Mental toughness and hardiness at different levels of football

7/30/2019 Mental toughness and hardiness at different levels of football

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Mark Atkinson

Mental toughness and hardiness at different levels offootball

Sports Psychology and Coaching

Master's Thesis

Document Nr. V210646

http://www.grin.comISBN 978-3-656-41057-7

9 783656 410577


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Mentaltoughness

andhardinessat

differentlevelsoffootball

MarkAtkinson

U n i v e r s i t y o f S u n d e r l a n d

F a c u l t y o f A p p l i e d S c i e n c e s

S R 1 3 S D


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Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 2

1.1 Research aim Page 6

1.2 Hypothesis Page 6

Chapter 2 Literature review Page 7

2.1 Conceptualising mental toughness Page 7

2.2 Characteristics of hardiness Page 11

2.3 Training strategies Page 19

2.4 Coaching mental toughness and hardiness Page 21

Chapter 3 Methods Page 22

3.1 Participants Page 22

3.2 Measures Page 22

3.3 Procedure Page 23

3.4 Data Analysis Page 23

Chapter 4 Results Page 24

Chapter 5 Discussion Page 26

5.1 Re-statement of aim Page 26

5.2 Interpretation of results Page 27

5.3 Limitations of the study Page 33

5.4 Conclusion Page 35

5.5 Future recommendations Page 41

Chapter 6 References Page 44

Chapter 7 Appendices Page 48


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Chapter 1. Introduction.

Sport is no longer a pastime, run and organised by amateurs. Now with the growth of

commercialisation it is a multi billion pound business that competes for scarce resources and

uses, amongst other things, professional management techniques (Robinson, 2003). Because

of the increase and push towards efficiency, success and value for money, it has become of

greater interest to players, coaches, administrators, spectators and owners to identify

psychological attributes and mental skills associated with superior sport performance, as a

primary stage of facilitating their development (Golby & Sheard, 2004).

In football there can be many factors opposing players such as, physical, technical and social

demands (Coutts, Reaburn & Abt, 2003). However there has been little research into the

emotional factors affecting footballers at different levels (Hanin et al, 2000), in particular, the

mental toughness and hardiness of footballers. This is surprising given that an athletes

psychological response to competition is thought to depend largely on the characteristics and

requirements of the sport (Krane & Williams, 1987).

Various other sports have been heavily researched in this area over the years. Research has

identified mental skills that distinguish between more and less successful performers across a

number of sports such as, golf (Thomas & Over, 1994), rodeo and equestrian (Meyers,

LeUnes & Bourgeois, 1996). Psychological attributes will distinguish between players

operating at different levels of performance.

Identifying the psychological and emotional traits of footballers at different levels of

performance can help to devise various coaching strategies to improve mental toughness and

hardiness of footballers.


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Mental toughness and hardiness can be defined as the ability to cope and persevere through

the struggles and pressures of sports, (Gucciardi et al, 2009). This can be in a game situation

or more outside the box, such as getting fit in pre-season, coping with life in the public eye or

dietary requirements. Mental toughness is an unshakeable perseverance and conviction

towards some goal despite pressure or adversity (Nicholls et al, 2008). This

conceptualisation of mental toughness provides a platform from which instruments of

measurement can be developed.

According to Loehr (1986), mentally tough performers are disciplined thinkers who respond

to pressure in ways which enable them to remain feeling relaxed, calm and energised because

they have the ability to increase their flow of positive energy in crisis and adversity. This can

be related to footballers as there are many factors within a match or season that could

potentially affect them. Pressure, crisis and adversity can occur in the form of, big game

stress, good opposition, critical fans, achieving maximum potential, achieving results, being

beaten by opposition players. Defined by Loehr (1986), the psychological attributes specific

to this study and footballers in particular are; Self confidence (knowing that one can perform

well and be successful), negative energy control(handling emotions such as fear, anger and

frustration and coping with externally determined events i.e. fans), attention control

(remaining focused for 90 minutes), visualisation and imagery control(thinking positively in

pictures, or visualising a successful moment), motivation (willingness to persevere through

pain or fitness troubles etc), positive energy (enjoying the game you are in) and attitude

control(unyielding). Furthermore, Brennan (1998) describes mental toughness as the ability

handle situations. It can be somebody who does not choke, does not go into shock and can

stand up and be counted in any situation. It involves focus, discipline, self confidence,


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patience persistence, accepting responsibility without whining or excuses, tolerating pain and

having an overall positive approach to a task.

Contrasting characteristics of mental toughness are provided in a study by Fourie & Potgeiter

(2001) suggesting that the psychological factors of mental toughness are motivation level,

coping skills, confidence maintenance, cognitive skill, discipline and goal directedness,

competitiveness, possession of pre-requisite physical and mental requirements, team unity,

preparation skills, psychological hardiness and ethics. The study was carried out by 131

coaches and 160 elite athlete recruited from 31 sports. Data responses from the coaches

(n=534) and from the athletes (n=488) were content analysed through a consensual procedure

and resulted in 41 higher order themes that were summarised into 12 mental toughness

umbrella categories. (See table 1 in Appendix 1). Although some characteristics are evident

in footballers, the study results show the characteristics from 31 different sports and are

generalised and not specific to football.

The present study focused on the many aspects of mental toughness and hardiness of

footballers at different levels and explored the relationship between the emotions of athletes

and the level of football they play. The intention of the study was to identify the areas of

mental toughness and hardiness that are most affected and focus on coaching techniques that

can help overcome those factors in order for an athlete (footballer) to reach his or her full

potential, (Martens, 1987). In turn, posing the question, what can coaches do to help their

players achieve a superior mental toughness when going into a game?


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Previous studies in other sports show that elite athletes are unlikely to get phased when

competing and are more likely to deal with pressure and other psychological factors than

those athletes taking part recreationally.

Superior Hardiness is related to improved performance in sport (Golby et al, 2003). Usually

the athletes with more optimism, hardiness or global self esteem may cope more effectively

with competitive stress, or specific game situations which may add pressure on the athlete

(Nicholls, 2008).

Rhodewalt and Agostsdottir (1984) have found that hardy individuals are more likely to cope

with stressors by transforming them mentally into something less threatening. Psychological

responses in footballers have been related to a hardy personality, i.e. Contrada et al (1991)

found associations with Heart rate and Blood pressure patterns in both the resting state and in

response to stressful situations felt during a 90 minute match.

A similar study analysing the mental toughness of rugby league players by Golby & Sheard

(2003), shows that out of four international rugby league teams (Wales, England, France and

Ireland), the welsh nationality players had a significantly higher mean score on two of the

hardiness subscales. Hardiness measures displayed the greatest and most frequently

statistically significant differences. The findings concur with previous work indicating

superior hardiness is related to improved performances in sport.

Further studies by Sheard (2009), focusing on different mental toughness substrates (positive

cognition, visualisation and total mental toughness). The Australian university athletes had a

significantly higher mental toughness score than the rest of the competing nations and the

Australian team went on to win the tournament. Furthermore, practical implications focus on

the potentiality of ameliorative cultural environments.


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1.1 Research Aim

The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between mental toughness

and hardiness of footballers and the level of football at which they perform.

The present study aimed to discover the factors of mental toughness and hardiness that

distinguish footballers between recreational and elite levels of performance.

Furthermore the present study aimed to identify the areas of mental toughness and hardiness

which affect footballers most. This then will help discover what coaches can do to overcome

those areas most affecting footballers.

Therefore, the present study aimed to examine whether mental toughness, hardiness and their

respective subscales distinguish between elite and recreational footballers.

1.2 Hypothesis.

Null Hypothesis.

There will be no difference between mental toughness and hardiness of footballers at

different levels of performance.

Hypothesis.

There will be a difference between mental toughness and hardiness of footballers at different

levels of performance.

Explained Hypothesis.

Elite footballers will have an overall superior mental toughness and hardiness score than

those taking part recreationally.


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Chapter 2. Literature Review.

Considerable evidence exists within the extant of sport psychology literature that desirable

psychological attributes contribute significantly to superior sports performance (Thomas &

Over, 1997).

Moreover it has been suggested that as sports performers move up towards elite levels, only

those with adaptive personality characteristics advance (Deaner & Silva, 2002).

Sport is about the revealing of character and inner spirit as much as it is about technical

brilliance (Cleary, 2005). For instance, there are many recreational or intermediate level

footballers with vast technical and physical attributes or have the potential to be professional

footballers but lack in psychological attributes or their personalities do not facilitate the

adjustment, meaning they do not fulfil their potential.

2.1. Conceptualising mental toughness.

In sport, mental toughness and hardiness can also be defined as,

Coping better than your opponents with competition, training and lifestyle and the

pressures that sport can put on a performer

(Jones at al, 1993).

In addition, specifically to a game situation it can be defined,

Mental toughness and hardiness is being more consistent and better than your

opponents in remaining determined, focused, confident and in control under pressure

(Rotella, 1998).


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Mental toughness is an ability to withstand strong criticism and to avoid becoming upset

when losing or performing poorly (Clough et al, Loehr 1995, Alderman 1974, Clough 2002,

Goldberg 1998). It can be an intensity or resilience (Loehr 1995), or an ability to maintain an

optimal mindset throughout a sporting event (Cashmore, 1992, Jones 2001). Jones (2001)

suggests that maintaining an optimal mindset throughout a sporting event can be a 90 minute

match when related to football, or a 38 game league season. Being mentally tough contributes

towards successful sides winning titles and tournaments, for example Manchester United.

This can be the ability to overcome a strenuous period of intense games and is what separates

winners from the rest of the contenders.

Loehr 1986 suggests there are seven dimensions of mental toughness. They are self

confidence, negative energy control, attention control, visualisation and imagery, motivation,

positive energy and attitude control. Possessing the seven dimensions of mental toughness is

what distinguishes athletes between success and failure (loehr, 1986). (See Table 2 in

Appendix 2).

In contrast, Crust (2008) identifies the components of mental toughness as being, self

efficacy potential, mental self concept, task familiarity, value, personal bests, goal

commitment, perseverance, task focus, positivity stress minimisation and positive

comparisons.

Some factors may affect athletes more than others and certain factors may vary between

different sports. Moran, (1996) states that coaches regarded concentration as the most

important characteristic, while athletes regarded perseverance as the most important. Further

studies show that coaches rated the effectiveness of coaches and sport psychologists in

strengthening the characteristics of mental toughness more highly than their athletes did,


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(Fourie & Potgeiter, 2001). Mental toughness appears to be more significant in individual

sports like tennis, and team sports often show that players can hide behind the rest of the

team or become content with making up the numbers of a team. However it is the superior

mental toughness of a player that distinguishes the elite footballer from a recreational

footballer. The superior mental toughness of a player is what makes a winner at all levels of

the game. The term mental toughness is intuitively appealing and used equally generously by

players, coaches and the sports media, yet usually without adequate definition (Cashmore,

2002). As football is always in the media, footballers at the top level are required to cope

with pressure (Goldberg, 1998), to rebound from failures (Woods, Hocton & Desmond,

1995) and possess superior mental skills (Bull, Allbinson, & Shambrook, 1996).

A qualitative investigation of mental toughness by Jones et al (2002) asked 10 international

sports people to define mental toughness. The interviewees were then asked to place the

attributes in rank order of importance, 12 attributes are identified from the interview, (see

table 3 in Appendix 3).

Although the sports are not stated, the study provides an insight to the general attributes of

mental toughness.

Footballers, coaches and managers agree that mental toughness is an extremely important

attribute to possess if a top level performance is desired. Mental toughness is also an

important factor in training. In order to reach high levels of performance, athletes must

endure long hours of strenuous training regimes which can be boring and tiring. Footballers

must cope with injuries and various uncontrollable factors which will influence the smooth

running of their training programs. Being mentally tough can assist in coping with setbacks

such as injuries and being able to endure the intensive workload players have to go through to


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make it as an elite footballer. Another factor affecting the mental toughness of footballers

can be stress related in the form of media interest. Mental toughness can help a footballer

cope with the inconvenient and upsetting comments which can affect footballers and have

done in the past. Even an elite footballer playing at semi-professional level, now has lots of

interest in the press and can now have T.V. coverage to take into consideration.

Many potentially outstanding footballers stop competing before they reach their potential

because they can not perform at the highest levels whether it is due to nerves, motivation or

stress etc.

Many studies, in particular by Bull, Albinson and Shambrook (1996) have identified the key

factors as being commitment and desire to reach full potential. Being committed is vital in

achieving potential as a footballer and athletes should be asked the following questions;

To what extent am I prepared to make the necessary sacrifices in order to succeed in

my sport?

Do I give 100% in training as well as competition- even if things arent going so

well?

Am I prepared to put in extra time on physical and mental preparation?

Can I take responsibility for my own development and dedicate myself fully to my

training and competition program?

(Bull, Albinson and Shambrook, 1996).

A study by Loehr (1994) has identified the key factors of mental toughness as being able to

cope with pressure. If an athlete cannot cope with pressure, either in training or competition

they are not mentally tough. Loehr (1994) suggests that it is an athletes emotional response


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to problems which brings either success or failure as a competitor. A Qualitative study by

Thompson, Vernacchia & Moore (1998) have identified confidence, focus and control as

major factors of mental toughness in competing. The study focuses on a female college

fencer and states; her mind would wander and shed find it hard to concentrate and would

often lose sight of important things like footwork. She underwent a mental training

programme which included, goal setting, anxiety management, pre performance routines,

attention focus, energy management, visualization training and life development skills. This

mental training programme helped to improve confidence, focus and control as well as

overcome competition anxiety. This is an ongoing process of assimilation and

accommodation. (Thompson, Vernacchia, & Moore, 1998)

In football, Mental toughness can extend to the team as a whole not just as individuals. As a

coach it might be worth considering how mentally tough the team is. For a team to compete

at a high level each individual must be comfortable in their role and be totally committed to

the team effort (Carron.1988, Sports Dynamics). This can lead to a performance by the team

which is the sum of each individuals potential, known as synergy.

This still refers back to coaching individuals and helping individuals reach their potential but

affects the team as a whole which is vital in football.

2.2. Characteristics of Hardiness.

Researchers have increasingly expressed an interest in ways which people respond to stress

and in the coping strategies they use to overcome it.

Hardiness describes the personalities of people who have the ability to view stressful

situations in a positive way. A hardy personality should allow one to react to an event or

relative to the present study, a 90 minute match, as if it is challenging rather than threatening.


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As research relating hardiness to sport is limited, hardiness in a non sporting environment has

been assumed to decrease the likelihood of stress related physical illness, mental illness and

decrements in performance (Maddi & Khoshaba, 2001).

According to Fourie & Potgieter (2001), Psychological hardiness was defined as the ability of

the athlete to reveal a strong personality, emotional and psychological well being, to take

charge and show autonomy.

Similarly Clough et al. (2002) states a mentally tough or hardy performer possesses a high

sense of self belief and an unshakeable faith that they control their own destiny, these

individuals can remain relatively unaffected by competition or adversity. This summarises

mental toughness and hardiness in terms of resilience of stress resistance, an individuals

positive response to situations of stress and adversity (Braddock, Royster, Winfield &

Hawkins, 1991; Rutler 1987).

Such resilient responses have often been described in terms of hardiness, (Kobasa, 1979).

Moreover, Clough et al. (2002) relate mental toughness within the theoretical context of

Kobasas hardy personality.

The factors of Hardiness (Control, Challenge and Commitment), are defined by Tillich

(1952) as the factors that aid one in pursuing the future despite its uncertainty. Relative to

football, many footballers may not commit to playing for a higher level club due to fear of

uncertainty that they may fail. This is enhanced if they experience support for exercising the

cognitive abilities of symbolisation, imagination, judgement, approval and admiration for

doing things themselves and see role models who advocate hardiness and show it in their

own functioning, (Sheard 2009).

Hardiness is assumed to decrease the likelihood of stress related physical illness, mental

illnesses, and decrements in performance, conduct and morale. These improvements are


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achieved by motivating transformational coping (active, decisive) rather than regressive

coping (denial, avoidance) with stressful circumstances (Maddi, 1999).

Coaches need to help their athletes develop a number of mental qualities to overcome the

psychological and emotional problems they face when they compete. The qualities that are

highly regarded as essential in order to compete at a high level of performance are, the four

Cs, (Cabral, & Crisfield, 1996).

They are commitment - to strive for their goals, confidence - self confidence in their own

ability, control - emotional control to focus their energy on the goal ahead of them and

concentration - to achieve their goals.

Elite performers usually exhibit these qualities.

To become a better performer, athletes are required to reach peak performance consistently in

competition; it can be achieved by using the 4 Cs effectively. (Cabral, & Crisfield, 1996)

Commitment.

Commitment is the tendency to involve oneself, rather than experience alienation from

whatever one is doing or encounters. (Maddi, Hoover & Kobasa 1982)

Coaches can help performers develop commitment by working together to identify aims and

ambitions, identifying any interests which may conflict with the performers training.

Coaches, with the athlete, can create long term and short term SMARTER goals. Athletes

need commitment in order to improve their performance. Committed performers work on all

aspects of their sport, technical, physical and psychological. Elite athletes usually work on

all factors naturally and have the ability to understand what it takes to achieve and possess

the desire to achieve it. This is not to say that it cannot be coached.


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Coaches can assist athletes in establishing and maintaining commitment; determining the

performers aims and ambitions, identifying conflicting interests and converting aims into

goals.

Determining aims and ambitions- Most performers have dreams and aims, and coaches must

identify their aims in order to help achieve them. Coaches must help identify their players

ambitions, potential, strengths and weaknesses.

Identifying conflicting interests- Performers will have other factors in their lives in addition

to their sports. Usually elite athletes have little else other than their main focus in sport. This

could affect their mentality towards their sport. Recreational athletes tend to have more

going on, or usually take part in other sports which is why they are not totally committed or

dedicated to football, in this case. Coaches can identify conflicting interests and develop a

players commitment to football. The Demographics questionnaire, (Appendix 8) identifies

other sports which athletes take part in. Recreational footballers usually take part in other

sports on a regular basis, whereas elite footballers are totally focused and commited to

football. Once conflicting interests are negotiated between coach and athlete, it is easier to

determine session plans and exactly how much time is available to train. This helps coaches

propose a realistic target to create a final outcome. If the availability for a player to train is

minimal, coaches and players must agree that the final goal should be low. Little training can

only result in low achievement.

Confidence.

Elite performers have high self confidence and have to believe that they can carry out a task

successfully. Recreational performers can often have doubts about their performances, and

this can affect the outcome or make an athlete nervous during a task, affecting their

performance on the whole. In football, high self confidence raises self esteem during a game


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and helps them overcome difficult challenges. In tennis, it has been shown to be one of the

factors which differentiate highly from less successful players, (Weinberg, R.S. 1998). Self

confidence in tennis players is having self-confidence to play a drop shot at the net in a tense

situation to win a point. This can relate to football by having the confidence to play a difficult

pass or shot that may win a game in the dying minutes of a game, rather than being content

with a draw. Coaches can create practices, sessions and game situations which help

performers gain self confidence and provide them with the opportunity to feel competent and

develop their self confidence. The more success performers experience, the more confident

they become in difficult situations. The most effective way in which self confidence can be

achieved is by the interpretation of psychological cues, (increased heart rate, rapid breathing

or recreating identical game situations). (Bandura, 1977).

Control. (Emotional control)

Control is expressed as a tendency to feel and act as if one is influential in the face of various

contingencies. (Averill 1973; Seligman 1975). It allows an individual to choose the most

appropriate course of action when faced with a potentially stressful situation.

Emotions felt and experienced by footballers, i.e.; anxiety, can become potential sources of

distraction and interference if not managed appropriately, thus affecting concentration during

a game, reducing their level of performance. Coaches can help performers learn how to

control emotions so they can channel energy and focus on their game. The most common are

found to be stress and anxiety.

Stress and anxiety.

Numerous terms are used to describe stress and anxiety e.g. panic, nerves, worry, activation

and arousal. Their affects on an athletes performance are explained;


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Stress can be positive or negative. If a situation is perceived positively, performers interpret

the events as challenging, exciting and exhilarating, like elite performers do. If a situation is

perceived negatively, the situation is seen as threatening and performers worry about their

ability to cope, like recreational athletes.

Anxiety describes the negative reactions to stress which can disrupt performance by

generating worry. Anxiety is brought around by different situations such as;

Fear of physical harm (in particular returning from injury and re-injuring), threat to ego or

self image (being beaten by opposition, in particular lower opposition) fear of punishment,

fines, post match debrief, retribution by coaches or being dropped.

Athletes who can handle these factors tend to be more mentally tough and can perform at an

elite level of performance, simply due to the fact that they can overcome interfering factors,

like those previously mentioned.

Concentration.

Maintaining concentration for 90 minutes and in training sessions is deemed to be crucial in

order to compete at an elite level of performance. Elite performers focus on what is current

to their performance and are not affected by surroundings, opposition, past events or what

ifs.

Adapting focus is essential for footballers in particular, for example a player must focus on

their awareness of space or positioning, and then they must switch their focus to awareness of

opposing players, then focus on a pass or tackle depending on the situation. Elite footballers

do this naturally.

An individuals level of anxiety can affect concentration which can prove critical (Orlick,

2000).


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Improving concentration.

Coaches can use trigger words which help athletes regain focus in the same way they can be

used to increase confidence or motivation. By simply shouting the word focus to players

can instantly help them regain focus and concentrate again. The aim being, to reduce anxiety

or negative energy, (identified as the main cause of poor mental toughness and hardiness).

Highly effective in a penalty shootout or free kick situation. Gallwey, (1986) suggests that a

learning strategy can be used to avoid negative self talk and anxiety, and help focus on the

task required; Drills include using trigger words, i.e. calling aloud or in your head the

direction of the ball or shouting as the ball bounces, the calls are irrelevant to the game or

performance but it helps keep the player focused and alert.

Effects on a player.

Cognitive symptoms are the psychological responses to a forthcoming event. Worry, poor

concentration etc. can occur between 24-48 hours before a match. These will be more

significant if the game is more important such as a cup final or a decisive league game.

Somatic symptoms are the physiological responses such as rapid heart rate, sweating or

muscle tension. They usually occur around an hour before the game.

These symptoms can be reduced by easing the anxiety. Anxiety can be eased by putting a

player through game situations repeatedly, so they can adapt to game situations. (Hady &

Jones, 1994).

Hardiness as a stress buffer.

Personality is an important factor to ones psychological state and affects the way a person or

athlete perceives a difficult situation. Also in a non sport relation, hardy individuals believe

they have a commitment to a task or situation and their interpersonal relationships with inner


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self, in that they can recognize their own distinctive values, goals and priorities in life

(Maddi & Khoshaba, 2001). In relation to football, a player is able to manage their own

performance, knowing their objectives, knowing what is required of them and in terms of a

career, season or extended period of time, elite footballers tend to prioritise training and

football commitments before anything else.

In terms of hardiness being a stress buffer, hardiness moderates the stress illness relationship

by reducing the cognitive appraisals of threat and reducing the use of regressive coping

(Rhodewalt & Agotsdottir, 1994). Hardiness as a personality trait has been found to eliminate

the negative effects of stress in relation to possible mental illness, depression and sports

rehabilitation.

Further research which can possibly relate to footballers and stressful events that they may be

faced with is a study of occupational stress and burnout in nurses, which reported that

hardiness had a moderating effect, resulting in hardy nurses being more stress and burnout

resistant than those who were non hardy (Rich & Rich, 1987).

The relation of hardiness to sport performance and football in particular is highly important,

knowing that hardy individuals are physically and mentally healthier as a result of their sense

of commitment, control and challenge. And more importantly the way in which they handle

potentially stressful situations more easily than those who are less hardy.

Hardiness as a performance enhancer.

As well as being able to cope with adverse pressure and overcome any chance of stress

related illness, hardy individuals appear to perform better.

Research suggests that the greater the level of hardiness, the stronger the tendency to

perceive events or circumstances as less stressful than those who are not hardy.


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In terms of performance enhancing, elite footballers who are committed, in control and

positively challenged by difficult game situations, see game related stresses as manageable

rather than overwhelming.

Positive relationships have been demonstrated between hardiness and basketball performance

among university players (Maddi & Hess, 1992).

Some people have a hardy personality in the sense that they possess, for example, coping

skills that enable them to thrive under adverse circumstances.

The overall combination of hardy attributes allows one to handle difficult situations that

would normally effect someone, affecting their overall performance. However by managing

those difficult situations and overcoming any stress or negativity allows the elimination of

negativity and overall performances to improve.

2.3. Training strategies.

There is a lot of work that can be done to develop mental skills and overcome the

psychological pressures of competition. Skills like imagery and centering can be effective

but they must be incorporated into a coaching session early in order to have an effect, it can

take time to develop a long term goal. Coaches should create structured sessions, mock

competition and competition training strategies. All of this is to aid the footballers with

coping strategies so they can cope with situations they may face in a game. Elite footballers

often have to deal with large crowds, disappointments and errors, poor decisions i.e. referee

or linesmen, verbal abuse and sometimes abuse from the opposition.

Coping strategies are designed to help athletes concentrate, retain confidence and cope with

anxiety whatever the situation they are faced with, (National coaching foundation, 1996).


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Orlick, (2000) states that mental rehearsal helps an athlete prepare for and practice effective

responses in their mind before being confronted by a challenge, problem or distraction in a

game situation.

Coping strategies are better when executed in a real game training session, followed by a

simulated session, followed then by the real event. (Hogg, 1997).

In relation to the theory by Contrada et al (1991), in that the psychological responses relate to

a hardiness personality and are found associated with Heart rate and Blood pressure patterns,

Dienstbier (1989), proposed that there are four toughening manipulations that influence

physiological mediators, which in turn could potentially affect a footballers performance, or

temperament characteristics, They are;

1. Early experience, the ways in which children have faced extreme stress in early life

and its relationships to differences in their resilience, (Garmezy, 1983).

2. Passive toughening. Weiss et al, (1975) highlighted the positive impact of repeated

exposure to cold water and electric shocks and an increase stress tolerance.

3. Active toughening; by exercising aerobically, self regulating toughening can occur.

4. Ageing; all affects for ageing are opposite to those for the 3 other manipulations.

Deinstbier (1989) also suggests that psychological toughening could be elicited by exposure

to repeat game situations, and that psychological benefits may accrue from successful

participation in exercise programmes through feelings or mastery and improved body image

associated with long term coping. Insufficient physical demands can result in lack of

toughening and the neuroendocrine systems associated with arousal and not maintained and

strains can occur. This can lead to the psychological effects previously mentioned, like, poor

coping endurance (stress tolerance), Susceptibility to anxiety and depression, attention to


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learning deficits, which can generally affect information provided by a coach within a 90

minute match or training session.

2.4. Coaching mental toughness and Hardiness

The way coaches involve performers in their own development, structured sessions,

communication and appraisals, canal have a significant impact on performers.

To enhance intrinsic motivation, performers should be encouraged to take responsibilities for

their own behaviour and the outcomes of their performance. This is achieved by involving

performers in the design and running of their own training and competitions. This approach

gives performers more choice and decision making. It keeps them more involved and clued

up with their tasks and regimes.

Bull, Albinson & Shambrook (1996) suggest, that in order to maximize effectiveness of

psychological preparation programmes, the following should be considered; Performance

profiling should be employed, athletes have different factors which affect them when

competing. Goal setting is also essential, to allow the athlete the need to achieve and achieve

small targets in order to achieve big overall.

Are extrinsic rewards evident in a footballers approach to competition?

Elite footballers receive some form of payment so does this affect the players performance,

could the player be playing at a higher level but are content with the money they are making

or does it have no impact at all.


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Chapter 3. Methods.

3.1. Participants.

The participants consisted of 61 footballers (mean AGE=25.23 years; range 18-40 years;

SD=5.55), from various clubs and 2 levels of performance: Playing recreational football

(n=33) (1-2 hours per week max) or elite football (n=28) (Contracted players, semi

professional or professional). All players were playing at the highest level that they have

ever played at the time they completed a questionnaire, to ensure consistency in results.

Prior to participation, participants completed a consent form or were given consent from a

parent/guardian. (See Appendix 4.)

A risk assessment was also carried out, the football clubs should have provided a risk

assessment but where this was not the case, a risk assessment was designed and administered.

(See Appendix 5)

Participant confidentiality was essential and honoured by everyone who had or has access to

this study.

Participants were treated in an appropriate professional manner.

3.2. Measures.

Mental toughness.

Mental toughness was measured using the Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI; Loehr,

1986). The Psychological Performance Inventory is a 42-item scale yielding an overall

mental toughness score as well as seven 6-item subscale scores; Self confidence, negative

energy control, attention control, visualisation and imagery control, motivation, positive

energy and attitude control. (See Appendix 6)

Scores were recorded on a five point Likert scale anchored by almost always and almost

never.


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Hardiness.Hardiness of footballers was measured by the most recent measurement of hardiness

developed by Maddi and Khoshaba (2001). The 18 item personal views survey III-R (PVS

III-R) yields an overall hardiness score, as well as three 6-item subscale scores; commitment,

control and challenge. (See Appendix 7)

Scores were recorded on a four point Likert scale anchored by not at all true and very true.

3.3. Procedure.

Permission from any related organising committees, co-operation of coaches and consent

from each individual player to be obtained prior to the administration of inventories.

(Also see Appendix 4)

Full ethical approval was also required.

Prior to the administration of the PPI and PVS III-R, a demographics questionnaire was

completed by each subject. (See Appendix 8)

3.4. Data Analysis.

Data was analysed using SPSS. Data provided a subscale score and an overall mental

toughness and a hardiness score for each subject. An average score for recreational athletes

from each subscale and from the overall mental toughness and hardiness scores were

calculated as well as an average score for elite athletes from each subscale and from the

overall mental toughness and hardiness scores were calculated.

An Independent T test was then carried out to compare the scores between recreation and

elite athletes.


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Chapter 4. Results.

4.1 Descriptive statistics.

Descriptive statistics were calculated for the groups. (See Table 4). This included group

means and standard deviation of all variables.

Table 4. Means and standard deviation of PPI and PVS III-R subscales.

Standard

Elite Recreational

M SD M SD

Age 23.46 3.25 26.72 6.61

PPI

Self Confidence 27.46 1.93 13.94 4.50

Negative energy control 24.18 4.75 14.12 3.87

Attention control 25.82 3.81 14.42 5.81

Visualisation/imagery

control

25.07 3.73 17.45 5.14

Motivation 26.11 3.13 18.52 6.36

Positive energy 25.32 2.97 19.48 5.33

Attitude control 26.79 2.91 18.18 4.32Total mental toughness 180.75 16.050 116.12 23.89

PVS III-R

Commitment 12.46 1.64 7.91 2.45

Control 11.82 2.91 8.27 2.20

Challenge 12.82 1.91 7.76 2.05

Total hardiness 37.29 5.26 23.97 5.33

Independent T-tests indicated that there was a significant effect between elite and recreational

levels of performance. Significant differences were observed in all of the dependant

variables, (See Table 5).

The significant differences observed in thePPIare as follows.

Motivation; t (5.748) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Positive energy; t (5.149) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Attitude

Control; t (8.952) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Self Confidence; t (14.775) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Negative

energy control; t (9.108) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Attention control; t (8.880) = 0.000; p < 0.05,


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Visualisation and imagery; t (6.541) = 0.000; p < 0.05 and Overall mental toughness; t

(12.165) = 0.000; p < 0.05

The significant differences observed in thePVS III-R are as follows.

Commitment; t (8.354) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Control; t (5.423) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Challenge; t

(9.935) = 0.000; p < 0.05 and Overall hardiness; t (9.780) = 0.000; p < 0.05.

Table 5. t values, degrees of freedom and significance levels for dependant variables.

t values Degrees offreedom

Significancelevels

PPI

Self Confidence 14.775 59 .000*

Negative energy control 9.108 59 .000*

Attention control 8.880 59 .000*

Visualisation/imagery

control

6.514 59 .000*

Motivation 5.248 59 .000*

Positive energy 5.149 59 .000*

Attitude control 8.952 59 .000*

Total mental toughness 12.165 59 .000*

PVS III-R

Commitment 8.354 59 .000*

Control 5.423 59 .000*

Challenge 9.935 59 .000*

Total hardiness 9.780 59 .000*

* Significance of the < 0.05 level, two-tailed test.

Results show that elite footballers have superior levels of mental toughness and hardiness

over recreational footballers, and also have superior scores for each of the subscales which

contribute towards mental toughness and hardiness.


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Chapter 5. Discussion.

5.1. Re-statement of aim.

The aim of the current study was to investigate whether mental toughness, hardiness and their

respective subscales would distinguish between footballers playing at different standards.

Investigating mental toughness and hardiness at different levels of football has identified that

elite footballers have superior mental toughness and hardiness than recreational footballers.

The present study has identified the psychological attributes which contribute towards a

footballer being able to overcome stress or adversity (Loehr 1986).

Such psychological attributes has proven to identify the factors of mental toughness and

hardiness that distinguish between recreational and elite footballers.

The present study has also identified the areas of mental toughness and hardiness which

affect footballers most, relative to a game situation and the key elements required to play at

an elite level.

The present study discovered that mental toughness, hardiness and their respective subscales

distinguished between elite and recreational footballers.

Elite footballers scored higher in all subscales than recreational, whereas previous studies in

other sports, golf (Thomas & Over, 1994), rodeo (Meyers, LeUnes & Bourgeois, 1996),

rugby (Golby and Sheard, 2003) and equestrian (Meyers, LeUnes & Bourgeois, 1996) have

only identified that mental skills distinguish between a few subscales. Suggesting that the

psychological attributes required to play elite football are more demanding than those of

other sports.


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5.2. Interpretation of the results.

Results suggested a significant difference in overall mental toughness, hardiness and each of

their respective subscales.

Significant differences on each subscale of the PPI and PVS III-R suggest that both

inventories are measuring related but distinct attributes of mental skills indicating an equally

important contribution to the distinguishing scores present in each subscale that was

compared.

Elite footballers scored significantly higher than recreational footballers in overall mental

toughness, hardiness and each individual subscale (motivation, positive energy, attitude

control, self confidence, negative energy control, attention control, visual imagery,

commitment, control and challenge).

PVS III-R and hardiness results.

The fact that elite footballers scored significantly highercontrolmay indicate that they felt

more able to influence positively the outcome of matches. A further explanation may be that

this feeling allowed them to view highly competitive contests in a less stressful manner

(Maddi & Khosaba, 2001). This may be a reason as to why recreational athletes have not

progressed to become elite athletes, despite having good ability, the lack of control in a tense

or difficult game situation means the player cannot perform at a high level or fulfil their own

playing potential.

Relative to commitment, elite players demonstrated higher levels of organisation and

involvement in football. Demographic results show that elite athletes train more often and

dedicate more hours to football, including playing more matches per week. Also elite athletes

partake less in other sports, meaning less distractions and meaning they are less likely to

make football second choice to any other sport, totally dedicating their lives to football. In


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previous research it is suggested that commitments moderating role in successful academic

performance is manifested by students deep involvement in their studies that also facilitates

a preparedness to exert effort in the pursuit of scholarly success (Sheard and Golby 2006).

This shows the importance of Commitment as a factor of hardiness, showing that those

footballers who possessed high levels of commitment, had deep involvement in football and

training and showed a preparedness to exert effort, resulting in higher levels of performance

and an ability to reach an elite playing standard.

The elite footballers significantly higherchallenge scores suggest that they were more able to

view potentially difficult situations as opportunities for personal and professional growth and

not as a threat (Maddi & Khosaba, 2001). Recreational athletes may become anxious or

stressed in a challenging game and may not want to rise to the challenge which relates to the

low negative energy control scores observed in the PPI, another suggestion for example is

that a recreational athlete may have been offered the chance to play at a higher standard or

were maybe offered trials at professional clubs but rejected them because of fear of rejection

or lack of self belief, this can relate to their low self confidence scores also observed in the

PPI.

The data relative to hardiness supports previous findings regarding the functions of hardiness

as a buffer to stress and as a performance enhancer (Maddi & Khosaba, 2001). Competition

stress and negative views of footballers is associated with the arousal of their sympathetic

nervous system (SNS) and according to a study by Dienstbier (2002) is directly related to

anxiety, neuroticism, personality and can be linked to cardiovascular disease. Illness

susceptibility is a result of life events requiring adjustments; stress control has become

synonymous with arousal reduction. The management of arousal defines mental and

physiological toughness and can aid psychological coping and corresponds with positive


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performance even in the most difficult of tasks, with emotional stability and immune system

enhancement as a result.

The results obtained from the PVS III-R confirm that elite footballers are more likely to cope

with stressful game situations and the external factors which come with football, like press

coverage and high profile lifestyle. Elite athletes are also more likely to maintain high levels

of competitive performance due to superior levels of hardiness.

Further research not related to sport has clarified the efficacy of high levels of hardiness in

many careers and professions such as, health care professionals, business managers (Maddi

and Kobasa, 1982) and military personnel (Bartone, 1999). However literature on the

relationship between hardiness and sport performance is limited (Maddi and Khoshaba,

2001).

Results confirm previous work by Golby and Sheard (2003) in that psychological

intervention work to increase hardiness levels should be considered to provide recreational

players with skills to progress as footballers and improve playing performance levels.

PPI and mental toughness results.

ThePPIand the mental toughness subscales made an equally important contribution to the

variance in the footballers playing standard. As mentioned when discussing hardiness, elite

footballers displayed significantly higher levels ofnegative energy control. Higher levels of

negative energy controlsuggested that elite footballers were more able to keep their emotions

in control and remain calm and relaxed under pressure. (Cashmore, 2002). The low scores of

negative energy control displayed by recreation athletes suggested that they possessed the

negative psychological effects previously mentioned, like, poor coping endurance (stress

tolerance), Susceptibility to anxiety and depression, attention to learning deficits, all of which


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can generally affect information provided by a coach within a 90 minute match or training

session. (Deinstbier, 1989).

Also the distinguishing scores displayed within negative energy control, suggested that elite

footballers are more likely to regain psychological control following negative events during a

game (Jones et al, 2002) i.e. conceding a goal, or repeatedly being beaten by an opponent.

Although negative energy control displays a significant difference between elite and

recreational footballers, the score obtained by elite athletes is still low in comparison to the

rest of the mental toughness subscales which is of interest. This could mean that as a mental

toughness subscale, it holds less importance than the rest of the subscales when identifying a

difference in standard as suggested by Jones (2002). Stating that anxiety is inevitable and is

ranked eighth in order of importance, as shown in table 3 (See Appendix 3). Or it could be

that players of a higher standard such as international level would display an even higher

level of negative energy control.

Another mental toughness subscale which can relate challenge from the PVS III-R is self

confidence. Self confidence has already been mentioned regarding lack of self belief when

confronted with a challenging problem or decision. Elite footballers displayed significantly

higher scores in self confidence, suggesting that elite performers have high self confidence

and have to believe that they can carry out a task successfully or relative to football, they

have confidence that they make a 60 yard pass successfully or beat an opponent easily.

Recreational performers can often have doubts about their performances, and this can affect

the outcome or make an athlete nervous during a task, affecting their performance on the

whole (Weinberg, R.S. 1998). In football, high self confidence raises self esteem during a

game and helps them overcome difficult challenges, again referring back to hardiness and the

subscale challenge.


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Elite footballers also displayed significantly higher levels of attention control than

recreational footballers. Jones (2002) suggests that players performing at the highest

competitive level possess a greater capacity for long and intensive periods of total

concentration. It was identified that remaining focused on the task at hand when faced with

distractions such as fans or game related pressure is a key mental toughness attribute for

sports performers and footballers in particular.

Elite athletes possess an ability to concentrate and have a quality to block out any external

factors such as fans jeering, weather interference or poor decisions, whereas recreational

athletes appear to lose concentration more often and cannot seem to focus on the game

without being distracted (loehr, 1986).

Significantly high levels of motivation suggest that in order to play at the highest level of

football, motivation is essential. Fourie and Potgieter (2001) identify characteristics of

motivation as being determined, responsible and committed and rank motivation as the

highest characteristic within mental toughness. These characteristics are very important but

seem more related to a non game situation such as training, diet and general lifestyle of the

elite footballer, similar to commitment, observed in thePVS III-R. Elite footballers are highly

motivated to train and commit themselves to more hours playing football than recreational

footballers. According to Fourie and Potgieter (2001) elite footballers are more determined to

succeed and become successful, meaning they have more motives to win and or play well,

hence their higher levels of motivation.

Elite footballers also possessed a significantly higher score in positive energy. Elite

footballers possess positive energy as a result of negative energy control. Loehr (1986)

describes positive energy as the essential source that enables an athlete to achieve high levels


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of activation whilst simultaneously experiencing calmness, low muscle tension and attention

control. By managing the negative energy, this allows footballers to remain positive, in

particular within a game situation, elite footballers can control anxiety and stress, meaning

they feel totally positive about the game. Whereas recreational footballers cannot control

these factors as well and as a result experience stress and become anxious when faces with a

difficult game situation.

Elite footballers obtained a significantly higher score than recreational footballers in the

subscale, attitude control. Elite footballers display a positive attitude towards playing in

general, and more specifically the task at hand, such as marking an opponent. Loehr (1986)

defines attitude control as the ability to maintain habit of thought. The right attitudes produce

emotional control and positive energy flow. Attitude control can be a result of many other

psychological characteristics, all resulting in a player being positive and simply thinking they

are going to succeed or play well.

Psychological attribute help a footballer overcome stressful or demanding situations.

Specific to a game situation, mental toughness and hardiness is being more consistent and

better than your opponents in remaining determined, focused, confident and in control under

pressure, (Rotella, 1998). Elite level performers have significantly higher levels of mental

toughness and hardiness, helping elite footballers to achieve a better psychological state and

overcome more difficult factors which may occur during a football match.


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5.3. Limitations of the study.

It is important to recognise some limitations associated with the present study that could

potentially offer a platform for future research. Results show that elite footballers scored

significantly higher in all subscales, this could suggest that the two groups of playing

standard used (elite and recreational) were too far apart in terms of ability. Furthermore,

although participants from the higher standard were elite footballers, it could have been more

beneficial to the study to investigate international or premiership level footballers rather than

the highest being league 1.

Results suggest that it could be important to extend data collection to other groups of

standard or higher footballers to gain a wider range of participant results. Factors such as

gender, various sports and youth players were not explored due to lack of availability. This is

important for future work and in particular the development of grass roots within the sport,

should any future research take place.

Previous studies have criticised the PPI and state the lack of subscales does not provide

enough information to analyse the overall mental toughness of athletes (Middleton et al,

2003). However, the inclusion of the PVS III-R offered more subscales to support results

obtained from thePPI, offering a more valid construct to the results obtained.

Another concern is that the definition of mental toughness presented by Jones et al (2007)

does not represent what mental toughness is but rather what mental toughness can allow

athletes to do. This definition was an essential part of the literature review as it is beneficial

for identifying footballers potential and the specific characteristics that can be adapted to

footballers. It was essential to include this as well as Loehrs (1986) definition to support the

specific characteristics and add what mental toughness can potentially offer a footballer,

rather than the statements contradict each other.


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Possible criticisms by Cabral & Crisfield (1996) suggest that a fourth characteristic of

hardiness is confidence, where the PVS III-R only measures three subscales of hardiness,

Control, challenge and commitment. Previous research in the field of mental toughness and

hardiness defines confidence as a main characteristic and possibly should have been

considered in thePVS III-R. Despite thisself confidence is included in thePPIand was still

considered a main attribute to the mental toughness and hardiness of footballers.

As the present study is limited to one sport and only two playing standards, little attention has

been given to the previously mentioned proposal of Bull et al (1996), who suggested different

forms of mental toughness. Differentiating between, pressure mental toughness, endurance

mental toughness and mental toughness in relation to heavy training schedules, all of which

are factors to a footballer, but the present study does not specifically distinguish between the

different forms of proposed mental toughness.

In practical terms, the mental toughness required of a snooker player is not likely to be

congruent to that of a rower, or a mountaineer. The same way a goal-keeper may differentiate

from a striker or midfielder. If the ultimate outcome is to intervene and help footballers to

develop higher levels of mental toughness, it would appear that such differences are

detrimental to the development of a footballers mental toughness and hardiness and may be

considered for future research, considering the current lack of research in the area.

Furthermore as an alternative to the present quantitative study, researchers may consider a

qualitative approach to gaining results in addition to the quantitative method already used.

Additional use of a qualitative method would aim to provide definition and validation of the

mental toughness and hardiness of footballers.


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5.4. Conclusion.

The current evidence confirms that elite level performers obtain high levels of beneficial

psychological attributes and remains consistent with previous research (Golby and Sheard,

2003).

The present study has demonstrated that footballers playing at an elite playing standard

possess significantly higher levels of mental toughness and hardiness.

Physical and technical abilities are more evenly matched at elite levels of sport, so

personality and an individuals psychological state becomes extremely significant, suggesting

that to make that step up from recreational to elite level at any sport, or to become a

champion in any sport is as much about an individuals psychological state as it is about their

physical or technical prowess.

As results from the present study suggest, a superior psychological state is even more

requisite in football. This is in comparison to other sports studied previously, golf (Thomas &

Over, 1994), rodeo, equestrian (Meyers, LeUnes & Bourgeois, 1996) and more recently

Rugby league (Golby, Sheard and Lavallee, 2003). This therefore supports previous literature

by Cleary (2005), stating that those athletes with the appropriate psychological attributes

make the transition upward, because their personalities facilitate the adjustment.

The results of the present study support the assertion that athletes of higher achievement

levels are more mentally tough. Previous research by Nicholls et al (2008) and the fore

mentioned Golby, Sheard and Lavallee, (2003) suggest that differences between levels of

athletic achievement are minimal and that other factors like physical attributes, technical

skills or different psychological factors predict achievement levels more accurately,

suggesting that conceptualisations of mental toughness based on athletes of different sports

have significant limitation. Whereas the present study suggests that a superior mental


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toughness and hardiness is much more required in the modern game that other sports as

previous research shows.

In relation to the importance of hardiness, further research by Sheard and Golby (2006)

support this more showing that hardiness had a significant affect on undergraduate students.

Results showed that hardiness was significantly positively correlated with dissertation mark,

and general academic success.

In addition to the many physical, technical and social attributes needed to excel in sporting

performance, a psychological profile that includes high levels of mental toughness and

hardiness appears to be essential in elite level performers.

Whilst it is extremely important to reach superior levels of mental toughness and hardiness to

be successful, it is of equal importance to maintain those levels. It is often considered that to

be a true champion at elite level, one must be able to retain excellence (Abbott & Collins,

2004).

Whilst previous research in football in sparse, a relative study in rugby league football

identifies the dominance of Australias 30 year reign in the sport, of whom recently displayed

the highest levels of mental toughness and hardiness at the Rugby league world cup and went

on to win (Golby, Sheard & Lavallee, 2003).

In comparison to rugby league where previous research states that distinguishing factors

between playing standard are limited, suggests that footballers are more dependant on

psychological attributes, in particular those playing at the top level of the game.

Further areas which are of interest are the cultural effects towards an individuals

psychological state, and what makes countries such as Australia dominate in psychologically

dependant sports.


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Limited evidence is available on cultural variations in psychological characteristics within

sport (Segal et al, 1999).

Examining the effects of culture on individuals and their levels of mental toughness and

hardiness, show that individuals experience situational stress differently in different nations,

and are taught to deal with different occasions differently.

Cultural factors may dictate the manner in which a performer perceives and responds to a

stressful event and it may be argued that such attributes can be coached or some attributes

develop naturally as part of an individuals personality, either gained as part of playing

experience or can be the reason why an individual plays at an elite level.

Recent research has identified the links between the components of mental toughness and

hardiness (Golby and Sheard, 2003). By defining hardiness as stress buffering and

performance enhancing (Maddi, and Khoshaba, 2001) has proven to be increasingly common

with attributes of mental toughness. The components of mental toughness and hardiness

combined are what aid one in pursuing the future despite its uncertainty, or whatever may

occur in a players career, season or more specifically, a 90 minute match. With these

contributing factors in mind, mental toughness involves multiple cognitive and motivational

processes that moderate the impact of the objective environment or well being, which in turn

can enhance performance.

Contrary to findings by Gucciardi et al (2007) the present study showed that years of playing

experience had no effect on superior levels of mental toughness, with higher scores reported

by those footballers (elite) with less years of playing experience (See table 4). The present

data contradicts previous research on expertise in sport demonstrating that those individuals


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who reach an expert level of performance have done so through many years of deliberate

practice and training (Ericsson, 2007).

Despite years of experience having no affect on the present data, the difference in playing

standard with elite footballers scoring higher levels of mental toughness than recreational is

important and consistent with research indicating that psychological skills distinguish experts

from novice performers, and that psychological skills are associated with performing to ones

potential (Krane & Williams 2006). In other words, in order to reach ones full playing

potential, one must achieve maximum psychological skills and reach full potential of their

mental toughness and hardiness to do so, regardless of playing experience

.

Results from the present study show that an elite footballer is more able than a recreational

footballer, to manage their own performance, knowing their objectives, knowing what is

required of them during a 90 minute match and in terms of a footballers career, elite

footballers tend to prioritise training and football commitments before anything else.

The relation to hardiness as a stress buffer and football performance is highly important

knowing that hardy individuals are physically and mentally healthier as a result of their sense

of commitment, control and challenge, and in particular the way they handle potentially

stressful situations more easily than those who are less hardy, as mentioned in the review of

literature. Even more noteworthy is the development of elite athletes over time, showing that

elite athletes are highly capable of dealing with stress or adverse situations. In football,

previous history shows a lot of high profile players have resorted to drug abuse and

alcoholism, to overcome difficult situations, like press coverage and game related stress.

Examples of this are George Best and Diego Maradonna.

However more recent research shows that elite athletes are more adapted to difficult

situations and are possess more hardy personalities, perhaps showing the psychological


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development of players over time. In contrast to other sports, few footballers are resorting to

drug abuse or alcoholism, possibly due to the vast amount of support and monetary funding

to deal with such situations. As opposed to rugby, where many players are still resorting to

drug abuse to overcome, the more physically demanding aspects of the game, most recently

Matt Stevens.

In terms of hardiness being a performance enhancer, the present study supports previous

research in that positive relationships were demonstrated between hardiness and sport

performance. The present study supports the findings presented by Maddi & Hess (1992),

suggesting a positive relationship between hardiness and basketball. Elite footballers have

proven to have high levels of hardiness, explaining why they are elite footballers and excel

over their recreational counterparts.

Where previous research has emphasised the importance of coping as a key factor relating to

mental toughness ( Bull et al, 2005; Jones et al, 2002), the present study has failed to identify

which coping strategies mentally tough footballers use. Research in football and the present

data suggest that footballers who are mentally tough use more approach coping strategies and

less avoidance strategies. Where as recreational footballers tend to use more avoidance

strategies unsuccessfully.

The present study indicates that a certain psychological profile appears to be linked with

successful performance, and being able to achieve excellence in particular sports.

Previous suggestions by Williams and Krane (2001) state the general profile included, self

reputation of arousal, high self confidence, heightened concentration, coping skills for

dealing with distractions and unexpected events, feeling in control, a positive pre-occupation

with sport and determination and commitment, all of which appear to be key characteristics


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distinguishing successful from non successful athletes. Furthermore the key characteristics

mentioned by Williams and Krane (2001) are all relative to the subscales which make up

mental toughness and hardiness and all of which feature in the PPI and PVS III-R.


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5.5 Future recommendations / further work.

While the present study confirms that elite footballers have superior levels of mental

toughness and hardiness than recreational footballers, future research might concentrate

further on psychological skills training, coping strategies and psychological preparation

strategies in a wider variation of sports specific to a wider range of athletes, from grass roots

to international level.

Practical implications.

Practical implications should be considered to develop the psychological skills of recreational

footballers.

There is a lot of work that can be done to develop mental skills, in particular the mental

toughness and hardiness of recreational footballers, which as the present study suggests, is

significantly low compared to the mental toughness and hardiness or their elite counterparts.

Hardiness is difficult to apply and factors such as commitment can be difficult, considering a

players work commitment, lack of playing opportunities and factors such as family

commitments. Other hardiness attributes can be considered personality traits and some

believe such attributes cannot be coached or applied via a psychological intervention.

Some attributes of mental toughness can be applied using coaching strategies and various

psychological interventions can also be applied to benefit an athlete.

Coping strategies are designed to help athletes concentrate, retain self confidence and cope

with anxiety or negative energy, whatever the situation they are faced with (national coaching

foundation, 1996), all of which are main attributes to mentally tough performers and enable

them to respond to pressure and remain relaxed, calm and energised (Loehr, 1986).


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Psychological interventions can aid the psychological skills required to control game stresses,

good opposition, critical fans, being beaten by opposition or the pressure of having to achieve

maximum potential or results, all of which can be key factors which could potentially affect

the elite footballer, and can result in a recreational footballer not being able to succeed at an

elite level.

As noted in the review of literature, Dienstbier (1989) proposed that there are 4 toughening

manipulations that influence physiological mediators and could mentally prepare a footballer

in order to improve performance;

They are early experience, the ways in which children have faced extreme stress in early life

and its relationships to differences in their resilience, (Garmezy, 1983). Passive toughening.

Weiss et al, (1975) highlighted the positive impact of repeated exposure to cold water and

electric shocks and an increase stress tolerance. Active toughening; by exercising aerobically,

self regulating toughening can occur, and ageing; all affects for ageing are opposite to those

for the 3 other manipulations.

The benefits of such psychological toughening and preparation could enable a footballer with

good technical and physical ability to progress and make the step up from recreational to elite

playing standard.


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Word Count.

Abstract: 234

Introduction: 5,279

Methods: 425

Results: 405

Discussion: 4,388

Future recommendations / Further work: 443

Total Word Count: 10, 497


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Chapter 6. References.

Abbott, A., Collins, D. (2004). Eliminating the dichotomy between theory and practise in

talent identification and development, considering the role of psychology. Journal of sports

science 27, pp- 395-408

Alderman, R. B. (1974). Psychological behavior in sport. Toronto, Ontario, Canada:

W. B. Saunders Company.

Averill, J.R. (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationships to stress.

Psychological bulletin 80; 288-303.

Bandura, A. (1977) Social learning theory. Englewood cliffs, NJ. Prentice Hall.

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