections = deeper processing =

stronger memory Re-learn music Sensory memories

Aural

Visual

Kinesthetic

Find additional patterns (analytical)


Craik, F. & Lockhart, R. (1972). Levels of processing: A

framework for memory research. Journal of VerbalLearning & Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.

Overlearning = Preparing for Performance

Not really memorizing

Confidence building

Superstitious behaviors

Extra practice due to anxiety - especially when memorizing

Performing without music increases anxiety

Heightened anxiety results (sometimes) in poorer performance


Leglar, M. A. (1978). Measurement of Indicators of anxiety levels under varying conditions ofmusical performance. Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1978.

Preparing for Performance


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Memory wksp II

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